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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aldakortasuna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Aldakortasuna </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aldakortasuna-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Erakutsi/ezkutatu Aldakortasuna azpiatal </button> <ul id="toc-Aldakortasuna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mutazioak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutazioak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Mutazioak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutazioak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexua_eta_birkonbinazioa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexua_eta_birkonbinazioa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Sexua eta birkonbinazioa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexua_eta_birkonbinazioa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geneen_transferentzia_horizontala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geneen_transferentzia_horizontala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Geneen transferentzia horizontala </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geneen_transferentzia_horizontala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eboluzioaren_mekanismoak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eboluzioaren_mekanismoak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Eboluzioaren mekanismoak </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eboluzioaren_mekanismoak-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Erakutsi/ezkutatu Eboluzioaren mekanismoak azpiatal </button> <ul id="toc-Eboluzioaren_mekanismoak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hautespena_eta_eraginkortasun_biologikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hautespena_eta_eraginkortasun_biologikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Hautespena eta eraginkortasun biologikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hautespena_eta_eraginkortasun_biologikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autostop_genetikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autostop_genetikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Autostop genetikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autostop_genetikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hautespen_sexuala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hautespen_sexuala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Hautespen sexuala </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hautespen_sexuala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jito_genetikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jito_genetikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Jito genetikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jito_genetikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluxu_genetikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluxu_genetikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Fluxu genetikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluxu_genetikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ondorioak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ondorioak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Ondorioak </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ondorioak-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Erakutsi/ezkutatu Ondorioak azpiatal </button> <ul id="toc-Ondorioak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Moldaera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moldaera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Moldaera </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moldaera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Koeboluzioa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Koeboluzioa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Koeboluzioa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Koeboluzioa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kooperazioa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kooperazioa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Kooperazioa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kooperazioa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espeziazioa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espeziazioa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Espeziazioa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espeziazioa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Espeziazio_alopatrikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espeziazio_alopatrikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Espeziazio alopatrikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espeziazio_alopatrikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espeziazio_peripatrikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espeziazio_peripatrikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Espeziazio peripatrikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espeziazio_peripatrikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espeziazio_parapatrikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espeziazio_parapatrikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Espeziazio parapatrikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espeziazio_parapatrikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espeziazio_sinpatrikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espeziazio_sinpatrikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.4 Espeziazio sinpatrikoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espeziazio_sinpatrikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espeziazioa_eta_oreka_taidunaren_teoria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espeziazioa_eta_oreka_taidunaren_teoria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.5 Espeziazioa eta oreka taidunaren teoria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espeziazioa_eta_oreka_taidunaren_teoria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraungipena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraungipena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Iraungipena </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraungipena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biziaren_historia_ebolutiboa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biziaren_historia_ebolutiboa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Biziaren historia ebolutiboa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biziaren_historia_ebolutiboa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oharrak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oharrak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Oharrak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oharrak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erreferentziak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erreferentziak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Erreferentziak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erreferentziak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliografia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ikus,_gainera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ikus,_gainera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Ikus, gainera </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ikus,_gainera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kanpo_estekak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kanpo_estekak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Kanpo estekak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kanpo_estekak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Edukiak" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Eduki-taula" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Eduki taularen ikusgarritasuna aldatu" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Eduki taularen ikusgarritasuna aldatu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Eboluzio</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Joan beste hizkuntza batean idatzitako artikulu batera. 160 hizkuntzatan eskuragarri." > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-160" aria-hidden="true" > 160 hizkuntza </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusie" title="Evolusie – afrikaansa" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Evolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaansa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Suitzako alemana" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Suitzako alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%9D%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%98%E1%89%B0_%E1%88%88%E1%8B%8D%E1%8C%A5" title="ዝግመተ ለውጥ – amharera" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዝግመተ ለውጥ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="amharera" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Evolución – aragoiera" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Evolución" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragoiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="التطور – arabiera" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التطور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="التطور – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="التطور" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="تطور – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تطور" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6" title="ক্ৰমবিকাশ – assamera" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ক্ৰমবিকাশ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="assamera" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Evolución biolóxica – asturiera" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Evolución biolóxica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99kam%C3%BCl" title="Təkamül – azerbaijanera" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təkamül" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaijanera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%AA%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تکامول تئوریسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تکامول تئوریسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – baxkirera" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="baxkirera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – baliera" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="baliera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evuolioc%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Evuoliocėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Evuoliocėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Эвалюцыя – bielorrusiera" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="bielorrusiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Эвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Еволюция – bulgariera" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Еволюция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgariera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="বিবর্তন – bengalera" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalera" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="বিবর্তন – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="বিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – bosniera" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3" title="Evolució – katalana" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Evolució" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="katalana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ng-hu%C3%A1" title="Céng-huá – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Céng-huá" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – txetxenera" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="txetxenera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – cebuanoera" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="cebuanoera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86" title="پەرەسەندن – erdialdeko kurduera" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەرەسەندن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="erdialdeko kurduera" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluce" title="Evoluce – txekiera" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Evoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="txekiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – txuvaxera" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="txuvaxera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esblygiad" title="Esblygiad – galesa" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Esblygiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="galesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_(biologi)" title="Evolution (biologi) – daniera" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Evolution (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="daniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – alemana" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusyon" title="Evolusyon – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Evolusyon" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BE%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Εξέλιξη – greziera" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εξέλιξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzi%C3%B2un" title="Evoluziòun – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Evoluziòun" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – ingelesa" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="ingelesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucio_(teorio)" title="Evolucio (teorio) – esperantoa" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Evolucio (teorio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperantoa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3gica" title="Evolución biológica – gaztelania" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evolución biológica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="gaztelania" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutsioon" title="Evolutsioon – estoniera" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Evolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluci%C3%B3n" title="Volución – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Volución" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="فرگشت – persiera" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرگشت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluutio" title="Evoluutio – finlandiera" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Evoluutio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menningarl%C3%A6ran" title="Menningarlæran – faroera" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Menningarlæran" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="faroera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volution_(biologie)" title="Évolution (biologie) – frantsesa" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évolution (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="frantsesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolutsion" title="Ewolutsion – iparraldeko frisiera" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ewolutsion" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="iparraldeko frisiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BAsje" title="Evolúsje – mendebaldeko frisiera" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Evolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="mendebaldeko frisiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89abhl%C3%B3id" title="Éabhlóid – irlandera" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Éabhlóid" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volousyon_(byoloji)" title="Évolousyon (byoloji) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Évolousyon (byoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-fh%C3%A0s" title="Mean-fhàs – Eskoziako gaelikoa" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Mean-fhàs" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Eskoziako gaelikoa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Evolución – galiziera" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Evolución" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekove_%C3%B1emoambue" title="Tekove ñemoambue – guaraniera" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekove ñemoambue" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="guaraniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%89%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ઉત્ક્રાંતિ – gujaratera" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઉત્ક્રાંતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="gujaratera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="אבולוציה – hebreera" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבולוציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebreera" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="क्रम-विकास – hindia" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्रम-विकास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindia" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – kroaziera" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="kroaziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolisyon" title="Evolisyon – Haitiko kreolera" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Evolisyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitiko kreolera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BAci%C3%B3_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Evolúció (biológia) – hungariera" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Evolúció (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hungariera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BE%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Էվոլյուցիա – armeniera" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էվոլյուցիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%BE%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A8" title="Մարդկային Ծիները – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մարդկային Ծիները" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – indonesiera" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – interlinguea" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="interlinguea" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusion" title="Ebolusion – ilocanoera" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ebolusion" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="ilocanoera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – ingushera" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="ingushera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluciono" title="Evoluciono – idoa" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Evoluciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="idoa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Er%C3%B3un" title="Þróun – islandiera" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þróun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzione" title="Evoluzione – italiera" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Evoluzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化 – japoniera" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="進化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivoluushan" title="Ivoluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ivoluushan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – javera" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ევოლუცია – georgiera" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamhazt" title="Tamhazt – kabiliera" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamhazt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="kabiliera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A8har%C5%A9raka_(evolution)" title="Ũharũraka (evolution) – kikuyuera" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Ũharũraka (evolution)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="kikuyuera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – kazakhera" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazakhera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ವಿಕಾಸ – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಕಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94" title="진화 – koreera" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="koreera" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – karachayera-balkarera" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="karachayera-balkarera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%AA%C5%9Fve%C3%A7%C3%BBn" title="Pêşveçûn – kurduera" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pêşveçûn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="kurduera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esplegyans" title="Esplegyans – kornubiera" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Esplegyans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="kornubiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – kirgizera" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirgizera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutio" title="Evolutio – latina" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Evolutio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latina" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutioun_(Biologie)" title="Evolutioun (Biologie) – luxenburgera" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Evolutioun (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxenburgera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – lezginera" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="lezginera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolui" title="Evolui – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Evolui" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutie_(biologie)" title="Evolutie (biologie) – limburgera" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Evolutie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limburgera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolussion" title="Evolussion – lombardiera" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Evolussion" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="lombardiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ວິວັດທະນາການ – laosera" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວິວັດທະນາການ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="laosera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoliucija" title="Evoliucija – lituaniera" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Evoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C5%ABcija" title="Evolūcija – letoniera" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Evolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88volusi" title="Èvolusi – madurera" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Èvolusi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="madurera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ev%C3%B4lisi%C3%B4na" title="Evôlisiôna – malgaxea" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Evôlisiôna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgaxea" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Еволуција – mazedoniera" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Еволуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="mazedoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവപരിണാമം – malabarera" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവപരിണാമം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malabarera" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – mongoliera" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongoliera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="उत्क्रांती – marathera" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उत्क्रांती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathera" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – malaysiera" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaysiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzzjoni" title="Evoluzzjoni – maltera" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Evoluzzjoni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="maltera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibolu%C3%A7on" title="Eiboluçon – mirandesa" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiboluçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="mirandesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%B2%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA" title="ဆင့်ကဲပြောင်းလဲမှုဖြစ်စဉ် – birmaniera" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆင့်ကဲပြောင်းလဲမှုဖြစ်စဉ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birmaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="تکامل – mazandarandera" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تکامل" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="mazandarandera" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutschoon" title="Evolutschoon – behe-alemana" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Evolutschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="behe-alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="क्रम-विकास – nepalera" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="क्रम-विकास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="nepalera" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="विकासक्रम – newarera" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विकासक्रम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="newarera" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – niasera" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="niasera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutie_(biologie)" title="Evolutie (biologie) – nederlandera" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Evolutie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="nederlandera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusjon" title="Evolusjon – nynorsk (norvegiera)" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="nynorsk (norvegiera)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusjon" title="Evolusjon – bokmål (norvegiera)" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="bokmål (norvegiera)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucion_(biologia)" title="Evolucion (biologia) – okzitaniera" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Evolucion (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="okzitaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਵਿਕਾਸਵਾਦ – punjabera" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਕਾਸਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – pampangera" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="pampangera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolushon" title="Evolushon – papiamentoa" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Evolushon" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="papiamentoa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu onak"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolucja_biologiczna" title="Ewolucja biologiczna – poloniera" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ewolucja biologiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poloniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolussion" title="Evolussion – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Evolussion" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86" title="ایولوشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایولوشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="تکامل – paxtunera" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تکامل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="paxtunera" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Evolução – portugesa" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evolução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikch%27aqyay" title="Rikch'aqyay – kitxua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rikch'aqyay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="kitxua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluziun" title="Evoluziun – erretorromaniera" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Evoluziun" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="erretorromaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C8%9Bie" title="Evoluție – errumaniera" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evoluție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="errumaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – errusiera" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="errusiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Еволуція – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Еволуція" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – sakhera" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="sakhera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_sa_evolutzioni" title="Teoria de sa evolutzioni – sardiniera" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Teoria de sa evolutzioni" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="sardiniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7" title="ارتقا – sindhia" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ارتقا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindhia" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – serbokroaziera" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbokroaziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azzigz" title="Azzigz – tachelhita" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Azzigz" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="tachelhita" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිණාමය – sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිණාමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologick%C3%A1_evol%C3%BAcia" title="Biologická evolúcia – eslovakiera" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biologická evolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="eslovakiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – esloveniera" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="esloveniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkasho" title="Unkasho – somaliera" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Unkasho" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="somaliera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucioni" title="Evolucioni – albaniera" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Evolucioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Еволуција (биологија) – serbiera" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Еволуција (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – sundanera" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="sundanera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – suediera" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suediera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mageuko_ya_spishi" title="Mageuko ya spishi – swahilia" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mageuko ya spishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="swahilia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="படிவளர்ச்சிக் கொள்கை – tamilera" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="படிவளர்ச்சிக் கொள்கை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamilera" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%82" title="పరిణామం – telugua" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరిణామం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugua" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusaun" title="Evolusaun – tetuma" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Evolusaun" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="tetuma" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволютсия – tajikera" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Эволютсия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="tajikera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%92%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="วิวัฒนาการ – thailandiera" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิวัฒนาการ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – tagaloa" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagaloa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivolusan" title="Ivolusan – tok pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Ivolusan" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="tok pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrim" title="Evrim – turkiera" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Evrim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turkiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – tatarera" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tatarera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Еволюція – ukrainera" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Еволюція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="نظریہ ارتقاء – urdua" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نظریہ ارتقاء" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdua" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutsiya" title="Evolutsiya – uzbekera" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Evolutsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbekera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BCcii" title="Evolücii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Evolücii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu nabarmenduak"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFn_h%C3%B3a" title="Tiến hóa – vietnamera" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiến hóa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vot%C3%BCkam" title="Votükam – volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Votükam" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – warayera" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="warayera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化 – wu txinera" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="演化" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu txinera" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ევოლუცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="עוואלוציע – yiddisha" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עוואלוציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="yiddisha" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化 – txinera" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="演化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="txinera" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%BC%94" title="天演 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="天演" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACn-h%C3%B2a" title="Chìn-hòa – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chìn-hòa" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化 – kantonera" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="進化" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="kantonera" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1063#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Aldatu hizkuntzen arteko loturak" class="wbc-editpage">Aldatu loturak</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Izen-tarteak"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eboluzio" title="Eduki orrialdea ikusi [c]" accesskey="c">Artikulua</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eztabaida:Eboluzio" rel="discussion" title="Artikuluari buruzko eztabaida [t]" accesskey="t">Eztabaida</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Aldatu hizkuntza aldaera" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >euskara </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#90db90;font-size:175%;padding-top:0.2em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">Genetika</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Osagai nagusiak</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">Kromosoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma">Genoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herentzia_genetiko" title="Herentzia genetiko">Herentzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">Mutazioa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukleotido" title="Nukleotido">Nukleotidoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bariazio_genetiko" title="Bariazio genetiko">Bariazioa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetikaren_sarrera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetikaren sarrera (sortu gabe)">Sarrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetikaren_historia" title="Genetikaren historia">Historia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eboluzioa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eboluzio_molekular" title="Eboluzio molekular">molekularra</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populazioen_genetika" title="Populazioen genetika">Populazioen genetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelen_legeak" title="Mendelen legeak">Herentzia mendeliarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika_kuantitatibo" title="Genetika kuantitatibo">Genetika kuantitatiboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika_molekular" title="Genetika molekular">Genetika molekularra</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Ikerketa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sekuentziazio" title="DNA sekuentziazio">DNA sekuentziazioa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingeniaritza_genetiko" title="Ingeniaritza genetiko">Ingeniaritza genetikoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika">Genomika</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetika_mediko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetika mediko (sortu gabe)">Genetika medikoa</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Adarrak</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Txantiloi_eztabaida:Genetika_aurkibidea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Txantiloi eztabaida:Genetika aurkibidea (sortu gabe)"><abbr title="Txantiloi hau eztabaidatu">e</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-aldatu"><a class="external text" href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Txantiloi:Genetika_aurkibidea&action=edit"><abbr title="Txantiloi hau aldatu">a</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/220px-seek%3D98-Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="120" data-mwtitle="Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/Fitxategi:Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm/Ikusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIkusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm&lang=bn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="bn" label="বাংলা ‪(bn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIkusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIkusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AIkusgela-Eskaileratik_zuhaitzera.webm&lang=eu&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="eu" label="euskara ‪(eu)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Atari:Hezkuntza/Ikusgela" title="Bideo hau Ikusgela proiektuaren parte da. Bideoak dituzten artikulu guztiak ikus ditzakezu hemen klik eginez gero."><img alt="Bideo hau Ikusgela proiektuaren parte da." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ikusgela-logoa.png/40px-Ikusgela-logoa.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ikusgela-logoa.png/60px-Ikusgela-logoa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ikusgela-logoa.png/80px-Ikusgela-logoa.png 2x" data-file-width="3334" data-file-height="3334" /></a><figcaption>Bideo hau Ikusgela proiektuaren parte da. Bideoak dituzten artikulu guztiak ikus ditzakezu hemen klik eginez gero.</figcaption></figure>Eboluzioa ulertzeko <a href="/wiki/Atari:Hezkuntza/Ikusgela#Gure_arbasoak" title="Atari:Hezkuntza/Ikusgela">gure arbasoak</a> sailaren aurkezpen bideoa.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia">Biologian</a>, eboluzioa <a href="/wiki/Belaunaldi" title="Belaunaldi">belaunaldiz</a> belaunaldi <a href="/wiki/Populazioen_genetika" title="Populazioen genetika">populazio</a> baten <a href="/wiki/Herentzia_genetiko" title="Herentzia genetiko">herentzia</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaktere" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaktere">karaktere</a> batzuk beste batzuk baino ohikoagoak bihurtzean datza<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>. Ezaugarri hauek <a href="/wiki/Ugalketa" title="Ugalketa">ugalketa</a> bidez gurasoengandik kumeetara igarotzen diren <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">geneen</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">aleloen</a> espresioak dira. Edozein populaziotan ezaugarri ezberdinak egon ohi dira, <a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">mutazio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birkonbinazio_genetiko" title="Birkonbinazio genetiko">birkonbinazio genetiko</a> edo beste edozein <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aldakortasun_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aldakortasun genetiko (sortu gabe)">aldakortasun genetiko</a> dela eta<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>. Hautespen naturala (hautespen sexuala barne) edo jito genetikoa bezalako prozesu-ebolutibo batek aldakortasun horren gainean parte hartzen duenean gertatzen da eboluzioa, ezaugarri horietako bat ohikoagoa edo arraroagoa bilakatzen populazio batean<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>. Eboluzio prozesu honek sortu du existitzen den <a href="/wiki/Bioaniztasun" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioaniztasun">biodibertsitate</a> osoa, <a href="/wiki/Antolamendu_biologikoa" title="Antolamendu biologikoa">antolamendu biologikoko</a> maila guztietan, izan <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">espezieen</a> artekoa, banakako <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">organismoen</a> artekoa edo <a href="/wiki/Eboluzio_molekular" title="Eboluzio molekular">molekulen artekoa</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>. Hautespen naturalaren araberako eboluzioaren <a href="/wiki/Teoria_zientifiko" title="Teoria zientifiko">teoria zientifikoa</a> lehen aldiz <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwinek</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallacek</a> eman zuten aditzera XIX. mendearen erdialdean,eta xehetasun handiz azaldu zuen Darwinek <a href="/wiki/1859" title="1859">1859ko</a> <a href="/wiki/Espezieen_jatorriaz" title="Espezieen jatorriaz">Espezieen jatorriaz</a> liburuan<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>. Eboluzioa hautespen naturalaren bidez lehen aldiz demostratu zen behaketa bidez, ikusi zenean normalean biziraun dezaketenak baino kume gehiago sortzen direla. Gainera, organismo bizidunen hiru faktu hauetan ere oinarritzen da: <ol><li>ezaugarriak aldakorrak dira indibiduoen artean, izan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Morfologia_(biologia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Morfologia (biologia) (sortu gabe)">morfologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia">fisiologian</a> zein <a href="/wiki/Portaera" title="Portaera">portaeran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">aldakortasun fenotipikoa</a>),</li> <li>aldaera horien ondorioz <a href="/wiki/Ugalketa" title="Ugalketa">ugaltzeko</a> eta bizirauteko aukera ezberdinak daude (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Egokitasun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Egokitasun (sortu gabe)">egokitasun</a> diferentziala), eta</li> <li>ezaugarri diferentzial horiek belaunaldiz belaunaldi igaro daitezke (egokitasunaren <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heredabilitate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heredabilitate (sortu gabe)">heredabilitatea</a>)<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>.</li></ol> Honela, belaunaldi bakoitzeko kideek, aukera gehiago dute bizi ziren esparruan biziraun eta ugaltzeko hobeak diren ezaugarriak zituztenen kideen <a href="/wiki/Ondore_(biologia)" title="Ondore (biologia)">ondorengoak</a> izateko. <a href="/wiki/XX._mende" class="mw-redirect" title="XX. mende">XX. mendearen</a> hasieran, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen_naturalari_alternatibak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen naturalari alternatibak (sortu gabe)">eboluzioaren inguruko beste ideia batzuk</a>, adibidez <a href="/wiki/Mutazionismo" title="Mutazionismo">mutazionismoa</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Ortogenesi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortogenesi">ortogenesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teoria_zientifiko_zaharkitu" class="mw-redirect" title="Teoria zientifiko zaharkitu">gezurtatu ziren</a>; aldi berean, eboluzio <a href="/wiki/Darwinismo" title="Darwinismo">darwinista</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetika_klasiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetika klasiko (sortu gabe)">genetika klasikoarekin</a> batu zen <a href="/wiki/Eboluzioaren_Teoria_Sintetiko" class="mw-redirect" title="Eboluzioaren Teoria Sintetiko">eboluzioaren teoria sintetiko</a> berria sortzeko. Teoria honetan, eboluzioak <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">mendeliar</a> aldakortasun genetikoaren gainean <a href="/wiki/Moldaera" title="Moldaera">eragiten du</a> hautespen naturalak. Teoria honek duen azalpen gaitasun handiagatik eta aurresateko boterea dela eta, biologia modernoaren printzipio zentraletako bat bilakatu da, <a href="/wiki/Bioaniztasun" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioaniztasun">biodibertsitaterako</a> azalpen bateratu bat emanez.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lurra" title="Lurra">Lurraren</a> gainean dauden eta egon diren <a href="/wiki/Bizia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bizia">izaki bizidun</a> guztiek <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbaso_komun_unibertsal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbaso komun unibertsal (sortu gabe)">arbaso komun unibertsal</a> bat dute,<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> orain dela 3.500 eta 3.800 milioi urte inguru bizi izan zena<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erregistro_fosil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erregistro fosil (sortu gabe)">Erregistro fosilean</a> <a href="/wiki/Grafito" title="Grafito">grafito</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantzia_biologiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Substantzia biologiko (sortu gabe)">biogenikotik</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikrobio" title="Mikrobio">mikrobio</a> fosiletara<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>, eta horietatik <a href="/wiki/Organismo_zelulaniztun" title="Organismo zelulaniztun">izaki zelulaniztunetara</a> doan progresio bat ikus daiteke. Lurreko <a href="/wiki/Biziaren_historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Biziaren historia">biziaren historian</a> zehar biodibertsitatea ezaugarritu da espezie berrien sorreraren bidez (<a href="/wiki/Espeziazioa" class="mw-redirect" title="Espeziazioa">espeziazioa</a>), espezieen aldaketen bidez (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anagenesi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anagenesi (sortu gabe)">anagenesia</a>) eta espezieen galeraren bidez (<a href="/wiki/Espezieen_iraungipen" title="Espezieen iraungipen">iraungipena</a>)<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbaso_komun_gertukoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbaso komun gertukoa (sortu gabe)">Arbaso komun gertukoa</a> duten izaki bizidunek ezaugarri morfologiko eta <a href="/wiki/Biokimika" title="Biokimika">biokimiko</a> antzekoagoak dituzte, eta horren bidez eraiki daitezke <a href="/wiki/Zuhaitz_filogenetiko" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuhaitz filogenetiko">zuhaitz filogenetikoak</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pentsamendu_ebolutiboaren_historia">Pentsamendu ebolutiboaren historia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Pentsamendu ebolutiboaren historia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Pentsamendu ebolutiboaren historia">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Artikulu nagusia: «<a href="/wiki/Pentsamendu_eboluzionistaren_historia" title="Pentsamendu eboluzionistaren historia">Pentsamendu eboluzionistaren historia</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Eboluzioa_infografia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Eboluzioa_infografia.png/220px-Eboluzioa_infografia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="833" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Eboluzioa_infografia.png/330px-Eboluzioa_infografia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Eboluzioa_infografia.png/440px-Eboluzioa_infografia.png 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="13980" /></a><figcaption>Pentsamendu ebolutiboaren historia azaltzen duen infografia.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/220px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/330px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/440px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a><figcaption>Haeckelen <a href="/wiki/Bizitzaren_zuhaitza" class="mw-redirect" title="Bizitzaren zuhaitza">Bizitzaren zuhaitza</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckelek</a> marraztua, 1879ean. Eboluzioa garapen zuzen gisa ikusten zen garai horretan, gizakian amaitzen zen ikuspegia.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></figcaption></figure> Pentsamendu eboluzionista, <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">espezieak</a> <a href="/wiki/Denbora" title="Denbora">denboran</a> zehar aldatzen denaren ideia, Antzinaroan sustraiak dituen ideia da. <a href="/wiki/Antzinako_Grezia" title="Antzinako Grezia">Antzinako Grezia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antzinako_Erroma" title="Antzinako Erroma">Erroma</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Txinako_historia" title="Txinako historia">Txinan</a> aurki daiteke, baita <a href="/wiki/Mundu_islamikoko_zientzia_Erdi_Aroan" title="Mundu islamikoko zientzia Erdi Aroan">Erdi Aroko mundu islamikoan</a> ere. <a href="/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia">Biologiaren</a> garapen modernoa eta <a href="/wiki/Taxonomia" title="Taxonomia">taxonomiaren</a> sorrerarekin <a href="/wiki/XVII._mende" class="mw-redirect" title="XVII. mende">XVII. mendean</a>, bi ideia kontrako garatu ziren Mendebaldeko pentsamendu biologikoan: <a href="/wiki/Esentzialismo" title="Esentzialismo">esentzialismoa</a>, espezieek aldagaitzak diren ezaugarri batzuk dituenaren ideia, <a href="/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles">Aristotelesen</a> <a href="/wiki/Metafisika" title="Metafisika">Metafisika</a> <a href="/wiki/Eskolastika" title="Eskolastika">eskolastikan</a> oinarritutako kontzeptua eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teologia_natural&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teologia natural (sortu gabe)">teologia naturalarekin</a> bat datorrena; eta <a href="/wiki/Zientzia" title="Zientzia">zientzia</a> modernoarekin bat zetorren gerturapen anti-aristoteliar bat: <a href="/wiki/Argien_Garaia" title="Argien Garaia">Argien Garaiak</a> aurrera egin ahala, <a href="/wiki/Kosmologia" title="Kosmologia">kosmologia</a> ebolutiboa eta <a href="/wiki/Mekanizismo" title="Mekanizismo">mekanizismoa</a> <a href="/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika">fisikatik</a> <a href="/wiki/Historia_natural" title="Historia natural">historia naturalera</a> igaro ziren. <a href="/wiki/Naturalista" title="Naturalista">Naturalistak</a> espezieen aldagarritasuna aipatzen hasi ziren; <a href="/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia">paleontologiaren</a> sorrerarekin <a href="/wiki/Espezieen_iraungipen" title="Espezieen iraungipen">espezieen iraungipenaren</a> ideia hedatu zen, naturaren ikuspegi estatikoa zalantzan jartzen zuena. <a href="/wiki/XIX._mende" class="mw-redirect" title="XIX. mende">XIX. mendean</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarckek</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espezieen_transmutazio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Espezieen transmutazio (sortu gabe)">espezieen transmutazioaren</a> <a href="/wiki/Lamarckismo" title="Lamarckismo">teoria proposatu zuen</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">eboluzioaren</a> lehen teoria garatua. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Charles_Darwin_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Charles_Darwin_01.jpg/220px-Charles_Darwin_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Charles_Darwin_01.jpg/330px-Charles_Darwin_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Charles_Darwin_01.jpg/440px-Charles_Darwin_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3256" data-file-height="4183" /></a><figcaption>Charles Darwin.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/1858" title="1858">1858an</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwinek</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallacek</a> eboluzioaren teoria berria argitaratu zuten, xehetasun handiz Darwinen <a href="/wiki/Espezieen_jatorriaz" title="Espezieen jatorriaz">Espezieen jatorriaz</a> liburuan azaldua (1859). Lamarckek ez bezala, Darwinek <a href="/wiki/Arbaso_komun" title="Arbaso komun">arbaso komunak</a> eta adarkatutako <a href="/wiki/Bizitzaren_zuhaitza" class="mw-redirect" title="Bizitzaren zuhaitza">bizitzaren zuhaitza</a> proposatu zuen, adieraziz oso ezberdinak ziren espezieek arbaso bera izan zezaketela. Darwinek bere teoria <a href="/wiki/Hautespen_natural" title="Hautespen natural">hautespen naturalaren</a> ideian oinarritu zuen: <a href="/wiki/Abeltzaintza" title="Abeltzaintza">abeltzaintza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia">biogeografia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geologia" title="Geologia">geologia</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Morfologia_(biologia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Morfologia (biologia) (sortu gabe)">morfologia</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Enbriologia" title="Enbriologia">enbriologia</a> batu zituen bere azalpenean. <a href="/wiki/Darwinismo" title="Darwinismo">Darwinismoaren</a> gaineko debateak eboluzioaren kontzeptua laster onartzea ekarri zuen, baina proposaturiko mekanismoa, hautespen naturala, ez zen orokorrean onartu <a href="/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia">biologian</a> 1920ko eta 1940ko hamarkaden artean eman ziren aurkikuntzek biziberritu zuten arte. Garai horretara arte, biologo gehienek beste azalpen batzuk eman zituzten eboluzioa azaltzeko. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen_naturalari_alternatibak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen naturalari alternatibak (sortu gabe)">Hautespen naturalari alternatibak</a> asko ziren, eta «<a href="/w/index.php?title=Darwinismoaren_eklipsea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Darwinismoaren eklipsea (sortu gabe)">Darwinismoaren eklipsean</a>» (1880–1920) ohikoak izan ziren, tartean hartutako karaktereen herentzia (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neolamarckismo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neolamarckismo (sortu gabe)">neolamarckismoa</a>), aldaketarako berezko beharra (<a href="/wiki/Ortogenesi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortogenesi">ortogenesia</a>) eta <a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">mutazio</a> erraldoi berehalakoak (<a href="/wiki/Saltazionismo" title="Saltazionismo">saltazionismoa</a>). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendeliar_genetika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mendeliar genetika (sortu gabe)">Mendeliar genetikak</a>, XIX. mendearen amaieran <a href="/wiki/Ilar" title="Ilar">ilarrekin</a> egindako esperimentu multzo batek, harrera berria izan zuen <a href="/wiki/1900" title="1900">1900ean</a> berriro aurkitu zenean, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisherrek</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._B._S._Haldane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. B. S. Haldane (sortu gabe)">J. B. S. Haldanek</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sewall_Wright&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sewall Wright (sortu gabe)">Sewall Wrightek</a> 1910eko eta 1930eko hamarkaden artean <a href="/wiki/Populazioen_genetika" title="Populazioen genetika">populazioen genetika</a> izeneko diziplina berria sortuz. 1930eko eta 1940eko hamarkaden artean populazioen genetika biologiaren beste adar batzuekin batu ziren, <a href="/wiki/Eboluzioaren_Teoria_Sintetiko" class="mw-redirect" title="Eboluzioaren Teoria Sintetiko">Eboluzioaren Teoria Sintetikoa</a> sortuz, gaur egungo biologiako ezaugarri ugari hartzen zituen teoria. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biologia_ebolutiboa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biologia ebolutiboa (sortu gabe)">Biologia ebolutiboaren</a> sorrerarekin, populazio naturalen <a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">mutazioen</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Dibertsitate_genetiko" title="Dibertsitate genetiko">dibertsitate genetikoen</a> ikerketekin, <a href="/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia">biogeografia</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika">sistematikarekin</a> batera, eboluzioaren metodo matematikoen sorrera indartu zen. Paleontologiak eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomia_konparatu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatomia konparatu (sortu gabe)">anatomia konparatuak</a> <a href="/wiki/Biziaren_historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Biziaren historia">biziaren historiaren</a> berregituratzeko zehatz bat ekarri zuten. <a href="/wiki/1950eko_hamarkada" title="1950eko hamarkada">1950eko hamarkadan</a> zehar, <a href="/wiki/Genetika_molekular" title="Genetika molekular">genetika molekularraren</a> sorrerarekin batera, <a href="/wiki/Eboluzio_molekular" title="Eboluzio molekular">eboluzio molekularraren</a> eremua garatu zen, <a href="/wiki/Proteina" title="Proteina">proteinen</a> <a href="/wiki/Peptido" title="Peptido">sekuentziazioan</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Immunologia" title="Immunologia">immunologian</a> oinarritua; beranduago <a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a> eta <a href="/wiki/RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA">RNAren</a> eremuak gehitu zitzaizkion. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzioaren_ikuspegi_genetikoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eboluzioaren ikuspegi genetikoa (sortu gabe)">Eboluzioaren ikuspegi genetikoak</a> indarra irabazi zuen <a href="/wiki/1960ko_hamarkada" title="1960ko hamarkada">1960ko hamarkadan</a> zehar, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio_molekularraren_teoria_neutrala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eboluzio molekularraren teoria neutrala (sortu gabe)">eboluzio molekularraren teoria neutralak</a> jarraitua; eztabaida sutsuak egon ziren <a href="/wiki/Adaptazionismo" title="Adaptazionismo">adaptazionismoaren</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespenaren_unitate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespenaren unitate (sortu gabe)">hautespenaren unitateen</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Jito_genetiko" title="Jito genetiko">jito genetikoak</a> hautespen naturalarekiko duen garrantzi erlatiboaren inguruan. XX. mendearen amaieran, DNAren sekuentziazioak <a href="/w/index.php?title=Filogenetika_molekular&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Filogenetika molekular (sortu gabe)">filogenetika molekularrera</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Biziaren_zuhaitza" title="Biziaren zuhaitza">biziaren zuhaitzaren</a> berrantolaketa ekarri zuen, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Woese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Woese (sortu gabe)">Carl Woesek</a> sortutako <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hiru_domeinuen_sistema&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hiru domeinuen sistema (sortu gabe)">hiru domeinuen sistemarekin</a>. Gainera, <a href="/wiki/Sinbiogenesi" title="Sinbiogenesi">sinbiogenesiak</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Geneen_transferentzia_horizontala" title="Geneen transferentzia horizontala">geneen transferentzia horizontalak</a> konplexutasun handiagoa sortu zuten eboluzioaren teorian. Biologia ebolutiboan emandako garapenek eragin handia izan dute biologiaren beste adarretan, baina baita ere beste diziplina akademikoetan (adibidez <a href="/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia">antropologian</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Psikologia" title="Psikologia">psikologian</a>) zein gizartean orokorrean. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Herentzia">Herentzia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Herentzia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Herentzia">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">genetika</a>» eta «<a href="/wiki/Herentzia_genetiko" title="Herentzia genetiko">herentzia genetiko</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:DNA_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="181" height="313" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>DNA molekula baten sekzio baten modeloa.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></figcaption></figure> Eboluzioa organismoetan heredatu daitezkeen ezaugarrien gainean gertatzen da. Gizakiengan, adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Begi-kolore" class="mw-redirect" title="Begi-kolore">begi-kolorea</a> heredatu daitekeen ezaugarri bat da, adibidez norbaitek bere gurasoen «begi-marroien ezaugarria» heredatu dezake<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>. Heredatutako ezaugarri hauek geneek kontrolatzen dituzte. Organismo baten <a href="/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma">genoman</a> (material genetikoa) dauden geneen kopuru osoari <a href="/wiki/Genotipo" title="Genotipo">genotipo</a> deitzen zaio<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>. Organismo baten egitura eta portaera behagarria osatzen duten ezaugarri guztien baturari <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipo</a> deritzo. Ezaugarri hauek genotipoaren eta <a href="/wiki/Ingurumen" title="Ingurumen">ingurumenaren</a> arteko harremanen ondorio dira<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>. Ondorioz, organismo baten fenotipoaren aspektu asko ez dira herentziaren ondorio. Adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Larruazal" title="Larruazal">larruazala</a> beltzaran jartzea pertsona baten genotipoaren eta <a href="/wiki/Eguzki_argia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eguzki argia">eguzki argiaren</a> interakziotik sortzen da; honela, beltzaran egotea ez da zerbait pertsona batek bere kumeei pasatzen diena. Hala ere, pertsona batzuk beste batzuk baino errazago jartzen dira beltzaran, euren genotipoan dagoen bariazioaren ondorioz; adibide argi bat <a href="/wiki/Albinismo" title="Albinismo">albinismoarena</a> da, inoiz beltzaran jartzen ez diren, baina oso erraz erretzen diren pertsonak<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendelek</a> unitate konkretutan herentzia gertatzen zenaren inguruko lehenengo lanak argitaratu zituen. Lan horretan agertzen zen ideia nagusia <a href="/wiki/Ilar" title="Ilar">ilarretan</a> egindako esperimentuetan ezaugarri batzuk modu batean ala bestean gertatzen zirela ohartarazi zuen (adibidez, ilarrak biribilduak edo zimurtuak izan daitezke. Ezaugarri horiek herentzia bidez pasatzen ziren (gurasoetatik hurrengo belaunaldira); diskrezionalak (gurasoetako bat biribildua bazen eta bestea zimurtua, seme-alabak ez ziren erdibidekoak, baizik eta biribildu ala zimurtuak); eta hurrengo belaunaldietara modu zehatz batean igarotzen ziren. Bere ikerketaren ondorioz ezaugarri horiek nola heredatzen ziren azaldu zuen, gaur egun <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> deitzen diogu. Mendelen lana <a href="/wiki/1900" title="1900">1900ean</a> berraurkitu zenean ezaugarri poligenetikoetan eragina ere bazuela aurkitu zen, eta ez bakarrik ezaugarri bakunetan. Herentzia genetikoa belaunaldi batetik hurrengora <a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNAren</a> bidez igarotzen da, informazio genetikoa kodetzen duen <a href="/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula">molekula</a> bat<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>. DNA <a href="/wiki/Biopolimero" title="Biopolimero">biopolimero</a> luze bat da, lau base mota ezberdinekin. DNA molekula batean zehar dauden baseen sekuentziak informazio genetikoa zehazten du, esaldi batean letren sekuentziak esanahia kodetzen duen modu antzekoan. <a href="/wiki/Zelula" title="Zelula">Zelula</a> bat <a href="/wiki/Mitosi" title="Mitosi">zatitu aurretik</a>, DNA guztia kopiatzen da, ondoren sortuko diren bi zelulek informazio genetiko berdina dutela ziurtatuz. DNA molekulan unitate funtzional bakar bat eratzen duten zatiei <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> izena ematen zaie; gene ezberdinek base sekuentzia ezberdina dute. Zelulen barruan, geneen hari luzeak DNA egitura kondentsatuak sortzen dituzte, <a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">kromosoma</a> izenekoak. DNA sekuentziak kromosoma batean duen kokapen zehatzari <a href="/wiki/Locus" title="Locus">locus</a> izena ematen zaio. Locus batean dagoen DNA sekuentzia ezberdina bada izaki ezberdinen artean, sekuentzia honetako forma bakoitzari <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">alelo</a> izena ematen zaio. DNA sekuentziak <a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">mutazio</a> bidez alda daitezke, alelo berriak sortuz. Mutazioa gene baten barruan gertatzen bada, sortutako alelo berriak geneak kontrolatzen duen ezaugarrian eragin dezake, organismoaren <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipoa</a> aldatuz<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>. Hala ere, alelo baten eta ezaugarri baten arteko harreman sinple honek kasu batzuetan modu sinplean funtzionatzen badu ere, ezaugarri gehienek egitura konplexuagoa dute eta locus ezberdinen eta geneen elkarrekintza kuantitatiboaren ondorio dira<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>. Azken aurkikuntzek erakutsi dute badaudela hainbat ezaugarri herentzia bidez jasotzen direnak, baina ezin direnak azaldu nukleotido sekuentziaren aldaketa gisa. Fenomeno honi <a href="/wiki/Epigenetika" title="Epigenetika">epigenetika</a> deitzen zaio<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kromatina" title="Kromatina">Kromatina</a> markatzen duen <a href="/w/index.php?title=DNAren_metilazioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DNAren metilazioa (sortu gabe)">DNAren metilazioa</a>, loop metaboliko auto-mantenduak, <a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA_interferente&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RNA interferente (sortu gabe)">RNA interferente</a> bidezko geneen isiltzea eta hiru dimentsioko konformazio proteinak (adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Prioi" title="Prioi">prioiak</a>) dira herentzia sistema epigenetikoak aurkitu diren eremuak<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>. Bestetik, herentzia ere eskala handian gerta daiteke. Adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Txoko_ekologiko" title="Txoko ekologiko">txoko ekologikoen</a> eraikuntzaren bidez, belaunaldiz belaunaldi sendotzen eta egonkortzen diren ezaugarri batzuk hautatzen dira. Honela, belaunaldi bakoitzak euren gurasoen portaeraz gain, euren portaerak sortutako txoko ekologikoa ere heredatzen dute<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aldakortasuna">Aldakortasuna</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Aldakortasuna»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Aldakortasuna">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r8009458/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:left;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption-center{text-align:center;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Biston.betularia.7200.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/200px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/300px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/400px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2798" data-file-height="1662" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biston_betularia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biston betularia (sortu gabe)">Biston betularia</a> zuria</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/200px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/300px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/400px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1366" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Biston betularia beltza, eboluzioaren ondorioz</div></div></div></div></div> Organismo indibidual baten fenotipoa genotipoaren eta ingurunearen ondorioa da. Populazio batean ematen den aldaketa fenotipikoaren parte esanguratsu bat aldakortasun genotipikoaren ondorio da<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>. Gaur egun erabiltzen den sintesi ebolutiboak dio eboluzioa dela aldakortasun genotipiko honen aldaketa denbora zehar. Alelo zehatz baten frekuentzia izango da ohikoagoa edo arraroagoa gene horren beraren beste forma batzuekin alderatuta. Alelo bat egonkortzen denean, hau da, guztiz desagertzen denean edo antzinako beste alelo bat guztiz ordezkatzen duenean, aldakortasuna desagertzen da<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>. Hautespen naturalak eboluzioa sortzeko beharrezkoa da populazio batean <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aldakortasun_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aldakortasun genetiko (sortu gabe)">aldakortasun genetiko</a> nahikoa egotea. Mendeliar genetikaren aurkikuntzaren aurretik uste zen <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahasketa-herentzia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nahasketa-herentzia (sortu gabe)">nahasketa-herentzia</a> ematen zela, hau da, erdibideko emaitzak ematen zirela gurasoen aleloak elkartzerakoan. Baina nahasketa-herentziarekin aldakortasun genetikoa laster desagertuko litzateke, hautespen natural bidezko eboluzioa ezinezko eginez. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hardy-Weinberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hardy-Weinberg (sortu gabe)">Hardy-Weinberg</a> printzipioak soluzio bat ematen du bariazioa azaltzeko mendeliar herentziarekin. Aleloen frekuentzia beti mantenduko da konstante ez badago hautespenik, mutaziorik, <a href="/wiki/Migrazio" class="mw-disambig" title="Migrazio">migraziorik</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Jito_genetiko" title="Jito genetiko">jito genetikorik</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>. Aldakortasunaren jatorriaren arrazoiak ezberdinak dira: genomaren mutazioak, <a href="/wiki/Ugalketa_sexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugalketa sexual">ugalketa sexualaren</a> ondorioz ematen diren geneen nahasketa eta populazioen migrazioa eta <a href="/wiki/Gene-fluxu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene-fluxu">gene-fluxua</a>. Aldakortasun berria mutazio eta gene-fluxu bidez sartzen bada ere, espezie baten genoma ia berdina da espezie horretako banakoen artean<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>. Hala ere, genotipoan aldaketa oso txiki batek diferentzia esanguratsuak lor ditzake fenotipoan: adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Txinpantze" title="Txinpantze">txinpantze</a>en eta <a href="/wiki/Gizaki" title="Gizaki">gizaki</a>en arteko aldea % 5 baino ez da genoman<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutazioak">Mutazioak</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Mutazioak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Mutazioak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">Mutazio</a>»</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Dna-split.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Dna-split.png/150px-Dna-split.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Dna-split.png 1.5x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Mutazioak <a href="/wiki/Azido_desoxirribonukleiko" title="Azido desoxirribonukleiko">DNAren</a> kopiatze prozesuan gerta daitezke.</figcaption></figure> Aldakuntza genetikoa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ausazko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ausazko (sortu gabe)">ausazko</a> mutazioek sortzen dituzte, eta izaki guztien <a href="/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma">genomatan</a> gertatzen da abiadura determinatu batean. Mutazioak betirako dira eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Material_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Material genetiko (sortu gabe)">material genetikora</a> eroangarriak dira. Honako arrazoiak direla eta gerta daiteke: <ul><li>lopiatze akatsak material genetikoan zelularen zatitzea bitarte;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desintegrazio_erradioaktibo" title="Desintegrazio erradioaktibo">erradiaktibitatea</a>, konposatu kimiko batzuk edo <a href="/wiki/Birus" title="Birus">birus</a> bat jasan izanagatik.</li></ul> Izaki zelulanitzetan mutazioak bi erakoak izan daitezke. Alde batetik <a href="/wiki/Gameto" title="Gameto">gametoetan</a> gertatzen direnak daude, hurrengo belaunaldira igaro ahal direnak. Bestetik zelula batean gertatzen diren aldaketa somatikoak daude, zelula horren funtzionamendu txarra, heriotza edo <a href="/wiki/Minbizi" title="Minbizi">minbizia</a> sor dezakeena. Hautespen naturalak eragiten ez dituen mutazioak <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio_molekularraren_teoria_neutrala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eboluzio molekularraren teoria neutrala (sortu gabe)">mutazio neutral</a> deritze. Euren maiztasuna populazio batean mutazioaren abiaduraren arabera daude, hala nola alelo horien presio selektiboaren arabera. <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">Espezie</a> gehienen genoma, hautespenik gabe, mutazio neutralen metatze geldiezin bat jasaten du. Gene indibidualek <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mutazio_puntual&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mutazio puntual (sortu gabe)">mutazio puntualak</a> jasan ditzakete, edo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nukleotido_sinplearen_polimorfismoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nukleotido sinplearen polimorfismoa (sortu gabe)">Nukleotido sinplearen polimorfismoa</a>, non <a href="/wiki/Base_bikote" class="mw-redirect" title="Base bikote">base bikote</a> bat aldatzen dn. Base bikote bat aldatzeak ez du zertan genearen funtzioa aldatu, baina asko aldatzen bada, edo informazioa desagertzen bada, gene ez-funtzional bat bilakatu daiteke.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Transposoi" title="Transposoi">Transposoiak</a> bezalako elementu mugikorrek informazio genetikoaren atal handi bat okupatzen dute, bai animalietan bai landareetan, eta uste da genomen eboluzioan paper garrantzitsua jokatu dutela. Elementu hauek genoman zehar saltoak egin ditzakete eta badiren genetan aldaketak eragin, aldaketa ebolutiboa eta dibertsitatea sortuz.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Bestalde, geneen bikoizketa, zeina mekanismo ezberdinen arabera gerta daitekeen, animalien genomen aldaketa handiak sortzeko aukera ematen duela uste da. Milioi urtero hamarnakatik ehunaka gene bikoizten dira.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Gene gehienek aurreko gene bateko eraldaketaz sortu direnez gene familiatan sailka daitezke. <a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">Kromosoma</a> baten berrantolaketa handia gertatzen bada ez du zertan genearen funtzioetan eragin, baina normalean birsorkuntzara isolaketa dakar eta beraz, definizioz, <a href="/wiki/Espeziazio" title="Espeziazio">espeziazioa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexua_eta_birkonbinazioa">Sexua eta birkonbinazioa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Sexua eta birkonbinazioa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Sexua eta birkonbinazioa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Sexu_ugalketa" title="Sexu ugalketa">Sexu ugalketa</a>» eta «<a href="/wiki/Birkonbinazio_genetiko" title="Birkonbinazio genetiko">Birkonbinazio genetiko</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Evolsex-dia1a.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Evolsex-dia1a.png/220px-Evolsex-dia1a.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Evolsex-dia1a.png/330px-Evolsex-dia1a.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Evolsex-dia1a.png/440px-Evolsex-dia1a.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption>Diagrama honek erakusten du nola sexu-ugalketa garestiagoa den.</figcaption></figure> Organismo <a href="/wiki/Asexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Asexual">asexualetan</a>, geneak elkarrekin edo lotuta heredatzen dira, ezin baitira beste organismo baten geneekin elkartu birsorkuntzaren unean. Aldiz, <a href="/wiki/Ugalketa_sexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugalketa sexual">ugalketa sexuala</a> duten organismoek euren gurasoen kromosomen nahasketa ausazko bat dute, modu independentean sailkatzen dena. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Birkonbinazio_homologo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birkonbinazio homologo (sortu gabe)">Birkonbinazio homologo</a> izeneko prozesu batean, sexu ugalketa duten organismoek DNA elkartrukatu dezakete bi kromosoma berdinen artean<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>. Birkonbinazioaren eta birrantolaketaren bidez ez da aleloen frekuentziarik aldatzen, aleloen aldaketak euren artean lotuta baitaude, alelo berriak sortuz konbinazio bakoitzarekin<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>. Sexuak normalki aldakortasun genetikoa handitzen du eta eboluzioaren abiadura azkartu dezake.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sexu" title="Sexu">Sexua</a>, hala ere, bi aldiz garestiagoa da, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Maynard Smith (sortu gabe)">John Maynard Smith</a> aurkitu zuen moduan<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>. Lehenengo kostua da <a href="/wiki/Dimorfismo_sexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimorfismo sexual">dimorfismo sexuala</a> duten espezieetan bakar batek sor ditzakeela kumeak. Kostu hau ez dute <a href="/wiki/Hermafrodita" title="Hermafrodita">hermafroditak</a> diren izakiek pairatzen, landare eta ornogabe gehienek. Bigarren kostua da sexualki ernaltzen den izaki batek bere informazio genetikoaren %50 baino ez diola pasatzen hurrengo belaunaldiari, eta belaunaldi bakoitzean geroz eta gutxiago pasatzen dela<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>. Hala ere, sexu ugalketa da eukariotoen eta organismo zelulaniztun gehienen birsortzeko modua. <a href="/wiki/Erregina_Gorriaren_hipotesia" title="Erregina Gorriaren hipotesia">Erregina Gorriaren hipotesia</a> erabili da paradoxa hau azaltzeko: beti aldatzen den ingurune bati hobeto erantzuten diote, eboluzio eta adaptazio bidez, sexu ugalketa egiten duten espezieek.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geneen_transferentzia_horizontala">Geneen transferentzia horizontala</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Geneen transferentzia horizontala»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Geneen transferentzia horizontala">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Geneen_transferentzia_horizontala" title="Geneen transferentzia horizontala">Geneen transferentzia horizontala</a> (GTH) (edo laterala) izaki bizidun batek bere ondorengoa ez den beste bati <a href="/w/index.php?title=Material_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Material genetiko (sortu gabe)">material genetikoa</a> ematen dion edozein prozesu da. Mekanismo honek <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">espezie</a> bereko edo ezberdineko bi organismoren arteko material genetikoaren transferentzia baimentzen du. Mekanismo ezberdinak ikusi dira hau egiteko, adibidez <a href="/wiki/Hibrido_(biologia)" title="Hibrido (biologia)">hibridazioa</a>. Birusek hau egin dezakete <a href="/wiki/Transdukzio" title="Transdukzio">transdukzioa</a> erabilita.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Bakteriek beste bakteria hil batzuen geneak barne hartu ditzakete <a href="/wiki/Transformazio_(genetika)" title="Transformazio (genetika)">transformazioa</a> erabilita edo bizirik daudenekin <a href="/wiki/Konjugazio" title="Konjugazio">konjugazioa</a> erabilita.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>. Hibridazioa oso erabilia da landareen espeziazioan. <a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> eta ezagutzen diren hamar <a href="/wiki/Hegazti" title="Hegazti">hegazti</a> espezietik batek ere hibridazioa erabiltzen du.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intsektu" title="Intsektu">Intsektu</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Ugaztun" title="Ugaztun">ugaztunetan</a> ere eman da hibridazioa, baina normalean ondorengotza antzua ematen du.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Bakterioek duten <a href="/wiki/Bakterio-kontrako" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakterio-kontrako">antibiotikoekiko</a> erresistentzia mekanismo honen bitartez garatzen dela ikusi da.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Aurkikuntza ezberdinek diote GTHa ere izaki <a href="/wiki/Prokarioto" title="Prokarioto">prokariota</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Eukarioto" title="Eukarioto">eukarioten</a> eboluzioan rol garrantzitsua jokatu duela.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eboluzioaren_mekanismoak">Eboluzioaren mekanismoak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Eboluzioaren mekanismoak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Eboluzioaren mekanismoak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ikuspegi <a href="/wiki/Neodarwinista" class="mw-redirect" title="Neodarwinista">neodarwinista</a> batetik, eboluzioa gertatzen da aleloen maiztasunean aldaketak daudenean gurutzatzen diren organismoen populazio baten barruan<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>, adibidez, kolore beltzaren aleloa ohikoagoa bihurtzen da sitsen populazio batean. Frekuentzia alelikoetan aldaketak eragin ditzaketen mekanismoak hautespen naturala, deriba genetikoa, gene-fluxua eta mutazio-alborapena dira. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hautespena_eta_eraginkortasun_biologikoa">Hautespena eta eraginkortasun biologikoa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Hautespena eta eraginkortasun biologikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Hautespena eta eraginkortasun biologikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Hautespen_natural" title="Hautespen natural">Hautespen natural</a>» eta «<a href="/wiki/Eraginkortasun_biologiko" title="Eraginkortasun biologiko">Eraginkortasun biologiko</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg/220px-Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg/330px-Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg/440px-Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pauma" title="Pauma">Pauma</a> baten isatsa da <a href="/wiki/Hautespen_sexual" title="Hautespen sexual">hautespen sexualaren</a> adibiderik ohikoena.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Genetic_Distribution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Genetic_Distribution.svg/250px-Genetic_Distribution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Genetic_Distribution.svg/330px-Genetic_Distribution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Genetic_Distribution.svg/500px-Genetic_Distribution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>1: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen_direkzional&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen direkzional (sortu gabe)">hautespen direkzionala</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fenotipo" title="Fenotipo">fenotipoaren</a> mutur bat aldeztua. 2: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen_egonkortzaile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen egonkortzaile (sortu gabe)">hautespen egonkortzailea</a>: erdikoa muturren gainean aldeztua. 3: hautespen disruptiboa: muturrak erdikoaren gainean aldeztuak.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Hautespen_natural" title="Hautespen natural">Hautespen naturalaren</a> bidezko eboluzioan, biziraupena eta ugalketa hobetzen duten ezaugarriak ohikoagoak dira populazio baten ondorengo belaunaldietan. Hiru printzipiotan oinarritzen da<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>: <ul><li>Organismoen populazioen artean aldakuntza dago morfologiari, fisiologiari eta portaerari dagokienez (aldaketa fenotipikoa).</li> <li>Ezaugarri desberdinek biziraupen- eta ugalketa-tasa desberdinak ematen dituzte (egokitzapen diferentziala).</li> <li>Ezaugarri horiek belaunaldiz belaunaldi transmititu daitezke (egokitzapenaren heredagarritasuna).</li></ul> Bizirik iraun dezakeena baino ondorengo gehiago jaiotzen dira, eta baldintza horiek bizirauteko eta ugaltzeko gaitasuna sortzen dute organismoen artean. Ondorioz, beren lehiakideekiko abantaila ematen dieten ezaugarriak dituzten organismoek aukera gehiago dute beren ezaugarriak hurrengo belaunaldiari transmititzeko, abantailarik ematen ez dieten ezaugarriak dituztenek baino<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleonomia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teleonomia (sortu gabe)">Teleonomia</a> hori da hautespen naturalaren prozesuak betetzen dituzten eginkizun funtzionalekin bat datozela diruditen ezaugarriak sortzen eta gordetzen dituen nolakotasuna. Hautespenaren ondorioen artean daude <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautazko_bikote&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautazko bikote (sortu gabe)">hautazko bikotea</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Autostopismo_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Autostopismo genetiko (sortu gabe)">autostopismo genetikoa</a>. Hautespen naturalaren kontzeptu nagusia organismo baten <a href="/wiki/Eraginkortasun_biologiko" title="Eraginkortasun biologiko">eraginkortasun biologikoa</a> da. Eraginkortasuna organismo batek bizirauteko eta ugaltzeko duen gaitasunaren arabera neurtzen da, eta horrek hurrengo belaunaldiari egiten dion ekarpen genetikoaren tamaina zehazten du. Hala ere, eraginkortasuna eta ondorengo guztien kopurua ez dira gauza bera, baizik eta eraginkortasuna organismo baten geneak daramatzaten ondorengo belaunaldien proportzioak adierazten du. Adibidez, organismo batek ongi biziraun eta azkar ugaldu badezake, baina bere ondorengoak txikiegiak eta ahulegiak badira bizirauteko, organismo horrek ekarpen genetiko eskasa egingo die etorkizuneko belaunaldiei, eta, beraz, eraginkortasun txikia izango du<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">Alelo</a> batek gene horren gainerako aleloak baino eraginkortasun handiagoa badu, belaunaldi bakoitzarekin alelo hori ohikoagoa izango da populazioaren barruan. Ezaugarri horiek "aukeratuta" daudela esaten da. Eraginkortasuna areagotu dezaketen ezaugarrien adibideak biziraupena hobetzea eta <a href="/wiki/Ugalkortasun" title="Ugalkortasun">ugalkortasuna</a> handitzea dira. Aitzitik, alelo ez hain onuragarria edo deletereo bat edukitzeak gaitasun gutxiago eragiten duenez, alelo hori arraroagoa da: "aurkako hautespena du". Garrantzitsua da nabarmentzea alelo baten gaitasuna ez dela ezaugarri finko bat; ingurunea aldatzen bada, lehen neutroak edo kaltegarriak ziren ezaugarriak onuragarri bihur daitezke, eta lehen onuragarriak zirenak kaltegarri. Hala ere, hautespenaren norabidea horrela alderantzikatu arren, iraganean galdu ziren ezaugarriek ezin dute berriro modu berean eboluzionatu (ikus <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dolloren_legea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dolloren legea (sortu gabe)">Dolloren legea</a>). Hala ere, gene ez-aktiboak berraktibatzeak, genomatik desagerrarazi ez badira eta agian ehunka belaunalditan desagerrarazi badira, galdutzat jotzen ziren ezaugarriak berragertzea ekar dezake, hala nola <a href="/wiki/Izurde" title="Izurde">izurdeen</a> atzeko hankak, <a href="/wiki/Oilo" title="Oilo">oiloen</a> hortzak, hegalik gabeko <a href="/wiki/Intsektu" title="Intsektu">intsektuen</a> hegalak, <a href="/wiki/Gizaki" title="Gizaki">gizakien</a> buztanak eta <a href="/wiki/Titiburu" title="Titiburu">titiburu</a> gehigarriak, etab. Ezaugarri horiek <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atabismo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atabismo (sortu gabe)">atabismo</a> gisa ezagutzen dira. Populazio baten barruko hautespen naturala, altuera bezalako balio-tarte batean alda daitekeen ezaugarri baterako, hiru motatan sailka daiteke. Lehenengoa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Norabide-hautespena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norabide-hautespena (sortu gabe)">norabide-hautespena</a> da, denboran zehar ezaugarri baten batez besteko balioa aldatzean datzana; adibidez, organismoak poliki-poliki hazten dira. Bigarrenik, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen_disruptibo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen disruptibo (sortu gabe)">hautespen disruptiboa</a> ezaugarrien muturreko balioak hautatzea da, eta bi balio desberdin ohikoago bihurtzea eragiten du, batez besteko balioaren aurkako hautespen batekin. Hori gertatuko litzateke organismo baxuek edo altuek abantaila dutenean, baina ez garaiera ertainekoek. Azkenik, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen_egonkortzaile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen egonkortzaile (sortu gabe)">hautespen egonkortzailean</a> bi muturretako ezaugarriaren muturreko balioen aurkako hautaketa dago, eta horrek batez besteko balioaren inguruko bariantza murriztea eta dibertsitate txikiagoa eragiten du. Horren ondorioz, adibidez, organismoek antzeko altuera izango lukete. Oro har, hautespen naturalaren ondorioz, natura da organismo zehatzek eta ezaugarri indibidualek bizirauteko aukera gehiago edo gutxiago izateko duten neurria. Zentzu horretan, "<a href="/wiki/Natura" title="Natura">Natura</a>" <a href="/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema">ekosistema</a> bati dagokio, hau da, organismoek beren tokiko inguruneko gainerako elementu fisiko eta biologiko guztiekin elkarreragiten duten sistema bati. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eugene_Odume&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugene Odume (sortu gabe)">Eugene Odumek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia">ekologiaren</a> sortzaileetako batek, honela definitu zuen ekosistema: "Organismo guztiak barne hartzen dituen edozein unitate, ingurune fisikoarekin elkarreragiten duen eremu jakin batean, energia-fluxu batek argi eta garbi zehaztutako egitura trofiko batera, dibertsitate biotikora eta ziklo materialetara (hau da, bizirik dauden eta bizirik ez dauden aldeen arteko materialen trukera) eraman dezan sistemaren barruan...". Ekosistema bateko populazio bakoitzak <a href="/wiki/Txoko_ekologiko" title="Txoko ekologiko">txoko</a> edo posizio desberdin bat hartzen du, sistemaren beste zati batzuekin harreman desberdinak dituena. Harreman horiek zerikusia dute organismoaren bizitza-historiarekin, <a href="/wiki/Kate_trofiko" title="Kate trofiko">kate-trofikoan</a> duen posizioarekin eta banaketa geografikoaren eremuarekin. Naturaren ulermen zabal horrek aukera ematen die zientzialariei oro har hautespen naturala osatzen duten indar espezifikoak mugatzeko. Hautespen naturalak antolamendu-maila desberdinetan eragin dezake, hala nola geneetan, zeluletan, organismo indibidualetan, organismo-taldeetan eta espezieetan. Hautaketak hainbat mailatan jardun dezake aldi berean. Organismo indibidualaren mailaren azpitik sortzen den hautespenaren adibide bat <a href="/wiki/Transposoi" title="Transposoi">transposoi</a> izeneko geneak dira, genoma osoan erreplika eta zabal daitezkeenak. Banakakoa baino maila handiagoan hautatzeak, talde-hautaketak adibidez, lankidetzaren bilakaera ahalbidetu dezake. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autostop_genetikoa">Autostop genetikoa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Autostop genetikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Autostop genetikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Birkonbinazioak DNA kate bereko aleloak bereiztea ahalbidetzen du. Hala ere, birkonbinazio tasa baxua da (gutxi gorabehera bi gertaera <a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">kromosoma</a> eta belaunaldi bakoitzeko). Horregatik, kromosoma baten gertuko geneak ez dira beti elkarrengandik urruntzen, eta elkarrekin dauden geneek elkarrekin heredatzeko joera dute, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lotura_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lotura genetiko (sortu gabe)">lotura genetiko</a> izenez ezagutzen den fenomenoa<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>. Joera hori neurtzeko, bi <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">alelo</a> kromosoma berean elkarrekin agertzeko maiztasuna bilatzen da, esperotakoarekin alderatuta, eta horri <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lotura-desoreka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lotura-desoreka (sortu gabe)">lotura-desoreka</a> esaten zaio. Taldean heredatu ohi den alelo multzo bati <a href="/wiki/Haplotipo" title="Haplotipo">haplotipo</a> deitzen zaio. Hori garrantzitsua izan daiteke haplotipo jakin baten alelo bat oso onuragarria denean: hautespen naturalak <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ekorketa_selektibo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ekorketa selektibo (sortu gabe)">ekorketa selektiboa</a> bultza dezake, eta, horren ondorioz, haplotipoaren beste aleloak ohikoagoak bihurtuko dira populazioan; efektu horri <a href="/w/index.php?title=Autostop_genetiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Autostop genetiko (sortu gabe)">autostop genetikoa</a> deitzen zaio<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>. Gene neutro batzuk genetikoki hautapen baxuko beste gene batzuekin lotuta egoteak eragindako autostop genetikoa populazio eraginkorreko tamaina egoki batek harrapatu dezake partzialki<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hautespen_sexuala">Hautespen sexuala</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Hautespen sexuala»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Hautespen sexuala">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Hautespen_sexual" title="Hautespen sexual">Hautespen sexual</a>»</div> Hautespen naturalaren kasu berezi bat <a href="/wiki/Hautespen_sexual" title="Hautespen sexual">hautespen sexuala</a> da, hau da, estaltzearen arrakasta areagotzen duen edozein ezaugarri hautatzea, organismo batek bikote potentzialentzat duen erakargarritasuna handitzean<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>. Hautespen sexualari esker eboluzionatu duten ezaugarriak bereziki garrantzitsuak dira hainbat animalia-espezietako arren artean. Hautespen sexualak laguntzen dien arren, gehiegizko tamaina duten adarrak, estaltze-deiak, gorputz-tamaina handia eta kolore distiratsuak bezalako ezaugarriek harrapariak erakartzen dituzte, eta horrek arriskuan jartzen du arren biziraupena<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>. Biziraupenaren desabantaila hori orekatu egiten da arren ugalketa-arrakasta handiagoarekin; izan ere, ezaugarri horiek nekez hautatuko lirateke ez balira sexualki erakargarriak izango<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jito_genetikoa">Jito genetikoa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Jito genetikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Jito genetikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Jito_genetiko" title="Jito genetiko">jito genetiko</a>»</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Allele-frequency.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Allele-frequency.png/200px-Allele-frequency.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Allele-frequency.png/300px-Allele-frequency.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Allele-frequency.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>20 alelo ez erlazionaturekin eginiko <a href="/wiki/Jito_genetiko" title="Jito genetiko">jito genetikoaren</a> simulazioa. Goian 10 eta behean 100 kideko populazioa dago. Jitoa askoz azkarragoa da populazio txikietan.</figcaption></figure> Jito genetikoa belaunaldi batetik hurrengora <a href="/wiki/Alelo" title="Alelo">aleloen</a> frekuentziaren aldaketa da. Hau gertatzen da belaunaldi berri batek euren gurasoen geneetako batzuk izango dituelako eta zoriak zehaztu dezakeelako zeinek bizirauten duen eta zeinek ez. Termino matematikoetan aleloek neurketa erroreak izan ditzakete. Honen ondorioz, ez dagoenean presio ebolutibo gogorrik aleloen frekuentzia alde batera eta bestera modu <a href="/wiki/Aleatorio" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleatorio">aleatorioan</a> mugitzen da. Jito hau guztiz gelditzen da alelo bat guztiz desagertzen denean edo guztiek alelo bera dutenean. Ez badago presio ebolutibo zehatzik bi taldetan espeziazioa gerta daiteke bakarrik jito genetikoa dela eta.<a href="#cite_note-Lande-72">[72]</a>. Alelo bat populazio batean egonkortzeko behar den denbora populazio horren tamainaren araberakoa izango da: populazio txikiagoetan lehenago gertatuko da finkatzea.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Finkatze bat emateko behar den populazioaren tamainari <a href="/w/index.php?title=Populazio_tamaina_efektibo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Populazio tamaina efektibo (sortu gabe)">populazio tamaina efektibo</a> deritzo. Populazio efektiboa beti da txikiagoa populazio osoa baino, kontuan hartu behar baita sexu erlazioen kopurua, birsortzeko gai ez diren izaki kopurua (gazteegiak edo zaharregiak direlako) eta hainbat ale urrun bizi daitezkeela besteengandik.<a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-74">[74]</a> Jito genetikoak garrantzia duen kasu bat aipatzearren <a href="/wiki/Haitzulo" title="Haitzulo">kobazuloetan</a> bizi diren animalien <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pigmentazio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pigmentazio (sortu gabe)">pigmentazio</a> galera aipa daiteke. Aldaketa honek ez dio inongo hobekuntza edo galerarik ematen izakiari.<a href="#cite_note-Protas-75">[75]</a> Hala ere, indar horren eta aurrekoaren arteko harremana eta bakoitzak duen indarra oraindik eztabaidagai dira biologia ebolutiboan.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio_molekularraren_teoria_neutralista&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eboluzio molekularraren teoria neutralista (sortu gabe)">Eboluzio molekularraren teoria neutralistaren</a> arabera aldaketa ebolutibo gehienak aldaketa neutroen fijazioz sortzen dira eta ez dute inongo eragin zuzen berehalakorik izaki batengan.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>. Eredu honen arabera populazio bateko aldaketa kopururik handiena mutazio konstante baten eta jito genetikoaren ondorio dira.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluxu_genetikoa">Fluxu genetikoa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Fluxu genetikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Fluxu genetikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Fluxu_genetiko" title="Fluxu genetiko">Fluxu genetikoak</a> populazioen artean eta espezieen artean geneak trukatzea dakar<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>. Fluxu genetikoaren presentziak edo gabeziak eboluzioaren bilakaera aldatzen du funtsean. Organismoen konplexutasuna dela eta, erabat isolatuta dauden bi populaziok bateraezintasun genetikoak garatuko dituzte prozesu neutroen bidez, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller_eredua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller eredua (sortu gabe)">Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller ereduan</a> bezala, nahiz eta bi populazioak funtsean berdinak izan ingurunera egokitzeari dagokionez. Populazioen arteko bereizketa genetikoa garatzen bada, geneen fluxuak ezaugarri edo alelo desabantailatsuak sar ditzake tokiko populazioan, eta, horren ondorioz, populazio horietako organismoek genetikoki urrun dauden populazioekin estaltzea eragozten duten mekanismoak garatu ditzakete, eta, ondorioz, espezie berriak ager daitezke. Horrenbestez, banakoen artean informazio genetikoa trukatzea garrantzitsua da <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">espezie</a> biologikoaren kontzeptua garatzeko. Sintesi modernoaren garapenean, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sewall_Wright&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sewall Wright (sortu gabe)">Sewall Wrightek</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oreka_aldakorraren_teoria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oreka aldakorraren teoria (sortu gabe)">oreka aldakorraren teoria</a> garatu zuen, partzialki isolatutako populazioen arteko gene-fluxua egokitzapen-bilakaeraren alderdi garrantzitsutzat jotzen zuena<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>. Hala ere, berriki asko kritikatu da oreka aldakorraren teoriaren garrantzia<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ondorioak">Ondorioak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Ondorioak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Ondorioak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/220px--Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="115" data-mwtitle="Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/Fitxategi:Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AKishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AKishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm&lang=eu&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="eu" label="euskara ‪(eu)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AKishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm&lang=sv&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sv" label="svenska ‪(sv)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Kishonyren MegaPlate esperimentuak <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterioek</a> <a href="/wiki/Antibiotiko" title="Antibiotiko">antibiotikoei</a> aurre egiteko duten gaitasuna aztertu zuen. Eboluzioaren adibide bat da.</figcaption></figure> Eboluzioak eragina du organismoen formaren eta portaeraren alderdi guztietan. Hautespen naturalaren emaitza diren egokitzapen fisiko eta portaerazkoak dira nabarmenenak. Egokitzapen horiek gaitasuna handitzen dute, elikagaiak bilatzea, <a href="/wiki/Harrapari" class="mw-redirect" title="Harrapari">harrapariak</a> saihestea edo bikoteak erakartzea bezalako jarduerak errazten dituztelako. Organismoek ere <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kooperazio_(eboluzioa)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kooperazio (eboluzioa) (sortu gabe)">elkarri lagunduz</a> erantzun diezaiokete hautespenari, normalean senideei lagunduz edo elkarren onurarako <a href="/wiki/Sinbiosi" title="Sinbiosi">sinbiosietan</a> parte hartuz. Epe luzeagoan, eboluzioak <a href="/wiki/Espeziazio" title="Espeziazio">espezie berriak sortzen</a> ditu, antzinako organismo-populazioak gurutzatu ezin diren edo gurutzatu nahi ez duten talde berrietan banatzen baititu. Eboluzioaren emaitza horiek denbora-eskalaren arabera bereizten dira, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Makroeboluzio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Makroeboluzio (sortu gabe)">makroeboluzio</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroeboluzio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mikroeboluzio (sortu gabe)">mikroeboluzio</a> gisa. Makroeboluzioa espezieen mailan edo haien gainetik gertatzen den bilakaerari dagokio, bereziki espeziazioari eta <a href="/wiki/Iraungipen" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Iraungipen">iraungipenari</a>; mikroeboluzioa, berriz, espezie edo populazio baten barruko aldaketa ebolutibo txikienei dagokie, batez ere <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maiztasun_aleliko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maiztasun aleliko (sortu gabe)">maiztasun alelikoaren</a> aldaketei eta egokitzapenari<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a>. Oro har, makroeboluzioa mikroeboluzio-aldi luzeen emaitzatzat hartzen da<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>. Beraz, mikroeboluzioaren eta makroeboluzioaren arteko bereizketa ez da funtsezkoa: aldea denbora besterik ez da<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a>. Hala ere, makroeboluzioan, espezie osoaren ezaugarriak garrantzitsuak izan daitezke. Adibidez, banakoen arteko aldakuntza kopuru handi batek espezie bat <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> berrietara azkar egokitzea ahalbidetzen du, eta horrek iraungitzeko aukera gutxitzen du; aldiz, maila geografiko zabal batek espeziaziorako aukera handitzen du, populazioaren zati bat isolatuta geratzeko probabilitate handiagoa egiten baitu. Alde horretatik, mikroeboluzioak eta makroeboluzioak hainbat mailatako hautespena ekar dezakete: mikroeboluzioak geneetan eta organismoetan eragiten du; prozesu makroebolutiboek, berriz, espezie osoetan eragiten dute eta espezie horien espeziazio- eta desagertze-tasetan eragiten dute<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a>. Akats komun bat da pentsatzea eboluzioak helburuak, epe luzerako planak edo "aurrerabiderako" berezko joera duela, ortogenesia eta eboluzionismoa bezalako sinesmenetan adierazten den bezala; hala ere, errealistak izanik, eboluzioak ez du epe luzerako helbururik eta ez du nahitaez konplexutasun handiagorik sortzen<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane199661-89">[89]</a>. Espezie konplexuek eboluzionatu duten arren, organismo-kopuru osoaren gehikuntzaren bigarren mailako ondorio gisa gertatzen dira, eta bizi-forma sinpleek ohikoagoak izaten jarraitzen dute <a href="/wiki/Biosfera" title="Biosfera">biosferan</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a>. Adibidez, espezie gehien-gehienak <a href="/wiki/Prokarioto" title="Prokarioto">prokarioto</a> mikroskopikoak dira, gutxi gorabehera munduko <a href="/wiki/Biomasa" title="Biomasa">biomasaren</a> erdia osatzen dutenak tamaina txikia izan arren<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>, eta Lurraren biodibertsitate gehiena osatzen dute<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a>. Beraz, organismo sinpleak izan dira Lurrean historian zehar nagusi izan direnak, eta gaur egun arte bizi modu nagusia izaten jarraitzen dute, eta bizi konplexuak anitzagoa dirudi, nabarmenagoa delako<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>. Izan ere, mikroorganismoen bilakaera bereziki garrantzitsua da ikerketa ebolutibo modernorako; mikroorganismoen ugalketa azkarrak bilakaera esperimentala aztertzeko eta eboluzioa eta egokitzapena denbora errealean behatzeko aukera ematen du<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moldaera">Moldaera</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Moldaera»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Moldaera">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Moldaera" title="Moldaera">Moldaera</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Homology_vertebrates-es.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Homology_vertebrates-es.svg/langeu-220px-Homology_vertebrates-es.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Homology_vertebrates-es.svg/langeu-330px-Homology_vertebrates-es.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Homology_vertebrates-es.svg/langeu-440px-Homology_vertebrates-es.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>Hezur <a href="/wiki/Homologia" title="Homologia">homologoak</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetrapodo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapodo">tetrapodoen</a> gorputz-adarretan. Animalia horien hezurrek oinarrizko egitura bera dute, baina berariazko erabileretarako egokitu dira.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Moldaera" title="Moldaera">Moldaera</a> edo adaptazioa da organismoak beren <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitatera</a> hobeto moldatzea eragiten duen prozesua<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr1982483-96">[96]</a>. Gainera, modlaera terminoa organismo baten biziraupenerako garrantzitsua den ezaugarri bati buruzkoa izan daiteke. Adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Zaldi" title="Zaldi">zaldien</a> hortzak belarra birrintzeko moldatuak daude. Moldaera terminoa erabiltzean, prozesu ebolutiborako eta produktuaren-ezaugarrirako (gorputzaren zatia edo funtzioa), hitzaren bi zentzuak adieraz daitezke. Moldaera hautespen naturalaren bidez egiten dira<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a>. Ondorengo definizioak <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodosius_Dobzhansky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky (sortu gabe)">Theodosius Dobzhanskyri</a> dagozkio: <ul><li>Moldaera da organismo bat bere habitatean edo habitatetan bizitzeko gai egiten duen prozesu ebolutiboa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobzhansky19681–34-98">[98]</a>.</li> <li>Moldagarritasuna moldatua izateko egoera da: organismo bat habitat multzo jakin batean bizitzeko eta ugaltzeko gai den maila<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobzhansky19684–6,_79–82,_84–87-99">[99]</a>.</li> <li>Ezaugarri-moldatu bat organismoaren garapen-ereduaren alderdi bat da, organismo horrek bizirik irauteko eta ugaltzeko probabilitatea ahalbidetzen edo handitzen duena<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a>.</li></ul> Moldaerak ezaugarri berri bat eskuratzea edo antzinako ezaugarri bat galtzea eragin dezake. Bi aldaketa-motak erakusten dituen adibide bat da <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterioak</a> <a href="/wiki/Antibiotiko" title="Antibiotiko">antibiotikoei</a> aurre egiteko eboluzionatzea, <a href="/wiki/Antibiotikoekiko_erresistentzia" title="Antibiotikoekiko erresistentzia">antibiotikoekiko erresistentzia</a> eragiten duten aldaketa genetikoekin, bai <a href="/wiki/Farmako" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmako">farmakoaren</a> helburua aldatzeagatik, bai farmakoa zelulatik kanpo ponpatzen duten garraiatzaileen jarduera handitzeagatik<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>. Beste adibide harrigarri batzuk dira <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> bakterioaren eboluzioa <a href="/wiki/Azido_zitriko" title="Azido zitriko">azido zitrikoa</a> epe luzerako laborategiko esperimentu batean mantenugai gisa erabiltzeko<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a> bakterio berri baten eboluzioa <a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a> fabrikazioaren azpiproduktuetan hazteko aukera ematen diena bakterio horiei<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a>, eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sphingobium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sphingobium (sortu gabe)">Sphingobium</a> lurzoruaren bakterioaren eboluzioa, bide metaboliko guztiz berri batetik, <a href="/wiki/Pentaklorofenol" title="Pentaklorofenol">pentaklorofenol</a> <a href="/wiki/Pestizida" title="Pestizida">pestizida</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a>. Ideia interesgarri baina eztabaidagarri bat da moldaera batzuek organismoek aniztasun genetikoa sortzeko eta hautespen naturalaren bidez egokitzeko duten gaitasuna handitu dezaketela (organismoen eboluzio-gaitasuna handituz)<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAltenberg1995205–259-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>. Moldaera lehendik dauden egiturak pixkanaka aldatuz egiten da. Ondorioz, antzeko barne-antolamendua duten egiturek funtzio desberdinak izan ditzakete lotutako organismoetan. Antzinako egitura bera hainbat modutan funtzionatzeko egokitzearen emaitza da hori. <a href="/wiki/Saguzar" title="Saguzar">Saguzarren</a> hegaletako hezurrak, adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Sagu" title="Sagu">saguen</a> oinen eta <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primateen</a> eskuetakoen oso antzekoak dira, egitura horiek guztiak <a href="/wiki/Ugaztun" title="Ugaztun">ugaztun</a> arrunt batengandik datozelako<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>. Hala ere, organismo bizi guztiak neurri bateraino erlazionatuta daudenez<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>, egitura-antzekotasun gutxi edo batere antzekotasunik ez dutela diruditen organoak ere, hala nola <a href="/wiki/Artropodo" title="Artropodo">artropodoen</a> begiak, <a href="/wiki/Txipiroi" title="Txipiroi">txipiroiak</a> eta ornodunak, edo artropodoen eta ornodunen gorputz-adarrak eta hegalak, haien mihiztadura eta funtzioa kontrolatzen duten gene homologoen multzo komun baten mende egon daitezke; horri <a href="/w/index.php?title=Homologia_sakona&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Homologia sakona (sortu gabe)">homologia sakona</a> esaten zaio<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>. Eboluzioan zehar, egitura batzuek jatorrizko funtzioa gal dezakete eta aztarna bihur daitezke<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a>. Egitura horiek funtzio urria edo nulua izan dezakete gaur egungo espezie batean, baina funtzio argia dute antzinako espezieetan edo lotura estua duten beste espezie batzuetan. Hona hemen adibide batzuk: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pseudogene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pseudogene (sortu gabe)">pseudogeneak</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a>, begien arrasto ez-funtzionalak kobazuloetan bizi diren arrain itsuetan<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a>, hegoak hegalariak ez diren hegaztietan<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a>, aldakako hezurrak baleetan eta sugeetan, eta sexu-ezaugarriak bide asexualetik ugaltzen diren organismoetan<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a>. Gizakion aztarna-egituren adibideen artean daude, besteak beste, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judizioko_hortz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judizioko hortz (sortu gabe)">judizioko hortzak</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Koxis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Koxis (sortu gabe)">koxisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heste_sobre" title="Heste sobre">heste sobrea</a> eta beste portaera-aztarna batzuk, hala nola <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oilo-larrua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oilo-larrua (sortu gabe)">oilo-larrua</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne200962-120">[120]</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jatorrizko_erreflexu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jatorrizko erreflexu (sortu gabe)">jatorrizko erreflexuak</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray200766-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevens1982-122">[122]</a> Hala ere, moldaera soilak diruditen ezaugarri asko, berez, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Exaptazio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exaptazio (sortu gabe)">exaptazioak</a> dira: hasieran funtzio baterako egokitutako egiturak, baina kasualitatez prozesuan beste funtzioren baterako baliagarri bihurtu zirenak. Adibide bat <a href="/wiki/Holaspis_guentheri" title="Holaspis guentheri">Holaspis guentheri</a> musker afrikarra da, buru oso laua garatu zuena arrakaletan ezkutatzeko, bere ahaide hurbilak ikustean ikus daitekeen bezala. Hala ere, espezie honetan, burua hainbeste lautu denez, zuhaitzez zuhaitz hegan egiten laguntzen dio: exaptazio bat<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould2002-123">[123]</a>. Zelulen barruan, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Makina_molekular&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Makina molekular (sortu gabe)">makina molekularrek</a>, hala nola <a href="/wiki/Flagelo" title="Flagelo">flagelo</a> bakterianoek<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> eta proteinak sailkatzeko makineriak<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a>, eboluzionatu egin zuten aurretik zeuden eta funtzio desberdinak zituzten hainbat proteina errekrutatuz. Beste adibide bat <a href="/wiki/Glikolisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Glikolisi">glikolisiaren</a> entzimak eta <a href="/wiki/Xenobiotiko" title="Xenobiotiko">xenobiotikoen</a> metabolismoa biltzea da, organismoen begietako lenteen barruan <a href="/wiki/Kristalino" title="Kristalino">kristalino</a> izeneko egiturazko proteina gisa erabiltzeko<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiatigorskyet_al.1994-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Koeboluzioa">Koeboluzioa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Koeboluzioa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Koeboluzioa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Koeboluzio" title="Koeboluzio">Koeboluzio</a>»</div> Organismoen arteko elkarrekintzek gatazka nahiz lankidetza eragin dezakete. Interakzioa espezie pareen artean gertatzen denean, hala nola, <a href="/wiki/Patogeno" title="Patogeno">patogeno</a> baten eta <a href="/wiki/Ostalari_(biologia)" title="Ostalari (biologia)">ostalari</a> baten artean, edo harrapari baten eta bere harrapakinaren artean, espezie horiek elkarren ondoan dauden egokitzapen-multzoak gara ditzakete. Kasu honetan, espezie baten eboluzioak egokitzapenak eragiten ditu bigarren espezie batean. Bigarren espezieko aldaketa horiek, aldi berean, lehenengoan egokitzapen berriak eragiten dituzte. Hautaketa- eta erantzun-ziklo horri koeboluzioa esaten zaio<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>. Horren adibide dira <a href="/wiki/Taricha_granulosa" title="Taricha granulosa">Taricha granulosa</a>ren <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tetrodotoxina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetrodotoxina (sortu gabe)">tetrodotoxina</a> ekoiztea eta tetrodotoxinarekiko erresistentziaren eboluzioa bere harraparian, <a href="/wiki/Thamnophis_sirtalis" title="Thamnophis sirtalis">Thamnophis sirtalis</a>. Harrapari eta harrapakin pare horretan, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Armamentu-karrera_ebolutibo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armamentu-karrera ebolutibo (sortu gabe)">armamentu-karrera ebolutibo</a> batek toxina-maila handiak eragin ditu uhandrean, eta toxinarekiko erresistentzia-maila handiak sugean<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kooperazioa">Kooperazioa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Kooperazioa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Kooperazioa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Espezieen arteko elkarrekintza koebolutibo guztiek ez dakarte gatazkarik<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a>. Elkarreragin onuragarrien kasu askok eboluzionatu dute. Adibidez, muturreko lankidetza dago landareen eta <a href="/wiki/Onddo_mikorriziko" class="mw-redirect" title="Onddo mikorriziko">onddo mikorrizikoen</a> artean, <a href="/wiki/Sustrai" title="Sustrai">sustraietan</a> hazten baitira eta landareari lurzoruaren mantenugaiak xurgatzen laguntzen baitiote<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a>. Elkarrekiko harremana da, landareek <a href="/wiki/Fotosintesi" title="Fotosintesi">fotosintesitik</a> datozen <a href="/wiki/Azukre" title="Azukre">azukreak</a> ematen baitizkiete onddoei. Egia esan, onddoak landareen zelulen barruan hazten dira, eta, horri esker, ostatu-hartzaileekin mantenugaiak truka ditzakete, eta, aldi berean, landarearen <a href="/wiki/Immunitate-sistema" title="Immunitate-sistema">immunitate-sistema</a> ezabatzen duten seinaleak bidaltzen dituzte<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a>. Espezie bereko organismoen arteko koalizioek ere bilakaera izan dute. Muturreko kasu bat <a href="/w/index.php?title=Intsektu_sozial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intsektu sozial (sortu gabe)">intsektu sozialetan</a> aurkitutako <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eusozialtasun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eusozialtasun (sortu gabe)">eusozialtasuna</a> da, hala nola <a href="/wiki/Erle" title="Erle">erleak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termita" title="Termita">termitak</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Inurri" title="Inurri">inurriak</a>, non intsektu antzuak elikatzen diren eta ugaltzeko gai diren kolonia bateko organismo-kopuru txikia zaintzen duten. Are eskala txikiagoan, animalia baten gorputza osatzen duten <a href="/wiki/Zelula_somatiko" title="Zelula somatiko">zelula somatikoek</a> haren ugalketa mugatzen dute organismo egonkor bat mantendu ahal izateko, zeinak, aldi berean, animaliaren ama-zelulen kopuru txiki bat mantentzen duen ondorengoak sortzeko. Kasu honetan, zelula somatikoek seinale espezifikoei erantzuten diete, eta seinale horiek adierazten diete hazi, geratu edo hil egin behar duten. Zelulek seinale horiek alde batera utzi eta modu desegokian ugaltzen badira, kontrolik gabeko hazkundeak <a href="/wiki/Minbizi" title="Minbizi">minbizia</a> eragiten du<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a>. Baliteke espezieen arteko lankidetza hori ahaidetasuna hautatzeko prozesuaren bidez eboluzionatu izana, orduan jarduten baitu organismo batek ahaide baten ondorengoei hazten laguntzeko<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a>. Izan ere, laguntzen duen banakoek laguntza-jarduera sustatzen duten aleloak baditu, litekeena da bere senideek ere halako aleloak izatea eta, beraz, alelo horiek transmititzea<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a>. Lankidetza susta dezaketen beste prozesu batzuk taldeen hautaketa dira, non lankidetzak onurak ematen dizkion erakunde talde bati<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Espeziazioa">Espeziazioa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espeziazioa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Espeziazioa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Espeziazio" title="Espeziazio">Espeziazio</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Speciation_modes_eu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Speciation_modes_eu.svg/220px-Speciation_modes_eu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Speciation_modes_eu.svg/330px-Speciation_modes_eu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Speciation_modes_eu.svg/440px-Speciation_modes_eu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="374" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption>Espeziazio moduak.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Espeziazio" title="Espeziazio">Espeziazioa</a> espezie batek ondorengo bi espezie edo gehiagotan dibergitzeko prozesua da<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a>. "Espezie" kontzeptua definitzeko modu asko daude. Definizioa aukeratzeko, espezie horren berezitasunak hartu behar dira kontuan<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a>. Adibidez, espezie kontzeptu batzuk errazago aplikatzen zaizkie sexualki ugaltzen diren organismoei, eta beste batzuk, berriz, hobeto ematen zaizkie organismo asexualei. Espeziearen kontzeptuak askotarikoak izan arren, hiru ikuspegi filosofiko handienetako batean koka daitezke: mestizajean, ekologikoan eta filogenetikoan<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a>. Espeziearen kontzeptua biologikoa mestizaje-ikuspegiaren adibide klasiko bat da. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> biologo eboluzionistak 1942an definitu zuen espeziearen kontzeptu biologikoa eta honako hau dio: "Espezieak populazio natural errealen edo potentzialki gurutzatuen taldeak dira, ugalketa aldetik antzeko beste talde batzuetatik isolatuta daudenak"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr1942120-142">[142]</a>. Erabilera zabala eta luzea izan arren, kontzeptu biologikoak, beste batzuk bezala, ez dago polemikatik kanpo, adibidez, kontzeptu horiek ezin zaizkielako <a href="/wiki/Prokarioto" title="Prokarioto">prokariotoei</a> aplikatu<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a>, eta honi deritzo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espezieen_arazoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Espezieen arazoa (sortu gabe)">espezieen arazoa</a>. Ikertzaile batzuk saiatu dira espezieen definizio monista bateratzailea egiten; beste batzuek, berriz, ikuspegi pluralista hartzen dute, eta espezie baten definizioa logikoki interpretatzeko modu desberdinak egon daitezkeela iradokitzen dute. Populazioak espezie berri bihurtzeko, beharrezkoa da <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isolamendu_erreproduktibo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isolamendu erreproduktibo (sortu gabe)">ugalketa-oztopoak</a> egotea bi sexu-populazio dibergenteren artean. Geneen fluxuak prozesu hori mantsotu dezake aldaera genetiko berriak beste populazioetara ere hedatzean. <a href="/wiki/Arbaso_komun" title="Arbaso komun">Arbaso komun</a> berrienetik bi espeziek izan duten dibergentziaren arabera, oraindik ere gerta daiteke ondorengoak sortzea, <a href="/wiki/Zaldi" title="Zaldi">zaldiekin</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Asto" title="Asto">astoekin</a> gertatzen den bezala, elkarrekin <a href="/wiki/Mando" title="Mando">mando</a> bat sortu dezaketela<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hibrido" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibrido">Hibrido</a> horiek <a href="/wiki/Antzutasun" title="Antzutasun">antzuak</a> izaten dira. Kasu honetan, ahaidetasun estua duten espezieak erregulartasunez gurutza daitezke, baina hibridoak baztertu egingo dira eta espezieak ezberdinak izaten jarraituko dute. Hala ere, batzuetan hibrido bideragarriak sortzen dira, eta espezie berri horiek bitarteko propietateak izan ditzakete beren guraso-espezieen artean, edo fenotipo guztiz berria izan dezakete<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a>. Animalia espezie berrien ekoizpenean hibridazioak duen garrantzia ez dago argi, nahiz eta animalia mota askotan ikusi diren<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dryophytes_versicolor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dryophytes versicolor (sortu gabe)">Dryophytes versicolor</a> igela bereziki ondo aztertutako adibidea izanik<a href="#cite_note-Izenik_gabekoa-1ž7dF-1-147">[147]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Espeziazio_alopatrikoa">Espeziazio alopatrikoa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espeziazio alopatrikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Espeziazio alopatrikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Espeziazioa askotan behatu da, bai laborategiko baldintza kontrolatuetan, bai naturan<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a>. Sexualki ugaltzen diren organismoetan, espeziazioa ugalketa-isolamenduaren eta dibergentzia genealogikoaren emaitza da. Espeziatzeko lau modu geografiko nagusi daude. Animalietan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espeziazio_alopatriko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Espeziazio alopatriko (sortu gabe)">espeziazio alopatrikoa</a> da ohikoena, hasieran geografikoki isolatutako populazioetan gertatzen dena, adibidez habitataren zatiketaren edo migrazioaren ondorioz. Baldintza horietan adaptazioak aldaketa oso azkarrak eragin ditzake organismoen itxuran eta portaeran<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a>. Hautespenak eta jitoak beren espezieko gainerako populazio isolatuetan modu independentean eragiten dutenez, banantzeak gurutzatu ezin diren organismoak sor ditzake azkenean<a href="#cite_note-Izenik_gabekoa-1ž7dF-1-147">[147]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Espeziazio_peripatrikoa">Espeziazio peripatrikoa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espeziazio peripatrikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Espeziazio peripatrikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Bigarren espeziazio-modua <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espeziazio_peripatriko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Espeziazio peripatriko (sortu gabe)">espeziazio peripatrikoa</a> da, organismo-populazio txikiak ingurune berri batean isolatuta geratzen direnean gertatzen dena. Espeziazio alopatrikotik bereizten da populazio isolatuak askoz txikiagoak direla zenbakiz gurasoen populazioa baino. Kasu honetan, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fundatzailearen_efektua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fundatzailearen efektua (sortu gabe)">fundatzailearen efektuak</a> espeziazio azkar bat eragiten du, <a href="/wiki/Endogamia" title="Endogamia">endogamia</a> handitzeak homozigotoen gaineko hautespena handitzen duenean, eta horrek aldaketa genetiko azkar bat eragiten du<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Espeziazio_parapatrikoa">Espeziazio parapatrikoa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espeziazio parapatrikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Espeziazio parapatrikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Hirugarren modua <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espeziazio_parapatriko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Espeziazio parapatriko (sortu gabe)">espeziazio parapatrikoa</a> da. Espeziazio peripatrikoaren antzekoa da, populazio txiki bat habitat berri batean sartzen delako, baina desberdina da bi populazio horien artean bereizketa fisikorik ez dagoelako. Espeziazioa, ordea, bi populazioen arteko gene-fluxua murrizten duten mekanismoen bilakaeraren ondorio da. Oro har, guraso-espeziearen habitataren barruan ingurunean aldaketa drastiko bat gertatu denean gertatzen da hori. Adibidez, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthoxanthum_odoratum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anthoxanthum odoratum (sortu gabe)">Anthoxanthum odoratum</a> belarra, espeziazio parapatrikoa izan dezakeena, meategietatik datozen metalek eragindako kutsadurari erantzuteko<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a>. Kasu honetan, landareak lurrean metal maila altuekiko erresistentziaz eboluzionatzen dira. Metalekiko sentikorra den guraso-populazioarekiko mestizajearen aurkako hautaketak aldaketa mailakatu bat eragin zuen metalekiko erresistenteak diren landareen loratze-denboran, eta, azkenean, erabat isolatu zuen ugalketa. Bi populazioen arteko hibridoen aurkako hautaketak errefortzua eragin dezake, hau da, espezie baten barruan estaltzea sustatzen duten ezaugarrien eboluzioa, baita karaktereen desplazamendua ere, orduan bihurtzen baitira bi espezie itxuraz ezberdinago<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Espeziazio_sinpatrikoa">Espeziazio sinpatrikoa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espeziazio sinpatrikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Espeziazio sinpatrikoa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Azkenik, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Espeziazio_sinpatriko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Espeziazio sinpatriko (sortu gabe)">espeziazio sinpatrikoan</a>, espezieak bereizi egiten dira isolamendu geografikorik eta habitat-aldaketarik gabe. Forma hau arraroa da, fluxu genetiko kantitate txiki batek populazio baten atalen arteko ezberdintasun genetikoak ezaba baititzake<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a>. Oro har, animalien espeziazio sinpatrikoak desberdintasun genetikoen eta ausazko estaltze ez-aleatorioaren bilakaera eskatzen du, ugalketa-isolamenduaren bilakaera ahalbidetzeko<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a>. Espeziazio sinpatriko mota batek berekin dakar lotutako bi espezie gurutzatzea espezie hibrido berri bat sortzeko. Hori ez da ohikoa animalietan, animalia hibridoak antzuak izaten baitira. Izan ere, <a href="/wiki/Meiosi" title="Meiosi">meiosi</a> garaian, guraso bakoitzaren kromosoma homologoak espezie desberdinetakoak dira, eta ezin dira arrakastaz parekatu. Hala ere, ohikoagoa da landareetan, horiek kromosoma kopurua bikoiztu ohi dutelako, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Poliploide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poliploide (sortu gabe)">poliploideak</a> sortzeko<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a>. Horri esker, guraso-espezie bakoitzeko kromosomek pareak eratzen dituzte meiosian, guraso bakoitzaren kromosomak pare batek ordezkatzen baititu<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a>. Espeziazio mota horren adibide da <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabidopsis_arenosa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arabidopsis arenosa (sortu gabe)">Arabidopsis arenosa</a> landare-espezieak gurutzatu zirenean <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabidopsis_suecica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arabidopsis suecica (sortu gabe)">Arabidopsis suecica</a> espezie berria sortzeko<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a>. Duela 20.000 urte inguru gertatu zen hori<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a>, eta espeziazio-prozesua errepikatu egin da laborategian, prozesu horretan inplikatutako mekanismo genetikoak aztertzeko aukera ematen baitu<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a>. Izan ere, espezie baten barruan kromosomak bikoiztea ugalketa-isolamenduaren kausa komuna izan daiteke, bikoiztutako kromosomen erdia ez baita bat etorriko bikoiztu gabeko organismoekin ugaltzen denean<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Espeziazioa_eta_oreka_taidunaren_teoria">Espeziazioa eta oreka taidunaren teoria</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espeziazioa eta oreka taidunaren teoria»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Espeziazioa eta oreka taidunaren teoria">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Espeziazio-gertaerak garrantzitsuak dira <a href="/wiki/Oreka_taidunaren_teoria" title="Oreka taidunaren teoria">oreka taidunaren teorian</a>, eta horrek azaltzen du eboluzio-leherketa laburren eredua erregistro fosilean, estasi-aldi luze samarrekin tartekatuta, non espezieak nahiko aldatu gabe geratzen diren<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEldredgeGould197282–115-164">[164]</a>. Teoria horren arabera, espeziazioa eta bilakaera azkarra lotuta daude, eta hautespen naturalak eta jito genetikoak indar handiagoz eragiten diete habitat berrietan edo populazio txikietan espezializatzen diren organismoei. Ondorioz, erregistro fosileko estasi-aldiak guraso-biztanleriari dagozkio, eta espeziazioa eta bilakaera azkarra izaten duten organismoak populazio txikietan edo geografikoki mugatuak diren habitatetan daude; beraz, oso gutxitan kontserbatzen dira fosil gisa<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraungipena">Iraungipena</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Iraungipena»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Iraungipena">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/220px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/330px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/440px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1552" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannosaurus rex">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> <a href="/wiki/Dinosaurio" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinosaurio">dinosaurio</a> bat zen. <a href="/wiki/Hegazti" title="Hegazti">Hegaztiak</a> ez diren dinosaurio guztiak iraungi ziren <a href="/wiki/Kretazeo-Tertziarioko_iraungipen_masiboa" title="Kretazeo-Tertziarioko iraungipen masiboa">Kretazeo-Tertziarioko iraungipen masiboan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Iraingipen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iraingipen (sortu gabe)">Iraingipena</a> espezie oso baten desagerpena da. Iraungipena ez da ezohikoa, espezieak espeziazioaren bidez agertzen baitira erregularki, eta iraungipenaren bidez desagertzen<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a>. Lurrean bizi izan diren animalia eta landare espezie ia guztiak desagertu egin dira, eta badirudi iraungitzea dela espezie guztien azken helmuga<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a>. Iraungipen horiek etengabe gertatu dira bizitzaren historian zehar, nahiz eta iraungitze-erritmoa areagotu egiten den <a href="/wiki/Iraungipen_masibo" title="Iraungipen masibo">iraungipen masiboko</a> noizbehinkako gertaeretan. <a href="/wiki/Kretaziko-Paleogenoa_iraungitze_masiboa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kretaziko-Paleogenoa iraungitze masiboa">Kretaziko-Paleogenoa iraungitze masiboa</a> da ezagunena, zeinean <a href="/wiki/Dinosauro" title="Dinosauro">dinosauro</a> ez-hegaztiak iraungi ziren, baina aurreko <a href="/wiki/Permo-Triasiar_iraungipen_masiboa" title="Permo-Triasiar iraungipen masiboa">Permo-Triasiar iraungipen masiboa</a> are latzagoa izan zen, iraungitzera eramandako itsas espezie guztien % 96 ingururekin. <a href="/wiki/Holozenoko_iraungipen_masiboa" class="mw-redirect" title="Holozenoko iraungipen masiboa">Holozenoko iraungipen masiboa</a>, azken milaka urteetan gizadiak planetan izan duen hedapenarekin lotutako iraungipen masibo bat da. Gaur egungo iraungitze-tasak hondo-tasa baino 100-1.000 aldiz handiagoak dira, eta egungo espezieen % 30 ere iraungi daitezke XXI. mendearen erdialdean<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a>. Giza jarduerak dira gaur egungo desagertzearen arrazoi nagusia<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Berotze_globala" class="mw-redirect" title="Berotze globala">berotze globalak</a> are gehiago bizkor dezake etorkizunean<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a>. Noizbait Lurrean bizi izan ziren espezie guztien % 99 baino gehiagoren iraungipena aurreikusten den arren, kalkulatzen da gaur egun bilioi bat espezie inguru daudela Lurrean<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a>, eta horietatik milaren bat bakarrik deskribatu dela<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a>. Desagertzeak bilakaeran duen zeregina ez da oso ondo ulertzen, eta kontuan hartzen den iraungitze-motaren araberakoa izan daiteke. Iraungitze gehienak "maila baxuko" iraungitze-gertaera etengabeen arrazoiak espezieen arteko lehiaren emaitza izan daitezke, baliabide mugatuen bidez (lehia-bazterketaren printzipioa). Espezie bat beste bat baino gehiago lehiatu badaiteke, espezie-hautaketa bat gerta liteke, egokienak bizirik iraun eta besteak iraungitzera eramanez. Aldizkako iraungitze masiboak ere garrantzitsuak dira, baina indar selektibo gisa jardun beharrean, aniztasuna modu ez-espezifikoan murrizten dute, eta biziraun dutenengan eboluzio azkarreko eta espezializazioko eztandak sustatzen dituzte<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biziaren_historia_ebolutiboa">Biziaren historia ebolutiboa</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Biziaren historia ebolutiboa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Biziaren historia ebolutiboa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Lurreko <a href="/wiki/Biziaren_historia_ebolutiboa" title="Biziaren historia ebolutiboa">biziaren historia ebolutiboak</a> <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">organismo</a> <a href="/wiki/Bizi" title="Bizi">biziek</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil">fosilek</a> eboluzionatu zuten prozesuak marrazten ditu, <a href="/wiki/Biziaren_jatorria" title="Biziaren jatorria">biziaren lehen agerpenetik</a> gaur egunera arte. Duela 4.500 milioi urte (Ga) <a href="/wiki/Lurraren_historia" title="Lurraren historia">sortu zen Lurra</a>, eta bizia 3,7 Ga baino lehen sortu zela iradokitzen dute frogek<a href="#cite_note-:0-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[oh 1]</a>. Gaur egun ezagutzen diren <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">espezie</a> guztien arteko antzekotasunek, <a href="/wiki/Arbaso_komun" title="Arbaso komun">arbaso komun</a> baten eboluzio prozesuan zehar banandu direla adierazten dute<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a>. Gutxi gorabehera bilioi bat espezie bizi dira gaur egun Lurrean<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a>, eta horietatik 1,75-1,8 milioi baino ez dira izendatu<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a>, eta 1,6 milioi datu base zentral batean dokumentatuta daude<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a>. Gaur egun bizirik dauden espezie horiek Lurrean bizi izan diren espezie guztien ehuneko bat baino gutxiago dira<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a>. Lehen bizi-ebidentzia <a href="/wiki/Groenlandia" title="Groenlandia">Groenlandiako</a> mendebaldean 3.700 milioi urte dituzten <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arroka_metasedimentario&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arroka metasedimentario (sortu gabe)">arroka metasedimentarioetan</a> aurkitutako <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karbono_biogeniko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karbono biogeniko (sortu gabe)">karbono biogeniko</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-179">[179]</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Estromatolito" title="Estromatolito">estromatolitoen</a> fosiletatik dator<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a>. 2015ean, "Bizi biotikoaren hondarrak" aurkitu zituzten <a href="/wiki/Mendebaldeko_Australia" title="Mendebaldeko Australia">Mendebaldeko Australian</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-#1-182">[182]</a>, 4.100 milioi urteko <a href="/wiki/Arroka" title="Arroka">arroketan</a>. 2017ko martxoan, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebeceko</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanada</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuvvuagittuq_Gerrikoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuvvuagittuq Gerrikoa (sortu gabe)">Nuvvuagittuq Gerrikoan</a> <a href="/wiki/Fumarola" title="Fumarola">fumarola</a> <a href="/wiki/Hidrotermal" title="Hidrotermal">hidrotermalen</a> prezipitatuetan aurkitutako <a href="/wiki/Mikroorganismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikroorganismo">mikroorganismo</a> fosilizatuen moduan Lurreko bizi-arrasto zaharrenak egon zitezkeela jakinarazi zen, duela 4.280 milioi urte, duela 4.400 milioi urte <a href="/wiki/Ozeano" title="Ozeano">ozeanoak</a> sortu eta ez asko geroago, bizirik izan zitezkeenak<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">Bakterioen</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Arkeobakterio" class="mw-redirect" title="Arkeobakterio">arkaeoen</a> tapete <a href="/wiki/Mikrobiano" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikrobiano">mikrobianoak</a> izan ziren <a href="/wiki/Arkear" title="Arkear">Arkearraren</a> lehen garaiko bizi nagusia, eta uste da eboluzio goiztiarraren urrats nagusietako asko inguru horretan gertatu zirela<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fotosintesi" title="Fotosintesi">Fotosintesiaren</a> eboluzioak, 3,5 Ga ingurukoa, bere hondakin produktua, <a href="/wiki/Oxigeno" title="Oxigeno">oxigenoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosfera" title="Atmosfera">atmosferan</a> metatu zuen eta, ondorioz, <a href="/wiki/Oxigenazio_Handia" title="Oxigenazio Handia">oxigenazio gertaera handia</a> gertatu zen, 2,4 Ga inguruan hasi zena<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eukarioto" title="Eukarioto">Eukariotoen</a> lehen ebidentziak (<a href="/wiki/Organulu" title="Organulu">organuludun</a> <a href="/wiki/Zelula" title="Zelula">zelula</a> konplexuak) 1,85 Ga-koak dira<a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a>, eta lehenago egon daitezkeen arren, euren dibertsifikazioa azkartu egin zen oxigenoa euren <a href="/wiki/Metabolismo" title="Metabolismo">metabolismoan</a> erabiltzen hasi zirenean. Beranduago, 1,7 Ga inguru, <a href="/wiki/Organismo_multizelular" class="mw-redirect" title="Organismo multizelular">organismo multizelularrak</a> agertzen hasi ziren, funtzio espezializatuak betetzen zituzten zelula ezberdinekin<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ugalketa_sexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugalketa sexual">Ugalketa sexuala</a>, ugalketa-zelula <a href="/wiki/Ar" title="Ar">maskulino</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Eme" title="Eme">femeninoen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gameto" title="Gameto">gametoak</a>) fusioa dakarrena, <a href="/wiki/Ernalketa" title="Ernalketa">ernalketa</a> izeneko prozesu batean <a href="/wiki/Zigoto" title="Zigoto">zigoto</a> bat sortzeko organismo makroskopiko gehienentzat ugalketa-metodo nagusia da eukarioto ia guztientzat (<a href="/wiki/Animalia" title="Animalia">animaliak</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Landare" title="Landare">landareak</a> barne), <a href="/wiki/Ugalketa_asexual" title="Ugalketa asexual">ugalketa asexualarekin</a> alderatuta<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a>. Hala ere, ugalketa sexualaren jatorriak eta bilakaerak misterioa izaten jarraitzen dute biologoentzat, nahiz eta eboluzionatu zuen arbaso komun batetik abiatuta, espezie eukariota <a href="/wiki/Zelulabakar" class="mw-redirect" title="Zelulabakar">zelulabakarra</a> baitzen<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a>, ezkerreko alde bat eta eskuineko alde bat dituzten animaliak, bata bestearen ispilu diren irudiak, duela 555 milioi urte (Ma) inguruan agertu zen<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a>. Lehorreko lehen landare konplexuak 850 Ma ingurukoak dira<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanbriarraurrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanbriarraurrea">Kanbriaraurreko</a> harkaitzetako <a href="/wiki/Karbono" title="Karbono">karbonozko</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotopo" title="Isotopo">isotopoetatik</a> abiatuta; <a href="/wiki/Alga" title="Alga">algen</a> antzeko lurreko landare zelulaniztunak, berriz, duela 1.000 milioi urtekoak dira<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a>, nahiz eta frogen arabera mikroorganismoek lehen lehorreko ekosistemak osatu zituztela iradokitzen duten, gutxienez 2,7 Ga<a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a>. Uste denez, mikroorganismoek landareak lehorreratzeko baldintzak sortu zituzten <a href="/wiki/Ordoviziar" title="Ordoviziar">Ordoviziarrean</a>. Lehorreko landareek hain arrakasta handia izan zuten ezen uste den <a href="/wiki/Devoniar" title="Devoniar">Devoniar</a> berantiarraren iraungitze masiboan lagundu zutela<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ediacararreko_biota" title="Ediacararreko biota">Ediacararreko biota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ediacararra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacararra">Ediacararrean</a> agertzen da<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ornodun" title="Ornodun">ornodunak</a>, gainontzeko <a href="/wiki/Filum" title="Filum">filum moderno</a> gehienekin batera, <a href="/wiki/Kanbriarreko_leherketa" title="Kanbriarreko leherketa">Kanbriarreko leherketan</a> 525 Ma inguru sortu ziren bitartean<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Permiar" title="Permiar">Permiar</a> aroan, <a href="/wiki/Synapsida" title="Synapsida">sinapsidoak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ugaztun" title="Ugaztun">ugaztunen</a> arbasoak barne, lurra menderatu zuten, baina talde honen zatirik handiena<a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a>, 252 Mako <a href="/wiki/Permo-Triasiar_iraungipen_masiboa" title="Permo-Triasiar iraungipen masiboa">Permo-Triasiar iraungitze masiboan</a> iraungi zen<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a>. Hondamendi honetatik berreskuratzean, <a href="/wiki/Arkosauro" class="mw-redirect" title="Arkosauro">arkosauroak</a>, lurreko <a href="/wiki/Ornodun" title="Ornodun">ornodun</a> ugarienak bihurtu ziren<a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a>; arkosauro talde batek, <a href="/wiki/Dinosauro" title="Dinosauro">dinosauroak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurasiko" title="Jurasiko">Jurasiko</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Kretazeo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kretazeo">Kretazeo</a> aroak menderatu zituen<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a>. 66 Ma <a href="/wiki/Kretazeo-Tertziarioko_iraungipen_masiboa" title="Kretazeo-Tertziarioko iraungipen masiboa">Kretazeo-Tertziarioko iraungipen masiboaren</a> ondoren, <a href="/wiki/Hegazti" title="Hegazti">hegaztiak</a> ez ziren dinosauroak hil zituen<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ugaztun" title="Ugaztun">ugaztunak</a> <a href="/wiki/Erradiazio_adaptatibo" title="Erradiazio adaptatibo">azkar handitu ziren tamainan</a> eta aniztasunean. Iraungitze masibo horiek eboluzioa bizkortu dezakete, organismo talde berriak dibertsifikatzeko aukerak ematen baitituzte<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oharrak">Oharrak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Oharrak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Oharrak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">↑</a> Nahiz eta bizi-proba batzuk 4,1 eta 4,28 Ga artekoak izan, eztabaidagarria izaten jarraitzen du ustezko fosilen balizko eraketa ez-biologikoa dela eta<a href="#cite_note-:0-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-#1-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erreferentziak">Erreferentziak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Erreferentziak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Erreferentziak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a> Altonaga, Kepa. (2009-09-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zthiztegia.elhuyar.eus/terminoa/eu/eboluzio">«eboluzio»</a> zthiztegia.elhuyar.eus (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> Hall, , Brian K.. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/85814089">Strickberger's evolution : the integration of genes, organisms and populations. </a> (4th ed. argitaraldia) Jones and Bartlett <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/9780763700669" title="Berezi:BookSources/9780763700669">9780763700669</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=85814089">85814089</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a> 1942-, Futuyma, Douglas J.,. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/969439375">Evolution. </a> (Fourth edition. argitaraldia) <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/9781605356051" title="Berezi:BookSources/9781605356051">9781605356051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=969439375">969439375</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Scott-Phillips, Thomas C.; Laland, Kevin N.; Shuker, David M.; Dickins, Thomas E.; West, Stuart A.. (2014-01-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12332">«THE NICHE CONSTRUCTION PERSPECTIVE: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL»</a> Evolution 68 (5): 1231–1243.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fevo.12332">10.1111/evo.12332</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0014-3820">0014-3820</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24325256">24325256</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4261998">PMC4261998</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a> 1941-, Hall, Brian K. (Brian Keith),. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/85814089">Strickberger's evolution : the integration of genes, organisms and populations. </a> (4th ed. argitaraldia) Jones and Bartlett <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/9780763700669" title="Berezi:BookSources/9780763700669">9780763700669</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=85814089">85814089</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ehu.eus/ehg/klasikoak/?f=30">«KLASIKOAK bilduma - UPV/EHU»</a> www.ehu.eus (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Lewontin, R C. (1970-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245">«The Units of Selection»</a> Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1 (1): 1–18.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.01.110170.000245">10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0066-4162">0066-4162</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-24). </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a> MYERS, PZ. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060622031856/http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/06/ann_coulter_no_evidence_for_ev.php">Ann Coulter: No evidence for evolution?</a>. Scienceblogs.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927094546/http://www.interacademies.net/Object.File/Master/6/150/Evolution%20statement.pdf">IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">2006 Statement on the Teaching of Evolution</a> eta <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060421193306/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0219boardstatement.shtml">AAASk eboluzioaren aurkako politikak salatzen ditu</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_11-0">↑</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglas_J._Futuyma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Douglas J. Futuyma (sortu gabe)">FUTUYMA, DOUGLAS J.</a>. 2005. Evolution. Sinauer Associates Inc, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunderland,_Massachusetts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunderland, Massachusetts (sortu gabe)">Sunderlan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-87893-187-2" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-87893-187-2">ISBN 0-87893-187-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Gould_12-0">↑</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">GOULD, STEPHEN J.</a>. 2002. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-674-00613-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-674-00613-5">ISBN 0-674-00613-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a> Doolittle, W. Ford. (2000-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90">«Uprooting the Tree of Life»</a> Scientific American 282 (2): 90–95.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0200-90">10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733">0036-8733</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a> Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Czaja, Andrew D.; Tripathi, Abhishek B.. (2007-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009">«Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils»</a> Precambrian Research 158 (3-4): 141–155.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.precamres.2007.04.009">10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0301-9268">0301-9268</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; Nagase, Toshiro; Rosing, Minik T.. (2013-12-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2025">«Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks»</a> Nature Geoscience 7 (1): 25–28.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo2025">10.1038/ngeo2025</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1752-0894">1752-0894</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html">«Excite News - Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom»</a> apnews.excite.com (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Pearlman, Jonathan. (2013-11-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html">'Oldest signs of life on Earth found'. </a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235">0307-1235</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M.. (2013-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2013.1030">«Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia»</a> Astrobiology 13 (12): 1103–1124.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2013.1030">10.1089/ast.2013.1030</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1531-1074">1531-1074</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24205812">24205812</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3870916">PMC3870916</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61342697">Assembling the tree of life. </a> Oxford University Press 2004 <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/1423720733" title="Berezi:BookSources/1423720733">1423720733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=61342697">61342697</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a> Joseph., Panno,. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53901436">The cell : evolution of the first organism. </a> Facts On File <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0816049467" title="Berezi:BookSources/0816049467">0816049467</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=53901436">53901436</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Haeckel, Ernst. (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/evolution-of-man-a-popular-exposition-of-the-principal-points-of-human-ontogeny-and-phylogeny/oclc/2855202">The evolution of man: a popular exposition of the principal points of human ontogeny and phylogeny. </a> Appleton (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-25). </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080928112201/http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pdbId=1D65">PDB 1D65 Helbide honetatik sortua</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a> STURM, R. 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(1996-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9">«The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans»</a> Molecular Medicine Today 2 (8): 330–335.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F1357-4310%2896%2981798-9">10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1357-4310">1357-4310</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-11-26). </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Pearson, Helen. (2006-05-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/441398a">«Genetics: What is a gene?»</a> Nature  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F441398a">10.1038/441398a</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a> 1942-, Futuyma, Douglas J.,. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57311264">Evolution. </a> Sinauer Associates <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0878931872" title="Berezi:BookSources/0878931872">0878931872</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=57311264">57311264</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Phillips, Patrick C.. (2008-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg2452">«Epistasis — the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems»</a> Nature Reviews Genetics 9 (11): 855–867.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2452">10.1038/nrg2452</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1471-0064">1471-0064</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18852697">18852697</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC2689140">PMC2689140</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Lin, Min; Wu, Rongling. (2006-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg1804">«Functional mapping — how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits»</a> Nature Reviews Genetics 7 (3): 229–237.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1804">10.1038/nrg1804</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1471-0064">1471-0064</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a> Jablonka, Eva; Raz, Gal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.617.6333">«Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution»</a> Q. Rev. Biol. 2009: 131–176. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Pigliucci, Massimo; Richards, Christina L.; Arcuri, Davide; Bossdorf, Oliver. (2010-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7">«Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in Arabidopsis thaliana»</a> Evolutionary Ecology 24 (3): 541–553.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10682-010-9372-7">10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1573-8477">1573-8477</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a> Eva., Jablonka,. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56347983">Evolution in four dimensions : genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life. </a> MIT Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0262101076" title="Berezi:BookSources/0262101076">0262101076</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=56347983">56347983</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Laland, Kevin N.; Sterelny, Kim. (2006-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x">«Perspective: Seven Reasons (not) to Neglect Niche Construction»</a> Evolution 60 (9): 1751–1762.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x">10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1558-5646">1558-5646</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-05). </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Lin, Min; Wu, Rongling. (2006-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg1804">«Functional mapping — how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits»</a> Nature Reviews Genetics 7 (3): 229–237.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1804">10.1038/nrg1804</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1471-0064">1471-0064</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-11). </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a> Amos, W; Harwood, J. (1998-02-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692205/">«Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations.»</a> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 353 (1366): 177–186. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436">0962-8436</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9533122">9533122</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC1692205">PMC1692205</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-11). </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a> Ewens, Warren John. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53231891">Mathematical population genetics. </a> (2. argitaraldia) Springer <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0387201912" title="Berezi:BookSources/0387201912">0387201912</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=53231891">53231891</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-11). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a> Takagi, Y.; Fukase, M.; Takata, S.; Yoshimi, H.; Tokunaga, O.; Fujita, T.. (1990-04-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1692210">«Autocrine effect of endothelin on DNA synthesis in human vascular endothelial cells»</a> Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 168 (2): 537–543. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0006-291X">0006-291X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1692210">1692210</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-12-11). </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a> Wetterbom, Anna; Sevov, Marie; Cavelier, Lucia; Bergström, Tomas F.. (2006-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17075697">«Comparative genomic analysis of human and chimpanzee indicates a key role for indels in primate evolution»</a> Journal of Molecular Evolution 63 (5): 682–690.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00239-006-0045-7">10.1007/s00239-006-0045-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0022-2844">0022-2844</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17075697">17075697</a>. 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(2013-02-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/2192-1709-2-1">«Early life on land and the first terrestrial ecosystems»</a> Ecological Processes 2 (1): 1.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F2192-1709-2-1">10.1186/2192-1709-2-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/2192-1709">2192-1709</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">↑</a> Beerling, D. J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Woodward, F. I.; Algeo, Thomas J.; Scheckler, Stephen E.. (1998-01-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1998.0195">«Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events»</a> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 353 (1365): 113–130.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1998.0195">10.1098/rstb.1998.0195</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC1692181">PMC1692181</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Chen, Jun-Yuan; Oliveri, Paola; Li, Chia-Wei; Zhou, Gui-Qing; Gao, Feng; Hagadorn, James W.; Peterson, Kevin J.; Davidson, Eric H.. (2000-04-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/4457">«Precambrian animal diversity: Putative phosphatized embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China»</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (9): 4457–4462.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.9.4457">10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10781044">10781044</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC18256">PMC18256</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Shu, D.-G.; Luo, H.-L.; Conway Morris, S.; Zhang, X.-L.; Hu, S.-X.; Chen, L.; Han, J.; Zhu, M. et al.. (1999-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/46965">«Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China»</a> Nature 402 (6757): 42–46.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F46965">10.1038/46965</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090520072737/http://www.csupomona.edu/~dfhoyt/classes/zoo138/SYNAPSID.HTML">«Synapsid Reptiles»</a> web.archive.org 2009-05-20 (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/28jan_extinction/">«The Great Dying | Science Mission Directorate»</a> science.nasa.gov (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">↑</a> (Ingelesez) Tanner, L. H.; Lucas, S. G.; Chapman, M. G.. (2004-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825203000825">«Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions»</a> Earth-Science Reviews 65 (1): 103–139.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-8252%2803%2900082-5">10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0012-8252">0012-8252</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">↑</a> Benton, M. J. (Michael J.). (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37378512">Vertebrate palaeontology. </a> (2nd ed. argitaraldia) Chapman & Hall <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-412-73800-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-412-73800-7">0-412-73800-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=37378512">37378512</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">↑</a> (Ingelesez) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gsajournals.org/articles/000/000/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1130/1052-5173(2005)15%3C4:TEOTDI%3E2.0.CO;2">«Contents of GSAJournals 1(1)»</a> GSAJournals.org  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F1052-5173%282005%29015%253C4%3Ateotdi%253E2.0.co%3B2">10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015%3C4:teotdi%3E2.0.co;2</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">↑</a> Van Valkenburgh, Blaire. (1999-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.463">«Major patterns in the history of carnivorous mammals»</a> Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1): 463–493.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.27.1.463">10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.463</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0084-6597">0084-6597</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-04-21). </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografia">Bibliografia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=27" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Bibliografia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Bibliografia">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r8009455">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lee_Altenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lee Altenberg (sortu gabe)">Altenberg, Lee</a>. (1995). «Genome growth and the evolution of the genotype–phenotype map» Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution. 899 Berlin; New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Springer Science+Business Media (sortu gabe)">Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg</a>, 205–259 or.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-59046-3_11">10.1007/3-540-59046-3_11</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-3-540-59046-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-3-540-59046-0">978-3-540-59046-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0302-9743">0302-9743</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/32049812">.32049812</a>.</li> <li> Birdsell, John A.; Wills, Christopher. (2003). «The Evolutionary Origin and Maintenance of Sexual Recombination: A Review of Contemporary Models» Evolutionary Biology. 33 New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Springer Science+Business Media (sortu gabe)">Springer Science+Business Media</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4419-3385-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4419-3385-0">978-1-4419-3385-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0071-3260">0071-3260</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/751583918">.751583918</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_J._Bowler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter J. Bowler (sortu gabe)">Bowler, Peter J.</a>. (1989). The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-8018-3888-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-8018-3888-0">978-0-8018-3888-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/19322402">.19322402</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_J._Bowler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter J. Bowler (sortu gabe)">Bowler, Peter J.</a>. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8">Evolution: The History of an Idea. </a> (3rd completely rev. and expanded. argitaraldia) Berkeley, California: <a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_California_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University of California Press (sortu gabe)">University of California Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6">978-0-520-23693-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/49824702">.49824702</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Janet_Browne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Janet Browne (sortu gabe)">Browne, Janet</a>. (2003). Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. 2 London: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Random_House&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Random House (sortu gabe)">Pimlico</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7126-6837-8" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7126-6837-8">978-0-7126-6837-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/52327000">.52327000</a>.</li> <li> The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. 7: 1858–1859 Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-521-38564-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-521-38564-0">978-0-521-38564-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/185662993">.185662993</a>.</li> <li> Carroll, Sean B.; Grenier, Jennifer K.; Weatherbee, Scott D.. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromdnatodiversi0000carr">From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design. </a> (2nd. argitaraldia) Malden, Massachusetts: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wiley-Blackwell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wiley-Blackwell (sortu gabe)">Blackwell Publishing</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4051-1950-4" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4051-1950-4">978-1-4051-1950-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/53972564">.53972564</a>.</li> <li> Chapman, Arthur D.. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/other/numbers-living-species/">Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World. </a> (2nd. argitaraldia) Canberra: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Department_of_the_Environment,_Water,_Heritage_and_the_Arts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (sortu gabe)">Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_Biological_Resources_Study&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Australian Biological Resources Study (sortu gabe)">Australian Biological Resources Study</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-642-56860-1" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-642-56860-1">978-0-642-56860-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/780539206">.780539206</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerry_Coyne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerry Coyne (sortu gabe)">Coyne, Jerry A.</a>. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn">Why Evolution is True. </a> New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Viking_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viking Press (sortu gabe)">Viking</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-670-02053-9" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-670-02053-9">978-0-670-02053-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/233549529">.233549529</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brent_Dalrymple&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brent Dalrymple (sortu gabe)">Dalrymple, G. Brent</a>. (2001). «The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved» The Age of the Earth: from 4004 BC to AD 2002. 190, 205–221 or.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsl.sp.2001.190.01.14">10.1144/gsl.sp.2001.190.01.14</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-86239-093-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-86239-093-5">978-1-86239-093-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/48570033">.48570033</a> <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GSLSP.190..205D">2001GSLSP.190..205D</a>..</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a>. "B" Notebook. . The notebook is available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&viewtype=side&pageseq=1">The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318093920/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1">Artxibatua</a> 2022-03-18 hemen: <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2019-10-09.</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a>. (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. (1st. argitaraldia) London: <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Murray_(publishing_house)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Murray (publishing house) (sortu gabe)">John Murray</a> <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/741260650">.741260650</a>. The book is available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F373&viewtype=side">The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150127124331/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=side&pageseq=1">Artxibatua</a> 2015-01-27 hemen: <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2014-11-21.</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a>. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: John Murray <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1102785">.1102785</a>.</li> <li> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf">The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842. </a> Cambridge: Printed at the University Press <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1184581">.1184581</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett, Daniel</a>. (1995). Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-684-80290-9" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-684-80290-9">978-0-684-80290-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/31867409">.31867409</a>.</li> <li> Dobzhansky, Theodosius. (1968). «On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology» Evolutionary Biology. Volume 2. (1st. argitaraldia) New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Appleton-Century-Crofts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Appleton-Century-Crofts (sortu gabe)">Appleton-Century-Crofts</a>, 1–34 or.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1">10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4684-8096-2" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4684-8096-2">978-1-4684-8096-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/24875357">.24875357</a>.</li> <li> Dobzhansky, Theodosius. (1970). Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Columbia_University_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Columbia University Press (sortu gabe)">Columbia University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-231-02837-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-231-02837-0">978-0-231-02837-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/97663">.97663</a>.</li> <li> Eldredge, Niles; Gould, Stephen Jay. (1972). «Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism» Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco, California: Freeman, Cooper <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-87735-325-6" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-87735-325-6">978-0-87735-325-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/572084">.572084</a>.</li> <li> Eldredge, Niles. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeframesrethin0000eldr">Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria. </a> New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-671-49555-8" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-671-49555-8">978-0-671-49555-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/11443805">.11443805</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Ewens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Warren Ewens (sortu gabe)">Ewens, Warren J.</a>. (2004). Mathematical Population Genetics. I. Theoretical Introduction (2nd. argitaraldia) New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Springer Science+Business Media (sortu gabe)">Springer-Verlag New York</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-387-20191-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-387-20191-7">978-0-387-20191-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/53231891">.53231891</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Fisher, Ronald A.</a>. (1930). The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">The Clarendon Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-19-850440-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-19-850440-5">978-0-19-850440-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/18500548">.18500548</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglas_J._Futuyma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Douglas J. Futuyma (sortu gabe)">Futuyma, Douglas J.</a>. (2004). «The Fruit of the Tree of Life: Insights into Evolution and Ecology» Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford; New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-19-517234-8" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-19-517234-8">978-0-19-517234-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/61342697">.61342697</a>. "Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, 2002."</li> <li> Futuyma, Douglas J.. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu">Evolution. </a> Sunderland, Massachusetts: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinauer_Associates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sinauer Associates (sortu gabe)">Sinauer Associates</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-87893-187-3" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-87893-187-3">978-0-87893-187-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/57311264">.57311264</a>.</li> <li> Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3">Evolution. </a> (Fourth. argitaraldia) Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-60535-605-1" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-60535-605-1">978-1-60535-605-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/969439375">.969439375</a>.</li> <li> Gould, Stephen Jay. (2002). The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cambridge,_Massachusetts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts (sortu gabe)">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Belknap Press of Harvard University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-674-00613-3" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-674-00613-3">978-0-674-00613-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/47869352">.47869352</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Gray_(psychologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Gray (psychologist) (sortu gabe)">Gray, Peter</a>. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology0000gray">Psychology. </a> (5th. argitaraldia) New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Macmillan_argitaletxeas_(United_States)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macmillan argitaletxeas (United States) (sortu gabe)">Worth argitaletxeas</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7167-0617-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7167-0617-5">978-0-7167-0617-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/76872504">.76872504</a>.</li> <li> Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall">Strickberger's Evolution. </a> (4th. argitaraldia) Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett argitaletxeas <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9">978-0-7637-0066-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/85814089">.85814089</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Willi_Hennig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Willi Hennig (sortu gabe)">Hennig, Willi</a>. (1999). Phylogenetic Systematics. (Reissue. argitaraldia) Urbana, Illinois: <a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_Illinois_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University of Illinois Press (sortu gabe)">University of Illinois Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0">978-0-252-06814-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/722701473">.722701473</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Henry_Holland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Henry Holland (sortu gabe)">Holland, John H.</a>. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adaptationinnatu0000holl">Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence. </a> Ann Arbor, Michigan: <a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_Michigan_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University of Michigan Press (sortu gabe)">University of Michigan Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-472-08460-9" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-472-08460-9">978-0-472-08460-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1531617">.1531617</a>.</li> <li> Kampourakis, Kostas. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingevo0000kamp">Understanding Evolution. </a> Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-107-03491-4" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-107-03491-4">978-1-107-03491-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/855585457">.855585457</a>.</li> <li> Kirk, Geoffrey; Raven, John; Schofield, Malcolm. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presocraticphilo0000kirk_w5t7">The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts. </a> (2nd. argitaraldia) Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-521-27455-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-521-27455-5">978-0-521-27455-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/9081712">.9081712</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Koza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Koza (sortu gabe)">Koza, John R.</a>. (1992). Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-262-11170-6" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-262-11170-6">978-0-262-11170-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/26263956">.26263956</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste</a>. (1809). Philosophie Zoologique. Paris: Dentu et L'Auteur <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/2210044">.2210044</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Txantiloi:Internet_Archive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Txantiloi:Internet Archive (sortu gabe)">Txantiloi:Internet Archive</a>. Retrieved 2014-11-29.</li> <li> Lane, David H.. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phenomenonofteil0000lane">The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age. </a> (1st. argitaraldia) Macon, Georgia: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mercer_University_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mercer University Press (sortu gabe)">Mercer University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-86554-498-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-86554-498-7">978-0-86554-498-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/34710780">.34710780</a>.</li> <li> Levinson, Gene. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rethinkingevolution.com/">Rethinking Evolution: The Revolution That's Hiding in Plain Sight. </a> Hackensack, New Jersey: <a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Scientific&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Scientific (sortu gabe)">World Scientific</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-78634-726-8" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-78634-726-8">978-1-78634-726-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1138095098">.1138095098</a>.</li> <li> «Book V, lines 855–877» De Rerum Natura. Medford/Somerville, Massachusetts: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tufts_University&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tufts University (sortu gabe)">Tufts University</a> <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/33233743">.33233743</a>.</li> <li> Mason, Stephen F.. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofscience00maso">A History of the Sciences. </a> (New rev.. argitaraldia) New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Collier_Books&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collier Books (sortu gabe)">Collier Books</a> <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/568032626">.568032626</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Maynard Smith (sortu gabe)">Maynard Smith, John</a>. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofsex0000mayn">The Evolution of Sex. </a> Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-521-29302-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-521-29302-0">978-0-521-29302-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/3413793">.3413793</a>.</li> <li> Maynard Smith, John. (1998). «The Units of Selection» The Limits of Reductionism in Biology. 213 <a href="/wiki/Chichester" title="Chichester">Chichester</a>; New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Wiley_%26_Sons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Wiley & Sons (sortu gabe)">John Wiley & Sons</a>, 203–221 or.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470515488.ch15">10.1002/9780470515488.ch15</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-471-97770-4" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-471-97770-4">978-0-471-97770-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/38311600">.38311600</a> <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9653725">9653725</a>.. "Papers from the Symposium on the Limits of Reductionism in Biology, held at the Novartis Foundation, London, May 13–15, 1997."</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a>. (1942). Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist. 13 New York: Columbia University Press <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/766053">.766053</a>.</li> <li> Mayr, Ernst. (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Belknap Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-674-36445-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-674-36445-5">978-0-674-36445-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/7875904">.7875904</a>.</li> <li> Mayr, Ernst. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatevolutionis0000mayr_b5h0">What Evolution Is. </a> London: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson (sortu gabe)">Weidenfeld & Nicolson</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-297-60741-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-297-60741-0">978-0-297-60741-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/248107061">.248107061</a>.</li> <li> McKinney, Michael L.. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyofrarityc0000unse">«How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view»</a> The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare—common differences. (1st. argitaraldia) London; New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chapman_%26_Hall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chapman & Hall (sortu gabe)">Chapman & Hall</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-412-63380-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-412-63380-5">978-0-412-63380-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/36442106">.36442106</a>.</li> <li> Miller, G. Tyler; Spoolman, Scott E.. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">Environmental Science. </a> (14th. argitaraldia) Belmont, California: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cengage_Learning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cengage Learning (sortu gabe)">Brooks/Cole</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-111-98893-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-111-98893-7">978-1-111-98893-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/741539226">.741539226</a>.</li> <li> Nardon, Paul; Grenier, Anne-Marie. (1991). «Serial Endosymbiosis Theory and Weevil Evolution: The Role of Symbiosis» Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-262-13269-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-262-13269-5">978-0-262-13269-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/22597587">.22597587</a>. "Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989"</li> <li> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866">Science, Evolution, and Creationism. </a> Washington, DC: National Academy Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6">978-0-309-10586-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/123539346">.123539346</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eugene_Odum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugene Odum (sortu gabe)">Odum, Eugene P.</a>. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum">Fundamentals of Ecology. </a> (3rd. argitaraldia) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Saunders_(imprint)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saunders (imprint) (sortu gabe)">Saunders</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7216-6941-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7216-6941-0">978-0-7216-6941-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/154846">.154846</a>.</li> <li> Okasha, Samir. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionlevelso0000okas">Evolution and the Levels of Selection. </a> Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-19-926797-2" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-19-926797-2">978-0-19-926797-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/70985413">.70985413</a>.</li> <li> Panno, Joseph. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816049493">The Cell: Evolution of the izena Organism. </a> New York: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Infobase_Publishing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infobase Publishing (sortu gabe)">Facts on File</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-8160-4946-2" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-8160-4946-2">978-0-8160-4946-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/53901436">.53901436</a>.</li> <li> Piatigorsky, Joram; Kantorow, Marc; Gopal-Srivastava, Rashmi; Tomarev, Stanislav I.. (1994). «Recruitment of enzymes and stress proteins as lens crystallins» Toward a Molecular Basis of Alcohol Use and Abuse. 71 Basel; Boston: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Birkh%C3%A4user&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birkhäuser (sortu gabe)">Birkhäuser Verlag</a>, 241–50 or.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-0348-7330-7_24">10.1007/978-3-0348-7330-7_24</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-3-7643-2940-2" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-3-7643-2940-2">978-3-7643-2940-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/30030941">.30030941</a> <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8032155">8032155</a>..</li> <li> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780262315142">Evolution, the Extended Synthesis. </a> Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-262-51367-8" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-262-51367-8">978-0-262-51367-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/804875316">.804875316</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Will_Provine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Will Provine (sortu gabe)">Provine, William B.</a>. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsoftheoret00prov">The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics. </a> (2nd. argitaraldia) Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-226-68464-2" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-226-68464-2">978-0-226-68464-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/46660910">.46660910</a>.</li> <li> Raven, Peter H.; Johnson, George B.. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyrave00rave">Biology. </a> (6th. argitaraldia) Boston, Massachusetts: <a href="/w/index.php?title=McGraw-Hill_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McGraw-Hill Education (sortu gabe)">McGraw-Hill</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-07-112261-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-07-112261-0">978-0-07-112261-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/45806501">.45806501</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">Ray, John</a>. (1686). Historia Plantarum. I Londini: Typis Mariæ Clark <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/2126030">.2126030</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingo_Rechenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ingo Rechenberg (sortu gabe)">Rechenberg, Ingo</a>. (1973). Evolutionsstrategie; Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution. 15 Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-3-7728-0373-4" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-3-7728-0373-4">978-3-7728-0373-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/9020616">.9020616</a>.</li> <li> Ridley, Mark. (2004). Evolution. Oxford: Blackwell <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4051-0345-9" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4051-0345-9">978-1-4051-0345-9</a>..</li> <li> Stearns, Beverly Peterson; Stearns, Stephen C.. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300084696">Watching, from the Edge of Extinction. </a> New Haven, Connecticut: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yale_University_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yale University Press (sortu gabe)">Yale University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-300-08469-6" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-300-08469-6">978-0-300-08469-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/803522914">.803522914</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Stevens_(Jungian_analyst)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anthony Stevens (Jungian analyst) (sortu gabe)">Stevens, Anthony</a>. (1982). Archetype: A Natural History of the Self. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge & Kegan Paul</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7100-0980-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7100-0980-7">978-0-7100-0980-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/10458367">.10458367</a>.</li> <li> Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith G.; Pratt, Charlotte W.. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi0000voet_k8p4">Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level. </a> (Fifth. argitaraldia) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hoboken,_New_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hoboken, New Jersey (sortu gabe)">Hoboken, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wiley_(argitaletxea)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wiley (argitaletxea) (sortu gabe)">John Wiley & Sons</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-118-91840-1" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-118-91840-1">978-1-118-91840-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/939245154">.939245154</a>.</li> <li> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sewall_Wright&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sewall Wright (sortu gabe)">Wright, Sewall</a>. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutiongenetic0003wrig_b9l5">Genetic and Biometric Foundations. </a> 1 Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-226-91038-3" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-226-91038-3">978-0-226-91038-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/246124737">.246124737</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ikus,_gainera">Ikus, gainera</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=28" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Ikus, gainera»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section's source code: Ikus, gainera">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gizarte-darwinismo" title="Gizarte-darwinismo">Darwinismo sozial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kreazionismo" title="Kreazionismo">Kreazionismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckismo" title="Lamarckismo">Lamarckismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espezieen_jatorriaz" title="Espezieen jatorriaz">Espezien jatorria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_eboluzioa" title="Giza eboluzioa">Giza eboluzioa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kanpo_estekak">Kanpo estekak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&veaction=edit&section=29" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Kanpo estekak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzio&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section's source code: Kanpo estekak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.argia.com/argia-astekaria/2200/eboluzioa/osoa">Eboluzio teoriari buruzko erreportajea Argia 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title="Biologia molekularra">Biologia molekularra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biologia_sintetikoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biologia sintetikoa (sortu gabe)">Biologia sintetikoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologia_zelular" title="Biologia zelular">Biologia zelularra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomekanika" title="Biomekanika">Biomekanika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioteknologia" title="Bioteknologia">Bioteknologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birologia" title="Birologia">Birologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika">Botanika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboluzioa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eboluzioa">Eboluzioa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eboluzioaren_biologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eboluzioaren biologia (sortu gabe)">Eboluzioaren biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egituren_biologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Egituren biologia (sortu gabe)">Egituren biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia">Ekologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enbriologia" title="Enbriologia">Enbriologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia">Epidemiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetika" title="Epigenetika">Epigenetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etologia" title="Etologia">Etologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exobiologia" class="mw-redirect" title="Exobiologia">Exobiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garapenaren_biologia_ebolutibo" title="Garapenaren biologia ebolutibo">Evo-devo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmakologia" title="Farmakologia">Farmakologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fikologia" title="Fikologia">Fikologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia">Fisiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garapenaren_biologia" title="Garapenaren biologia">Garapenaren biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">Genetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika">Genomika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_biologia" title="Giza biologia">Giza biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histologia" title="Histologia">Histologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunologia" title="Immunologia">Immunologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itsas_biologia" title="Itsas biologia">Itsas biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimika_organikoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimika organikoa">Kimika organikoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kontserbazio-biologia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kontserbazio-biologia">Kontserbazio-biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronobiologia" title="Kronobiologia">Kronobiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnologia" title="Limnologia">Limnologia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lipidologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lipidologia (sortu gabe)">Lipidologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikologia" title="Mikologia">Mikologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikrobiologia" title="Mikrobiologia">Mikrobiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanobioteknologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nanobioteknologia (sortu gabe)">Nanobioteknologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurozientzia" title="Neurozientzia">Neurozientzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrizioa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrizioa">Nutrizioa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontologia" title="Paleontologia">Paleontologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitologia" title="Parasitologia">Parasitologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia">Patologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psikologia" title="Psikologia">Psikologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenia" title="Ontogenia">Ontogenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantum_biologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quantum biologia (sortu gabe)">Quantum biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistematika" title="Sistematika">Sistematika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistemen_biologia" title="Sistemen biologia">Sistemen biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soziobiologia" title="Soziobiologia">Soziobiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomia" title="Taxonomia">Taxonomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxikologia" title="Toxikologia">Toxikologia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ugaltze_biologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ugaltze biologia (sortu gabe)">Ugaltze biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zelulen_biologia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zelulen biologia">Zelulen biologia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zelulen_mikrobiologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zelulen mikrobiologia (sortu gabe)">Zelulen mikrobiologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zitologia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zitologia">Zitologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoologia" title="Zoologia">Zoologia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><center>Antolamendu biologikoa</center></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Biosfera" title="Biosfera">Biosfera</a> >  <a href="/wiki/Ekosistema" title="Ekosistema">Ekosistema</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biozenosi" title="Biozenosi">Biozenosia</a> > <a href="/wiki/Populazio" class="mw-redirect" title="Populazio">Populazioa</a> > <a href="/wiki/Komunitate_(ekologia)" title="Komunitate (ekologia)">Komunitatea</a> >  <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">Organismoa</a> > <a href="/wiki/Aparatu_(anatomia)" title="Aparatu (anatomia)">Aparatu eta sistemak</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organo_(biologia)" title="Organo (biologia)">Organo</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ehun_(biologia)" title="Ehun (biologia)">Ehunak</a> > <a href="/wiki/Zelula" title="Zelula">Zelulak</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organulu" title="Organulu">Organulua</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula">Molekula</a> (<a href="/wiki/Makromolekula" title="Makromolekula">Makromolekula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomolekula" title="Biomolekula">Biomolekula</a>) > <a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">Atomoa</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><center>Biologiaren oinarriak</center></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Teoria_zelular" title="Teoria zelular">Teoria zelularra</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia">Ekologia</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Energia" title="Energia">Energiaren transformazioa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Eboluzioa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eboluzioa">Eboluzioa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">Genetika</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Homeostasi" title="Homeostasi">Homeostasia</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Taxonomia" title="Taxonomia">Taxonomia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><center>Biologiaren printzipioak</center></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><center><a href="/wiki/Eboluzioa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eboluzioa">Eboluzioa</a> </center></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Moldaera" title="Moldaera">Moldaera</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bizidun_zaharrenak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bizidun zaharrenak (sortu gabe)">Bizidun zaharrenak</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Funtzioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Funtzioa (sortu gabe)">Funtzioa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Jito_genetiko" title="Jito genetiko">Jito genetikoa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Fluxu_genetiko" title="Fluxu genetiko">Gene fluxua</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Makroeboluzioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Makroeboluzioa (sortu gabe)">Makroeboluzioa</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroeboluzioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mikroeboluzioa (sortu gabe)">Mikroeboluzioa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">Mutazioa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Hautespen_naturala" class="mw-redirect" title="Hautespen naturala">Hautespen naturala</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Espeziazioa" class="mw-redirect" title="Espeziazioa">Espeziazioa</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><center><a href="/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia">Ekologia</a></center></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Biodibertsitatea" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodibertsitatea">Biodibertsitatea</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Interakzio_biologiko" title="Interakzio biologiko">Interakzio biologikoa</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Komunitateen_ekologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Komunitateen ekologia (sortu gabe)">Komunitateen ekologia</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ekosistemen_ekologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ekosistemen ekologia (sortu gabe)">Ekosistemen ekologia</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitata</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Txoko_ekologiko" title="Txoko ekologiko">Nitxoa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Populazioen_ekologia" title="Populazioen ekologia">Populazioen ekologia</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baliabide_ekologikoak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baliabide ekologikoak (sortu gabe)">Baliabide ekologikoak</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><center><a href="/wiki/Biologia_molekularra" class="mw-redirect" title="Biologia molekularra">Biologia molekularra</a></center></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zelulen_seinalizazioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zelulen seinalizazioa (sortu gabe)">Zelulen seinalizazioa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Garapen_biologia" class="mw-redirect" title="Garapen biologia">Garapen biologia</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Epigenetika" title="Epigenetika">Epigenetika</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erregulazio_genetikoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erregulazio genetikoa (sortu gabe)">Erregulazio genetikoa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Meiosi" title="Meiosi">Meiosia</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Mitosi" title="Mitosi">Mitosia</a>  • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transkripzio_osteko_aldaketa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transkripzio osteko aldaketa (sortu gabe)">Transkripzio osteko aldaketa</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><center><a href="/wiki/Biokimika" title="Biokimika">Biokimika</a></center></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Karbono_hidrato" title="Karbono hidrato">Karbohidratoak</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Entzima" title="Entzima">Entzima</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Lipido" title="Lipido">Lipidoa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Metabolismo" title="Metabolismo">Metabolismoa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Azido_nukleiko" title="Azido nukleiko">Azido nukleikoa</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Proteina" title="Proteina">Proteina</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Fotosintesi" title="Fotosintesi">Fotosintesia</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="Kategoria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/24px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/32px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a 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