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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AB_%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87" title="باحث ما بعد الدكتوراه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="باحث ما بعد الدكتوراه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phok-s%C5%AB-%C4%81u_gi%C3%A1n-ki%C3%B9-o%C3%A2n" title="Phok-sū-āu gián-kiù-oân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Phok-sū-āu gián-kiù-oân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoc" title="Postdoc – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Postdoc" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoc" title="Postdoc – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Postdoc" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4reldoktor" title="Järeldoktor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Järeldoktor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Μεταδιδακτορικός συνεργάτης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταδιδακτορικός συνεργάτης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigador_posdoctoral" title="Investigador posdoctoral – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Investigador posdoctoral" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="پسادکتری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پسادکتری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chercheur_postdoctoral" title="Chercheur postdoctoral – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chercheur postdoctoral" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%95%EC%82%AC%ED%9B%84%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%EC%9B%90" title="박사후연구원 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="박사후연구원" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80" title="पोस्ट डॉक्टरल शोधार्थी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पोस्ट डॉक्टरल शोधार्थी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BDdoktor" title="Nýdoktor – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýdoktor" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assegnista_di_ricerca" title="Assegnista di ricerca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Assegnista di ricerca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98-%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%98" title="פוסט-דוקטורט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוסט-דוקטורט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoc" title="Postdoc – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Postdoc" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E5%93%A1" title="博士研究員 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="博士研究員" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoktor" title="Postdoktor – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Postdoktor" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercet%C4%83tor_postdoctoral" title="Cercetător postdoctoral – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cercetător postdoctoral" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Постдокторантура – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Постдокторантура" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoc" title="Postdoc – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Postdoc" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoktor" title="Postdoktor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Postdoktor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="முனைவர் பட்ட மேலாய்வாளர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முனைவர் பட்ட மேலாய்வாளர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81" title="นักวิจัยหลังปริญญาเอก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นักวิจัยหลังปริญญาเอก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Постдокторантура – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Постдокторантура" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%BE%8C" title="博士後 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="博士後" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1125292#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Postdoctoral_researcher" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_research&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Postdoctoral research">Postdoctoral research</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Person professionally conducting research after the completion of doctoral studies</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Post-doctoral" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Doctorate#Higher_doctorate_and_post-doctoral_degrees" title="Doctorate">Post-doctoral degree</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Postdoctoral researcher</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">Profession</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">Academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">Industry</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Competencies</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching">Teaching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a> or equivalent</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br />employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Academy#Academic_personnel" title="Academy">Academics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">Industry</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:Red; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 307.76835371753px; border-left-color:Orange"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Orange"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:Orange"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 181.89932472811px; border-left-color:White"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:White"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:White"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 120.87923504096px; border-left-color:Blue"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Blue"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:Blue"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 19.076020221857px; border-left-color:Purple"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Purple"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:Purple"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:80.901699437495px 58.778525229247px 0 0; border-top-color:Green"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Green"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p><b>Post-doctoral researchers by discipline (United States, 2012)</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Green; color:white;"> </span> Life sciences (65%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Purple; color:white;"> </span> Physical sciences (13%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Blue; color:white;"> </span> Engineering (11%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:White; color:black;"> </span> Math and computer sciences (3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Orange; color:black;"> </span> Geosciences (3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Red; color:black;"> </span> Psychology, social sciences and others (5%)</div> </div> </div></div> <p>A <b>postdoctoral fellow</b>, <b>postdoctoral researcher</b>, or simply <b>postdoc</b>, is a person professionally conducting research after the completion of their doctoral studies (typically a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>). Postdocs most commonly, but not always, have a temporary academic appointment, sometimes in preparation for an academic <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(academic_staff)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faculty (academic staff)">faculty</a> position. According to data from the US National Science Foundation, the number of holders of PhD in biological sciences who end up in tenure track has consistently dropped from over 50% in 1973 to less than 20% in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They continue their studies or carry out research and further increase expertise in a specialist subject, including integrating a team and acquiring novel skills and research methods. Postdoctoral research is often considered essential while advancing the scholarly mission of the host institution; it is expected to produce relevant publications in peer-reviewed academic journals or conferences. In some countries, postdoctoral research may lead to further formal qualifications or certification, while in other countries, it does not.<sup id="cite_ref-whatisapostdoc_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatisapostdoc-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kendall_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kendall-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postdoctoral research may be funded through an appointment with a salary or an appointment with a <a href="/wiki/Stipend" title="Stipend">stipend</a> or sponsorship award. Appointments for such a research position may be called <b>postdoctoral research fellow</b>, <b>postdoctoral research associate</b>, or <b>postdoctoral research assistant</b>. Postdoctoral researchers typically work under the supervision of a <a href="/wiki/Principal_investigator" title="Principal investigator">principal investigator</a>. In many English-speaking countries, postdoctoral researchers are colloquially referred to as "postdocs".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Job_security_in_academia">Job security in academia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Job security in academia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the nature of their work in some fields,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an oversupply of graduating PhD students in many fields,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some postdoctoral researchers in certain countries face an uncertain future in academia,<sup id="cite_ref-kendall_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kendall-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a large proportion will not gain <a href="/wiki/Tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenure">tenure</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a coveted <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(academic_staff)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faculty (academic staff)">faculty position</a> in their chosen field of research.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study on the topic was conducted in collaboration between <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech" title="Virginia Tech">Virginia Tech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors found that only about 17% of postdocs ultimately land tenure-track positions. In the 1970s the number for PhD holders in biological sciences was 50%, illustrating how that generation had a significantly different job market.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2022, however, and the broad shifts in the labor market in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, postdoc positions in at least some fields are going unfilled due to a lack of applicants.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in 2003, 25% of PhD graduates in the natural sciences continued to undertake post-doctoral research.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the landmark ruling in the employment tribunal (Scotland) Ball vs Aberdeen University 2008 case (S/101486/08), researchers who have held successive fixed-term contracts for four years' service are no longer temporary employees but are entitled to open-ended contracts.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the US, a postdoctoral scholar is an individual holding a doctoral degree who is engaged in mentored research or scholarly training for the purpose of acquiring the professional skills needed to pursue a career path of his or her choosing.<sup id="cite_ref-whatisapostdoc_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatisapostdoc-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Postdoctoral researchers play an important role in spearheading <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_research" title="Postgraduate research">postgraduate research</a> activity in the US. The median salary of postdoctoral researchers one to five years after receiving their doctoral degrees is $42,000, 44% less than the $75,000 average for tenured positions.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf.gov_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf.gov-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Postdoctoral_Association" title="National Postdoctoral Association">National Postdoctoral Association</a> (NPA)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Boston Postdoctoral Association (BPDA)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are nonprofit organizations that advocate for postdoctoral scholars in the United States. </p><p>Postdoctoral research may be required for obtaining a <a href="/wiki/Tenure-track" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenure-track">tenure-track</a> faculty position, especially at research-oriented institutions. Post-doctoral appointments that were traditionally optional have become mandatory in some fields as the degree of competition for tenure-track positions in academia has significantly increased over previous decades. In fact, the small supply of the professional positions in academia compared to the growing number of postdoctoral researchers makes it difficult to find tenure-track positions. In 2008, the proportion of postdoctoral researchers who got a tenure or tenure-track position within 5 years after they received a doctoral degree was about 39%;<sup id="cite_ref-nsf.gov_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf.gov-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nearly 10% of postdoctoral researchers were over 40 years old in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-sigmaxi.org_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sigmaxi.org-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, 85 percent of engineering doctoral degree holders are likely to initially go into business or the industry sector.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the circumstances, providing doctoral students as well as postdoctoral researchers with necessary skills for nonacademic positions has become one of the important roles for graduate schools and institutions. The <a href="/wiki/America_COMPETES_Act" title="America COMPETES Act">America COMPETES Act</a> recognized the importance of graduate student support for obtaining skills needed when they pursue nonacademic careers, and required <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) to increase or decrease funding for the Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (IGERT) programs<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at least at the same rate as it increases or decreases funding for the Graduate Research Fellowship. There are no comprehensive data of international postdoctoral researchers in the US because of the less-organized survey and the difficulty in counting international postdoctoral researchers. The proportion of postdoctoral researchers on temporary visas reached 53.6% in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The life sciences hold the largest percentage of postdoctoral researchers on temporary visas; in 2008, approximately 56% of postdoctoral researchers in the life sciences were temporary residents. Of these postdoctoral researchers on temporary visas, four out of five earned their PhD outside of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There exists fear that foreign PhD's are taking postdoctoral research positions from American researchers. The influx of foreign PhD's has influenced the supply of ready-researchers, and thereby, the wages. One estimate claims that a 10% increase in the supply of foreign postdoctoral researchers lower the position salary by 3 to 4%.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the US, life sciences have a greater share than other fields due to higher federal funding of life and medical science areas since the mid 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One survey shows that 54% of postdoctoral researchers major in life sciences, whereas those who majored in physical science, mathematics, and engineering account for 28%.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, postdoctoral researchers in California formed a union, <a href="/wiki/UAW_Local_5810" title="UAW Local 5810">UAW Local 5810</a> in order to secure better working conditions such as the right to file a complaint for alleged discrimination or sexual harassment through a formal grievance procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-KM_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KM-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In California, new postdoctoral appointments receive at least the NIH postdoctoral minimum salary ($50,004 in 2019) and many receive annual pay raises of 5% to 7% or more in accordance with the NIH's Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards (NRSA).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014, postdoctoral researchers in Boston organized the "Future of Research" Symposium to respond to a conversation about the state of biomedical research<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the perspective of junior scientists. The meeting included panel discussions with academics concerned about the scientific enterprise, a video message from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> senator <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Elizabeth Warren</a>, and workshops discussing training, funding, the structure of the biomedical workforce, and metrics and incentives in science which were used to generate recommendations in a white paper.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meetings organized by postdoctoral researchers in 2015 spread to <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> (NYU), Chicago and San Francisco and a second meeting in Boston discussed data collection, labor economics and evidence-based policy to advocate for changes to science, including the future of the PhD.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="India">India</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of India's premier engineering, science and management institutes (like <a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Science" title="Indian Institute of Science">Indian Institute of Science</a> (IISc), <a href="/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Technology" title="Indian Institutes of Technology">Indian Institutes of Technology</a> (IITs), <a href="/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Science_Education_and_Research" title="Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research">Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research</a> (IISERs), <a href="/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Management" title="Indian Institutes of Management">Indian Institutes of Management</a> (IIMs) and <a href="/wiki/All_India_Institutes_of_Medical_Sciences" title="All India Institutes of Medical Sciences">All India Institutes of Medical Sciences</a>(AIIMS) have postdoctoral positions. The salary typically varies from ₹40,000 to ₹70,000 per month. For example, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Guwahati, IIT Delhi, IIT Kanpur, IIT Bombay, IIT Madras, IISER Bhopal, IISER Mohali, IISER Pune, IISER Kolkata, IIM Kolkata offer postdoctoral fellowships.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Council_of_Social_Science_Research" title="Indian Council of Social Science Research">Indian Council of Social Science Research</a> also offers fellowship(s) for pursuing a post doctoral degree. <sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Australia">Australia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Salaried appointments at the minimum Level A, Step 6 for academic salaries, for doctoral qualified employees (beginning in 2008) are set at A$75,612 p.a. at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A$75,404 p.a. at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and A$75,612 p.a. at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternatively the Australian Research Council (ARC) provides Postdoctoral Fellowships. For example, their Discovery Projects,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> funds 3 year Fellowships, beginning in 2009, with A$61,399 p.a.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, a mandatory <a href="/wiki/Superannuation" class="mw-redirect" title="Superannuation">superannuation</a> payment of 11–17% is paid by Universities.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="China">China</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The postdoctoral system in China was founded in 1985 upon suggestion by Chinese American physicist and Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">Tsung-Dao Lee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Office of the National Administrative Committee of Postdoctoral Researchers (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">全国博士后管理委员会办公室</span>) regulates all postdoctoral mobile stations (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">博士后科研流动站</span>) at universities and postdoctoral work stations (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">博士后科研工作站</span>) at institutes and enterprises in mainland China. Applicants to postdoctoral positions have to pass a detailed medical check-up in order to enter the stations (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">进站</span>). Postdoctoral researchers are required to undergo regular evaluations, and submit a research report for evaluation at the end of the postdoctoral period to obtain approval to leave the stations (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">出站</span>). Those who are approved to leave the stations will receive a postdoctoral certificate from the national administration office.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some universities, postdoctoral researchers who fail to leave their stations normally, either due to failing their evaluations or early withdrawal from the stations (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">退站</span>), may be asked to pay back the grants or even the salaries that they have received.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the way that the postdoctoral system is managed, postdoctoral research is widely mistaken to be an academic degree in China. The government's administration of the postdoctoral system has been criticized for hindering innovative research, as too much effort is spent on evaluations, and overemphasis on performance prevents the creation of a relaxing research environment.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postdoctoral_researcher_unionization" title="Postdoctoral researcher unionization">Postdoctoral researcher unionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate education</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postdoctoral_researcher&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPowell2015" class="citation journal cs1">Powell, Kendall (1 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/520144a">"The future of the postdoc"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>520</b> (7546): 144–147. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.520..144P">2015Natur.520..144P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F520144a">10.1038/520144a</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25855437">25855437</a>.</cite><span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shanghai+Jiao+Tong+University&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E4%BA%A4%E9%80%9A%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E%E8%B0%83%E6%95%B4%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%90%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%85%B3%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%A7%84%E5%AE%9A%E7%9A%84%E9%80%9A%E7%9F%A5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxxgk.sjtu.edu.cn%2F2013%2F0113%2F1239.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostdoctoral+researcher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pharm.sdu.edu.cn/info/1092/8216.htm">"药学院博士后流动站管理工作实施细则"</a>. <i>School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University</i> (in Chinese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=School+of+Pharmaceutical+Sciences%2C+Shandong+University&rft.atitle=%E8%8D%AF%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%90%8E%E6%B5%81%E5%8A%A8%E7%AB%99%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E5%AE%9E%E6%96%BD%E7%BB%86%E5%88%99&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharm.sdu.edu.cn%2Finfo%2F1092%2F8216.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostdoctoral+researcher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://renshichu.xaut.edu.cn/info/1120/1113.htm">"西安理工大学博士后研究人员管理办法"</a>. <i>Xi'an University of Technology</i> (in Chinese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Xi%27an+University+of+Technology&rft.atitle=%E8%A5%BF%E5%AE%89%E7%90%86%E5%B7%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%90%8E%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E4%BA%BA%E5%91%98%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%8A%9E%E6%B3%95&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frenshichu.xaut.edu.cn%2Finfo%2F1120%2F1113.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostdoctoral+researcher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sus.edu.cn/info/1008/9665.htm">"上海体育学院博士后管理办法"</a>. <i>Shanghai University of Sport</i> (in Chinese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shanghai+University+of+Sport&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E4%BD%93%E8%82%B2%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%90%8E%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%8A%9E%E6%B3%95&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sus.edu.cn%2Finfo%2F1008%2F9665.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostdoctoral+researcher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://postdoc.ecupl.edu.cn/s/305/t/91/59/ea/info23018.htm">"华东政法大学师资博士后研究人员工作协议"</a>. <i>East China University of Political Science and Law</i> (in Chinese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E5%B0%8F%E6%9C%A8%E8%99%AB&rft.atitle=%E6%B1%82%E5%8A%A9%EF%BC%9A%E5%8D%9A%E5%90%8E%E4%B8%AD%E9%80%94%E9%80%80%E7%AB%99%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E9%80%80%E8%BF%98%E4%B9%8B%E5%89%8D%E5%8F%91%E6%94%BE%E7%94%9F%E6%B4%BB%E8%A1%A5%E8%B4%B4%EF%BC%9F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuchong.com%2Fhtml%2F201209%2F4944886.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostdoctoral+researcher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guancha.cn/Education/2015_03_10_311685.shtml">"两会热点校长说：校长后加副部级丢人把博士后当成学位很荒唐"</a>. <i>Guancha</i> (in Chinese). 10 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_tenure" title="Academic tenure">Tenure track</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North American system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Tenure track</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">Assistant professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_professor" title="Associate professor">Associate professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor_(full)" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor (full)">Professor (full)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professors_in_the_United_States#Endowed" title="Professors in the United States">Endowed Chair</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Non-tenure track</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjunct_professors_in_North_America" title="Adjunct professors in North America">Adjunct professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_ranks_in_the_United_States#Most_common_hierarchy" title="Academic ranks in the United States">Instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecturer#United_States" title="Lecturer">Lecturer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commonwealth system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Research and teaching track</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associate_lecturer" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate lecturer">Associate lecturer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecturer" title="Lecturer">Lecturer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senior_lecturer" title="Senior lecturer">Senior lecturer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reader_(academic_rank)" title="Reader (academic rank)">Reader</a> or <a href="/wiki/Associate_professor" title="Associate professor">associate professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Research track</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_assistant" title="Research assistant">Research assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_fellow" title="Research fellow">Research fellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senior_research_fellow" class="mw-redirect" title="Senior research fellow">Senior research fellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Research_professor" class="mw-redirect" title="Research professor">research professor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Junior positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_assistant" title="Research assistant">Research assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_associate" title="Research associate">Research associate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_fellow" title="Research fellow">Research fellow</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Postdoctoral researcher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(education)" title="Chancellor (education)">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinguished_professor" title="Distinguished professor">Distinguished professor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agr%C3%A9gation#Higher_education" title="Agrégation">Agrégation</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docent" title="Docent">Docent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_college" title="Head of college">Head of college</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a></i></li> 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