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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_Monarchs_and_origins_of_the_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_Monarchs_and_origins_of_the_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Catholic Monarchs and origins of the empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_Monarchs_and_origins_of_the_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early expansion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_expansion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early expansion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canary_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canary_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Canary Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canary_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rivalry_with_Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rivalry_with_Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Rivalry with Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rivalry_with_Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_World_voyages_and_Treaty_of_Tordesillas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_World_voyages_and_Treaty_of_Tordesillas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>New World voyages and Treaty of Tordesillas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_World_voyages_and_Treaty_of_Tordesillas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_settlements_in_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_settlements_in_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>First settlements in the Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_settlements_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navarre_and_struggles_for_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navarre_and_struggles_for_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Navarre and struggles for Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navarre_and_struggles_for_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaigns_in_North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaigns_in_North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Campaigns in North Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaigns_in_North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1516–1700)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1516–1700)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1516–1700)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1516–1700)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Territorial_expansion_in_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_expansion_in_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Territorial expansion in the Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_expansion_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Philip_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Philip_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Reign of Philip II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Philip_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Spanish_Bourbons_(1700–1808)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Spanish_Bourbons_(1700–1808)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The Spanish Bourbons (1700–1808)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Spanish_Bourbons_(1700–1808)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Spanish Bourbons (1700–1808) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Spanish_Bourbons_(1700–1808)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bourbon_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bourbon_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Bourbon reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bourbon_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th-century_economic_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th-century_economic_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>18th-century economic conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th-century_economic_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contesting_with_other_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contesting_with_other_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Contesting with other empires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contesting_with_other_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rival_empires_in_the_Pacific_Northwest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rival_empires_in_the_Pacific_Northwest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Rival empires in the Pacific Northwest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rival_empires_in_the_Pacific_Northwest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_Spanish_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_Spanish_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Loss of Spanish Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_Spanish_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_global_empire_(1808–1899)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_global_empire_(1808–1899)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>End of the global empire (1808–1899)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_global_empire_(1808–1899)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territories_in_Africa_(1885–1976)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territories_in_Africa_(1885–1976)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Territories in Africa (1885–1976)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territories_in_Africa_(1885–1976)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_economic_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_economic_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Imperial economic policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_economic_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_investigations_and_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_investigations_and_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Scientific investigations and expeditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_investigations_and_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 92 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-92" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">92 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanse_Ryk" title="Spaanse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spaanse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الإسبانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الإسبانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_Espa%C3%B1ol" title="Imperiu Español – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu Español" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ep%C3%A1%C3%B1a_Mburuvi" title="Epáña Mburuvi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Epáña Mburuvi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0spaniya_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="İspaniya imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İspaniya imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="ایسپانیا ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایسپانیا ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se-pan-g%C3%A2_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Se-pan-gâ Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Se-pan-gâ Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Іспанская імперыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іспанская імперыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Espanyol" title="Imperyong Espanyol – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Imperyong Espanyol" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Испанска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Испанска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_trevadennel_Spagn" title="Impalaeriezh trevadennel Spagn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh trevadennel Spagn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Espanyol" title="Imperi Espanyol – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Espanyol" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Espanyol" title="Imperyong Espanyol – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Imperyong Espanyol" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pan%C4%9Blsk%C3%A9_imp%C3%A9rium" title="Španělské impérium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Španělské impérium" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colo%C3%B1a_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Coloña España – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Coloña España" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymerodraeth_Sbaen" title="Ymerodraeth Sbaen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymerodraeth Sbaen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanske_Imperium" title="Spanske Imperium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Spanske Imperium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanisches_Kolonialreich" title="Spanisches Kolonialreich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spanisches Kolonialreich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaania_koloniaalimpeerium" title="Hispaania koloniaalimpeerium – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hispaania koloniaalimpeerium" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ισπανική αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισπανική αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_espa%C3%B1ol" title="Imperio español – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio español" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispana_Imperio" title="Hispana Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hispana Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espainiar_Inperioa" title="Espainiar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espainiar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="امپراتوری اسپانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری اسپانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_espagnol" title="Empire espagnol – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire espagnol" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol" title="Imperio Español – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Español" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AE-p%C3%A2n-ng%C3%A0_Ti-koet" title="Sî-pân-ngà Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sî-pân-ngà Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B8_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="스페인 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스페인 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Sipaniya" title="Daular Sipaniya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Sipaniya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իսպանական կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսպանական կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="स्पेनी साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्पेनी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panjolsko_kolonijalno_carstvo" title="Španjolsko kolonijalno carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Španjolsko kolonijalno carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispana_imperio" title="Hispana imperio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hispana imperio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_nga_Espaniol" title="Imperio nga Espaniol – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Imperio nga Espaniol" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Spanyol" title="Imperium Spanyol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imperium Spanyol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Hispanic" title="Imperio Hispanic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio Hispanic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A6nska_heimsveldi%C3%B0" title="Spænska heimsveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Spænska heimsveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_spagnolo" title="Impero spagnolo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero spagnolo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הספרדית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הספרדית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ესპანეთის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ესპანეთის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Испан империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Испан империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Испан империясы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Испан империясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8D" title="ຈັກກະວັດແອັດສະປາຍ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈັກກະວັດແອັດສະປາຍ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Hispanicum" title="Imperium Hispanicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Hispanicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C4%81nijas_Imp%C4%93rija" title="Spānijas Impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Spānijas Impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispanijos_imperija" title="Ispanijos imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ispanijos imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanyol_Birodalom" title="Spanyol Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Spanyol Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Шпанско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Шпанско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Espani%C3%B4la" title="Empira Espaniôla – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Espaniôla" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="स्पॅनिश साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="स्पॅनिश साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ესპანეთიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ესპანეთიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الامبراطوريه الاسپانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الامبراطوريه الاسپانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Sepanyol" title="Empayar Sepanyol – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Sepanyol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%AD%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Испанийн Эзэнт Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Испанийн Эзэнт Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="စပိန်အင်ပါယာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စပိန်အင်ပါယာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanse_Rijk" title="Spaanse Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spaanse Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9A%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="スペイン帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スペイン帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_spanske_imperiet" title="Det spanske imperiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det spanske imperiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_spanske_imperiet" title="Det spanske imperiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det spanske imperiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Espanh%C3%B2l" title="Empèri Espanhòl – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Espanhòl" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispaniya_imperiyasi" title="Ispaniya imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ispaniya imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਸਪੇਨੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਪੇਨੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%DB%81%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سلطنت ہسپانیہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سلطنت ہسپانیہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_hiszpa%C5%84skie" title="Imperium hiszpańskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imperium hiszpańskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Espanhol" title="Império Espanhol – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Espanhol" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Spaniol" title="Imperiul Spaniol – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Spaniol" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Испанская империя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Испанская империя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emepaea_o_Sipaniolo" title="Emepaea o Sipaniolo – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Emepaea o Sipaniolo" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_ispagnolu" title="Impèriu ispagnolu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu ispagnolu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Spanjolle" title="Perandoria Spanjolle – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Spanjolle" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Spanish Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panielske_imp%C3%A9rium" title="Španielske impérium – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Španielske impérium" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panski_imperij" title="Španski imperij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Španski imperij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ئیسپانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ئیسپانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Шпанска империја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Шпанска империја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pansko_Carstvo" title="Špansko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Špansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espanjan_siirtomaaimperiumi" title="Espanjan siirtomaaimperiumi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Espanjan siirtomaaimperiumi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanska_imperiet" title="Spanska imperiet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spanska imperiet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Kastila" title="Imperyong Kastila – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Kastila" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="எசுப்பானியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எசுப்பானியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%99" title="จักรวรรดิสเปน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิสเปน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Империяи Испания – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Империяи Испания" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0spanyol_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="İspanyol İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İspanyol İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Іспанська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іспанська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%DB%81%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سلطنت ہسپانیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت ہسپانیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="ئىسپانىيە ئىمپېرىيىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىسپانىيە ئىمپېرىيىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_spagno%C5%82o" title="Inpero spagnoło – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero spagnoło" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_T%C3%A2y_Ban_Nha" title="Đế quốc Tây Ban Nha – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Tây Ban Nha" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Espanyol" title="Imperyo Espanyol – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Espanyol" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="西班牙帝国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="西班牙帝国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西班牙帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西班牙帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西班牙帝國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西班牙帝國" data-language-autonym="中文" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Colonial empire between 1492 and 1976</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the use of the imperial title in medieval Spain, see <a href="/wiki/Imperator_totius_Hispaniae" title="Imperator totius Hispaniae"><i>Imperator totius Hispaniae</i></a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output 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.infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Spanish Empire</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Imperio español</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>)</span><br /><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Imperium Hispanicum</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1492–1976</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Spanish Empire"><img alt="Flag of Spanish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/125px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/188px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/250px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px 0px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Spain_(1785%E2%80%931873,_1875%E2%80%931931).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> </div> <div><a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Burgundy" title="Cross of Burgundy">Left: Cross of Burgundy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Spain" title="Flag of Spain">Right: early modern flag</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Plus_Ultra" class="mw-redirect" title="Plus Ultra">Plus Ultra</a></i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>)</span><br />"Further Beyond"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Marcha_Real" title="Marcha Real">Marcha Real</a></i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>)</span><br />"Royal March"<div class="center" style="margin-top:0.4em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" 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of the 18th century"><img alt="The Spanish Empire during the second half of the 18th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol_%281714-1800%29.png/250px-Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol_%281714-1800%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol_%281714-1800%29.png/375px-Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol_%281714-1800%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol_%281714-1800%29.png/500px-Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol_%281714-1800%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Spanish Empire during the second half of the 18th century</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a> (1492–1561)<br /><a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> (1561–1601, 1606–1976)<br /><a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a> (1601–1606)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_language" title="Neapolitan language">Neapolitan</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Guanche_language" title="Guanche language">Guanche</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Berber_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber language">Berber</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Astur-Leonese_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Astur-Leonese languages">Asturian</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Valencian_language" title="Valencian language">Valencian</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Galician-Portuguese" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician-Portuguese">Galician</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian Arabic">Andalusian Arabic</a> (until the early 17th century)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourgish language">Luxembourgish</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_languages" title="Zapotec languages">Zapotec</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_language" title="Cebuano language">Cebuano</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a> and other various indigenous and non-indigenous languages</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniard</a> or Spanish</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Membership</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Trast%C3%A1mara" title="House of Trastámara">Trastámara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a> ((<a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a>) (<a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois-Burgundy" title="House of Valois-Burgundy">House of Valois-Burgundy</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">House of Capet</a>))</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">House of Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Composite_monarchy" title="Composite monarchy">Composite monarchy</a> 1492–1700</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a> 1700–1820, 1823–1833, 1923–1930</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</a> 1820–1823, 1833–1873, 1874–1923, 1930–1931 1975<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–1976</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary monarchy">Parliamentary monarchy</a> 1823–1923, 1975–1976</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Spanish_Republic" title="First Spanish Republic">Republic</a> 1873–1874, 1931–1939</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Dictatorship</a> 1939<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–1975</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Democratic transition period</a></li></ul> </div> 1975–1976</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Spain" title="List of heads of state of Spain">Head of state</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1492–1516 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1975–1976 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Carlos_I" title="Juan Carlos I">Juan Carlos I</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Colombus" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Colombus">Christopher Colombus</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12 October 1492</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a> begins </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1493</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre" title="Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre">Conquest of Navarre</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1512–29</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Conquest of the Aztec Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1519–21</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Magellan%27s_circumnavigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Magellan's circumnavigation">Magellan's circumnavigation</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1519–22</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Conquest of the Maya</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1524–1697</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Conquest of the Inca Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1532–72</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Conquest of the Muisca</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1537–40</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 April 1565</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1580–1640</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1808–33</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Withdrawal from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1976</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1780<sup id="cite_ref-Taagepera1997_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera1997-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">13,700,000 km<sup>2</sup> (5,300,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_real" title="Spanish real">Spanish real</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Escudo" title="Escudo">Escudo</a> (from 1537)<br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Spanish dollar</a> (from 1598)<br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_peseta" title="Spanish peseta">Spanish peseta</a> (from 1869)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs of Spain</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Spain">Kingdom of Spain</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="United Provinces of the Río de la Plata">United Provinces of the Río de la Plata</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectorate of Peru">Protectorate of Peru</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Republic" title="Conservative Republic">Republic of Chile</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana (New France)</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Florida_Territory" title="Florida Territory">Florida Territory</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government in Cuba">United States Military Government in Cuba</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_of_Porto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government of Porto Rico">United States Military Government of Porto Rico</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Naval_Government_of_Guam" title="Naval Government of Guam">Naval Government of Guam</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic" title="First Philippine Republic">First Philippine Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands">United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Spanish Empire</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes referred to as the <b>Hispanic Monarchy</b><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <b>Catholic Monarchy</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empire</a> that existed between 1492 and 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-echavez-solano_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-echavez-solano-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, it ushered in the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>. It achieved a global scale,<sup id="cite_ref-beaule_douglass_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beaule_douglass-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> controlling vast portions of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, various islands in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, as well as territory in other parts of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson91LockhartSchwartz198319_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson91LockhartSchwartz198319-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was one of the most powerful empires of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, becoming known as "<a href="/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets" title="The empire on which the sun never sets">the empire on which the sun never sets</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Márquez2016_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Márquez2016-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its greatest extent in the late 1700s and early 1800s, the Spanish Empire covered over 13 million square kilometres (5 million square miles), making it one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires</a> in history.<sup id="cite_ref-Taagepera1997_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera1997-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning with the 1492 arrival of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Caribbean Islands">Caribbean Islands</a>, half of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> and much of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Magellan_expedition" title="Magellan expedition">Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation</a>—the first circumnavigation of the Earth—laid the foundation for Spain's <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> empire and for Spanish control over the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">East Indies</a>. The influx of gold and silver from the mines in <a href="/wiki/Zacatecas" title="Zacatecas">Zacatecas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guanajuato" title="Guanajuato">Guanajuato</a> in Mexico and <a href="/wiki/Potos%C3%AD" title="Potosí">Potosí</a> in Bolivia enriched the Spanish crown and financed military endeavors and territorial expansion. Another crucial element of the empire's expansion was the financial support provided by <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> bankers, who financed royal expeditions and military campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200369_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200369-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1700, <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V</a> became king of Spain after the death of <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg</a> monarch of Spain, who died without an heir. His ascension triggered the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, as various European powers contested his claim to the throne. The conflict concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a> in 1713, allowing Philip, the first <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> king of Spain, to retain the throne but resulting in territorial losses for Spain: <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> and Spanish Italy. In 1763, after the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, Spain ceded both <a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Florida" title="West Florida">West Florida</a> to Great Britain while gaining <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana</a> from France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003484_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003484-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 1783, following the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, Britain ceded both Floridas back to Spain as part of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Peace of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a>. Spain had recaptured West Florida in 1781 through military operations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley2008512_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley2008512-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Floridas were ceded to the United States in 1819 as part of the <a href="/wiki/Adams-On%C3%ADs_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adams-Onís Treaty">Adams-Onís Treaty</a>. Louisiana was ceded back to France in 1801 in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aranjuez_(1801)" title="Treaty of Aranjuez (1801)">Treaty of Aranjuez</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003485_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003485-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bourbon monarchy implemented <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">reforms</a> like the <i><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees" title="Nueva Planta decrees">Nueva Planta decrees</a></i>, which centralized power and abolished regional privileges. Economic policies promoted trade with the colonies, enhancing Spanish influence in the Americas. Socially, tensions emerged between the ruling elite and the rising bourgeoisie, as well as divisions between peninsular Spaniards and Creoles in the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003506_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003506-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These factors ultimately set the stage for the independence movements that began in the early 19th century, leading to the gradual disintegration of Spanish colonial authority.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-1820s, Spain had lost its territories in Mexico, Central America, and South America. By 1900, it had also lost <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Islands">Philippine Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003424_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003424-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catholic_Monarchs_and_origins_of_the_empire">Catholic Monarchs and origins of the empire</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></div> <p>With the marriage of the heirs apparent to their respective thrones <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand of Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella of Castile</a> created a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> that most scholars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> view as the foundation of the Spanish monarchy. The union of the Crowns of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a> joined the economic and military power of Iberia under one dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Trast%C3%A1mara" title="House of Trastámara">House of Trastámara</a>. Their dynastic alliance was important for a number of reasons, ruling jointly over a number of kingdoms and other territories, mostly in the western Mediterranean region, under their respective legal and administrative status. They successfully pursued expansion in Iberia in the Christian conquest of the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>, completed in 1492, for which Valencia-born Pope <a href="/wiki/Alexander_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander VI">Alexander VI</a> gave them the title of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a>. Ferdinand of Aragon was particularly concerned with expansion in France and Italy, as well as conquests in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</a> controlling the choke points of the overland trade from Asia and the Middle East, both Spain and Portugal sought alternative routes. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a> had an advantage over the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a>, having earlier retaken territory from the Muslims. Following Portugal's earlier completion of the reconquest and its establishment of settled boundaries, it began to seek overseas expansion, first to the port of <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> (1415) and then by colonizing the Atlantic islands of <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a> (1418) and the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> (1427–1452); it also began voyages down the west coast of Africa in the fifteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its rival Castile laid claim to the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> (1402) and retook territory from the Moors in 1462. The Christian rivals Castile and Portugal came to formal agreements over the division of new territories in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alca%C3%A7ovas" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Alcaçovas">Treaty of Alcaçovas</a> (1479), as well as securing the crown of Castile for Isabella whose accession was challenged militarily by Portugal. </p><p>Following the voyage of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> in 1492 and first major settlement in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in 1493, Portugal and Castile divided the world by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> (1494), which gave Portugal Africa and Asia, and the Western Hemisphere to Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Burkholder_Empire_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkholder_Empire-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The voyage of Columbus, a <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoese</a> mariner, obtained the support of Isabella of Castile, sailing west in 1492, seeking a route to the Indies. Columbus unexpectedly encountered the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, populated by peoples he named "Indians". Subsequent voyages and full-scale settlements of Spaniards followed, with gold beginning to flow into Castile's coffers. Managing the expanding empire became an administrative issue. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella began the professionalization of the apparatus of government in Spain, which led to a demand for men of letters (<i>letrados</i>) who were university graduates (<i>licenciados</i>), of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Salamanca" title="University of Salamanca">Salamanca</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Valladolid" title="University of Valladolid">Valladolid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complutense_University_of_Madrid" title="Complutense University of Madrid">Complutense</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alcal%C3%A1" title="University of Alcalá">Alcalá</a>. These lawyer-bureaucrats staffed the various councils of state, eventually including the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a>, the two highest bodies in metropolitan Spain for the government of the empire in the New World, as well as royal government in the Indies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_expansion">Early expansion</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_territorial_organization_of_Spain" title="History of the territorial organization of Spain">History of the territorial organization of Spain</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canary_Islands">Canary Islands</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parlamento_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Parlamento_04.jpg/170px-Parlamento_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Parlamento_04.jpg/255px-Parlamento_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Parlamento_04.jpg/340px-Parlamento_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2083" data-file-height="3646" /></a><figcaption>The conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> (1402–1496)</figcaption></figure> <p>Portugal obtained several <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bulls</a> that acknowledged Portuguese control over the discovered territories, but Castile also obtained from the Pope the safeguard of its rights to the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> with the bulls <i><a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romani Pontifex</a></i> dated 6 November 1436 and <i>Dominatur Dominus</i> dated 30 April 1437.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">conquest of the Canary Islands</a>, inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Guanches" title="Guanches">Guanche</a> people, began in 1402 during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_Castile" title="Henry III of Castile">Henry III of Castile</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Norman</a> nobleman <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_B%C3%A9thencourt" title="Jean de Béthencourt">Jean de Béthencourt</a> under a feudal agreement with the crown. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of <a href="/wiki/Gran_Canaria" title="Gran Canaria">Gran Canaria</a> (1478–1483), <a href="/wiki/La_Palma" title="La Palma">La Palma</a> (1492–1493), and <a href="/wiki/Tenerife" title="Tenerife">Tenerife</a> (1494–1496) were subjugated.<sup id="cite_ref-Burkholder_Empire_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkholder_Empire-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1504, more than 90 percent of the indigenous Canarians had been killed or enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200312_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200312-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rivalry_with_Portugal">Rivalry with Portugal</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas" title="Treaty of Alcáçovas">Treaty of Alcáçovas</a></div> <p>The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Gold_Coast" title="Portuguese Gold Coast">Gold Coast</a> (1471) in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a>, but the news quickly caused a huge gold rush. Chronicler <a href="/wiki/Hernando_del_Pulgar" title="Hernando del Pulgar">Pulgar</a> wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea "spread around the ports of <a href="/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia">Andalusia</a> in such way that everybody tried to go there".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Castilian_Succession" title="War of the Castilian Succession">War of the Castilian Succession</a> (1475–79) provided the Catholic Monarchs with the opportunity not only to attack the main source of the Portuguese power, but also to take possession of this lucrative commerce. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea: every caravel had to secure a government license and to pay a tax on one-fifth of their profits (a receiver of the customs of Guinea was established in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> in 1475—the ancestor of the future and famous <a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg/430px-Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg.png" decoding="async" width="430" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg/645px-Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg/860px-Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>Iberian 'mare clausum' in the Age of Discovery</figcaption></figure> <p>Castilian fleets fought in the Atlantic Ocean, temporarily occupying the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> islands (1476), conquering the city of <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tingitan_Peninsula" title="Tingitan Peninsula">Tingitan Peninsula</a> in 1476 (but retaken by the Portuguese),<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even attacked the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> islands, being defeated at <a href="/wiki/Praia_da_Vit%C3%B3ria" title="Praia da Vitória">Praia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The turning point of the war came in 1478, however, when a Castilian fleet sent by King Ferdinand to conquer <a href="/wiki/Gran_Canaria" title="Gran Canaria">Gran Canaria</a> lost men and ships to the Portuguese who expelled the attack,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a large Castilian armada—full of gold—was entirely captured in the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinea" title="Battle of Guinea">Battle of Guinea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas" title="Treaty of Alcáçovas">Treaty of Alcáçovas</a> (4 September 1479), while assuring the Castilian throne to the Catholic Monarchs, reflected the Castilian naval and colonial defeat:<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "War with Castile broke out waged savagely in the Gulf [of Guinea] until the Castilian fleet of thirty-five sail was defeated there in 1478. As a result of this naval victory, at the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 Castile, while retaining her rights in the Canaries, recognized the Portuguese monopoly of fishing and navigation along the whole west African coast and Portugal's rights over the <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a>, Azores and Cape Verde islands [plus the right to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Fez" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Fez">Kingdom of Fez</a> ]."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty delimited the <a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Spheres of influence">spheres of influence</a> of the two countries,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> establishing the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Mare_clausum" title="Mare clausum">Mare clausum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was confirmed in 1481 by the <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV" title="Pope Sixtus IV">Pope Sixtus IV</a>, in the papal bull <a href="/wiki/Aeterni_regis" title="Aeterni regis"><i>Æterni regis</i></a> (dated on 21 June 1481).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, this experience would prove to be profitable for future Spanish overseas expansion, because as the Spaniards were excluded from the lands discovered or to be discovered from the Canaries southward<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and consequently from the <a href="/wiki/The_Portuguese_discovery_of_the_sea_route_to_India" class="mw-redirect" title="The Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India">road to India</a> around Africa<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—they sponsored the voyage of Columbus towards the west (1492) in search of Asia to trade in its <a href="/wiki/Spices" class="mw-redirect" title="Spices">spices</a>, encountering <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">the Americas</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced division of the world would be reached in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> between both emerging maritime powers.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_World_voyages_and_Treaty_of_Tordesillas">New World voyages and Treaty of Tordesillas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">Voyages of Christopher Columbus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain,_1493.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain%2C_1493.jpg/220px-The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain%2C_1493.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain%2C_1493.jpg/330px-The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain%2C_1493.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain%2C_1493.jpg/440px-The_return_of_Columbus_in_Spain%2C_1493.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>The return of Columbus, 1493</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_and_Portugal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/330px-Spain_and_Portugal.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/495px-Spain_and_Portugal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/660px-Spain_and_Portugal.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Castile and Portugal divided the world in The Treaty of Tordesillas.</figcaption></figure> <p>Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Aragon" title="John II of Aragon">John II of Aragon</a> died, and his son <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a>, married to <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a>, inherited the thrones of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a>. The two became known as the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a>, with their marriage a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> that created a relationship between the Crown of Aragon and Castile, each with their own administrations, but ruled jointly by the two monarchs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbankCooper2010120–121_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbankCooper2010120–121-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ferdinand and Isabella defeated the last Muslim king out of Granada in 1492 after a <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">ten-year war</a>. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoese</a> sailor attempting to reach <a href="/wiki/Cipangu" class="mw-redirect" title="Cipangu">Cipangu</a> (Japan) by sailing west. Castile was already engaged in a <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">race of exploration</a> with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. In the <a href="/wiki/Capitulations_of_Santa_Fe" title="Capitulations of Santa Fe">Capitulations of Santa Fe</a>, dated on 17 April 1492, Christopher Columbus obtained from the Catholic Monarchs his appointment as viceroy and governor in the lands <i>already discovered</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992143_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992143-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that he might discover thenceforth;<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHistoria_general_de_España1992189_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHistoria_general_de_España1992189-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thereby, it was the first document to establish an administrative organization in the Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992141_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992141-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Columbus' discoveries began the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a>. Spain's claim<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to these lands was solidified by the <i><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> dated 4 May 1493, and <i><a href="/wiki/Dudum_siquidem" title="Dudum siquidem">Dudum siquidem</a></i> on 26 September 1493. </p><p>Since the Portuguese wanted to keep the line of demarcation of Alcaçovas running east and west along a latitude south of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Bojador" title="Cape Bojador">Cape Bojador</a>, a compromise was worked out and incorporated in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, dated on 7 June 1494, in which the world was split into two dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims. These actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south (later with the exception of Brazil, which Portuguese commander <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a> encountered in 1500), as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_II" title="Pope Julius II">Pope Julius II</a> in the bull <i><a href="/wiki/Ea_quae_pro_bono_pacis" title="Ea quae pro bono pacis">Ea quae pro bono pacis</a></i> on 24 January 1506.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Treaty of Tordesillas<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the treaty of Cintra (18 September 1509)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> established the limits of the Kingdom of Fez for Portugal, and the Castilian expansion was allowed outside these limits, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Melilla" title="Conquest of Melilla">conquest of Melilla</a> in 1497. Other European powers did not see the treaty between Castile and Portugal as binding on themselves. <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I of France</a> observed "The sun shines for me as for others and I should very much like to see the clause in Adam's will that excludes <i>me</i> from a share of the world."<sup id="cite_ref-non-spanish_caribbean_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-non-spanish_caribbean-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_settlements_in_the_Americas">First settlements in the Americas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indias_1513.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Indias_1513.PNG/300px-Indias_1513.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Indias_1513.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>Spanish territories in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> around 1515</figcaption></figure> <p>Spanish settlement in the New World was based on a pattern of a large, permanent settlements with the entire complex of institutions and material life to replicate Castilian life in a different venue. Columbus's second voyage in 1493 had a large contingent of settlers and goods to accomplish that.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhartSchwartz198363_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhartSchwartz198363-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On Hispaniola, the city of <a href="/wiki/Ciudad_Colonial_(Santo_Domingo)" title="Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)">Santo Domingo</a> was founded in 1496 by Christopher Columbus's brother <a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Columbus" title="Bartholomew Columbus">Bartholomew Columbus</a> and became a stone-built, permanent city. Non-Castilians, such as <a href="/wiki/Catalans" title="Catalans">Catalans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_people" title="Aragonese people">Aragonese</a>, were often prohibited from migrating to the New World. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG/170px-Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG/255px-Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG/340px-Santo_Domingo_-_Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales_0399.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Spanish colonial swords in the <a href="/wiki/Museo_de_las_Casas_Reales" title="Museo de las Casas Reales">Museum of the Royal Houses</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Following the settlement of Hispaniola, Europeans began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements, since there was little apparent wealth and the numbers of indigenous were declining. Those from the less prosperous Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement. From there <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> (1508) and <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez</a> took <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. </p><p>Columbus encountered the mainland in 1498,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987139_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987139-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Catholic Monarchs learned of his discovery in May 1499. The first settlement on the mainland was <a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Antigua_del_Dari%C3%A9n" title="Santa María la Antigua del Darién">Santa María la Antigua del Darién</a> in <a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>), settled by <a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a> in 1510. In 1513, Balboa crossed the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a>, and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the West coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navarre_and_struggles_for_Italy">Navarre and struggles for Italy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg/220px-Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg/330px-Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg/440px-Catholic_monarch_territories-1500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>Crowns and kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> in Europe (1500)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children to isolate their rival, France. The Spanish princesses married the heirs of Portugal, England and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Aragonese house of the Kingdom of Naples against <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII of France</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> beginning in 1494. Following Spanish victories at the Battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cerignola" title="Battle of Cerignola">Cerignola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Garigliano_(1503)" title="Battle of Garigliano (1503)">Garigliano</a> in 1503, France recognized Ferdinand's sovereignty over Naples through a treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200327_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200327-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the death of Queen Isabella in 1504, and her exclusion of Ferdinand from a further role in Castile, Ferdinand married <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Foix" class="mw-redirect" title="Germaine de Foix">Germaine de Foix</a> in 1505, cementing an alliance with France. Had that couple had a surviving heir, probably the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> would have been split from Castile, which was inherited by Charles, Ferdinand and Isabella's grandson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000282–288_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000282–288-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferdinand joined the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai" title="War of the League of Cambrai">League of Cambrai</a> against <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> in 1508. In 1511, he became part of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(Italian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic League (Italian)">Holy League</a> against France, seeing a chance at taking both <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a>—to which he held a dynastic claim—and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a>. In 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Navarre" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Navarre">Upper Navarre</a>, which had effectively been a Spanish protectorate following a series of treaties in 1488, 1491, 1493, and 1495.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000248_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000248-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaigns_in_North_Africa">Campaigns in North Africa</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/European_enclaves_in_North_Africa_before_1830" title="European enclaves in North Africa before 1830">European enclaves in North Africa before 1830</a></div> <p>With the Christian reconquest completed in the Iberian peninsula, Spain began trying to take territory in Muslim North Africa. It had conquered <a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a> in 1497, and further expansionism policy in North Africa was developed during the regency of Ferdinand the Catholic in Castile, stimulated by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Cisneros" title="Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros">Cardinal Cisneros</a>. Several towns and outposts in the North African coast were conquered and occupied by Castile between 1505 and 1510: <a href="/wiki/Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Mers El Kébir">Mers El Kébir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Oran" title="Spanish Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bejaia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bejaia">Bougie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>. On the Atlantic coast, Spain took possession of the outpost of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Mar_Peque%C3%B1a" title="Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña">Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña</a> (1476) with support from the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, and it was retained until 1525 with the consent of the Treaty of Cintra (1509). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1516–1700)"><span id="The_Spanish_Habsburgs_.281516.E2.80.931700.29"></span>The Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/300px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/450px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/600px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1303" /></a><figcaption>The realms of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> Territories administered by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Castile" title="Council of Castile">Council of Castile</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f5ab12; color:black;"> </span> Territories administered by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Aragon" title="Council of Aragon">Council of Aragon</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000ff; color:white;"> </span> Territories administered by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Portugal" title="Council of Portugal">Council of Portugal</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#800000; color:white;"> </span> Territories administered by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Italy" title="Council of Italy">Council of Italy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> Territories administered by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d87ada; color:black;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_Flanders" title="Supreme Council of Flanders">Council of Flanders</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of the marriage politics of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> (in Spanish, <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Reyes Católicos</i></span></i>), their <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg</a> grandson <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles</a> inherited the Castilian empire in the Americas and the possessions of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean (including all of <a href="/wiki/South_Italy" title="South Italy">south Italy</a>), lands in Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erblande" title="Erblande">Austria</a>, starting the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs. The Austrian hereditary Habsburg domains were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand</a>, the Emperor's brother, whereas Spain and the remaining possessions were inherited by Charles's son, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, at the abdication of the former in 1556. </p><p>The Habsburgs pursued several goals: </p> <ul><li>Undermining the power of France and containing it in its eastern borders</li> <li>Defending Europe against <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li>Maintaining Habsburg <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and defending the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li>Spreading (Catholic) Christianity to the unconverted indigenous of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li>Exploiting the resources of the Americas (gold, silver, sugar) and trading with Asia (<a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a>, spices, silk)</li> <li>Excluding other European powers from the possessions it claimed in the New World</li></ul> <p>"I learnt a proverb here", said a French traveler in 1603: "Everything is dear in Spain except silver".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problems caused by inflation were discussed by scholars at the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Arbitrista" title="Arbitrista">arbitristas</a></i>. The natural resource abundance provoked a decline in entrepreneurship as profits from resource extraction are less risky.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wealthy preferred to invest their fortunes in <a href="/wiki/Public_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="Public debt">public debt</a> (<i>juros</i>). The Habsburg dynasty spent the Castilian and American riches in <a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Spain" title="List of wars involving Spain">wars across Europe</a> on behalf of Habsburg interests, and declared moratoriums (bankruptcies) on their debt payments several times. These burdens led to a number of revolts across the Spanish Habsburg's domains, including their Spanish kingdoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_expansion_in_the_Americas">Territorial expansion in the Americas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish conquest of the Maya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png/220px-Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png/330px-Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png/440px-Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teocalli_vid_Cholula,_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Teocalli_vid_Cholula%2C_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png/220px-Teocalli_vid_Cholula%2C_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Teocalli_vid_Cholula%2C_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png/330px-Teocalli_vid_Cholula%2C_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Teocalli_vid_Cholula%2C_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png/440px-Teocalli_vid_Cholula%2C_Nordisk_familjebok_bd_4.png 2x" data-file-width="2468" data-file-height="1209" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of what the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Cholula" title="Great Pyramid of Cholula">Great Pyramid of Cholula</a> might have looked like</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg/220px-Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg/330px-Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg/440px-Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2026" data-file-height="1252" /></a><figcaption>Cholula Massacre</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Habsburg rule, the Spanish Empire significantly expanded its territories in the Americas, beginning with the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>; these conquests were achieved not by the Spanish army, but by small groups of adventurers—artisans, traders, gentry, and peasants—who operated independently under the crown's <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200395_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200395-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Defying the opposition of <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a>, the governor of Hispaniola, <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> organized an expedition of 550 <a href="/wiki/Conquistadors" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquistadors">conquistadors</a> and sailed for the coast of Mexico in March 1519. The Castilians defeated a 10,000-strong <a href="/wiki/Chontal_Maya" title="Chontal Maya">Chontal Mayan</a> army at <a href="/wiki/Potonch%C3%A1n" title="Potonchán">Potonchán</a> on 24 March and emerged triumphant against a larger force of 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Mayans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayans">Mayans</a> three days later. On 2 September, 360 Castilians and 2,300 <a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonac</a> Indigenous allies defeated a 20,000-strong <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcalan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlaxcalan">Tlaxcalan</a> army. Three days later, a 50,000-strong <a href="/wiki/Otomi" title="Otomi">Otomi</a>-Tlaxcalan force was defeated by Spanish arquebusier and cannon fire, and a Castilian cavalry charge. Thousands of Tlaxcalans joined the invaders against their Aztec rulers. Cortés's forces sacked the city of <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a>, massacring 6,000 inhabitants,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200827_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200827-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later entered Emperor <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a>'s capital, <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, on 8 November. Velázquez sent a force led by Pánfilo de Narváez to punish the insubordinate Cortés for his unauthorized invasion of Mexico, but they were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cempoala" title="Battle of Cempoala">Battle of Cempoala</a> on 29 May 1520. Narváez was wounded and captured and 17 of his troops were killed; the rest joined Cortés. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> triggered an Aztec uprising following the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_the_Great_Temple_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan">massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan</a>, during which 400 Aztec nobles and 2,000 onlookers were killed. The Castilians were driven out of the Aztec capital, suffering heavy losses and losing all of their gold and guns during <a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a>. </p><p>On 8 July 1520, at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Otumba" title="Battle of Otumba">Otumba</a>, the Castilians and their allies, without artillery or arquebusiers, repelled 100,000 Aztecs armed with obsidian-bladed clubs. In August, 500 Castilians and 40,000 Tlaxcalans conquered the hilltop town of <a href="/wiki/Tepeaca" title="Tepeaca">Tepeaca</a>, an Aztec ally. Most of the inhabitants were either branded on the face with the letter "G" (for guerra, the Spanish word for "war") and enslaved by the Spanish, or sacrificed and eaten by the Tlaxcalans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200830_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200830-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan in 1521 with a new invasion force and laid siege to the Aztec capital in May, which was suffering from a <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> epidemic that killed thousands. The new emperor, <a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a>, defended Tenochtitlan with 100,000 warriors armed with slings, bows, and <a href="/wiki/Macuahuitl" title="Macuahuitl">obsidian clubs</a>. The first military encounter occurred after an advance along the causeway at <a href="/wiki/Tlacopan" title="Tlacopan">Tlacopan</a> by the armies of Alvarado and <a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_de_Olid" title="Cristóbal de Olid">Cristóbal de Olid</a>. While fighting on the causeway, the Spanish and their allies came under attack from both sides by Aztecs firing arrows from canoes. Thirteen Spanish brigantines sank 300 out of 400 enemy war canoes sent against them. The Aztecs tried to damage the Spanish vessels by hiding spears beneath the shallow water. The attackers breached the city and engaged in fighting with the Aztec defenders in the streets. </p><p>The Aztecs defeated the Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colhuacatonco" title="Battle of Colhuacatonco">Battle of Colhuacatonco</a> on 30 June 1521. Following this Aztec victory, 53 Spanish prisoners were paraded to the tops of <a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco" class="mw-disambig" title="Tlatelolco">Tlatelolco</a>'s highest <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_pyramids" title="Mesoamerican pyramids">pyramids</a> and publicly <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">sacrificed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200836_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200836-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late July, the attackers resumed their assaults, resulting in the massacre of 800 Aztec civilians. By 29 July, the Spanish had reached Tlatelolco's center, raising their new flag atop the city's twin towers. Having exhausted their gunpowder, they attempted a catapult breach but failed. On 3 August, 12,000 more civilians were killed in another city section.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200837_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200837-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alvarado's destruction of the aqueducts forced the Aztecs to drink from the lake, causing disease and thousands of deaths. Another major assault occurred on 12 August, during which many thousands of non-combatants were massacred in their shelters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200838_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200838-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following day, the city fell and Cuauhtémoc was captured. At least 100,000 Aztecs died during the siege, while 100 Spaniards and up to 30,000 of their Indigenous allies were killed or died from disease. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">fall of Tenochtitlan</a> marked the beginning of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico, leading to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a> in 1535. In 1532, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a> conquered the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> by capturing its leader <a href="/wiki/Atahualpa" title="Atahualpa">Atahualpa</a> during a surprise attack in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a> that resulted in the massacre of thousands of Incas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200848_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200848-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conquest facilitated the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Viceroyalty of Peru</a> in 1542, allowing Spain to exert control over territories in western South America, comprising present-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and parts of Chile and Argentina. In the subsequent years, Spanish explorers and conquistadors ventured into northern South America, where they established settlements in present-day Venezuela and Colombia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Philip_II">Reign of Philip II</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a></div> <p>Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–98) oversaw the colonization of the Philippines, which began in 1565 with the arrival of Spanish explorer <a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a>, making him ruler of one of the first true globe-spanning empires. His victory in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession" title="War of the Portuguese Succession">War of the Portuguese Succession</a> led to the annexation of Portugal in 1580, effectively integrating its overseas empire—encompassing coastal Brazil and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Africa_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Portuguese Africa (disambiguation)">African</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Indian</a> coastal enclaves—into Spain's domain.<sup id="cite_ref-Cathal_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cathal-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II also reaffirmed Spanish control over the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" title="Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis">Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis</a> in 1559. Italy became the core of Spain's power.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Spain" title="Decline of Spain">Decline of Spain</a></div> <p>By the mid-17th century, Spain's global empire burdened its economic, administrative, and military resources. Over the preceding century, Spanish troops had fought in France, Germany, and the Netherlands, suffering heavy casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its vast holdings, Spain's military lacked essential modernization and heavily relied on foreign suppliers.<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Spain possessed abundant bullion from the Americas, which played a crucial role in both sustaining its military endeavors and meeting the needs of its civilian population. During this period, Spain displayed limited military interest in its overseas colonies. The <i>Criollo</i> elites (colonial-born Spaniards) and <i>mestizo</i> and <i>mulatto</i> militia (of mixed Indigenous-Spanish and African-Spanish descent) provided only minimal protection, often assisted by more influential allies with vested interests in maintaining the balance of power and safeguarding the Spanish Empire from falling into enemy hands.<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Spanish_Bourbons_(1700–1808)"><span id="The_Spanish_Bourbons_.281700.E2.80.931808.29"></span>The Spanish Bourbons (1700–1808)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">History of Spain (1700–1810)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Enlightenment in Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg/170px-Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg/255px-Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg/340px-Felipe_V_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2435" data-file-height="3051" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V of Spain</a> (r. 1700–1746), the first Spanish monarch of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the 1700 death of the childless <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II of Spain</a>, the crown of Spain was contested in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties of Utrecht">Treaties of Utrecht</a> (11 April 1713) ending the war, the French prince of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>, Philippe of Anjou, grandchild of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> of France, became King <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V of Spain</a>. He retained the Spanish overseas empire in the Americas and the Philippines. The settlement gave spoils to those who had backed a Habsburg for the Spanish monarchy, ceding European territory of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Sardinia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and parts of Milan to the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>. The treaty also granted British merchants the exclusive right to sell <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slaves</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a> for thirty years, the <i><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_negros" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento de negros">asiento de negros</a></i>, as well as licensed voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions and openings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraudel1984vol._2,_p._418_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraudel1984vol._2,_p._418-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spain's economic and demographic recovery had begun slowly in the last decades of the Habsburg reign, as was evident from the growth of its trading convoys and the much more rapid growth of illicit trade during the period. (This growth was slower than the growth of illicit trade by northern rivals in the empire's markets.) However, this recovery was not then translated into institutional improvement, rather the "proximate solutions to permanent problems."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch19891_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch19891-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This legacy of neglect was reflected in the early years of Bourbon rule in which the military was ill-advisedly pitched into battle in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Quadruple_Alliance" title="War of the Quadruple Alliance">War of the Quadruple Alliance</a> (1718–20). Spain was defeated in Italy by an alliance of Britain, France, Savoy, and Austria. Following the war, the new Bourbon monarchy took a much more cautious approach to international relations, relying on a family alliance with Bourbon France, and continuing to follow a program of institutional renewal. </p><p>The crown program to enact reforms that promoted administrative control and efficiency in the metropole to the detriment of interests in the colonies, undermined creole elites' loyalty to the crown. When French forces of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">invaded the Iberian peninsula</a> in 1808, Napoleon ousted the Spanish Bourbon monarchy, placing his brother <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a> on the Spanish throne. There was a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule in Spanish America, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a> (1808–1826). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bourbon_reforms">Bourbon reforms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Francisco_Antonio_Vallejo_-_Glorification_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6220" data-file-height="3866" /></a><figcaption>Representation of the two powers, church and state, symbolized by the altar and the throne, with the presence of the king <a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_XIV" title="Pope Clement XIV">Pope Clement XIV</a>, seconded by the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of New Spain">Viceroy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Bucareli_y_Urs%C3%BAa" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa">Antonio Bucareli</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Mexico">Archbishop of Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alonso_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Haro_y_Peralta" title="Alonso Núñez de Haro y Peralta">Alonso Núñez de Haro</a>, respectively, before the Virgin Mary. "Glorification of the Immaculate Conception".</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish Bourbons' broadest intentions were to reorganize the institutions of empire to better administer it for the benefit of Spain and the crown. It sought to increase revenues and to assert greater crown control, including over the Catholic Church. Centralization of power (beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees" title="Nueva Planta decrees">Nueva Planta decrees</a> against the realms of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a>) was to be for the benefit of the crown and the metropole and for the defense of its empire against foreign incursions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourbon_Reforms_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourbon_Reforms-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the viewpoint of Spain, the structures of colonial rule under the Habsburgs were no longer functioning to the benefit of Spain, with much wealth being retained in Spanish America and going to other European powers. The presence of other European powers in the Caribbean, with the English in <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> (1627), <a href="/wiki/St_Kitts" class="mw-redirect" title="St Kitts">St Kitts</a> (1623–25), and <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> (1655); the Dutch in <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a>, and the French in Saint Domingue (Haiti) (1697), <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> had broken the integrity of the closed Spanish mercantile system and established thriving sugar colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-non-spanish_caribbean_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-non-spanish_caribbean-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of his reign, the first Spanish Bourbon, King Philip V, reorganized the government to strengthen the executive power of the monarch as was done in France, in place of the deliberative, <a href="/wiki/Polysynodial_System" title="Polysynodial System">Polysynodial System</a> of Councils.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philip's government set up a ministry of the Navy and the Indies (1714) and established commercial companies, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Honduras" title="History of Honduras">Honduras Company</a> (1714), a Caracas company; the <a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoana_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Guipuzcoana Company">Guipuzcoana Company</a> (1728), and the most successful ones, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cuba" title="History of Cuba">Havana Company</a> (1740) and the <a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a> (1755). </p><p>In 1717–18, the structures for governing the Indies, the <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Consejo_de_Indias" class="mw-redirect" title="Consejo de Indias">Consejo de Indias</a></i></span></i> and the <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></i></span></i>, which governed investments in the cumbersome <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleets</a>, were transferred from <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> to <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>, where foreign merchant houses had easier access to the Indies trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch198911_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch198911-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cádiz became the one port for all Indies trading (see <a href="/wiki/Flota_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Flota system">flota system</a>). Individual sailings at regular intervals were slow to displace the traditional armed convoys, but by the 1760s there were regular ships plying the Atlantic from Cádiz to <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, and at longer intervals to the <span title="Spanish-language text"><span lang="es" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></span></span>, where an additional <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">viceroyalty</a> was created in 1776. The contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg empire declined in proportion to registered shipping (a shipping registry having been established in 1735). </p><p>Two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of the reformed system: the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Túpac Amaru II">Tupac Amaru uprising</a> in Peru in 1780 and the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">rebellion of the <i>comuneros</i></a> of <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a>, both in part reactions to tighter, more efficient control. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th-century_economic_conditions">18th-century economic conditions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG/220px-FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG/330px-FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG/440px-FORTRESS_OF_SAN_FELIPE_CARTAGENA.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>San Felipe de Barajas Fortress <a href="/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a>. In 1741, the Spanish repulsed a British attack on this fortress in present-day <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Battle of Cartagena de Indias</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 18th century was a century of prosperity for the overseas Spanish Empire as trade within grew steadily, particularly in the second half of the century, under the Bourbon reforms. Spain's victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Battle of Cartagena de Indias</a> against a British expedition in the Caribbean port of <a href="/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a> helped Spain secure its dominance of its possessions in the Americas until the 19th century. But different regions fared differently under Bourbon rule, and even while New Spain was particularly prosperous, it was also marked by steep wealth inequality. Silver production boomed in New Spain during the 18th century, with output more than tripling between the start of the century and the 1750s. The economy and the population both grew, both centered around Mexico City. But while mine owners and the crown benefited from the flourishing silver economy, most of the population in the rural Bajío faced rising land prices, falling wages. Eviction of many from their lands resulted.<sup id="cite_ref-tutino_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tutino-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With a Bourbon monarchy came a repertory of Bourbon <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilist</a> ideas based on a centralized state, put into effect in the Americas slowly at first but with increasing momentum during the century. Shipping grew rapidly from the mid-1740s until the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–63), reflecting in part the success of the Bourbons in bringing illicit trade under control. With the loosening of trade controls after the Seven Years' War, shipping trade within the empire once again began to expand, reaching an extraordinary rate of growth in the 1780s. </p><p>The end of Cádiz's monopoly of trade with the American colonies brought about very important changes, particularly a rebirth of Spanish manufactures. Most notable of those changes were both the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalan</a> participation in the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_Slave_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Transatlantic Slave Trade">slave trade</a>, and the rapidly growing textile industry of Catalonia which by the mid-1780s saw the first signs of industrialization. This saw the emergence of a small, politically active commercial class in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>. This isolated pocket of advanced economic development stood in stark contrast to the relative backwardness of most of the country. Most of the improvements were in and around some major coastal cities and the major islands such as Cuba, with its tobacco <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</a>, and a renewed growth of <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metals</a> mining in South America. </p><p>Agricultural productivity remained low despite efforts to introduce new techniques to what was for the most part an uninterested, exploited peasant and laboring groups. Governments were inconsistent in their policies. Though there were substantial improvements by the late 18th century, Spain was still an economic backwater. Under the <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantile</a> trading arrangements it had difficulty in providing the goods being demanded by the strongly growing markets of its empire, and providing adequate outlets for the return trade. </p><p>From an opposing point of view according to the "backwardness" mentioned above the naturalist and explorer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> traveled extensively throughout the Spanish Americas, exploring and describing it for the first time from a modern scientific point of view between 1799 and 1804. In his work <i>Political essay on the kingdom of New Spain containing researches relative to the geography of Mexico</i> he says that the Amerindians of <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a> were wealthier than any Russian or German peasant in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Humboldt, despite the fact that Indian farmers were poor, under Spanish rule they were free and slavery was non-existent, their conditions were much better than any other peasant or farmer in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">northern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humboldt also published a comparative analysis of bread and meat consumption in New Spain compared to other cities in Europe such as Paris. <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> consumed 189 pounds of meat per person per year, in comparison to 163 pounds consumed by the inhabitants of Paris, the Mexicans also consumed almost the same amount of bread as any European city, with 363 kilograms of bread per person per year in comparison to the 377 kilograms consumed in Paris. <a href="/wiki/Caracas" title="Caracas">Caracas</a> consumed seven times more meat per person than in Paris. Von Humboldt also said that the average income in that period was four times the European income and also that the cities of New Spain were richer than many European cities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contesting_with_other_empires">Contesting with other empires</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg/220px-Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg/330px-Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg/440px-Conquista_de_Or%C3%A1n_en_1732.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="180" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1732)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)">Spanish expedition to Oran</a> (1732)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg/220px-Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg/330px-Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg/440px-Ataque_Cartagena_de_Indias.jpg 2x" data-file-width="607" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Battle of Cartagena de Indias</a> (1741). Spain defeated a British fleet and inflicted heavy casualties.</figcaption></figure> <p>Bourbon institutional reforms under Philip V bore fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retook <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> from the Austrians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Battle of Bitonto</a> in 1734 during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a>, and during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a> (1739–42) thwarted <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> efforts to capture the strategic cities of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Cuba_(1741)" title="Invasion of Cuba (1741)">Santiago de Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_St._Augustine_(1740)" title="Siege of St. Augustine (1740)">St. Augustine</a> by defeating a British combined army and navy force, although Spain's <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Georgia_(1742)" title="Invasion of Georgia (1742)">invasion of Georgia</a> also failed. The British suffered 25,000 dead or wounded and lost nearly 5,000 ships during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey,_Galvez_en_America.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey%2C_Galvez_en_America.jpg/220px-Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey%2C_Galvez_en_America.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey%2C_Galvez_en_America.jpg/330px-Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey%2C_Galvez_en_America.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey%2C_Galvez_en_America.jpg/440px-Cuadro_por_espa%C3%B1a_y_por_el_rey%2C_Galvez_en_America.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1871" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Painting of <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Siege of Pensacola</a> (1781) during the <a href="/wiki/American_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="American War of Independence">American War of Independence</a>. Gálvez cleared the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">American south</a> of British forts with a multinational army.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1742, the War of Jenkins' Ear merged with the larger <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>, and <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a> in North America. The British, also occupied with France, were unable to capture Spanish convoys, and Spanish <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateers</a> captured British merchant shipping along the <a href="/wiki/Triangle_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangle Trade">Triangle Trade</a> routes and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Alarm" title="Spanish Alarm">attacked</a> the coast of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, levying <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> on the inhabitants. In Europe, Spain had been trying to divest <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a> of the Duchy of Milan in northern Italy since 1741, but faced the opposition of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_III_of_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia">Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia</a>, and warfare in northern Italy remained indecisive throughout the period up to 1746. By the 1748 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1748)" title="Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)">Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle</a>, Spain gained (indirectly) <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla</a> in northern Italy. </p><p>Spain was defeated during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">invasion of Portugal</a> and lost both <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Havana" title="Siege of Havana">Havana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Manila</a> to British forces towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–63),<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it promptly recovered these losses and Spanish forces seized British forts in <a href="/wiki/British_West_Florida" title="British West Florida">West Florida</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>) and the British naval base in <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–83). </p><p>During most of the 18th century, Spanish privateers, particularly from <a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a>, were the scourge of the <a href="/wiki/Antilles" title="Antilles">Antilles</a>, with Dutch, British, French and Danish vessels as their <a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">prizes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rival_empires_in_the_Pacific_Northwest">Rival empires in the Pacific Northwest</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NutcaEN.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/NutcaEN.png/330px-NutcaEN.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/NutcaEN.png/495px-NutcaEN.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/NutcaEN.png/660px-NutcaEN.png 2x" data-file-width="1103" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Spanish territorial claims on the West Coast of North America in the 18th century, contested by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russians</a> and the British. Most of what Spain claimed in Nootka was not directly occupied or controlled.</figcaption></figure> <p>Spain claimed all of North America in the Age of Discovery, but claims were not translated into occupation until a major resource was discovered and Spanish settlement and crown rule put in place. The French had established an <a href="/wiki/French_America" title="French America">empire</a> in northern North America and took some islands in the Caribbean. The English established colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America and in northern North America and some Caribbean islands as well. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish crown realized that its territorial claims needed to be defended, particularly in the wake of its visible weakness during the Seven Years' War when Britain captured the important Spanish ports of Havana and Manila. Another important factor was that the <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian empire</a> had expanded into North America from the mid-eighteenth century, with <a href="/wiki/Maritime_fur_trade" title="Maritime fur trade">fur trading settlements</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Alaska</a> and forts as far south as <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California" title="Fort Ross, California">Fort Ross, California</a>. Great Britain was also expanding into areas that Spain claimed as its territory on the Pacific coast. Taking steps to shore up its fragile claims to California, Spain began planning <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">California missions</a> in 1769. Spain also began a series of voyages to the Pacific Northwest, where Russia and Great Britain were encroaching on claimed territory. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alessandro Malaspina">Alessandro Malaspina</a> and others sailing for Spain, came too late for Spain to assert its sovereignty in the Pacific Northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003237,_485_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003237,_485-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nootka_Crisis" title="Nootka Crisis">Nootka Crisis</a> (1789–1791) nearly brought Spain and Britain to war. It was a dispute over claims in the Pacific Northwest, where neither nation had established permanent settlements. The crisis could have led to war, but without French support Spain capitulated to British terms and negotiations took place with the <a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a>. Spain and Great Britain agreed to not establish settlements and allowed free access to Nootka Sound on the west coast of what is now <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a>. Nevertheless, the outcome of the crisis was a humiliation for Spain and a triumph for Britain, as Spain had practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1806, Baron <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rezanov" title="Nikolai Rezanov">Nikolai Rezanov</a> attempted to negotiate a treaty between the <a href="/wiki/Russian-American_Company" title="Russian-American Company">Russian-American Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a>, but his unexpected death in 1807 ended any treaty hopes. Spain gave up its claims in the West of North America in the <a href="/wiki/Adams-Onis_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adams-Onis Treaty">Adams-Onis Treaty</a> of 1819, ceding its rights there to the United States, allowing the U.S. to purchase Florida, and establishing a boundary between New Spain and the U.S. When the negotiations between the two nations were taking place, Spain's resources were stretched due to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the present-day <a href="/wiki/American_Southwest" class="mw-redirect" title="American Southwest">American Southwest</a> later became part of Mexico after its independence from Spain; after the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>, Mexico ceded to the U.S. present-day <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> for $15 million. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loss_of_Spanish_Louisiana">Loss of Spanish Louisiana</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana (New Spain)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpanishEmpire1790.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SpanishEmpire1790.svg/300px-SpanishEmpire1790.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SpanishEmpire1790.svg/450px-SpanishEmpire1790.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SpanishEmpire1790.svg/600px-SpanishEmpire1790.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4327" data-file-height="2194" /></a><figcaption>Spanish Empire in 1790. In North America, Spain claimed lands west of the Mississippi River and the Pacific coast from California to Alaska, but it did not control them on the ground. The crown constructed missions and <a href="/wiki/Presidios" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidios">presidios</a> in coastal California and sent maritime expeditions to the Pacific Northwest to assert sovereignty.</figcaption></figure> <p>The growth of trade and wealth in the colonies caused increasing political tensions as frustration grew with the improving but still restrictive trade with Spain. <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alessandro Malaspina">Alessandro Malaspina</a>'s recommendation to turn the empire into a looser <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a> to help improve governance and trade so as to quell the growing political tensions between the élites of the empire's periphery and center was suppressed by a monarchy afraid of losing control. All was to be swept away by the tumult that was to overtake Europe at the turn of the 19th century with the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. </p><p>The first major territory Spain was to lose in the 19th century was the vast <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana Territory</a>, which had few European settlers. It stretched north to Canada and was ceded by France in 1763 under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1762)" title="Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)">Treaty of Fontainebleau</a>. The French, under Napoleon, took back possession as part of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Treaty of San Ildefonso</a> in 1800 and sold it to the United States in the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> of 1803. Napoleon's sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States in 1803 caused border disputes between the United States and Spain that, with rebellions in <a href="/wiki/West_Florida" title="West Florida">West Florida</a> (1810) and in the remainder of Louisiana at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, led to their eventual cession to the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_global_empire_(1808–1899)"><span id="End_of_the_global_empire_.281808.E2.80.931899.29"></span>End of the global empire (1808–1899)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_(1800).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_%281800%29.png/300px-Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_%281800%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="387" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_%281800%29.png/450px-Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_%281800%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_%281800%29.png/600px-Mapa_de_la_Am%C3%A9rica_espa%C3%B1ola_%281800%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1365" data-file-height="1761" /></a><figcaption>The Americas towards the year 1800, the colored territories were considered provinces in some maps of the Spanish Empire.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_in_1898.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spain_in_1898.png/300px-Spain_in_1898.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spain_in_1898.png/450px-Spain_in_1898.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spain_in_1898.png/600px-Spain_in_1898.png 2x" data-file-width="1434" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>The Spanish Empire in 1898</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1808, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> maneuvered to place the Spanish king under his control, effectively seizing power without facing resistance. This action sparked resistance from the Spanish people, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a>. This conflict created a power vacuum lasting nearly a decade, followed by civil wars, transitions to a republic, and eventually the establishment of a liberal democracy. Spain lost all the colonial possessions in the first third of the century, except for Cuba, Puerto Rico and, isolated on the far side of the globe, the Philippines, Guam and nearby Pacific islands, as well as Spanish Sahara, parts of Morocco, and Spanish Guinea. </p><p>The wars of independence in Spanish America were triggered by another <a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_River_Plate" title="British invasions of the River Plate">failed British attempt</a> to seize Spanish American territory, this time in the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> estuary in 1806. The viceroy retreated hastily to the hills when defeated by a small British force. However, when the <i><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">Criollos</a>'</i> militias and colonial army decisively defeated the now reinforced British force in 1807, they promptly embarked on the path to securing their own independence, igniting independence movements across the continent. A long period of wars followed in the Americas, and the lack of Spanish troops in the colonies led to war between <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Governments_(Spanish_American_independence)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriot Governments (Spanish American independence)">patriotic rebels</a> and local Royalists. In South America this period of wars led to the independence of <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> (1810), <a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a> (1810), <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> (1810), <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> (1811) and <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a> (1815, but subsequently ruled by Brazil until 1828). <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a> campaigned for independence in Chile (1818) and in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> (1821). Further north, <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> led forces that won independence between 1811 and 1826 for the area that became <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> (then <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru</a>). <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> declared independence in 1821 and merged with the Republic of Gran Colombia (from 1821 to 1903). Mexico gained independence in 1821 after more than a decade of struggle, following the War of Independence that began in 1810. Mexico's independence led to the independence of Central American provinces—<a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>—by 1823. </p><p>Estimates of the number killed in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a> range from 250,000 to 500,000 individuals, and a large number of people also fled Mexico. Throughout the eleven years of fighting, Spain sent only 9,685 troops to Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina200383_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina200383-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of nine years, 20,000 Spanish soldiers were sent to reinforce the Spanish American Royalists in northern South America. However, disease and combat claimed the lives of 16,000–17,000 of these soldiers. Even within the Viceroyalty of Peru, the center of Spanish power in South America, the majority of the Royalist army consisted of Americans. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a> in 1824, the captured Royalist army consisted of 1,512 Spanish Americans and only 751 Spaniards. Only 6,000 troops were sent to Peru directly from Spain, although others arrived from neighboring theaters of operation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina200370_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina200370-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, Spain demonstrated a greater military commitment in the Caribbean, sending 30,000 troops to <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Santo Domingo</a> in 1861 and maintaining a force of 100,000 soldiers in Cuba in 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003357_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003357-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weyler_reconcentrados.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Weyler_reconcentrados.png/220px-Weyler_reconcentrados.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Weyler_reconcentrados.png/330px-Weyler_reconcentrados.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Weyler_reconcentrados.png/440px-Weyler_reconcentrados.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>Victims of the <a href="/wiki/Reconcentration_policy" title="Reconcentration policy">reconcentration policy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Valeriano_Weyler" title="Valeriano Weyler">Valeriano Weyler</a> in Cuba, 1898.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg/220px-Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg/330px-Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg/440px-Spanish_Troops_Parade_Philippines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1265" /></a><figcaption>Spanish garrison marching in the Philippines</figcaption></figure> <p>Cuba did not experience its first serious independence movement until the late 1860s. The <a href="/wiki/Ten_Years%27_War" title="Ten Years' War">First War for Independence</a> was fought from 1868 to 1878, resulting in between 100,000 and 150,000 Cuban deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003358_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003358-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Second War for Independence</a> occurred between 1895 and 1898, during which approximately 300,000 Cubans died, with around 200,000 civilian deaths attributed to disease and famine caused by Spanish concentration camps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two contemporary sources estimated that by December 1895, the rebel army had lost between 29,850 and 42,800 men, and many Cuban generals were killed in combat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American sympathy for Cuban revolutionaries grew due to reports of atrocities and the sinking of the <a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)" title="USS Maine (1889)">USS Maine</a>. On 25 April 1898, the U.S. declared war on Spain, leading to victories in both Cuba and the Philippines. The war ended with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris (1898)</a>, which ceded <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government in Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> to the U.S. and sold the Philippines for US$20 million.<sup id="cite_ref-avalon_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avalon-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year, Spain then sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany in the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty</a>, retaining only its African territories. On 2 June 1899, the second expeditionary battalion <a href="/wiki/Light_infantry" title="Light infantry"><i>Cazadores</i></a> of Philippines, the last Spanish garrison in the Philippines, which had been <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baler" title="Siege of Baler">besieged</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baler,_Aurora" title="Baler, Aurora">Baler, Aurora</a> at war's end, was pulled out, effectively ending around 300 years of Spanish hegemony in the archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Territories_in_Africa_(1885–1976)"><span id="Territories_in_Africa_.281885.E2.80.931976.29"></span>Territories in Africa (1885–1976)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Spanish Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Africa" title="Spanish West Africa">Spanish West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish protectorate in Morocco</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg/250px-Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg/375px-Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg/500px-Muni_-_Guinea_Continental_Espa%C5%84ola_LOC_2012590213.jpg 2x" data-file-width="15481" data-file-height="10986" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Spanish Guinea</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of the 17th century, only Melilla, <a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_Islands" title="Alhucemas Islands">Alhucemas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera</a> (which had been taken again in 1564), and <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> (part of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> since 1415, chose to retain their links to Spain once the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> ended. The formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain was recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon_(1668)" title="Treaty of Lisbon (1668)">Treaty of Lisbon</a> in 1668), and Oran and <a href="/wiki/Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Mers El Kébir">Mers El Kébir</a> remained Spanish territories in Africa. The latter cities were lost in 1708, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1732)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)">reconquered</a> in 1732 and sold by <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV</a> in 1792. </p><p>In 1778, <a href="/wiki/Bioko" title="Bioko">Fernando Pó</a> (now Bioko), adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the <a href="/wiki/Niger_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger river">Niger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ogoou%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogooué">Ogooué</a> rivers were ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in exchange for territory in South America (<a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_El_Pardo_(1778)" title="Treaty of El Pardo (1778)">Treaty of El Pardo</a>). In the 19th century, some Spanish explorers and missionaries would cross this zone, among them <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Iradier" title="Manuel Iradier">Manuel Iradier</a>. In 1848, Spanish troops occupied the uninhabited <a href="/wiki/Chafarinas_Islands" title="Chafarinas Islands">Chafarinas Islands</a>, anticipating a French move on the rocks located off the North-African coast. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n,_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n%2C_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg/170px-El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n%2C_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n%2C_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg/255px-El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n%2C_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n%2C_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg/340px-El_general_Prim_en_la_batalla_de_Tetu%C3%A1n%2C_por_Francisco_Sans_Cabot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1094" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Juan_Prim,_1st_Marquis_of_los_Castillejos" class="mw-redirect" title="Juan Prim, 1st Marquis of los Castillejos">General Prim</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Battle of Tétouan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1860, after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish-Moroccan_War_(1859)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish-Moroccan War (1859)">Tetuan War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> paid Spain 100 million pesetas as <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war reparations</a> and ceded <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Ifni" title="Sidi Ifni">Sidi Ifni</a> to Spain as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tangiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tangiers">Treaty of Tangiers</a>, on the basis of the old outpost of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, thought to be Sidi Ifni. The following decades of Franco-Spanish collaboration resulted in the establishment and extension of Spanish protectorates south of the city, and Spanish influence obtained international recognition in the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884: Spain administered Sidi Ifni and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a> jointly. Spain claimed a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> over the coast of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Guinea</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Bojador" title="Cape Bojador">Cape Bojador</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ras_Nouadhibou" title="Ras Nouadhibou">Cap Blanc</a>, too, and even try to press a claim over the <a href="/wiki/Adrar_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrar (region)">Adrar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiris_Zemmour_Region" title="Tiris Zemmour Region">Tiris</a> regions in <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>. <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Muni" title="Río Muni">Río Muni</a> became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the Guinea mainland were settled in 1900 by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1900)" title="Treaty of Paris (1900)">Treaty of Paris</a>, because of which Spain was left with a mere 26,000 km<sup>2</sup> out of the 300,000 stretching east to the <a href="/wiki/Ubangi_River" title="Ubangi River">Ubangi River</a> which they initially claimed.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarence-Smith_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarence-Smith-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonisation_1914.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Colonisation_1914.png/440px-Colonisation_1914.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Colonisation_1914.png/660px-Colonisation_1914.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Colonisation_1914.png/880px-Colonisation_1914.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption><span style="border:thin solid black"><span style="border-left:1.2em solid;border-left-color: #B0BF1A" title="#B0BF1A"></span></span> Spanish territories in Africa (1914)</figcaption></figure> <p>Following a <a href="/wiki/Rif_War_(1893)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rif War (1893)">brief war</a> in 1893, Morocco paid war reparations of 20 million pesetas and Spain expanded its influence south from Melilla. In 1912, Morocco was <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Morocco" title="French conquest of Morocco">divided between the French and Spanish</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Riffians" class="mw-redirect" title="Riffians">Riffians</a> rebelled, led by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ibn_%27Abd_al-Karim_al-Khattabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi">Abdelkrim</a>, a former officer for the Spanish administration. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Battle of Annual</a> (1921) during the <a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Rif War</a> was a major military defeat suffered by the Spanish army against Moroccan insurgents. A leading Spanish politician emphatically declared: "<i>We are at the most acute period of Spanish decadence</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the disaster of Annual, Spain began <a href="/wiki/Spanish_use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Rif_War" title="Spanish use of chemical weapons in the Rif War">using German chemical weapons</a> against the Moroccans. In September 1925, the <a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas landing</a> by the Spanish Army and Navy with a small collaboration of an allied French contingent put an end to the Rif War. It is considered the first successful amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power and tanks.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg/220px-RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg/330px-RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg/440px-RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_UN_GRUPO_DE_MILITARES.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3405" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>Spanish officers in Africa in 1920</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1923, <a href="/wiki/Tangier_International_Zone" title="Tangier International Zone">Tangier</a> was declared an international city under French, Spanish, British, and later Italian <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">joint administration</a>. In 1926, Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Spanish Guinea</a>, a status that would last until 1959. In 1931, following the fall of the monarchy, the African colonies became part of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Spanish Republic</a>. In 1934, during the government of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Alejandro_Lerroux" title="Alejandro Lerroux">Alejandro Lerroux</a>, Spanish troops led by General Osvaldo Capaz landed in Sidi Ifni and carried out the occupation of the territory, ceded <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> by Morocco in 1860. Two years later, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, a general of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a>, rebelled against the republican government and started the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (1936–39). During the Second World War the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy French">Vichy French</a> presence in Tangier was overcome by that of <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist Spain</a>. </p><p>Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in its African colonies during the first half of the 20th century. However, through a <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalistic</a> system, particularly on <a href="/wiki/Bioko_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioko Island">Bioko Island</a>, Spain developed large <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ProtectoradoMarruecos.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/ProtectoradoMarruecos.png/240px-ProtectoradoMarruecos.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/ProtectoradoMarruecos.png/360px-ProtectoradoMarruecos.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/ProtectoradoMarruecos.png 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Africa" title="Spanish West Africa">Spanish territories</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1956, when <a href="/wiki/French_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French Morocco">French Morocco</a> became independent, Spain surrendered <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a> to the new nation, but retained control of Sidi Ifni, the <a href="/wiki/Tarfaya" title="Tarfaya">Tarfaya</a> region and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a>. Moroccan <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> (later King) <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_V_of_Morocco" title="Mohammed V of Morocco">Mohammed V</a> was interested in these territories and unsuccessfully invaded Spanish Sahara in 1957, in the <a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a>, or in Spain, the Forgotten War (<i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">la Guerra Olvidada</i></span></i>). In 1958, Spain ceded Tarfaya to Mohammed V and joined the previously separate districts of <a href="/wiki/Saguia_el-Hamra" title="Saguia el-Hamra">Saguia el-Hamra</a> (in the north) and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_Oro" title="Río de Oro">Río de Oro</a> (in the south) to form the province of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg/220px-Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg/330px-Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg/440px-Espa%C3%B1a_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4233" data-file-height="2985" /></a><figcaption>Map of Spain in 1960. Present-day <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> territory (<a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>) were still part of Spain </figcaption></figure> <p>In 1959, the Spanish territory on the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a> was established with a status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by a <a href="/wiki/Governor_general" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor general">governor general</a> exercising military and civilian powers. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Spanish parliament</a>. Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. The name of the country was changed to <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a>. In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant the country independence. </p><p>In 1969, under international pressure, Spain returned Sidi Ifni to Morocco. Spanish control of Spanish Sahara endured until the 1975 <a href="/wiki/Green_March" title="Green March">Green March</a> prompted a withdrawal, under Moroccan military pressure. The future of this former Spanish colony remains uncertain. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> and Spanish cities in the African mainland are considered an equal part of Spain and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> but have a different tax system. </p><p>Morocco still claims Ceuta, Melilla, and <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa" title="Plazas de soberanía">plazas de soberanía</a></i></span></i> even though they are internationally recognized as administrative divisions of Spain. <a href="/wiki/Isla_Perejil" class="mw-redirect" title="Isla Perejil">Isla Perejil</a> <a href="/wiki/Perejil_Island_crisis" title="Perejil Island crisis">was occupied</a> on 11 July 2002 by Moroccan Gendarmerie and troops, who were evicted by <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish naval</a> forces in a bloodless operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imperial_economic_policy">Imperial economic policy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Latin_American_economy#Colonial_era_and_Independence_(ca._1500–1850)" title="Latin American economy">Latin American economy § Colonial era and Independence (ca. 1500–1850)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png/220px-Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png/330px-Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png/440px-Moll_-_Map_of_South_America_-_Detail_Potosi.png 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cerro_de_Potos%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerro de Potosí">Cerro de Potosí</a>, discovered in 1545, the rich, sole source of silver from Peru, worked by compulsory indigenous labor called <a href="/wiki/Mit%27a" title="Mit'a">mit'a</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg/290px-Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg/435px-Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg/580px-Principales_Rutas_Comerciales_del_Imperio_Espa%C3%B1ol.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>Main trade routes of the Spanish Empire</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish Empire benefited from favorable <a href="/wiki/Factor_endowments" class="mw-redirect" title="Factor endowments">factor endowments</a> from its overseas possessions with their large, exploitable indigenous populations and rich mining areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Sokoloff_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sokoloff-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the crown attempted to create and maintain a classic closed <a href="/wiki/Mercantile_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantile system">mercantile system</a>, warding off competitors and keeping wealth within the empire, specifically within the Crown of Castile. While in theory the Habsburgs were committed to maintaining a state monopoly, the reality was that the empire was a porous economic realm with widespread smuggling. In the 16th and 17th centuries under the Habsburgs, Spain's economic conditions gradually declined, especially in regards to the industrial development of its French, Dutch, and English rivals. Many of the goods being exported to the Empire originated from manufacturers in northwest Europe rather than in Spain. Illicit commercial activities became a part of the Empire's administrative structure. Supported by large flows of silver from the Americas, trade prohibited by Spanish mercantilist restrictions flourished as it provided a source of income to both crown officials and private merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The local administrative structure in <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, for example, was established through its oversight of both legal and illegal commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crown's pursuit of wars to maintain and expand territory, defend the Catholic faith, stamp out Protestantism, and beat back the Ottoman Turkish strength outstripped its ability to pay for it all, despite the huge production of silver in Peru and New Spain. Most of that flow paid mercenary soldiers in the European religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and paid foreign merchants for the consumer goods manufactured in northern Europe. Paradoxically, the wealth of the Indies impoverished Spain and enriched northern Europe, a course the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> monarchs would later attempt to reverse in the eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinStein200040–57_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinStein200040–57-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was well acknowledged in Spain, with writers on political economy, the <i><a href="/wiki/Arbitristas" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbitristas">arbitristas</a>,</i> sending the crown lengthy analyses in the form of "memorials, of the perceived problems and with proposed solutions."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinStein200094–102_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinStein200094–102-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to these thinkers, "Royal expenditure must be regulated, the sale of office halted, the growth of the church checked. The tax system must be overhauled, special concessions be made to agricultural laborers, rivers be made navigable and dry lands irrigated. In this way alone could Castile's productivity increase, its commerce restored, and its humiliating dependence on foreigners, on the Dutch and the Genoese, be brought to an end."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1989231_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1989231-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Real_arsenald_el_la_habana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Real_arsenald_el_la_habana.jpg/220px-Real_arsenald_el_la_habana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Real_arsenald_el_la_habana.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="198" /></a><figcaption>From 1715 to 1759, a third of Spanish ship production was from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Shipyard_of_Havana" title="Royal Shipyard of Havana">Havana shipyard</a>. In 1735, its expansion, in the same port, meant an increase in construction capacity. This shipyard in the 18th century developed the most complete dockyard in the New World.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Since the early days of the Caribbean and conquest era, the crown attempted to control trade between Spain and the Indies with restrictive policies enforced by the House of Trade (est. 1503) in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>. Shipping was through particular ports in Castile: Seville, and subsequently Cádiz, Spanish America: <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a>, Havana, <a href="/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Callao" title="Callao">Callao</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>, and the Philippines: <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>. There were very few Spanish settlers in the Indies in the very early period and Spain could supply sufficient goods to them. But as the Aztec and Inca empires were conquered in the early sixteenth century, and large deposits of silver found in both Mexico and Peru, Spanish immigration increased and the demand for goods rose far beyond Spain's ability to supply it. Since Spain had little capital to invest in the expanding trade and no significant commercial group, bankers and commercial houses in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>, Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> supplied both investment capital and goods in a supposedly closed system. Even in the sixteenth century, Spain recognized that the idealized closed system did not function in reality. Since the crown did not alter its restrictive structure or advocate fiscal prudence, despite the pleas of the <i>arbitristas</i>, the Indies trade remained nominally in the hands of Spain, but in fact enriched the other European countries. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_V_Coin_silver,_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Philip_V_Coin_silver%2C_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg/220px-Philip_V_Coin_silver%2C_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Philip_V_Coin_silver%2C_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg/330px-Philip_V_Coin_silver%2C_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Philip_V_Coin_silver%2C_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg/440px-Philip_V_Coin_silver%2C_8_Reales_Mexico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="421" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Spanish dollar</a>, natively called Peso, was the main coin of the Spanish Empire, this coin is from 1739.</figcaption></figure> <p>The crown established the system of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleets" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish treasure fleets">treasure fleets</a> (Spanish: <i lang="es">flota</i>) to protect the conveyance of silver to Seville (later Cádiz). Produced in other European countries, Sevillian merchants conveyed consumer goods that were registered and taxed by the House of Trade, and then sent to the Indies. Other European commercial interests came to dominate supply, with Spanish merchant houses and their guilds (<i><a href="/wiki/Consulado" class="mw-redirect" title="Consulado">consulados</a></i>) in both Spain and the Indies acting as mere middlemen, reaping a slice of the profits. However, those profits did not promote a manufacturing sector in Spain's economic development, and its economy continued to be based in agriculture. The wealth of the Indies led to prosperity in northern Europe, particularly in the Netherlands and England, which were both Protestant. As Spain's power weakened in the seventeenth century, England, the Netherlands, and the French took advantage overseas by seizing islands in the Caribbean, which became bases for a burgeoning contraband trade in Spanish America. Crown officials, who were supposed to suppress contraband trade, were quite often in cahoots with the foreigners, since it was a source of personal enrichment. In Spain, the crown itself participated in collusion with foreign merchant houses, since they paid fines "meant to establish a compensation to the state for losses through fraud." It became a calculated risk for merchant houses doing business, and for the crown it gained income that would have otherwise been lost. Foreign merchants were part of the supposed monopoly system of trade. The transfer of the House of Trade from Seville to Cádiz meant foreign merchant houses had even easier access to the Spanish trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch198910–11_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch198910–11-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Spanish imperial economy's major <a href="/wiki/Global_silver_trade_from_the_16th_to_19th_centuries" title="Global silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries">global impact</a> was <a href="/wiki/Silver_mining" title="Silver mining">silver mining</a>. The mines in Peru and Mexico were in the hands of a few elite mining entrepreneurs with access to capital and a stomach for the risk that mining entailed. They operated under a system of royal licensing, since the crown held the rights to subsoil wealth. Mining entrepreneurs assumed all the risk of the enterprise, while the crown gained a 20% slice of the profits, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_fifth" title="Royal fifth">royal fifth</a> ("quinto real"). Further adding to the crown's revenues in mining was that it held a monopoly on the mercury supply, used for separating pure silver from silver ore in the <a href="/wiki/Patio_process" title="Patio process">patio process</a>. The crown kept the price high, thereby depressing the volume of silver production.<sup id="cite_ref-Miningcolonies_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miningcolonies-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protecting its flow from Mexico and Peru as it transited to ports for shipment to Spain resulted early on in a convoy system (the flota) sailing twice a year. Its success can be judged by the fact that the silver fleet was captured only once, in 1628 by Dutch privateer <a href="/wiki/Piet_Pieterszoon_Hein" title="Piet Pieterszoon Hein">Piet Hein</a>. That loss resulted in the bankruptcy of the Spanish crown and an extended period of economic depression in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One practice the Spanish used to gather workers for the mines was called <i><a href="/wiki/Repartimiento" title="Repartimiento">repartimiento</a></i>. This was a rotational forced labor system where indigenous pueblos were obligated to send laborers to work in Spanish mines and plantations for a set number of days out of the year. Repartimiento was not implemented to replace <a href="/wiki/Slave_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave labor">slave labor</a>, but instead existed alongside free wage labor, slavery, and <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured labor.</a> It was, however, a way for the Spanish to procure cheap labor, thus boosting the mining-driven economy. </p><p>The men who worked as repartimiento laborers were not always resistant to the practice. Some were drawn to the labor as a way to supplement the wages they earned cultivating fields so as to support their families and, of course, pay <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tributes</a>. At first, a Spaniard could get repartimiento laborers to work for them with permission from a crown official, such as a <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a>, only on the basis that this labor was absolutely necessary to provide the country with important resources. This condition became laxer as the years went on, and various enterprises had repartimiento laborers who would work in dangerous conditions for long hours and low wages.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1713_Asiento_contract.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/1713_Asiento_contract.png/170px-1713_Asiento_contract.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/1713_Asiento_contract.png/255px-1713_Asiento_contract.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/1713_Asiento_contract.png/340px-1713_Asiento_contract.png 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the English translation of the Asiento contract signed by Britain and Spain in 1713 as part of the Utrecht treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. The contract broke the monopoly of Spanish slave traders to sell slaves in Spanish America</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Bourbon era, economic reforms sought to reverse the pattern that left Spain impoverished with no manufacturing sector and its colonies' need for manufactured goods supplied by other nations. It attempted to establish a closed trading system, but it was hampered by the terms of the 1713 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a>. The treaty ending the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, with a victory for the Bourbon French candidate for the throne, had a provision for British merchants to legally sell slaves with a license (<i><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a></i>) <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slaves</a> to Spanish America. The provision undermined the possibility of a revamped Spanish monopoly system. The merchants also used the opportunity to engage in contraband trade of their manufactured goods. Crown policy sought to make legal trade more appealing than contraband by instituting free commerce (<i>comercio libre</i>) in 1778, whereby Spanish American ports could trade with each other, and they could trade with any port in Spain. It was aimed at revamping a closed Spanish system and outflanking the increasingly powerful British. Silver production revived in the eighteenth century, with production far surpassing the earlier output. The crown reduced the taxes on mercury, meaning that a greater volume of pure silver could be refined. Silver mining absorbed most of the available capital in Mexico and Peru, and the crown emphasized the production of precious metals, which were sent to Spain. There was some economic development in the Indies to supply food, but a diversified economy did not emerge.<sup id="cite_ref-Miningcolonies_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miningcolonies-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic reforms of the Bourbon era both shaped and were themselves impacted by geopolitical developments in Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a> arose out of the War of the Spanish Succession. In turn, the crown's attempt to tighten its control over its colonial markets in the Americas led to further conflict with other European powers who were vying for access to them. After a sparking a series of skirmishes throughout the 1700s over its stricter policies, Spain's reformed trade system led to war with Britain in 1796.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Americas, meanwhile, economic policies enacted under the Bourbons had different impacts in different regions. On one hand, silver production in New Spain greatly increased and led to economic growth. But much of the profits of the revitalized mining sector went to mining elites and state officials, while in rural areas of New Spain conditions for rural workers deteriorated, contributing to social unrest that would impact subsequent revolts.<sup id="cite_ref-tutino_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tutino-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_investigations_and_expeditions">Scientific investigations and expeditions</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg/170px-Alexandre_humboldt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg/255px-Alexandre_humboldt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg/340px-Alexandre_humboldt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1655" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Georg_Weitsch" title="Friedrich Georg Weitsch">Friedrich Georg Weitsch</a>, 1806</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish American Enlightenment</a> produced a huge body of information on Spain's overseas empire via scientific expeditions. The most famous traveler in Spanish America was Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt, whose travel writings, especially <i>Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain</i> and scientific observations remain important sources for the history of Spanish America. Humboldt's expedition was authorized by the crown, but was self-funded from his personal fortune. The Bourbon crown promoted state-funded scientific work prior to the famous Humboldt expedition. Eighteenth-century clerics contributed to the expansion of scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_de_Alzate_y_Ram%C3%ADrez" title="José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez">José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Celestino_Mutis" title="José Celestino Mutis">José Celestino Mutis</a>. </p><p>The Spanish crown funded a number of important scientific expeditions: <a href="/wiki/Botanical_Expedition_to_the_Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Botanical Expedition to the Viceroyalty of Peru">Botanical Expedition to the Viceroyalty of Peru</a> (1777–78); <a href="/wiki/Royal_Botanical_Expedition_to_New_Granada" title="Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada">Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada</a> (1783–1816);<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Botanical_Expedition_to_New_Spain" title="Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain">Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain</a> (1787–1803);<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which scholars are now examining afresh.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the crown funded a number of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest</a> to bolster claims to territory, lengthy transatlantic and transpacific <a href="/wiki/Malaspina_Expedition" title="Malaspina Expedition">Malaspina-Bustamante Expedition</a> was for scientific purposes. The crown also funded the <a href="/wiki/Balmis_Expedition" title="Balmis Expedition">Balmis Expedition</a> in 1804 to vaccinate colonial populations against smallpox. </p><p>Much of the research done in the eighteenth century was never published or otherwise disseminated, in part due to budgetary constraints on the crown. Starting in the late twentieth century, research on the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> in Spain and the Spanish empire has blossomed, with primary sources being published in scholarly editions or reissued, as well the publication of a considerable number of important scholarly studies.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish colonial architecture">Spanish colonial architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png/260px-Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png/390px-Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png/520px-Universidades_fundadas_por_Espa%C3%B1a_en_Am%C3%A9rica_y_Filipinas.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Universities founded in Spanish America by the Spanish Empire.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the Spanish Empire declined from its apogee in the late seventeenth century, it remained a wonder for other Europeans for its sheer geographical span. <a href="/wiki/London_(Samuel_Johnson_poem)" title="London (Samuel Johnson poem)">Writing in 1738</a>, English author <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> questioned, "Has heaven reserved, in pity to the poor,/No pathless waste or undiscovered shore,/No secret island in the boundless main,/No peaceful desert yet unclaimed by Spain?"<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Spanish Empire left a huge linguistic, religious, political, cultural, and urban architectural legacy in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>. With over 470 million native speakers today, Spanish is the second <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">most spoken native language</a> in the world, as result of the introduction of the language of Castile—Castilian, "<i>Castellano</i>" —from Iberia to Spanish America, later expanded by the governments of successor independent republics. In the Philippines, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> (1898) brought the islands under U.S. jurisdiction, with English being imposed in schools and Spanish becoming <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Philippines" title="Languages of the Philippines">a secondary official language</a>. Many indigenous languages throughout the empire were often lost either as indigenous populations were decimated by war and disease, or as indigenous people mixed with colonists, and the Spanish language was taught and spread over time.<sup id="cite_ref-:63_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:63-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important cultural legacy of the Spanish empire overseas is <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>, which remains the main religious faith in Spanish America and the Philippines. Christian evangelization of indigenous peoples was a key responsibility of the crown and a justification for its imperial expansion. Although indigenous were considered neophytes and insufficiently mature in their faith for indigenous men to be ordained to the priesthood, the indigenous were part of the Catholic community of faith. Catholic orthodoxy was enforced by the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Office_of_the_Inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Office of the Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, particularly targeting <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Jews">crypto-Jews</a> and Protestants. Not until after their independence in the nineteenth century did Spanish American republics allow <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a> of other faiths. Observances of Catholic holidays often have strong regional expressions and remain important in many parts of Spanish America. Observances include <a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Dead" title="Day of the Dead">Day of the Dead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnaval_de_Oruro" title="Carnaval de Oruro">Carnival</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Week_in_Popay%C3%A1n" title="Holy Week in Popayán">Holy Week</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dancing_devils_of_Corpus_Christi" title="Dancing devils of Corpus Christi">Corpus Christi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epiphany_(holiday)" title="Epiphany (holiday)">Epiphany</a>, and national saints' days, such as the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_of_Guadalupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin of Guadalupe">Virgin of Guadalupe</a> in Mexico. </p><p>Politically, the colonial era has strongly influenced modern Spanish America. The territorial divisions of the empire in Spanish America became the basis for boundaries between new republics after independence and for state divisions within countries. It is often argued that the rise of <a href="/wiki/Caudillo" title="Caudillo">caudillismo</a> during and after Latin American independence movements created a legacy of authoritarianism in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was no significant development of representative institutions during the colonial era, and the executive power was often made stronger than the legislative power during the national period as a result. </p><p>This has led to a popular misconception that the colonial legacy has caused the region to have an extremely oppressed proletariat. Revolts and riots are often seen as evidence of this supposed extreme oppression. However, the culture of revolting against an unpopular government is not simply a confirmation of widespread authoritarianism. The colonial legacy did leave a political culture of revolt, but not always as a desperate last act. The civil unrest of the region is seen by some as a form of political involvement. While the political context of the political revolutions in Spanish America is understood to be one in which liberal elites competed to form new national political structures, so too were those elites responding to mass lower-class political mobilization and participation.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hundreds of towns and cities in the Americas were founded during the Spanish rule, with the colonial centers and buildings of many of them now designated as <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Sites">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a> attracting tourists. The tangible heritage includes universities, forts, cities, cathedrals, schools, hospitals, missions, government buildings and colonial residences, many of which still stand today. A number of present-day roads, canals, ports or bridges sit where Spanish engineers built them centuries ago. The oldest universities in the Americas were founded by Spanish scholars and Catholic missionaries. The Spanish Empire also left a vast <a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">cultural and linguistic legacy</a>. The cultural legacy is also present in the <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Latin_America" title="Music of Latin America">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuisine" title="Cuisine">cuisine</a>, and fashion, some of which have been granted the status of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_Lists" title="UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists">UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage</a>. </p><p>The long colonial period in <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Spanish America</a> resulted in a mixing of indigenous peoples, Europeans, and Africans that were <a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">classified by race and hierarchically ranked</a>, which created a markedly different society than the European colonies of North America. In concert with the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, the Spanish Empire laid the foundations of a truly global trade by opening up the great trans-oceanic <a href="/wiki/Trade_routes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade routes">trade routes</a> and the exploration of unknown territories and oceans for the western knowledge. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Spanish dollar</a> became the world's first global currency.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:753-original.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/753-original.jpg/220px-753-original.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/753-original.jpg/330px-753-original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/753-original.jpg/440px-753-original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2729" data-file-height="2704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse" title="Obverse and reverse">Obverse</a> side of a Spanish Peru 8 <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Reales</a> coin, depicting the two hemispheres which hosted the Spanish Empire</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the features of this trade was the exchange of a great array of domesticated plants and animals between the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a>. Some cultivars that were introduced to the Americas included grapes, wheat, barley, apples and citrous fruits; animals that were introduced to the New World were horses, donkeys, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and chickens. The Old World received from the Americas such things as maize, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, cacao (chocolate), vanilla, avocados, pineapples, chewing gum, rubber, peanuts, cashews, Brazil nuts, pecans, blueberries, strawberries, quinoa, amaranth, chia, agave and others. The result of these exchanges was to significantly improve the agricultural potential of not only in the Americas, but also that of Europe and Asia. Diseases brought by Europeans and Africans, such as smallpox, measles, typhus, and others, devastated almost all indigenous populations that had no immunity. </p><p>There were also cultural influences, which can be seen in everything from architecture to food, music, art and law, from southern Argentina and Chile to the United States of America together with the Philippines. The complex origins and contacts of different peoples resulted in cultural influences coming together in the varied forms evident today in the former colonial areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gallery">Gallery</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cathedral,_City_of_Mexico._(15719792402).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A photo of Cathedral of Mexico City, it is one of the largest cathedrals in Americas, built on the ruins of the Aztec main square."><img alt="A photo of Cathedral of Mexico City, it is one of the largest cathedrals in Americas, built on the ruins of the Aztec main square." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cathedral%2C_City_of_Mexico._%2815719792402%29.jpg/237px-Cathedral%2C_City_of_Mexico._%2815719792402%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cathedral%2C_City_of_Mexico._%2815719792402%29.jpg/355px-Cathedral%2C_City_of_Mexico._%2815719792402%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cathedral%2C_City_of_Mexico._%2815719792402%29.jpg/473px-Cathedral%2C_City_of_Mexico._%2815719792402%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2284" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A photo of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Cathedral_of_Mexico_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City">Cathedral of Mexico City</a>, it is one of the largest cathedrals in Americas, built on the ruins of the Aztec main square.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The clock of Comayagua Cathedral's bell tower in Honduras is one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world.[114] It was brought from the Alhambra Arab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century."><img alt="The clock of Comayagua Cathedral's bell tower in Honduras is one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world.[114] It was brought from the Alhambra Arab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg/247px-Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg/371px-Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg/494px-Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4444" data-file-height="3240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The clock of <a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception_Cathedral,_Comayagua" title="Immaculate Conception Cathedral, Comayagua">Comayagua Cathedral</a>'s bell tower in <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> is one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was brought from the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> Arab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Popayán, Colombia plaza de armas. Spain impregnate its public square style in Hispanic America."><img alt="Popayán, Colombia plaza de armas. Spain impregnate its public square style in Hispanic America." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg/270px-Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg/405px-Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg/540px-Catedral-Bas%C3%ADlica-de-Nuestra-Se%C3%B1ora-de-la-Asunci%C3%B3n-de-Popay%C3%A1n-Colombia-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1335" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Popay%C3%A1n" title="Popayán">Popayán</a>, Colombia <i><a href="/wiki/Plaza_de_armas" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaza de armas">plaza de armas</a></i>. Spain impregnate its <a href="/wiki/Public_square" class="mw-redirect" title="Public square">public square</a> style in <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic America</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Templo del Carmen in San Luis Potosí City, Mexico in January 2014, it is one of the largest churches in Americas."><img alt="Templo del Carmen in San Luis Potosí City, Mexico in January 2014, it is one of the largest churches in Americas." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG/271px-TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG" decoding="async" width="181" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG/406px-TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG/542px-TemplodelCarmenSLP01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Templo del Carmen in <a href="/wiki/San_Luis_Potos%C3%AD_City" class="mw-redirect" title="San Luis Potosí City">San Luis Potosí City</a>, Mexico in January 2014, it is one of the largest churches in Americas.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 232.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roof tiles are a common Hispanic American architectural element because Spanish colonization. Hospital Escuela Eva Perón in Granadero Baigorria, Santa Fe, Argentina."><img alt="Roof tiles are a common Hispanic American architectural element because Spanish colonization. Hospital Escuela Eva Perón in Granadero Baigorria, Santa Fe, Argentina." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg/346px-Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg/519px-Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg/692px-Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3085" data-file-height="1605" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Roof_tiles" title="Roof tiles">Roof tiles</a> are a common Hispanic American architectural element because Spanish colonization. <a href="/wiki/Hospital_Escuela_Eva_Per%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospital Escuela Eva Perón">Hospital Escuela Eva Perón</a> in <a href="/wiki/Granadero_Baigorria" title="Granadero Baigorria">Granadero Baigorria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Province" title="Santa Fe Province">Santa Fe</a>, Argentina.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Detail of a Mural by Diego Rivera at the National Palace of Mexico showing the ethnic differences between Agustín de Iturbide, a criollo, and the multiracial Mexican court"><img alt="Detail of a Mural by Diego Rivera at the National Palace of Mexico showing the ethnic differences between Agustín de Iturbide, a criollo, and the multiracial Mexican court" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg/240px-Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg/360px-Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg/480px-Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_3_Kaiser_Maximilian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Detail of a Mural by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Rivera" title="Diego Rivera">Diego Rivera</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_(Mexico)" title="National Palace (Mexico)">National Palace of Mexico</a> showing the ethnic differences between <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a>, a <i><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">criollo</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Multiracial" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiracial">multiracial</a> Mexican court</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chest_(petaca)_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chest (petaca) from colonial Mexico, c. 1772. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art[115]"><img alt="Chest (petaca) from colonial Mexico, c. 1772. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art[115]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg/240px-Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg/360px-Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg/480px-Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chest_(furniture)" title="Chest (furniture)">Chest</a> (petaca) from <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">colonial Mexico</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1772</span>. Now in the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 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ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Spanish Colonial architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black legend (Spain)">Black legend (Spain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Criollo_culture" title="Criollo people">Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_Latin_America" title="Cartography of Latin America">Cartography of Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_nationalism" title="Creole nationalism">Creole nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines" title="Governor-General of the Philippines">Governor-General of the Philippines</a></li> 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Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_17th_century" title="Spain in the 17th century">Spain in the 17th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_18th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain in the 18th century">Spain in the 18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_North_Africa_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Spanish North Africa (disambiguation)">Spanish North Africa (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Africa" title="Spanish West Africa">Spanish West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Aragon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Aragon">Spanish Viceroys of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Catalonia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Catalonia">Spanish Viceroys of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Naples">Spanish Viceroys of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Navarre" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Navarre">Spanish Viceroys of Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Sardinia">Spanish Viceroys of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Sicily">Spanish Viceroys of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Viceroys_of_Valencia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish Viceroys of Valencia">Spanish Viceroys of Valencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Viceroys_of_New_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Viceroys of New Granada">Viceroys of New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_viceroys_of_New_Spain" title="List of viceroys of New Spain">Viceroys of New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Viceroys_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Viceroys of Peru">Viceroys of Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata#List_of_viceroys" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Viceroys of Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Catholic Church was the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a> of the Spanish Empire, but the following religions were also present in the empire: <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> (<i>Hanafi</i> and <i>Maliki</i> [the latter until 1609] schools), <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Islam" title="Crypto-Islam">Crypto-Islam</a>), <a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec religions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca religions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a> and Judaism (<a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Judaism</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spanish: <i lang="es">Imperio español</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spanish: <i lang="es">Monarquía Hispánica</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spanish: <i lang="es">Monarquía Católica</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>... In August, the Duke besieged Ceuta</i> [The city was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by the <a href="/wiki/Enrique_P%C3%A9rez_de_Guzm%C3%A1n_y_Fonseca,_2nd_Duke_of_Medina_Sidonia" title="Enrique Pérez de Guzmán y Fonseca, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia">Duke of Medina Sidónia</a>] <i>and took the whole city except the citadel, but with the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal" title="Afonso V of Portugal">Afonso V</a> in the same fleet which led him to France, he preferred to leave the square. As a consequence, this was the end of the attempted settlement of Gibraltar by converts from Judaism ... which D. Enrique de Guzmán had allowed in 1474, since he blamed them for the disaster</i>. See Ladero Quesada, Miguel Ángel (2000), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ELEM/article/view/ELEM0000110067A/22548"><i>Portugueses en la frontera de Granada</i></a>" in <i>En la España Medieval</i>, vol. 23 (in Spanish), p. 98, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0214-3038">0214-3038</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A dominated Ceuta by the Castilians would certainly have forced a share of the right to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Fez" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Fez">Kingdom of Fez</a> (Morocco) between Portugal and Castile instead of the Portuguese monopoly recognized by the treaty of Alcáçovas. See Coca Castañer (2004), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv.php?pid=bibliuned:ETF894AF4FD-4B92-850E-ABF9-089C09ED6A76&dsID=Documento.pdf"><i>El papel de Granada en las relaciones castellano-portuguesas (1369–1492)</i></a>", in <i>Espacio, tiempo y forma</i> (in Spanish), Serie III, Historia Medieval, tome 17, p. 350: <i>... In that summer, <a href="/wiki/Enrique_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_2nd_Duke_of_Medina_Sidonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Enrique de Guzmán, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia">D. Enrique de Guzmán</a> crossed the Strait with five thousand men to conquer Ceuta, managing to occupy part of the urban area on the first thrust, but knowing that the Portuguese King was coming with reinforcements to the besieged</i> [Portuguese], <i>he decided to withdraw ...</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Castilian fleet attacked the <a href="/wiki/Praia_da_Vit%C3%B3ria" title="Praia da Vitória">Praia</a>'s Bay in <a href="/wiki/Terceira_Island" title="Terceira Island">Terceira Island</a> but the landing forces were decimated by a Portuguese counter-attack because the rowers panicked and fled with the boats. See chronicler <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Frutuoso" title="Gaspar Frutuoso">Frutuoso, Gaspar</a> (1963)- <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Aqs4AAAAMAAJ&q=%22tamb%C3%A9m+os+que+pela+terra+fugiam+se+deitavam+ao+mar,+onde+alguns+morriam+afogados,+e+outros+foram+mortos+%C3%A0+borda+de+%C3%A1gua%22"><i>Saudades da Terra</i></a> (in Portuguese), Edição do Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada, volume 6, chapter I, p. 10. See also <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Cordeiro" title="António Cordeiro">Cordeiro, António</a> (1717)- <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bM9TAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22der%C3%A3o+nelle+com+tal+furia+que%2C+ou+feridos+ou+affogados%2C+nenhum+ficou+com+vida%22&pg=PA257"><i>Historia Insulana</i></a> (in Portuguese), Book VI, Chapter VI, p. 257</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This attack happened during the Castilian war of Succession. See <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Guilherme_Reis_Leite" title="José Guilherme Reis Leite">Leite, José Guilherme Reis</a>- <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com/search?q=%22foi+atacada+pelos+castelhanos%2C+ent%C3%A3o+em+guerra+aberta+com+os+portugueses%22&tbm=bks&tbo=1">Inventário do Património Imóvel dos Açores Breve esboço sobre a História da Praia</a> (in Portuguese).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. The <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal"><i>Perfect Prince</i></a> sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left to Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ("quinto") to the Portuguese crown when returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission to Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbors. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Italian financiers from Milan and Genoa managed the crown's credit, while Italian generals, soldiers, and ships played a crucial role in supporting Spain's army and naval power. The Duchy of Milan served as Spain's main military base in Europe, blocking French expansion and facilitating troop movements via the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>. Milan's armaments industry provided war materials, and the Kingdom of Naples contributed recruits and taxes, which many Italians saw as exploitation for Spain's imperial ambitions, although Philip II insisted that the monarchy did not intend to exploit them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003173_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003173-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Monarchy nominally restored in 1947</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Government proclaimed in 1936</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taagepera1997-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera1997_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera1997_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a></i>. <b>41</b> (3): 492–502. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200707203055/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=492-502&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt3cn68807%2Fqt3cn68807.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández_Álvarez1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fernández Álvarez, Manuel (1979). <i>España y los españoles en los tiempos modernos</i> (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Salamanca" title="University of Salamanca">University of Salamanca</a>. p. 128.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Espa%C3%B1a+y+los+espa%C3%B1oles+en+los+tiempos+modernos&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=University+of+Salamanca&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez+%C3%81lvarez&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schneider, Reinhold, 'El Rey de Dios', Belacqva (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Thomas, 'World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II', Penguin; first edition (2015)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2015" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Edmund, ed. (2015). <i>A Dictionary of World History</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780192807007.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780192807007.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191726927" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191726927"><bdi>978-0191726927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+World+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780192807007.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0191726927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-echavez-solano-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-echavez-solano_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEchávez-SolanoDworkin_y_Méndez2007" class="citation book cs1">Echávez-Solano, Nelsy; Dworkin y Méndez, Kenya C., eds. (2007). <i>Spanish and Empire</i>. Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press. pp. xi–xvi. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv16755vb.3">10.2307/j.ctv16755vb.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826515667" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826515667"><bdi>978-0826515667</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242814420">242814420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spanish+and+Empire&rft.place=Nashville%2C+Tenn.&rft.pages=xi-xvi&rft.pub=Vanderbilt+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242814420%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv16755vb.3&rft.isbn=978-0826515667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beaule_douglass-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-beaule_douglass_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeauleDouglass2020" class="citation book cs1">Beaule, Christine; Douglass, John G., eds. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearchlibrary.org/content/e9998998-e035-42b2-b178-cc5ac369b6c9"><i>The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism</i></a>. Amerind Studies in Anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 3–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv105bb41">10.2307/j.ctv105bb41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816545711" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816545711"><bdi>978-0816545711</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv105bb41">j.ctv105bb41</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241500499">241500499</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210830041013/https://openresearchlibrary.org/content/e9998998-e035-42b2-b178-cc5ac369b6c9">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2021</span> – via Open Research Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Spanish+Empire%3A+Five+Hundred+Years+of+Place+Making+and+Pluralism&rft.place=Tucson&rft.series=Amerind+Studies+in+Anthropology&rft.pages=3-15&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv105bb41&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241500499%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv105bb41%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0816545711&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenresearchlibrary.org%2Fcontent%2Fe9998998-e035-42b2-b178-cc5ac369b6c9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson91LockhartSchwartz198319-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson91LockhartSchwartz198319_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGibson">Gibson</a>, p. 91<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGibson (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFLockhartSchwartz1983">Lockhart & Schwartz 1983</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Márquez2016-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Márquez2016_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMárquez2016" class="citation book cs1">Márquez, Carlos E. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA161">"<i>Plus Ultra</i> and the Empire Upon Which the Sun Never Set"</a>. In Tarver, H. Micheal; Slape, Emily (eds.). <i>The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610694223" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610694223"><bdi>978-1610694223</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124346/https://books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA161">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plus+Ultra+and+the+Empire+Upon+Which+the+Sun+Never+Set&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Empire%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia+%5B2+volumes%5D%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1610694223&rft.aulast=M%C3%A1rquez&rft.aufirst=Carlos+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1LCJDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200369-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200369_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003484-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003484_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 484.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley2008512-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley2008512_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 512.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003485-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003485_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 485.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003506-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003506_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 506.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Lynch_(historian)" title="John Lynch (historian)">Lynch, John</a>. "Spanish American Independence" in <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean</i> 2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003424-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003424_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheina2003">Scheina 2003</a>, p. 424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethany2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bethany, Aram (2006). "Monarchs of Spain". <i>Iberia and the Americas: culture, politics, and history</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. p. 725.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Monarchs+of+Spain&rft.btitle=Iberia+and+the+Americas%3A+culture%2C+politics%2C+and+history&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=725&rft.pub=ABC+Clio&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Bethany&rft.aufirst=Aram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dutra, Francis A. "Portuguese Empire" in <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_Latin_American_History_and_Culture1996"><i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i> 1996</a>, vol. 4, p. 451</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burkholder_Empire-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burkholder_Empire_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burkholder_Empire_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burkholder, Mark A. "Spanish Empire" in <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_Latin_American_History_and_Culture1996"><i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i> 1996</a>, vol. 5, p. 167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastañeda_Delgado1996" class="citation book cs1">Castañeda Delgado, Paulino (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927135626/http://www.bibliojuridica.org/libros/2/725/14.pdf">"La Santa Sede ante las empresas marítimas ibéricas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>La Teocracia Pontifical en las controversias sobre el Nuevo Mundo</i>. Universidad Autónoma de México. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9683651532" title="Special:BookSources/978-9683651532"><bdi>978-9683651532</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibliojuridica.org/libros/2/725/14.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=La+Santa+Sede+ante+las+empresas+mar%C3%ADtimas+ib%C3%A9ricas&rft.btitle=La+Teocracia+Pontifical+en+las+controversias+sobre+el+Nuevo+Mundo&rft.pub=Universidad+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-9683651532&rft.aulast=Casta%C3%B1eda+Delgado&rft.aufirst=Paulino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliojuridica.org%2Flibros%2F2%2F725%2F14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200312-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200312_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hernando_del_Pulgar" title="Hernando del Pulgar">Hernando del Pulgar</a> (1943), <i>Crónica de los Reyes Católicos</i>, vol. I (in Spanish), Madrid, pp. 278–279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaime_Zuzarte_Cortes%C3%A3o" class="extiw" title="pt:Jaime Zuzarte Cortesão">Jaime Cortesão</a> (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gOxKAAAAYAAJ&q=%22devemos+buscar+a+origem+da+futura+e+famosa%22"><i>Os Descobrimentos Portugueses</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161635/https://books.google.com/books?id=gOxKAAAAYAAJ&q=%22devemos+buscar+a+origem+da+futura+e+famosa%22&dq=%22devemos+buscar+a+origem+da+futura+e+famosa%22sa=X&ei=uNqpUZPJJsqLhQfer4HAAg&redir_esc=y">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, vol. III (in Portuguese), Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, p. 551, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9722704222" title="Special:BookSources/9722704222">9722704222</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Canary's campaign: <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_de_Palencia" title="Alfonso de Palencia">Alfonso de Palencia</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&pg=PA93">Decada IV</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161635/https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX (<i>"preparation of 2 fleets"</i> [to Guinea and to Canary, respectively] <i>"so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies"</i> [the Portuguese] ...). Palencia wrote that the conquest of Gran Canary was a secondary goal to facilitate the expeditions to Guinea (the real goal), a means to an end. <ul><li>Alfonso de Palencia, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&pg=PA93">Decada IV</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161635/https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary—capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians—and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from the Canary waters. This victory allowed <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">Prince John</a> to use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hernando_del_Pulgar" title="Hernando del Pulgar">Pulgar, Hernando del</a> (1780), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/"><i>Crónica de los señores reyes católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragon</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220116165429/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/">Archived</a> 16 January 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in Spanish), chapters LXXVI and LXXXVIII (<i>"How the Portuguese fleet defeated the Castilian fleet which had come to the Mine of Gold"</i>). From the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaughton1943" class="citation journal cs1">Laughton, Leonard (1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YTgcAAAAMAAJ&q=%22But+the+Portuguese+were+the+stronger%22">"Reviews"</a>. <i>The Mariner's Mirror</i>. <b>29</b> (3). London: Society for Nautical Research: 184. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124347/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTgcAAAAMAAJ&q=%22But+the+Portuguese+were+the+stronger%22">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2015</span>. <q>... For four years the Castilians traded and fought; but the Portuguese were the stronger. They defeated a large Spanish fleet off Guinea in 1478, besides gaining other victories. The war ended in 1479 by Ferdinand resigning his claims to Guinea ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mariner%27s+Mirror&rft.atitle=Reviews&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=184&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Laughton&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYTgcAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522But%2Bthe%2BPortuguese%2Bwere%2Bthe%2Bstronger%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><i>... More important, Castile recognized Portugal as the sole proprietor of the Atlantic islands (excepting the Canaries) and of the African coast in the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479. This Treaty clause, secured by Portuguese naval successes off Africa during an otherwise unsuccessful war, eliminated the only serious rival.</i> In Richardson, Patrick, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=byN_AAAAMAAJ&q=%22Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+in+1479.+This+treaty+clause,+secured+by+Portuguese+naval+successes+off+Africa%22"><i>The expansion of Europe, 1400–1660</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161636/https://books.google.com/books?id=byN_AAAAMAAJ&q=%22Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+in+1479.+This+treaty+clause,+secured+by+Portuguese+naval+successes+off+Africa%22&dq=%22Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+in+1479.+This+treaty+clause,+secured+by+Portuguese+naval+successes+off+Africa%22&sa=X&ei=u-KpUaW0BdK5hAeaqICgDw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1966), Longmans, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com.br/search?q=+%22Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+in+1479.+This+treaty+clause%2C+secured+by+Portuguese+naval+successes+off+Africa%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1">p. 48</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200523054857/https://www.google.com.br/search?q=+%22Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+in+1479.+This+treaty+clause%2C+secured+by+Portuguese+naval+successes+off+Africa%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1">Archived</a> 23 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waters, David (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UKK-b3If-78C&dq=%22war+with+Castile+broke+out+waged+savagely%22&pg=PA299"><i>Reflections Upon Some Navigational and Hydrographic Problems Of The XVth Century Related To The Voyage Of Bartolomeu Dias, 1487–88</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410052635/https://books.google.com/books?id=UKK-b3If-78C&dq=%22war+with+Castile+broke+out+waged+savagely%22&pg=PA299">Archived</a> 10 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 299, in the Separata from the Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, vol. XXXIV.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>... the Treaty of Alcáçovas was an important step in defining the expansion areas of each kingdom ... The Portuguese triumph in this agreement is evident, and in addition deserved. Efforts and perseverance developed over the last four decades by <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Henry the Navigator</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Discoveries</a> in Africa reached their fair reward.</i> In Donat, Luis Rojas (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7jIaAQAAIAAJ&q=%22El+triunfo+portugu%C3%A9s+en+este+acuerdo+es+evidente%22"><i>España y Portugal ante los otros: derecho, religión y política en el descubrimiento medieval de América</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161636/https://books.google.com/books?id=7jIaAQAAIAAJ&q=%22El+triunfo+portugu%C3%A9s+en+este+acuerdo+es+evidente%22&dq=%22El+triunfo+portugu%C3%A9s+en+este+acuerdo+es+evidente%22&sa=X&ei=FPmpUYHJFoPBhAeltYDQDQ&redir_esc=y">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in Spanish), Ediciones Universidad del Bio-Bio, p. 88, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9567813191" title="Special:BookSources/9567813191">9567813191</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>... Castile undertakes not to allow any his subject navigate waters reserved to the Portuguese. From the <a href="/wiki/Canary_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Canary islands">Canary</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">Parallel</a> onwards, the Atlantic Ocean would be a <a href="/wiki/Mare_clausum" title="Mare clausum">Mare clausum</a> to the Castilians. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas" title="Treaty of Alcáçovas">treaty of Alcáçovas</a> represented a huge victory for Portugal and resulted tremendously damaging to Castile.</i> In Espina Barrio, Angel (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k6B6AAAAMAAJ&q=%22El+tratado+de+Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+supon%C3%ADa+un+triunfo+enorme+para+Portugal+y+resultaba+tremendamente+perjudicial+para+castilla%22"><i>Antropología en Castilla y León e iberoamérica: Fronteras</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410052641/https://books.google.com/books?id=k6B6AAAAMAAJ&q=%22El+tratado+de+Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas+supon%C3%ADa+un+triunfo+enorme+para+Portugal+y+resultaba+tremendamente+perjudicial+para+castilla%22">Archived</a> 10 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, vol. III (In Spanish), Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas de Castilla y León, p. 118, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8493123110" title="Special:BookSources/8493123110">8493123110</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenport2004" class="citation cs2">Davenport, Frances Gardiner (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mDPF4ILESaUC&pg=PA49"><i>European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies</i></a>, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., p. 49, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584774228" title="Special:BookSources/978-1584774228"><bdi>978-1584774228</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124348/https://books.google.com/books?id=mDPF4ILESaUC&pg=PA49">archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Treaties+Bearing+on+the+History+of+the+United+States+and+Its+Dependencies&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=The+Lawbook+Exchange%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1584774228&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Frances+Gardiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmDPF4ILESaUC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>... Castile accepted a Portuguese monopoly on new discoveries in the Atlantic from the Canaries southward and toward the African coast.</i> In <a href="#CITEREFBedini1992">Bedini 1992</a>, p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>... This boundary line cut off Castile from the route to India around Africa ...</i>, in Prien, Hans-Jürgen (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kSAbYoBGmxQC&dq=%22This+boundary+line+cut+off+Castile+from+the+route+to+India%22&pg=PA8"><i>Christianity in Latin America: Revised and Expanded Edition</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161637/https://books.google.com/books?id=kSAbYoBGmxQC&pg=PA8&dq=%22This+boundary+line+cut+off+Castile+from+the+route+to+India%22&sa=X&ei=xqKrUcDsC42O7QaO_YGoDA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22This%20boundary%20line%20cut%20off%20Castile%20from%20the%20route%20to%20India%22&f=false">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Brill, p. 8, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004242074" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004242074">978-9004242074</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>... With an eye to the Treaty of Alcáçovas which only permitted westerly expansion by Castile, the Crown accepted the proposals of the Italian adventurer</i> [Christopher Columbus] <i>because if, contrary to all expectation, he were to prove successful, a great opportunity would arise to outmanoeuvre Portugal ...</i>, in Emmer, Piet (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx1SuWX9YIkC&dq=%22With+an+eye+to+the+Treaty+of+Alcacovas+%22&pg=PA86"><i>General History of the Caribbean</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161637/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx1SuWX9YIkC&pg=PA86&dq=%22With+an+eye+to+the+Treaty+of+Alcacovas+%22&sa=X&ei=5KarUc6yCoiu7AbOw4HgDg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22With%20an%20eye%20to%20the%20Treaty%20of%20Alcacovas%20%22&f=false">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, vol. II, UNESCO, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com.br/search?q=%22with+an+eye+to+the+Treaty+of+Alca%C3%A7ovas+which+only+permitted+westerly+expansion%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1">p. 86</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200523054856/https://www.google.com.br/search?q=%22with+an+eye+to+the+Treaty+of+Alca%C3%A7ovas+which+only+permitted+westerly+expansion%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1">Archived</a> 23 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0333-724550" title="Special:BookSources/0333-724550">0333-724550</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Superpowers Spain and Portugal struggled for global control and in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas the Pope divided the non-Christian world between them.</i> In Flood, Josephine (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h0Ph5GLwWOQC&dq=%22Superpowers+Spain+and+Portugal+struggled%22%22&pg=PA1"><i>The original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal people</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221122161638/https://books.google.com/books?id=h0Ph5GLwWOQC&pg=PA1&dq=%22Superpowers+Spain+and+Portugal+struggled%22%22&sa=X&ei=JpOyUeLyDcKr7Ab554G4BQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22Superpowers%20Spain%20and%20Portugal%20struggled%22%22&f=false">Archived</a> 22 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 1, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1%2B74114%2B872%2B3" title="Special:BookSources/1+74114+872+3">1 74114 872 3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbankCooper2010120–121-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbankCooper2010120–121_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurbankCooper2010">Burbank & Cooper 2010</a>, pp. 120–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992143-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992143_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFernández_Herrero1992">Fernández Herrero 1992</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAlister1984" class="citation book cs1">McAlister, Lyle N. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spainportugalinn0000mcal"><i>Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700</i></a></span>. U of Minnesota Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spainportugalinn0000mcal/page/69">69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816612185" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816612185"><bdi>978-0816612185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+and+Portugal+in+the+New+World%2C+1492%E2%80%931700&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=U+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0816612185&rft.aulast=McAlister&rft.aufirst=Lyle+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspainportugalinn0000mcal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHistoria_general_de_España1992189-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHistoria_general_de_España1992189_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHistoria_general_de_España1992">Historia general de España 1992</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992141-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Herrero1992141_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFernández_Herrero1992">Fernández Herrero 1992</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiffieWinius1977" class="citation book cs1">Diffie, Bailey Wallys; Winius, George Davison (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hBTqPX4G9Y4C&pg=PA173"><i>Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580</i></a>. University of Minnesota Press. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816607822" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816607822"><bdi>978-0816607822</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124351/https://books.google.com/books?id=hBTqPX4G9Y4C&pg=PA173">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+the+Portuguese+Empire%2C+1415%E2%80%931580&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0816607822&rft.aulast=Diffie&rft.aufirst=Bailey+Wallys&rft.au=Winius%2C+George+Davison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhBTqPX4G9Y4C%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVieira_Posada2008" class="citation book cs1">Vieira Posada, Édgar (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-PAQOJyi-1UC&pg=PA56"><i>La formación de espacios regionales en la integración de América Latina</i></a>. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9586982344" title="Special:BookSources/978-9586982344"><bdi>978-9586982344</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124351/https://books.google.com/books?id=-PAQOJyi-1UC&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+formaci%C3%B3n+de+espacios+regionales+en+la+integraci%C3%B3n+de+Am%C3%A9rica+Latina&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Pontificia+Universidad+Javeriana&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9586982344&rft.aulast=Vieira+Posada&rft.aufirst=%C3%89dgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-PAQOJyi-1UC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSánchez_Doncel1991" class="citation book cs1">Sánchez Doncel, Gregorio (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EOV8qNnYvDwC&pg=PA122"><i>Presencia de España en Orán (1509–1792)</i></a>. I.T. San Ildefonso. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8460076148" title="Special:BookSources/978-8460076148"><bdi>978-8460076148</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124352/https://books.google.com/books?id=EOV8qNnYvDwC&pg=PA122">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Presencia+de+Espa%C3%B1a+en+Or%C3%A1n+%281509%E2%80%931792%29&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=I.T.+San+Ildefonso&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-8460076148&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1nchez+Doncel&rft.aufirst=Gregorio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEOV8qNnYvDwC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_vp1mwUwOmoC&pg=PA644"><i>Los Trastámara y la Unidad Española</i></a>. Ediciones Rialp. 1981. p. 644. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8432121005" title="Special:BookSources/978-8432121005"><bdi>978-8432121005</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Los+Trast%C3%A1mara+y+la+Unidad+Espa%C3%B1ola&rft.pages=644&rft.pub=Ediciones+Rialp&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-8432121005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_vp1mwUwOmoC%26pg%3DPA644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-non-spanish_caribbean-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-non-spanish_caribbean_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-non-spanish_caribbean_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollier1992" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Collier, Simon (1992). "The non-Spanish Caribbean Islands to 1815". <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean</i> (second ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–213.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+non-Spanish+Caribbean+Islands+to+1815&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+Latin+America+and+the+Caribbean&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=212-213&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhartSchwartz198363-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhartSchwartz198363_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhartSchwartz1983">Lockhart & Schwartz 1983</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987139-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987139_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987">Diego-Fernández Sotelo 1987</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKozlowski2010" class="citation book cs1">Kozlowski, Darrell J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cCsUBMj2cvQC&pg=PA84"><i>Colonialism</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438128900" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438128900"><bdi>978-1438128900</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124846/https://books.google.com/books?id=cCsUBMj2cvQC&pg=PA84">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1438128900&rft.aulast=Kozlowski&rft.aufirst=Darrell+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcCsUBMj2cvQC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200327-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200327_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000282–288-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000282–288_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2000">Edwards 2000</a>, pp. 282–288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000248-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2000248_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2000">Edwards 2000</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="#CITEREFBraudel1984">Braudel 1984</a>, vol. 2, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). <i>A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107507180" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107507180"><bdi>978-1107507180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present.&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1107507180&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen200395-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen200395_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200827-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200827_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200830-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200830_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200836-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200836_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200837-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200837_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200838-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200838_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarley200848-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarley200848_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarley2008">Marley 2008</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cathal-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cathal_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathal_J._Nolan2006" class="citation book cs1">Cathal J. Nolan (2006). <i>The Age of Wars of Religion 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization</i>. pp. 672–675.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Wars+of+Religion+1000%E2%80%931650%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Global+Warfare+and+Civilization&rft.pages=672-675&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Cathal+J.+Nolan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003173-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003173_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nolan-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathal_J._Nolan2008" class="citation book cs1">Cathal J. Nolan (2008). <i>Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization</i>. pp. 442–443.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wars+of+the+Age+of+Louis+XIV%2C+1650%E2%80%931715%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Global+Warfare+and+Civilization&rft.pages=442-443&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Cathal+J.+Nolan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraudel1984vol._2,_p._418-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraudel1984vol._2,_p._418_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraudel1984">Braudel 1984</a>, vol. 2, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch19891-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch19891_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1989">Lynch 1989</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bourbon_Reforms-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bourbon_Reforms_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuethe, Allan J. "The Bourbon Reforms" in <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_Latin_American_History_and_Culture1996"><i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i> 1996</a>, vol. 1, pp. 399–401</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fisher, John R. "The Spanish American empire, 1580–1808" in <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean</i>, 2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, pp. 204–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbareda_Salvadó2010" class="citation book cs1">Albareda Salvadó, Joaquim (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3optq8WlRIMC&pg=PA24"><i>La Guerra de Sucesión de España (1700–1714)</i></a>. Editorial Critica. pp. 239–241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8498920604" title="Special:BookSources/978-8498920604"><bdi>978-8498920604</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Guerra+de+Sucesi%C3%B3n+de+Espa%C3%B1a+%281700%E2%80%931714%29&rft.pages=239-241&rft.pub=Editorial+Critica&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-8498920604&rft.aulast=Albareda+Salvad%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=Joaquim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3optq8WlRIMC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch198911-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch198911_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1989">Lynch 1989</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tutino-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tutino_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tutino_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTutino,_John2016" class="citation book cs1">Tutino, John (2016). <i>New countries capitalism, revolutions, and nations in the Americas, 1750–1870</i>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822361145" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822361145"><bdi>978-0822361145</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1107326871">1107326871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+countries+capitalism%2C+revolutions%2C+and+nations+in+the+Americas%2C+1750%E2%80%931870&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1107326871&rft.isbn=978-0822361145&rft.au=Tutino%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Humboldt1811_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Humboldt1811">von Humboldt 1811</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanota2015" class="citation book cs1">Janota, Tom (9 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jmuVBgAAQBAJ"><i>Alexander von Humboldt, un explorador científico en América</i></a>. CIDCLI. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-6078351121" title="Special:BookSources/978-6078351121"><bdi>978-6078351121</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114124846/https://books.google.com/books?id=jmuVBgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+von+Humboldt%2C+un+explorador+cient%C3%ADfico+en+Am%C3%A9rica&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=CIDCLI&rft.date=2015-02-09&rft.isbn=978-6078351121&rft.aulast=Janota&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjmuVBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.military.com/off-duty/4-more-of-stupidest-wars-world-history.html">"4 More of the Stupidest Wars in World History"</a>. October 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230807192730/https://www.military.com/off-duty/4-more-of-stupidest-wars-world-history.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=4+More+of+the+Stupidest+Wars+in+World+History&rft.date=2020-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.military.com%2Foff-duty%2F4-more-of-stupidest-wars-world-history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProwse2007" class="citation book cs1">Prowse, D. W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=typhCoyd1S8C&pg=PA311"><i>A History of Newfoundland: from the English, Colonial and Foreign Records</i></a>. Heritage Books. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0788423109" title="Special:BookSources/978-0788423109"><bdi>978-0788423109</bdi></a>. <q>In one short year the unfortunate Spaniards saw their armies beaten in Portugal, Cuba and Manila torn from their grasp, their commerce destroyed, and their fleets annihilated.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Newfoundland%3A+from+the+English%2C+Colonial+and+Foreign+Records&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Heritage+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0788423109&rft.aulast=Prowse&rft.aufirst=D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtyphCoyd1S8C%26pg%3DPA311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/4972/1/ML21744.PDF">"Corsairs of Santo Domingo a socio-economic study, 1718–1779"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170116170020/https://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/4972/1/ML21744.PDF">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 16 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Corsairs+of+Santo+Domingo+a+socio-economic+study%2C+1718%E2%80%931779&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruor.uottawa.ca%2Fbitstream%2F10393%2F4972%2F1%2FML21744.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003237,_485-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003237,_485_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, pp. 237, 485.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackmar1891" class="citation book cs1">Blackmar, Frank Wilson (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F11GAAAAYAAJ"><i>Spanish Institutions of the Southwest Issue 10 of Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science</i></a>. Hopkins Press. p. 335. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114125414/https://books.google.com/books?id=F11GAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spanish+Institutions+of+the+Southwest+Issue+10+of+Johns+Hopkins+University+studies+in+historical+and+political+science&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Blackmar&rft.aufirst=Frank+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF11GAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salvucci, Linda K. "Adams–Onís Treaty (1819)" in <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_Latin_American_History_and_Culture1996"><i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i> 1996</a>, vol. 1, pp. 11–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina200383-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina200383_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheina2003">Scheina 2003</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina200370-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina200370_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheina2003">Scheina 2003</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003357-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003357_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheina2003">Scheina 2003</a>, p. 357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003358-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003358_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheina2003">Scheina 2003</a>, p. 358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheina2003364_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheina2003">Scheina 2003</a>, p. 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-avalon-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-avalon_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp">"Avalon Project – Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898"</a>. <i>avalon.law.yale.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180916071226/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=avalon.law.yale.edu&rft.atitle=Avalon+Project+%E2%80%93+Treaty+of+Peace+Between+the+United+States+and+Spain%3B+December+10%2C+1898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F19th_century%2Fsp1898.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3amnMPTPP5MC&dq=Jun+2+1899+Philippines&pg=PA100">Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405133354/https://books.google.com/books?id=3amnMPTPP5MC&dq=Jun+2+1899+Philippines&pg=PA100">Archived</a> 5 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Cerezo finally surrendered with the full honors of war (1 July 1898 – 2 June 1899)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clarence-Smith-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clarence-Smith_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Gervase Clarence-Smith, 1986 "Spanish Equatorial Guinea, 1898–1940", in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa: From 1905 to 1940</i> Ed. J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts, & Roland Anthony Oliver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140220142411/http://es.scribd.com/doc/63545279/The-Cambridge-History-of-Africa-Volume-7-From-1905-to-1940-0521225051-1986">"The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7~ from 1905 to 1940 (0521225051, 1986)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://es.scribd.com/doc/63545279/The-Cambridge-History-of-Africa-Volume-7-From-1905-to-1940-0521225051-1986">the original</a> on 20 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa%2C+Volume+7~+from+1905+to+1940+%280521225051%2C+1986%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fes.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F63545279%2FThe-Cambridge-History-of-Africa-Volume-7-From-1905-to-1940-0521225051-1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.es/20110715/archivo/abci-desastre-annual-201107150904.html">"La derrota más amarga del Ejército español – ABC.es"</a> (in Spanish). 15 July 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170721140822/http://www.abc.es/20110715/archivo/abci-desastre-annual-201107150904.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+derrota+m%C3%A1s+amarga+del+Ej%C3%A9rcito+espa%C3%B1ol+%E2%80%93+ABC.es&rft.date=2011-07-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.es%2F20110715%2Farchivo%2Fabci-desastre-annual-201107150904.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.es/historia-militar/20140112/abci-desembarco-alhucemas-tropas-espanolas-201401111236.html">"Desembarco en Alhucemas, el "Día D" de las tropas españolas en el norte de África"</a>. <i>abc</i> (in European Spanish). 12 January 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141802/http://www.abc.es/historia-militar/20140112/abci-desembarco-alhucemas-tropas-espanolas-201401111236.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:63-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:63_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamel1995" class="citation cs2">Hamel, Rainer Enrique (1995), "Indigenous education in Latin America: policies and legal frameworks", <i>Linguistic Human Rights</i>, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 271–288, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110866391.271">10.1515/9783110866391.271</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110866391" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110866391"><bdi>978-3110866391</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indigenous+education+in+Latin+America%3A+policies+and+legal+frameworks&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Human+Rights&rft.pages=271-288&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110866391.271&rft.isbn=978-3110866391&rft.aulast=Hamel&rft.aufirst=Rainer+Enrique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiaramonte2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chiaramonte, José Carlos (1 August 2010). 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Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111229235442/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/124716/coin/16030/Dissemination-of-Hispanic-American-coinage">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dissemination+of+Hispanic-American+coinage&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F124716%2Fcoin%2F16030%2FDissemination-of-Hispanic-American-coinage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maravillasdehonduras.com/el-reloj-mas-antiguo-del-mundo/">"El reloj más antiguo del mundo – 30 Maravillas de Honduras"</a> (in European Spanish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220701203312/https://maravillasdehonduras.com/el-reloj-mas-antiguo-del-mundo/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=El+reloj+m%C3%A1s+antiguo+del+mundo+%E2%80%93+30+Maravillas+de+Honduras&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmaravillasdehonduras.com%2Fel-reloj-mas-antiguo-del-mundo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/751902">"Chest (petaca)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> website</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604190155/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/751902">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+website&rft.atitle=Chest+%28petaca%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F751902&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlip1964" class="citation book cs1">Alip, Eufronio Melo (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5FhCnQEACAAJ"><i>Philippine History: Political, Social, Economic</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philippine+History%3A+Political%2C+Social%2C+Economic&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Alip&rft.aufirst=Eufronio+Melo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5FhCnQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltmanClineJavier_Pescador2003" class="citation book cs1">Altman, Ida; Cline, Sarah; Javier Pescador, Juan (2003). <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>. 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Rough Guide. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1858288932" title="Special:BookSources/978-1858288932"><bdi>978-1858288932</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rough+guide+to+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Rough+Guide&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1858288932&rft.aulast=Atiyah&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBedini1992" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bedini, Silvio, ed. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christophercolum00bedi"><i>The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia</i></a></span>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0131426702" title="Special:BookSources/978-0131426702"><bdi>978-0131426702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christopher+Columbus+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0131426702&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristophercolum00bedi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennassar2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_Bennassar" title="Bartolomé Bennassar">Bennassar, Bartolomé</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=837Hw5QgdWgC"><i>La América española y la América portuguesa: siglos XVI–XVIII</i></a> (in Spanish). Akal. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8476002032" title="Special:BookSources/978-8476002032"><bdi>978-8476002032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Am%C3%A9rica+espa%C3%B1ola+y+la+Am%C3%A9rica+portuguesa%3A+siglos+XVI%E2%80%93XVIII&rft.pub=Akal&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-8476002032&rft.aulast=Bennassar&rft.aufirst=Bartolom%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D837Hw5QgdWgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurbankCooper2010" class="citation book cs1">Burbank, Jane; Cooper, Frederick (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y7B9euuLEkUC&pg=PA120"><i>Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 120–121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691127088" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691127088"><bdi>978-0691127088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+in+World+History%3A+Power+and+the+Politics+of+Difference&rft.pages=120-121&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0691127088&rft.aulast=Burbank&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy7B9euuLEkUC%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrading1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Brading" title="David Brading">Brading, D.A.</a> (1993). <i>The First America: Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1866</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521447966" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521447966"><bdi>978-0521447966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+America%3A+Spanish+Monarchy%2C+Creole+Patriots%2C+and+the+Liberal+State%2C+1492%E2%80%931866&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0521447966&rft.aulast=Brading&rft.aufirst=D.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrading1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Brading" title="David Brading">Brading, D.A.</a> (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/minersmerchantsi0000brad"><i>Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810</i></a></span>. New York: Cambridge University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521102070" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521102070"><bdi>978-0521102070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miners+and+Merchants+in+Bourbon+Mexico%2C+1763%E2%80%931810&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0521102070&rft.aulast=Brading&rft.aufirst=D.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fminersmerchantsi0000brad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Braudel, Fernand (1984) [1979]. <i>Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th century</i>. Vol. 3 volumes. London: Collins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilization+and+Capitalism%2C+15th%E2%80%9318th+century&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownElliott1980" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Jonathan; Elliott, John Huxtable (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/palaceforkingbue0000brow"><i>A Palace for a King. The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV</i></a></span>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300025071" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300025071"><bdi>978-0300025071</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Palace+for+a+King.+The+Buen+Retiro+and+the+Court+of+Philip+IV&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0300025071&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Elliott%2C+John+Huxtable&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpalaceforkingbue0000brow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBushnell1981" class="citation book cs1">Bushnell, Amy (1981). <i>The King's Coffer: Proprietors of the Spanish Florida Treasury 1565–1702</i>. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813006901" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813006901"><bdi>978-0813006901</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Coffer%3A+Proprietors+of+the+Spanish+Florida+Treasury+1565%E2%80%931702&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+Presses+of+Florida&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0813006901&rft.aulast=Bushnell&rft.aufirst=Amy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrera_Damas1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Carrera Damas, Germán (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bq2DZpHvPkkC"><i>Historia general de América Latina</i></a> (in Spanish). UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9233031517" title="Special:BookSources/978-9233031517"><bdi>978-9233031517</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+general+de+Am%C3%A9rica+Latina&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-9233031517&rft.aulast=Carrera+Damas&rft.aufirst=Germ%C3%A1n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBq2DZpHvPkkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChipman2005" class="citation book cs1">Chipman, Donald E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nbp7AAAAQBAJ&q=factor+overseer+accountant+treasurer+spanish&pg=PT55"><i>Moctezuma's Children: Aztec Royalty under Spanish Rule, 1520–1700</i></a> (Individual e-book (no page numbers) ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0292782648" title="Special:BookSources/978-0292782648"><bdi>978-0292782648</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moctezuma%27s+Children%3A+Aztec+Royalty+under+Spanish+Rule%2C+1520%E2%80%931700&rft.place=Austin&rft.edition=Individual+e-book+%28no+page+numbers%29&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0292782648&rft.aulast=Chipman&rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnbp7AAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfactor%2Boverseer%2Baccountant%2Btreasurer%2Bspanish%26pg%3DPT55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Diego-Fernández Sotelo, Rafael (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ouNv6ZaRZQC"><i>Las capitulaciones colombinas</i></a> (in Spanish). El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9687230306" title="Special:BookSources/978-9687230306"><bdi>978-9687230306</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Las+capitulaciones+colombinas&rft.pub=El+Colegio+de+Michoac%C3%A1n+A.C.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-9687230306&rft.aulast=Diego-Fern%C3%A1ndez+Sotelo&rft.aufirst=Rafael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4ouNv6ZaRZQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2000" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, John (2000). <i>The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs, 1474–1520</i>. New York: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631161653" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631161653"><bdi>978-0631161653</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spain+of+the+Catholic+Monarchs%2C+1474%E2%80%931520&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0631161653&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2006" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, J.H. (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empiresofatlanti00john"><i>Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492–1830</i></a></span>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Atlantic+World%3A+Britain+and+Spain+in+America+1492%E2%80%931830&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempiresofatlanti00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1989" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, J.H. (1989). <i>Spain and Its World, 1500–1700</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+and+Its+World%2C+1500%E2%80%931700&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1986" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, J.H. (1986). <i>The Count-Duke of Olivares: the statesman in an age of decline</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300033908" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300033908"><bdi>978-0300033908</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Count-Duke+of+Olivares%3A+the+statesman+in+an+age+of+decline&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0300033908&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1977" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, J.H. (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialspain1460000elli"><i>Imperial Spain, 14691716</i></a></span>. New York: New American Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0452006140" title="Special:BookSources/978-0452006140"><bdi>978-0452006140</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Spain%2C+14691716&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+American+Library&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0452006140&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialspain1460000elli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1961" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Huxtable_Elliott" class="mw-redirect" title="John Huxtable Elliott">Elliott, J.H.</a> (1961). "The Decline of Spain". <i>Past and Present</i> (20): 52–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F20.1.52">10.1093/past/20.1.52</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=The+Decline+of+Spain&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=52-75&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F20.1.52&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_Latin_American_History_and_Culture1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1996.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Latin+American+History+and+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> 5 volumes</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández_Herrero1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fernández Herrero, Beatriz (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lcv7a0tM7XgC"><i>La utopía de América: teoría, leyes, experimentos</i></a> (in Spanish). Anthropos Editorial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8476583203" title="Special:BookSources/978-8476583203"><bdi>978-8476583203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+utop%C3%ADa+de+Am%C3%A9rica%3A+teor%C3%ADa%2C+leyes%2C+experimentos&rft.pub=Anthropos+Editorial&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-8476583203&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez+Herrero&rft.aufirst=Beatriz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLcv7a0tM7XgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankham2008" class="citation book cs1">Frankham, Steven (2008). <i>Borneo</i>. Footprint Handbooks. Footprint. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1906098148" title="Special:BookSources/978-1906098148"><bdi>978-1906098148</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Borneo&rft.series=Footprint+Handbooks&rft.pub=Footprint&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1906098148&rft.aulast=Frankham&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGómez_Gómez2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gómez Gómez, Margarita (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=smJvSuwZbn4C"><i>El sello y registro de Indias: imagen y representación</i></a> (in Spanish). Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3412202293" title="Special:BookSources/978-3412202293"><bdi>978-3412202293</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+sello+y+registro+de+Indias%3A+imagen+y+representaci%C3%B3n&rft.pub=B%C3%B6hlau+Verlag+K%C3%B6ln+Weimar&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3412202293&rft.aulast=G%C3%B3mez+G%C3%B3mez&rft.aufirst=Margarita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsmJvSuwZbn4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGóngora1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Góngora, Mario (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1dPIXTZ3xJkC"><i>Estudios sobre la historia colonial de hispanoamérica</i></a> (in Spanish). Editorial Universitaria. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9561113817" title="Special:BookSources/978-9561113817"><bdi>978-9561113817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Estudios+sobre+la+historia+colonial+de+hispanoam%C3%A9rica&rft.pub=Editorial+Universitaria&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-9561113817&rft.aulast=G%C3%B3ngora&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1dPIXTZ3xJkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuerreroCustodioDalisay1998" class="citation cs2">Guerrero, Milagros; Custodio, Teresa Ma.; Dalisay, Jose Y. (1998), "Reform and Revolution", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?as_isbn=9622582281"><i>Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People</i></a>, vol. 5, Asia Publishing Company Limited, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-258-228-1" title="Special:BookSources/962-258-228-1"><bdi>962-258-228-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reform+and+Revolution&rft.btitle=Kasaysayan%3A+The+History+of+the+Filipino+People&rft.pub=Asia+Publishing+Company+Limited&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=962-258-228-1&rft.aulast=Guerrero&rft.aufirst=Milagros&rft.au=Custodio%2C+Teresa+Ma.&rft.au=Dalisay%2C+Jose+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fas_isbn%3D9622582281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamnett2017" class="citation book cs1">Hamnett, Brian (2017). <i>The End of Iberian Rule on the American Continent, 1770–1830</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316626634" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316626634"><bdi>978-1316626634</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Iberian+Rule+on+the+American+Continent%2C+1770%E2%80%931830&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1316626634&rft.aulast=Hamnett&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaring1947" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Haring" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Haring">Haring, Clarence</a> (1947). <i>The Spanish Empire in America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Empire+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Haring&rft.aufirst=Clarence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistoria_general_de_España1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DWBNjs8iwEC"><i>Historia general de España y América</i></a> (in Spanish). Vol. 10. Ediciones Rialp. 1992. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8432121029" title="Special:BookSources/978-8432121029"><bdi>978-8432121029</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+general+de+Espa%C3%B1a+y+Am%C3%A9rica&rft.pub=Ediciones+Rialp&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-8432121029&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DWBNjs8iwEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Humboldt1811" class="citation book cs1">von Humboldt, Alexander (1 January 1811). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/85282#page/12/mode/1up"><i>Political essay on the kingdom of New Spain containing researches relative to the geography of Mexico</i></a>. Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown ... and H. Colburn ... <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0665185465" title="Special:BookSources/978-0665185465"><bdi>978-0665185465</bdi></a> – via Biodiversity Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+essay+on+the+kingdom+of+New+Spain+containing+researches+relative+to+the+geography+of+Mexico&rft.pub=Printed+for+Longman%2C+Hurst%2C+Rees%2C+Orme+and+Brown+...+and+H.+Colburn+...&rft.date=1811-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0665185465&rft.aulast=von+Humboldt&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F85282%23page%2F12%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoaquin1988" class="citation book cs1">Joaquin, Nick (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NS1vAAAAMAAJ"><i>Culture and history: occasional notes on the process of Philippine becoming</i></a>. Solar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9711706333" title="Special:BookSources/978-9711706333"><bdi>978-9711706333</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+history%3A+occasional+notes+on+the+process+of+Philippine+becoming&rft.pub=Solar&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-9711706333&rft.aulast=Joaquin&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNS1vAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2005" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spain14691714soc00kame"><i>Spain 1469–1714. A Society of Conflict</i></a> (third ed.). London: Pearson Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582784642" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582784642"><bdi>978-0582784642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+1469%E2%80%931714.+A+Society+of+Conflict&rft.place=London&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Pearson+Longman&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0582784642&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspain14691714soc00kame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kamen" title="Henry Kamen">Kamen, Henry</a> (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empirehowspainbe00kame"><i>Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763</i></a></span>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060932640" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060932640"><bdi>978-0060932640</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+How+Spain+Became+a+World+Power%2C+1492%E2%80%931763&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0060932640&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempirehowspainbe00kame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2017" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Paul M (2017) [1988]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risefallofgreatp00paul"><i>The rise and fall of the great powers: economic change and military conflict from 1500 to 2000</i></a>. London: William Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0006860525" title="Special:BookSources/978-0006860525"><bdi>978-0006860525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+and+fall+of+the+great+powers%3A+economic+change+and+military+conflict+from+1500+to+2000&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Collins&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0006860525&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Paul+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisefallofgreatp00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurlansky1999" class="citation book cs1">Kurlansky, Mark (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uW5gQgAACAAJ"><i>The Basque history of the world</i></a>. Walker. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802713490" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802713490"><bdi>978-0802713490</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basque+history+of+the+world&rft.pub=Walker&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0802713490&rft.aulast=Kurlansky&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuW5gQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLagos_Carmona1985" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlY7Lg5p9A4C"><i>Los títulos históricos</i></a> (in Spanish). Editorial Andrés Bello. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/320082537">320082537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Los+t%C3%ADtulos+hist%C3%B3ricos&rft.pub=Editorial+Andr%C3%A9s+Bello&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F320082537&rft.aulast=Lagos+Carmona&rft.aufirst=Guillermo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdlY7Lg5p9A4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockhartSchwartz1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">Lockhart, James</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stuart_B._Schwartz" title="Stuart B. Schwartz">Schwartz, Stuart B.</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlylatinameric00lock"><i>Early Latin America</i></a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521233446" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521233446"><bdi>978-0521233446</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Latin+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0521233446&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Stuart+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlylatinameric00lock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1989" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, John (1989). <i>Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808</i>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631192459" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631192459"><bdi>978-0631192459</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bourbon+Spain%2C+1700%E2%80%931808&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0631192459&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAmis2002" class="citation book cs1">McAmis, Robert Day (2002). <i>Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia</i>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802849458" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802849458"><bdi>978-0802849458</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malay+Muslims%3A+The+History+and+Challenge+of+Resurgent+Islam+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0802849458&rft.aulast=McAmis&rft.aufirst=Robert+Day&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMecham1966" class="citation book cs1">Mecham, J. Lloyd (1966). <i>Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations</i> (revised ed.). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+and+State+in+Latin+America%3A+A+History+of+Politico-Ecclesiastical+Relations&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Mecham&rft.aufirst=J.+Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1978" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philipii00geof"><i>Philip II</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316690805" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316690805"><bdi>978-0316690805</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+II&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0316690805&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilipii00geof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuiz_Martín1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ruiz Martín, Felipe (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jlJPsVc8UvQC"><i>La proyección europea de la monarquía hispánica</i></a> (in Spanish). Editorial Complutense. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8495983305" title="Special:BookSources/978-8495983305"><bdi>978-8495983305</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+proyecci%C3%B3n+europea+de+la+monarqu%C3%ADa+hisp%C3%A1nica&rft.pub=Editorial+Complutense&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-8495983305&rft.aulast=Ruiz+Mart%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=Felipe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjlJPsVc8UvQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2002" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, Graham (2002). <i>A History of Brunei</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0700716982" title="Special:BookSources/978-0700716982"><bdi>978-0700716982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Brunei&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0700716982&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSibaja_Chacón2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sibaja Chacón, Luis Fernando (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q61T1fs_K4wC&pg=PA37"><i>El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica</i></a> (in Spanish). EUNED. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9968314886" title="Special:BookSources/978-9968314886"><bdi>978-9968314886</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+cuarto+viaje+de+Crist%C3%B3bal+Col%C3%B3n+y+los+or%C3%ADgenes+de+la+provincia+de+Costa+Rica&rft.pub=EUNED&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9968314886&rft.aulast=Sibaja+Chac%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Luis+Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq61T1fs_K4wC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinStein2000" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Stanley J.; Stein, Barbara H. (2000). <i>Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern Europe</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Silver%2C+Trade%2C+and+War%3A+Spain+and+America+in+the+Making+of+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Stanley+J.&rft.au=Stein%2C+Barbara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVictoria2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Victoria, Pablo (2005). <i>El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra : de cómo Blas de Lezo, tuerto, manco y cojo, venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra "Armada Invencible"</i> (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Barcelona: Áltera. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8489779686" title="Special:BookSources/978-8489779686"><bdi>978-8489779686</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+d%C3%ADa+que+Espa%C3%B1a+derrot%C3%B3+a+Inglaterra+%3A+de+c%C3%B3mo+Blas+de+Lezo%2C+tuerto%2C+manco+y+cojo%2C+venci%C3%B3+en+Cartagena+de+Indias+a+la+otra+%22Armada+Invencible%22&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=%C3%81ltera&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-8489779686&rft.aulast=Victoria&rft.aufirst=Pablo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarley2008" class="citation book cs1">Marley, David (2008). <i>Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World, 1492 to the Present [2 ed.]</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wars+of+the+Americas%3A+A+Chronology+of+Armed+Conflict+in+the+New+World%2C+1492+to+the+Present+%5B2+ed.%5D&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Marley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheina2003" class="citation book cs1">Scheina, Robert L. (2003). <i>Latin America's Wars Volume I: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899</i>. Brassey's.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+America%27s+Wars+Volume+I%3A+The+Age+of+the+Caudillo%2C+1791%E2%80%931899&rft.pub=Brassey%27s&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Scheina&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Spanish Empire</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Spanish+Empire&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Spanish+Empire">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Spanish+Empire&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadilla_Angulo2023" class="citation book cs1">Padilla Angulo, Fernando J. (12 January 2023). <i>Volunteers of the Empire: War, Identity, and Spanish Imperialism, 1855–1898</i>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-28120-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-28120-2"><bdi>978-1-350-28120-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volunteers+of+the+Empire%3A+War%2C+Identity%2C+and+Spanish+Imperialism%2C+1855%E2%80%931898&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2023-01-12&rft.isbn=978-1-350-28120-2&rft.aulast=Padilla+Angulo&rft.aufirst=Fernando+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2000" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). <i>The History of Portugal</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313311062" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313311062"><bdi>978-0313311062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Portugal&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0313311062&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+Maxwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack1996" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy (1996). <i>The Cambridge illustrated atlas of warfare: Renaissance to revolution</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521470339" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521470339"><bdi>978-0521470339</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+illustrated+atlas+of+warfare%3A+Renaissance+to+revolution&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521470339&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyajian2007" class="citation book cs1">Boyajian, James C. (2007). <i>Portuguese Trade in Asia Under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640</i>. Johns Hopkins University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801887543" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801887543"><bdi>978-0801887543</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Portuguese+Trade+in+Asia+Under+the+Habsburgs%2C+1580%E2%80%931640&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0801887543&rft.aulast=Boyajian&rft.aufirst=James+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel1972" class="citation book cs1">Braudel, Fernand (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mediterraneanthe01brau"><i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II</i></a>. Berkeley, Calif. : University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+and+the+Mediterranean+World+in+the+Age+of+Philip+II&rft.pub=Berkeley%2C+Calif.+%3A+University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmediterraneanthe01brau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1998" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Jonathan (1998). <i>Painting in Spain: 1500–1700</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300064728" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300064728"><bdi>978-0300064728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Painting+in+Spain%3A+1500%E2%80%931700&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0300064728&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDominguez_Ortiz1971" class="citation book cs1">Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971). <i>The Golden Age of Spain, 1516–1659</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297004059" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297004059"><bdi>978-0297004059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Spain%2C+1516%E2%80%931659&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0297004059&rft.aulast=Dominguez+Ortiz&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1970" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, J.H. (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldworldnew1492100elli"><i>The Old World and The New</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge [Eng.] University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521079372" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521079372"><bdi>978-0521079372</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+World+and+The+New&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+%5BEng.%5D+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0521079372&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldworldnew1492100elli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarriss1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Farriss" title="Nancy Farriss">Farriss, N.M.</a> (1968). <i>Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821</i>. London: Athlone Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crown+and+Clergy+in+Colonial+Mexico%2C+1759%E2%80%931821&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Athlone+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Farriss&rft.aufirst=N.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1985" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, John (1985). <i>Commercial Relations Between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of Free Trade, 1778–1796</i>. Liverpool.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commercial+Relations+Between+Spain+and+Spanish+America+in+the+Era+of+Free+Trade%2C+1778%E2%80%931796&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibson_(historian)" title="Charles Gibson (historian)">Gibson, Charles</a> (1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spaininamerica0000gibs"><i>Spain in America</i></a></span>. New York: Harper and Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspaininamerica0000gibs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson1964" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Charles (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aztecsunderspani00gibs"><i>The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule</i></a></span>. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aztecs+Under+Spanish+Rule&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faztecsunderspani00gibs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerr1958" class="citation book cs1">Herr, Richard (1958). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eighteenthcentur00rich"><i>The Eighteenth-Century Revolution in Spain</i></a></span>. Princeton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eighteenth-Century+Revolution+in+Spain&rft.place=Princeton&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Herr&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feighteenthcentur00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_I._Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan I. Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a> (May 1981). "Debate – The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth". <i>Past and Present</i> (91): 170–185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F91.1.170">10.1093/past/91.1.170</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=Debate+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BThe+Decline+of+Spain%3A+A+Historical+Myth&rft.issue=91&rft.pages=170-185&rft.date=1981-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F91.1.170&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaganParker1995" class="citation book cs1">Kagan, Richard L.; Parker, Geoffrey (1995). <i>Spain, Europe and the Atlantic: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521525114" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521525114"><bdi>978-0521525114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain%2C+Europe+and+the+Atlantic%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+John+H.+Elliott&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0521525114&rft.aulast=Kagan&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft.au=Parker%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen1998" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (1998). <i>Philip of Spain</i>. New Haven: Yale University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300078008" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300078008"><bdi>978-0300078008</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+of+Spain&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0300078008&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kamen, Henry. <i>Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1493–1763</i>. New York: HarperCollins 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060194765" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060194765">978-0060194765</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLachVan_Kley1994" class="citation book cs1">Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1994). <i>Asia in the Making of Europe</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226467344" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226467344"><bdi>978-0226467344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Making+of+Europe&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0226467344&rft.aulast=Lach&rft.aufirst=Donald+F.&rft.au=Van+Kley%2C+Edwin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1964" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, John (1964). <i>Spain Under the Hapsburgs</i>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+Under+the+Hapsburgs&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1983" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, John (1983). <i>The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826</i>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+American+Revolutions%2C+1808%E2%80%931826&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacLachlan1988" class="citation book cs1">MacLachlan, Colin M. (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spainsempireinne008"><i>Spain's Empire in the New World: The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change</i></a></span>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520074101" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520074101"><bdi>978-0520074101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain%27s+Empire+in+the+New+World%3A+The+Role+of+Ideas+in+Institutional+and+Social+Change&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0520074101&rft.aulast=MacLachlan&rft.aufirst=Colin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspainsempireinne008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarichalMantecón1994" class="citation journal cs1">Marichal, Carlos; Mantecón, Matilde Souto (1994). "Silver and Situados: New Spain and the Financing of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century". <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>74</b> (4): 587–613. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2517493">10.2307/2517493</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2517493">2517493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Silver+and+Situados%3A+New+Spain+and+the+Financing+of+the+Spanish+Empire+in+the+Caribbean+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=587-613&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2517493&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2517493%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Marichal&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft.au=Mantec%C3%B3n%2C+Matilde+Souto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerriman1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bigelow_Merriman" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Bigelow Merriman">Merriman, Roger Bigelow</a> (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=Spanish%20%20Merriman"><i>The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the New</i></a>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Spanish+Empire+in+the+Old+World+and+the+New&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Merriman&rft.aufirst=Roger+Bigelow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fsearch.php%3Fquery%3DSpanish%2520%2520Merriman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson1992" class="citation book cs1">Olson, James S. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/3767770/historical-dictionary-of-the-spanish-empire-1402-1975"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire, 1402–1975</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Spanish+Empire%2C+1402%E2%80%931975&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Flibrary%2F3767770%2Fhistorical-dictionary-of-the-spanish-empire-1402-1975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaquette2008" class="citation book cs1">Paquette, Gabriel B (17 January 2008). <i>Enlightenment, governance, and reform in Spain and its empire, 1759–1808</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230300521" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230300521"><bdi>978-0230300521</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enlightenment%2C+governance%2C+and+reform+in+Spain+and+its+empire%2C+1759%E2%80%931808&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+2008&rft.date=2008-01-17&rft.isbn=978-0230300521&rft.aulast=Paquette&rft.aufirst=Gabriel+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1997" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1997). <i>The Thirty Years' War</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415128834" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415128834"><bdi>978-0415128834</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0415128834&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1972" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1972). <i>The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521084628" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521084628"><bdi>978-0521084628</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Army+of+Flanders+and+the+Spanish+Road%2C+1567%E2%80%931659%3B+the+logistics+of+Spanish+victory+and+defeat+in+the+Low+Countries%27+Wars&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0521084628&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1977" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1977). <i>The Dutch revolt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801411366" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801411366"><bdi>978-0801411366</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+revolt&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0801411366&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1997" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1997). <i>The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415165181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415165181"><bdi>978-0415165181</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+General+Crisis+of+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0415165181&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.H._Parry" class="mw-redirect" title="J.H. Parry">Parry, J.H.</a> (1966). <i>The Spanish Seaborne Empire</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520071407" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520071407"><bdi>978-0520071407</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Seaborne+Empire&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0520071407&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1973" class="citation book cs1">Ramsey, John Fraser (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spainriseoffirst0000rams"><i>Spain: The Rise of the First World Power</i></a></span>. University of Alabama Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0817357047" title="Special:BookSources/978-0817357047"><bdi>978-0817357047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain%3A+The+Rise+of+the+First+World+Power&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0817357047&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=John+Fraser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspainriseoffirst0000rams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestall2007" class="citation journal cs1">Restall, Matthew (2007). "The Decline and Fall of the Spanish Empire?". <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 183–194. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4491607">4491607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Spanish+Empire%3F&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=183-194&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4491607%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Restall&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt-NowaraNieto_Phillips2005" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher; Nieto Phillips, John M., eds. (2005). <i>Interpreting Spanish Colonialism: Empires, Nations, and Legends</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+Spanish+Colonialism%3A+Empires%2C+Nations%2C+and+Legends&rft.place=Albuquerque&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinStein2003" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Stanley J.; Stein, Barbara H. (2003). <i>Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apogee+of+Empire%3A+Spain+and+New+Spain+in+the+Age+of+Charles+III%2C+1759%E2%80%931789&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Stanley+J.&rft.au=Stein%2C+Barbara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStradling1988" class="citation book cs1">Stradling, R. A. (1988). <i>Philip IV and the Government of Spain</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521323338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521323338"><bdi>978-0521323338</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+IV+and+the+Government+of+Spain&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0521323338&rft.aulast=Stradling&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudnicki-Gizbert2007" class="citation book cs1">Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken (2007). <i>A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal's Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198039112" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198039112"><bdi>978-0198039112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+upon+the+Ocean+Sea%3A+Portugal%27s+Atlantic+Diaspora+and+the+Crisis+of+the+Spanish+Empire%2C+1492%E2%80%931640&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0198039112&rft.aulast=Studnicki-Gizbert&rft.aufirst=Daviken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Thomas,_Baron_Thomas_of_Swynnerton" title="Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton">Thomas, Hugh</a> (2004). <i>Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire 1490–1522</i>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297645634" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297645634"><bdi>978-0297645634</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rivers+of+Gold%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Spanish+Empire+1490%E2%80%931522&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0297645634&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh (1997). <i>The Slave Trade; The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870</i>. London: Papermac. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333731475" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333731475"><bdi>978-0333731475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Trade%3B+The+History+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade+1440%E2%80%931870&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Papermac&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0333731475&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVicens_Vives1969" class="citation book cs1">Vicens Vives, Jaime (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bettycrockersnew00bett_2"><i>An Economic History of Spain</i></a></span> (3rd revised ed.). Princeton: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+History+of+Spain&rft.place=Princeton&rft.edition=3rd+revised&rft.pub=Princeton%2C+N.J.%2C+Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Vicens+Vives&rft.aufirst=Jaime&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbettycrockersnew00bett_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1984" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Esmond, ed. (1984). <i>History of the World, Part II: The last five hundred years</i> (third ed.). New York: Hamlyn Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0517436448" title="Special:BookSources/978-0517436448"><bdi>978-0517436448</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+World%2C+Part+II%3A+The+last+five+hundred+years&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Hamlyn+Publishing&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0517436448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Spanish_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Spanish Empire"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Spanish Empire</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire#Q80702" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm">Library of Iberian Resources Online, Stanley G Payne <i>A History of Spain and Portugal</i> vol 1 Ch 13 "The Spanish Empire"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/19961226232657/http://www.sonic.net/~doretk/ArchiveARCHIVE/NATIVE%20AMERICAN/TheMestizo-Mexicano-Indi.html">The Mestizo-Mexicano-Indian History in the USA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061203063044/http://www.knmetv.org/programming/villadeabq.php3">Documentary Film, <i>Villa de Albuquerque</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070811182347/http://es.geocities.com/coloniasesp/">The last Spanish colonies</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisco_José_Calderón_Vázquez2008" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Francisco José Calderón Vázquez (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090214075645/http://eumed.net/libros/2008c/433/"><i>Fronteras, identidad, conflicto e interacción. Los Presidios Españoles en el Norte Africano</i></a> (in Spanish), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8469167861" title="Special:BookSources/978-8469167861"><bdi>978-8469167861</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eumed.net/libros/2008c/433/">the original</a> on 14 February 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fronteras%2C+identidad%2C+conflicto+e+interacci%C3%B3n.+Los+Presidios+Espa%C3%B1oles+en+el+Norte+Africano&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-8469167861&rft.au=Francisco+Jos%C3%A9+Calder%C3%B3n+V%C3%A1zquez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eumed.net%2Flibros%2F2008c%2F433%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://international.loc.gov/intldl/drakehtml/rbdkhome.html">The Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> contains primary materials on Spanish colonialism.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80702#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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[\"CITEREFBrading1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrading1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraudel1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraudel1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownElliott1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurbankCooper2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBushnell1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrera_Damas1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastañeda_Delgado1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCathal_J._Nolan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCathal_J._Nolan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCañizares-Esguerra2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiaramonte2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChipman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCodding1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollier1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavenport2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Vos2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiego-Fernández_Sotelo1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiffieWinius1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDominguez_Ortiz1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEchávez-SolanoDworkin_y_Méndez2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_Latin_American_History_and_Culture1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngstrand1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarriss1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernández_Herrero1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernández_Álvarez1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancisco_José_Calderón_Vázquez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankham2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin_Safier2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuerreroCustodioDalisay1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGómez_Gómez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGóngora1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamnett1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamnett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaring1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerr1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHistoria_general_de_España1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanota2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoaquin1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaganParker1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_L._SokoloffStanley_L._Engerman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKozlowski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuetheAndrien2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurlansky1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLachVan_Kley1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLagos_Carmona1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaughton1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockhartSchwartz1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacLachlan1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarichalMantecón1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAlister1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAmis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMecham1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerriman1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoutoukias1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMárquez2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadilla_Angulo2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaquette2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1978\"] = 1,\n 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