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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_soil_pH_ranges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_soil_pH_ranges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Classification of soil pH ranges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_soil_pH_ranges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determining_pH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determining_pH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Determining pH</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determining_pH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors_affecting_soil_pH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors_affecting_soil_pH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Factors affecting soil pH</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Factors_affecting_soil_pH-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Factors affecting soil pH subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Factors_affecting_soil_pH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources_of_acidity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_acidity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sources of acidity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_acidity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_alkalinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_alkalinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sources of alkalinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_alkalinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effect of soil pH on plant growth</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effect of soil pH on plant growth subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acid_soils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acid_soils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Acid soils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acid_soils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrient_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrient_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrient_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Water availability in relation to soil pH</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_pH_preferences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_pH_preferences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Plant pH preferences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_pH_preferences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-pH_effects_on_soil_biota" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#pH_effects_on_soil_biota"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>pH effects on soil biota</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-pH_effects_on_soil_biota-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_soil_biota_on_soil_pH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_soil_biota_on_soil_pH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Effects of soil biota on soil pH</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_soil_biota_on_soil_pH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_soil_pH" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_soil_pH"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Changing soil pH</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Changing_soil_pH-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Changing soil pH subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Changing_soil_pH-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Increasing_pH_of_acidic_soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_pH_of_acidic_soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Increasing pH of acidic soil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_pH_of_acidic_soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decreasing_the_pH_of_alkaline_soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decreasing_the_pH_of_alkaline_soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decreasing_the_pH_of_alkaline_soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil pH</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="حموضة التربة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حموضة التربة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpa%C4%9F%C4%B1n_tur%C5%9Fulu%C4%9Fu" title="Torpağın turşuluğu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Torpağın turşuluğu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9A" title="মাটির পিএইচ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাটির পিএইচ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Кіслотнасць глебы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кіслотнасць глебы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Кваснасьць глебы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кваснасьць глебы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="PH на почвата – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="PH на почвата" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_del_s%C3%B2l" title="PH del sòl – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="PH del sòl" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boden-pH" title="Boden-pH – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Boden-pH" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulla_happesus" title="Mulla happesus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mulla happesus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_del_suelo" title="PH del suelo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="PH del suelo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundo-pH" title="Grundo-pH – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Grundo-pH" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DA%86_%D8%AE%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="پی‌اچ خاک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پی‌اچ خاک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_du_sol" title="PH du sol – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="PH du sol" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EC%96%91_pH" title="토양 pH – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토양 pH" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_na_%C6%99asa" title="PH na ƙasa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="PH na ƙasa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%A9%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հողի թթվայնություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հողի թթվայնություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भूमि का पीएच मान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूमि का पीएच मान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reazione_del_terreno" title="Reazione del terreno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Reazione del terreno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D2%9B%D1%8B%D1%88%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Топырақтың қышқылдығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Топырақтың қышқылдығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reazion_del_terren" title="Reazion del terren – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Reazion del terren" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80.%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%9A." title="मातीचे पी.एच. – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मातीचे पी.एच." data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_pH" title="Хөрсний pH – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хөрсний pH" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuurgraad_van_de_bodem" title="Zuurgraad van de bodem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zuurgraad van de bodem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odczyn_gleby" title="Odczyn gleby – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Odczyn gleby" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidez_do_solo" title="Acidez do solo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Acidez do solo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Кислотность почвы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кислотность почвы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_ng_lupa" title="PH ng lupa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="PH ng lupa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="மண்ணின் அமில காரத்தன்மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மண்ணின் அமில காரத்தன்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toprak_pH" title="Toprak pH – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toprak pH" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D2%91%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83" title="Кислотність ґрунту – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кислотність ґрунту" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99_pH_c%E1%BB%A7a_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t" title="Độ pH của đất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Measure of how acidic or alkaline the soil is</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mediacid" redirects here; not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Soil_pH.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/World_Soil_pH.svg/343px-World_Soil_pH.svg.png" decoding="async" width="343" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/World_Soil_pH.svg/515px-World_Soil_pH.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/World_Soil_pH.svg/686px-World_Soil_pH.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Global variation in soil pH. <b><span style="color:red;">Red</span></b> = acidic soil. <b><span style="color:yellow;">Yellow</span></b> = neutral soil. <b><span style="color:blue;">Blue</span></b> = alkaline soil. <b>Black</b> = no data.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Soil pH</b> is a measure of the <a href="/wiki/Acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidity">acidity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Basicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Basicity">basicity</a> (alkalinity) of a <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>. Soil pH is a key characteristic that can be used to make informative analysis both qualitative and quantitatively regarding soil characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> is defined as the negative <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithm</a> (base 10) of the <a href="/wiki/Activity_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity (chemistry)">activity</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">hydronium</a> ions (<span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> or, more precisely, <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">aq</sub></span></span></span>) in a <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">solution</a>. In soils, it is measured in a slurry of soil mixed with water (or a salt solution, such as <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998100000000000000♠"></span>0.01 <a href="/wiki/Molarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Molarity">M</a></span> <span class="chemf nowrap">CaCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>), and normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Acid soils have a pH below 7 and <a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">alkaline soils</a> have a pH above 7. Ultra-acidic soils (pH < 3.5) and very strongly alkaline soils (pH > 9) are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Slessarev2017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slessarev2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QueenslandGovt2017_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QueenslandGovt2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically affects <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrient</a> availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5;<sup id="cite_ref-QueenslandGovt2017_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QueenslandGovt2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_soil_pH_ranges">Classification of soil pH ranges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification of soil pH ranges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Conservation_Service" title="Natural Resources Conservation Service">Natural Resources Conservation Service</a> classifies soil pH ranges as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Semantic description </th> <th>pH range </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ultra acidic</td> <td>< 3.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Extremely acidic</td> <td>3.5–4.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Very strongly acidic</td> <td>4.5–5.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Strongly acidic</td> <td>5.1–5.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Moderately acidic</td> <td>5.6–6.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slightly acidic</td> <td>6.1–6.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neutral</td> <td>6.6–7.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slightly alkaline</td> <td>7.4–7.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Moderately alkaline</td> <td>7.9–8.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Strongly alkaline</td> <td>8.5–9.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Very strongly alkaline</td> <td>> 9.0 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>0 to 6=acidic<br />7=neutral<br />8 and above=alkaline </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determining_pH">Determining pH</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Determining pH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Methods of determining pH include: </p> <ul><li>Observation of soil profile: certain profile characteristics can be indicators of either acid, saline, or sodic conditions. Examples are:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Poor incorporation of the organic surface layer with the underlying mineral layer – this can indicate strongly acidic soils;</li> <li>The classic <a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">podzol</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">horizon</a> sequence, since podzols are strongly acidic: in these soils, a pale eluvial (E) horizon lies under the organic surface layer and overlies a dark B horizon;</li> <li>Presence of a <a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">caliche</a> layer indicates the presence of calcium carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions;</li> <li>Columnar <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">structure</a> can be an indicator of <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">sodic</a> condition.</li></ul></li> <li>Observation of predominant flora. <a href="/wiki/Calcifuge" title="Calcifuge">Calcifuge</a> plants (those that prefer an acidic soil) include <i><a href="/wiki/Erica_(plant)" title="Erica (plant)">Erica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rhododendron" title="Rhododendron">Rhododendron</a></i> and nearly all other <a href="/wiki/Ericaceae" title="Ericaceae">Ericaceae</a> species, many <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a> (<i>Betula</i>), foxglove (<i><a href="/wiki/Digitalis" title="Digitalis">Digitalis</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Gorse" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorse">gorse</a> (<i>Ulex</i> spp.), and <a href="/wiki/Scots_Pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots Pine">Scots Pine</a> (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>). <a href="/wiki/Calcicole" title="Calcicole">Calcicole</a> (lime loving) plants include ash trees (<i><a href="/wiki/Fraxinus" title="Fraxinus">Fraxinus</a></i> spp.), <a href="/wiki/Honeysuckle" title="Honeysuckle">honeysuckle</a> (<i>Lonicera</i>), <i><a href="/wiki/Buddleja" title="Buddleja">Buddleja</a></i>, dogwoods (<i><a href="/wiki/Cornus_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornus (plant)">Cornus</a></i> spp.), lilac (<i><a href="/wiki/Syringa" title="Syringa">Syringa</a></i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Clematis" title="Clematis">Clematis</a></i> species.</li> <li>Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit, where in a small sample of soil is mixed with <a href="/wiki/PH_indicator" title="PH indicator">indicator</a> solution which changes colour according to the acidity.</li> <li>Use of <a href="/wiki/Litmus_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Litmus paper">litmus paper</a>. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into which a strip of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns red, if basic, blue.</li> <li>Certain other fruit and vegetable pigments also change color in response to changing pH. <a href="/wiki/Blueberry" title="Blueberry">Blueberry</a> juice turns more reddish if acid is added, and becomes indigo if titrated with sufficient base to yield a high pH. Red <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a> is similarly affected.</li> <li>Use of a commercially available electronic <a href="/wiki/PH_meter" title="PH meter">pH meter</a>, in which a glass or solid-state <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a> is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture (suspension) of soil and water; the pH is usually read on a digital display screen.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the 2010s, <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometric</a> methods were developed to measure soil pH involving addition of an indicator dye to the soil extract.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These compare well to <a href="/wiki/Glass_electrode" title="Glass electrode">glass electrode</a> measurements but offer substantial advantages such as lack of drift, liquid junction and suspension effects.</li></ul><p> Precise, repeatable measures of soil pH are required for scientific research and monitoring. This generally entails laboratory analysis using a standard protocol; an example of such a protocol is that in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">USDA</a> Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual.<sup id="cite_ref-USDA2014_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this document the three-page protocol for soil pH measurement includes the following sections: Application; Summary of Method; Interferences; Safety; Equipment; Reagents; and Procedure.</p><blockquote class="quote-frame pullquote" style="font-size: 95%; padding: 0.5em 2em; background-color: var( --background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa ); color: var( --color-base, black ); border: 1px solid #aaa; display:table; float:none; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><div style="padding: 0.6em 1em;">Summary of Method <div class="poem"> <p>The pH is measured in soil-water (1:1) and soil-salt (1:2 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a568dd23b6accc3e836cd448bebe96b18fb275" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.22ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}" /></span>) solutions. For convenience, the pH is initially measured in water and then measured in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a568dd23b6accc3e836cd448bebe96b18fb275" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.22ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}" /></span>. With the addition of an equal volume of 0.02 M <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a568dd23b6accc3e836cd448bebe96b18fb275" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.22ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}" /></span> to the soil suspension that was prepared for the water pH, the final soil-solution ratio is 1:2 0.01 M <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a568dd23b6accc3e836cd448bebe96b18fb275" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.22ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}" /></span>.<br /> A 20-g soil sample is mixed with 20 mL of reverse osmosis (RO) water (1:1 w:v) with occasional stirring. The sample is allowed to stand 1 h with occasional stirring. The sample is stirred for 30 s, and the 1:1 water pH is measured. The 0.02 M <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a568dd23b6accc3e836cd448bebe96b18fb275" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.22ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}" /></span> (20 mL) is added to soil suspension, the sample is stirred, and the 1:2 0.01 M <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a568dd23b6accc3e836cd448bebe96b18fb275" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.22ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2}}}" /></span> pH is measured (4C1a2a2). </p> </div><br /><cite style="display: block; text-align: right;"> — Summary of the USDA NRCS method for soil pH determination<sup id="cite_ref-USDA2014_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors_affecting_soil_pH">Factors affecting soil pH</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Factors affecting soil pH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pH of a natural soil depends on the mineral composition of the <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent material</a> of the soil, and the <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> reactions undergone by that parent material. In warm, humid environments, <a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">soil acidification</a> occurs over time as the products of weathering are leached by water moving laterally or downwards through the soil. In dry climates, however, soil weathering and leaching are less intense and soil pH is often neutral or alkaline.<sup id="cite_ref-USDA-NRCS_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA-NRCS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_of_acidity">Sources of acidity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sources of acidity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many processes contribute to soil acidification. These include:<sup id="cite_ref-VanBreemen1984_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanBreemen1984-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Rainfall: Average rainfall has a pH of 5.6 and is moderately acidic due to dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide (<span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span>) that combines with water to form <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>). When this water flows through the soil it results in the leaching of basic cations as <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonates</a>; this increases the percentage of <span class="chemf nowrap">Al<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> and <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> relative to other cations.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Root <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a> and decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms release <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> which increases the carbonic acid (<span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>) concentration and subsequent leaching.</li> <li>Plant growth: Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (e.g. <span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap">NH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap">Ca<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>PO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>), and they often take up more <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> than <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a>. However, plants must maintain a neutral charge in their roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> ions from the root. Some plants also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such as iron (Fe).</li> <li>Fertilizer use: <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">Ammonium</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">NH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>) fertilizers react in the soil by the process of <a href="/wiki/Nitrification" title="Nitrification">nitrification</a> to form nitrate (<span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>), and in the process release <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> ions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a>: The burning of fossil fuels releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen into the atmosphere. These react with water in the atmosphere to form <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> in rain.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering#Oxidation" title="Weathering">Oxidative weathering</a>: Oxidation of some primary minerals, especially <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a> and those containing <span class="chemf nowrap">Fe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, generate acidity. This process is often accelerated by human activity: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_mine_drainage" title="Acid mine drainage">Mine spoil</a>: Severely acidic conditions can form in soils near some mine spoils due to the oxidation of <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid_sulfate_soil" title="Acid sulfate soil">Acid sulfate soils</a> formed naturally in <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogged</a> coastal and estuarine environments can become highly acidic when drained or excavated.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_of_alkalinity">Sources of alkalinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sources of alkalinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Total soil alkalinity increases with:<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2012_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oosterbaan2003_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oosterbaan2003-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Weathering of <a href="/wiki/Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminosilicate" title="Aluminosilicate">aluminosilicate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_mineral" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonate</a> minerals containing <span class="chemf nowrap">Na<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap">Ca<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap">Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> and <span class="chemf nowrap">K<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>;</li> <li>Addition of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals to soils; this may happen by deposition of material eroded elsewhere by wind or water, or by mixing of the soil with less weathered material (such as the <a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">addition of limestone</a> to acid soils);<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Addition of water containing dissolved <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonates</a> (as occurs when <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigating</a> with high-bicarbonate waters).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>The accumulation of alkalinity in a soil (as carbonates and bicarbonates of Na, K, Ca and Mg) occurs when there is insufficient water flowing through the soils to leach soluble salts. This may be due to arid conditions, or poor internal soil <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a>; in these situations most of the water that enters the soil is transpired (taken up by plants) or evaporates, rather than flowing through the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2012_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The soil pH usually increases when the total <a href="/wiki/Alkalinity" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a> increases, but the balance of the added cations also has a marked effect on the soil pH. For example, increasing the amount of sodium in an alkaline soil tends to induce dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, which increases the pH. <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">Calcareous</a> soils may vary in pH from 7.0 to 9.5, depending on the degree to which <span class="chemf nowrap">Ca<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> or <span class="chemf nowrap">Na<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> dominate the soluble cations.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloom2012_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloom2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth">Effect of soil pH on plant growth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effect of soil pH on plant growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acid_soils">Acid soils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Acid soils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incinerators</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ATSDR_Public_Health_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATSDR_Public_Health-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.<sup id="cite_ref-ATSDR_Public_Health_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATSDR_Public_Health-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Acidic <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources<sup id="cite_ref-Piero3_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piero3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium;<sup id="cite_ref-RosselandEldhuset1990_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RosselandEldhuset1990-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.<sup id="cite_ref-Piero3_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piero3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants grown in acid soils can experience a variety of stresses including <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> (Al), <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (H), and/or <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> (Mn) toxicity, as well as nutrient deficiencies of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> (Ca) and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> (Mg).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aluminium#Environmental_effects" title="Aluminium">Aluminium toxicity</a> is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminium is present in all soils to varying degrees, but dissolved Al<sup>3+</sup> is toxic to plants; Al<sup>3+</sup> is most soluble at low pH; above pH 5.0, there is little Al in soluble form in most soils.<sup id="cite_ref-Kopittke2016_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kopittke2016-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as such, is not actively taken up by the plants, but enters plant roots passively through <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a>. Aluminium can exist in many different forms and is a responsible agent for limiting growth in various parts of the world. Aluminium tolerance studies have been conducted in different plant species to see viable thresholds and concentrations exposed along with function upon exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aluminium inhibits root growth; lateral roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching; root tips may turn brown. In the root, the initial effect of Al<sup>3+</sup> is the inhibition of the expansion of the cells of the <a href="/wiki/Rhizodermis" title="Rhizodermis">rhizodermis</a>, leading to their rupture; thereafter it is known to interfere with many physiological processes including the uptake and transport of calcium and other essential nutrients, cell division, cell wall formation, and enzyme activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Kopittke2016_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kopittke2016-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proton (H<sup>+</sup> ion) stress can also limit plant growth. The <a href="/wiki/Proton_pump" title="Proton pump">proton pump</a>, H<sup>+</sup>-ATPase, of the <a href="/wiki/Plasmalemma" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmalemma">plasmalemma</a> of root cells works to maintain the near-neutral pH of their <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>. A high proton activity (pH within the range 3.0–4.0 for most plant species) in the external growth medium overcomes the capacity of the cell to maintain the cytoplasmic pH and growth shuts down.<sup id="cite_ref-Shavrukov2016_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shavrukov2016-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In soils with a high content of <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>-containing minerals, Mn toxicity can become a problem at pH 5.6 and lower. Manganese, like aluminium, becomes increasingly soluble as pH drops, and Mn toxicity symptoms can be seen at pH levels below 5.6. Manganese is an essential plant nutrient, so plants transport Mn into leaves. Classic symptoms of Mn toxicity are crinkling or cupping of leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrient_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH">Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil-pH.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Soil-pH.svg/220px-Soil-pH.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Soil-pH.svg/330px-Soil-pH.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Soil-pH.svg/440px-Soil-pH.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Soil pH affects the availability of some <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrients</a>: </p><p>As discussed above, aluminium toxicity has direct effects on plant growth; however, by limiting root growth, it also reduces the availability of plant nutrients. Because roots are damaged, nutrient uptake is reduced, and deficiencies of the <a href="/wiki/Macronutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Macronutrients">macronutrients</a> (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium) are frequently encountered in very strongly acidic to ultra-acidic soils (pH<5.0).<sup id="cite_ref-Sumner2002_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sumner2002-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When aluminum levels increase in the soil, it decreases the pH levels. This does not allow for trees to take up water, meaning they cannot photosynthesize, leading them to die. The trees can also develop yellowish colour on their leaves and veins.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition#Molybdenum" title="Plant nutrition">Molybdenum</a> availability is increased at higher pH; this is because the molybdate ion is more strongly sorbed by clay particles at lower pH.<sup id="cite_ref-Huang2011_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang2011-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition#Zinc" title="Plant nutrition">Zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition#Iron" title="Plant nutrition">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition#Copper" title="Plant nutrition">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition#Manganese" title="Plant nutrition">manganese</a> show decreased availability at higher pH (increased <a href="/wiki/Sorption" title="Sorption">sorption</a> at higher pH).<sup id="cite_ref-Huang2011_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang2011-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effect of pH on <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition#Phosphorus" title="Plant nutrition">phosphorus</a> availability varies considerably, depending on soil conditions and the crop in question. The prevailing view in the 1940s and 1950s was that P availability was maximized near neutrality (soil pH 6.5–7.5), and decreased at higher and lower pH.<sup id="cite_ref-Truog1946_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Truog1946-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sumner1986_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sumner1986-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interactions of phosphorus with pH in the moderately to slightly acidic range (pH 5.5–6.5) are, however, far more complex than is suggested by this view. Laboratory tests, glasshouse trials and field trials have indicated that increases in pH within this range may increase, decrease, or have no effect on P availability to plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Sumner1986_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sumner1986-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Haynes1982_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haynes1982-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_availability_in_relation_to_soil_pH">Water availability in relation to soil pH</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Water availability in relation to soil pH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_potential" title="Water potential">Water potential</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></div> <p>Strongly alkaline soils are <a href="/wiki/Sodic_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodic soil">sodic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(geology)" title="Dispersion (geology)">dispersive</a>, with slow <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltration</a>, low <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">hydraulic conductivity</a> and poor <a href="/wiki/Available_water_capacity" title="Available water capacity">available water capacity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ellis_Foth_2017_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis_Foth_2017-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant growth is severely restricted because <a href="/wiki/Aeration" title="Aeration">aeration</a> is poor when the soil is wet; while in dry conditions, plant-available water is rapidly depleted and the soils become hard and cloddy (high soil strength).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher the pH in the soil, the less water available to be distributed to the plants and organisms that depend on it. With a decreased pH, this does not allow for plants to uptake water like they normally would. This causes them to not be able to photosynthesize.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many strongly acidic soils, on the other hand, have strong aggregation, good <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">internal drainage</a>, and good water-holding characteristics. However, for many plant species, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium#Effect_on_plants" title="Aluminium">aluminium toxicity</a> severely limits root growth, and <a href="/wiki/Moisture_stress" title="Moisture stress">moisture stress</a> can occur even when the soil is relatively moist.<sup id="cite_ref-Kopittke2016_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kopittke2016-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_pH_preferences">Plant pH preferences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Plant pH preferences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general terms, different plant species are adapted to soils of different pH ranges. For many species, the suitable soil pH range is fairly well known.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Online databases of plant characteristics, such as <i>USDA PLANTS</i><sup id="cite_ref-USDA2017_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA2017-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Plants for a Future</i><sup id="cite_ref-PFAF2017_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFAF2017-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be used to look up the suitable soil pH range of a wide range of plants. Documents like <i>Ellenberg's indicator values for British plants</i><sup id="cite_ref-Hill1999_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill1999-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can also be consulted. </p><p>However, a plant may be intolerant of a particular pH in some soils as a result of a particular mechanism, and that mechanism may not apply in other soils. For example, a soil low in <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a> may not be suitable for <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybean</a> plants at pH 5.5, but soils with sufficient molybdenum allow optimal growth at that pH.<sup id="cite_ref-Sumner2002_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sumner2002-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, some calcifuges (plants intolerant of high-pH soils) can tolerate calcareous soils if sufficient phosphorus is supplied.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee1998_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee1998-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another confounding factor is that different varieties of the same species often have different suitable soil pH ranges. Plant breeders can use this to breed varieties that can tolerate conditions that are otherwise considered unsuitable for that species – examples are projects to breed aluminium-tolerant and manganese-tolerant varieties of cereal crops for food production in strongly acidic soils.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott1989_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott1989-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The table below gives suitable soil pH ranges for some widely cultivated plants as found in the <i>USDA PLANTS Database</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-USDA2017_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA2017-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species (like <i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_radiata" title="Pinus radiata">Pinus radiata</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Opuntia_ficus-indica" title="Opuntia ficus-indica">Opuntia ficus-indica</a></i>) tolerate only a narrow range in soil pH, whereas others (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Vetiveria_zizanioides" class="mw-redirect" title="Vetiveria zizanioides">Vetiveria zizanioides</a></i>) tolerate a very wide pH range. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Scientific name</th> <th rowspan="2">Common name</th> <th colspan="2">pH range </th></tr> <tr> <th>Minimum</th> <th>Maximum </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Chrysopogon_zizanioides" title="Chrysopogon zizanioides">Chrysopogon zizanioides</a></i></td> <td>vetiver grass</td> <td>3.0</td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_rigida" title="Pinus rigida">Pinus rigida</a></i></td> <td>pitch pine</td> <td>3.5</td> <td>5.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rubus_chamaemorus" title="Rubus chamaemorus">Rubus chamaemorus</a></i></td> <td>cloudberry</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>5.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Ananas_comosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ananas comosus">Ananas comosus</a></i></td> <td>pineapple</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>6.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Coffea arabica</a></i></td> <td>Arabian coffee</td> <td>4.0</td> <td>7.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rhododendron_arborescens" title="Rhododendron arborescens">Rhododendron arborescens</a></i></td> <td>smooth azalea</td> <td>4.2</td> <td>5.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_radiata" title="Pinus radiata">Pinus radiata</a></i></td> <td>Monterey pine</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>5.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Carya_illinoinensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carya illinoinensis">Carya illinoinensis</a></i></td> <td>pecan</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>7.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Tamarindus_indica" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamarindus indica">Tamarindus indica</a></i></td> <td>tamarind</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Vaccinium_corymbosum" title="Vaccinium corymbosum">Vaccinium corymbosum</a></i></td> <td>highbush blueberry</td> <td>4.7</td> <td>7.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Manihot_esculenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Manihot esculenta">Manihot esculenta</a></i></td> <td>cassava</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>5.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Morus_alba" title="Morus alba">Morus alba</a></i></td> <td>white mulberry</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>7.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Malus" title="Malus">Malus</a></i></td> <td>apple</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>7.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_sylvestris" title="Pinus sylvestris">Pinus sylvestris</a></i></td> <td>Scots pine</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>7.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Carica_papaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Carica papaya">Carica papaya</a></i></td> <td>papaya</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cajanus_cajan" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajanus cajan">Cajanus cajan</a></i></td> <td>pigeonpea</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>8.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Pyrus_communis" title="Pyrus communis">Pyrus communis</a></i></td> <td>common pear</td> <td>5.2</td> <td>6.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Solanum_lycopersicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Solanum lycopersicum">Solanum lycopersicum</a></i></td> <td>garden tomato</td> <td>5.5</td> <td>7.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Psidium_guajava" title="Psidium guajava">Psidium guajava</a></i></td> <td>guava</td> <td>5.5</td> <td>7.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Nerium_oleander" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerium oleander">Nerium oleander</a></i></td> <td>oleander</td> <td>5.5</td> <td>7.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Punica_granatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Punica granatum">Punica granatum</a></i></td> <td>pomegranate</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>6.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Viola_sororia" title="Viola sororia">Viola sororia</a></i></td> <td>common blue violet</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>7.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Caragana_arborescens" title="Caragana arborescens">Caragana arborescens</a></i></td> <td>Siberian peashrub</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>9.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cotoneaster_integerrimus" title="Cotoneaster integerrimus">Cotoneaster integerrimus</a></i></td> <td>cotoneaster</td> <td>6.8</td> <td>8.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Opuntia_ficus-indica" title="Opuntia ficus-indica">Opuntia ficus-indica</a></i></td> <td>Barbary fig (pricklypear)</td> <td>7.0</td> <td>8.5 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In natural or near-natural <a href="/wiki/Plant_community" title="Plant community">plant communities</a>, the various pH preferences of plant species (or <a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">ecotypes</a>) at least partly determine the composition and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of vegetation. While both very low and very high pH values are detrimental to plant growth, there is an increasing trend of plant biodiversity along the range from extremely acidic (pH 3.5) to strongly alkaline (pH 9) soils, i.e. there are more <a href="/wiki/Calcicole" title="Calcicole">calcicole</a> than <a href="/wiki/Calcifuge" title="Calcifuge">calcifuge</a> species, at least in terrestrial environments.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although widely reported and supported by experimental results,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the observed increase of plant species richness with pH is still in need of a clearcut explanation. <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion</a> between plant species with overlapping pH ranges most probably contributes to the observed shifts of vegetation composition along pH gradients.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="pH_effects_on_soil_biota">pH effects on soil biota</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: pH effects on soil biota"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Soil_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil biota">Soil biota</a> (soil <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microflora</a>, soil animals) are sensitive to soil pH, either directly upon contact or after soil ingestion or indirectly through the various soil properties to which pH contributes (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> status, <a href="/wiki/Metal_toxicity" title="Metal toxicity">metal toxicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humus_form" title="Humus form">humus form</a>). According to the various physiological and behavioural <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptations</a> of soil biota, the species composition of soil microbial and animal communities varies with soil pH.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Loranger2001_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loranger2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along altitudinal gradients, changes in the species distribution of soil animal and microbial communities can be at least partly ascribed to variation in soil pH.<sup id="cite_ref-Loranger2001_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loranger2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shift from toxic to non-toxic forms of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> around pH5 marks the passage from acid-tolerance to acid-intolerance, with few changes in the species composition of soil communities above this threshold, even in <a href="/wiki/Calcareous_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcareous soils">calcareous soils</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soil animals exhibit distinct pH preferences when allowed to exert a choice along a range of pH values,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explaining that various field distributions of soil organisms, motile microbes included, could at least partly result from active movement along pH gradients.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like for plants, <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competition</a> between acido-tolerant and acido-intolerant soil-dwelling organisms was suspected to play a role in the shifts in species composition observed along pH ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opposition between acido-tolerance and acido-intolerance is commonly observed at <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> level within a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> or at genus level within a <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>, but it also occurs at much higher <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic rank</a>, like between soil fungi and bacteria, here too with a strong involvement of competition.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that soil organisms more tolerant of soil acidity, and thus living mainly in soils at pH less than 5, were more <a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">primitive</a> than those intolerant of soil acidity.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistic</a> analysis on the <a href="/wiki/Springtail" title="Springtail">collembolan</a> genus <a href="/wiki/Willemia" title="Willemia">Willemia</a> showed that tolerance to soil acidity was correlated with tolerance of other <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a> factors and that stress tolerance was an <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_reconstruction" title="Ancestral reconstruction">ancestral</a> character in this genus.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the generality of these findings remains to be established. </p><p>At low pH, the <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> induced by aluminium (Al<sup>3+</sup>) affects soil animals the body of which is not protected by a thick <a href="/wiki/Chitinous" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinous">chitinous</a> <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> like in <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>, and thus are in more direct contact with the soil solution, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Microfauna" title="Microfauna">microfauna</a>), <a href="/wiki/Enchytraeidae" title="Enchytraeidae">enchytraeids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesofauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesofauna">mesofauna</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Macrofauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrofauna">macrofauna</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Effects of pH on soil biota can be mediated by the various functional interactions of soil <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">foodwebs</a>. It has been shown experimentally that the collembolan <i><a href="/wiki/Heteromurus_nitidus" title="Heteromurus nitidus">Heteromurus nitidus</a></i>, commonly living in soils at pH higher than 5, could be cultured in more acid soils provided that predators were absent.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its attraction to earthworm <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excreta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">faeces</a>), mediated by <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> emission,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provides food and shelter within earthworm burrows in mull <a href="/wiki/Humus_form" title="Humus form">humus forms</a> associated with less acid soils.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_soil_biota_on_soil_pH">Effects of soil biota on soil pH</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Effects of soil biota on soil pH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soil biota affect soil pH directly through <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretion</a>, and indirectly by acting on the physical environment. Many soil fungi, although not all of them, acidify the soil by excreting <a href="/wiki/Oxalic_acid" title="Oxalic acid">oxalic acid</a>, a product of their <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory</a> metabolism. Oxalic acid <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitates</a> calcium, forming insoluble <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxalate" title="Calcium oxalate">calcium oxalate</a> and thus depriving the soil solution from this necessary element.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the opposite side, earthworms exert a <a href="/wiki/Buffer_solution" title="Buffer solution">buffering effect</a> on soil pH through their excretion of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>, endowed with <a href="/wiki/Amphoterism" title="Amphoterism">amphoteric</a> properties.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By mixing organic matter with mineral matter, in particular <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> particles, and by adding mucus as a glue for some of them, burrowing soil animals, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Fossorial" title="Fossorial">fossorial</a> <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mole_(animal)" title="Mole (animal)">moles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Millipede" title="Millipede">millipedes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">fly</a> larvae, contribute to decrease the natural acidity of raw organic matter, as observed in mull <a href="/wiki/Humus_form" title="Humus form">humus forms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changing_soil_pH">Changing soil pH</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Changing soil pH"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increasing_pH_of_acidic_soil">Increasing pH of acidic soil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Increasing pH of acidic soil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Finely ground <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_lime" title="Agricultural lime">agricultural lime</a> is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH (<a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">liming</a>). The amount of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> needed to change pH is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Mesh_(scale)" title="Mesh (scale)">mesh</a> size of the lime (how finely it is ground) and the <a href="/wiki/Soil#Buffering" title="Soil">buffering capacity</a> of the soil. A high mesh size (60 mesh = 0.25 mm; 100 mesh = 0.149 mm) indicates a finely ground lime that will react quickly with soil acidity. The buffering capacity of a soil depends on the clay content of the soil, the type of clay, and the amount of organic matter present, and may be related to the soil <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a>. Soils with high clay content will have a higher buffering capacity than soils with little clay, and soils with high organic matter will have a higher buffering capacity than those with low organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soils with higher buffering capacity require a greater amount of lime to achieve an equivalent change in pH.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken1990_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken1990-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The buffering of soil pH is often directly related to the quantity of aluminium in soil solution and taking up exchange sites as part of the <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a>. This aluminium can be measured in a soil test in which it is extracted from the soil with a salt solution, and then is quantified with a laboratory analysis. Then, using the initial soil pH and the aluminium content, the amount of lime needed to raise the pH to a desired level can be calculated.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amendments other than agricultural lime that can be used to increase the pH of soil include <a href="/wiki/Wood_ash" title="Wood ash">wood ash</a>, industrial calcium oxide (<a href="/wiki/Burnt_lime" class="mw-redirect" title="Burnt lime">burnt lime</a>), <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basic_slag" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic slag">basic slag</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_silicate" title="Calcium silicate">calcium silicate</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oyster</a> shells. These products increase the pH of soils through various <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">acid–base reactions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Calcium_silicate" title="Calcium silicate">Calcium silicate</a> neutralizes active acidity in the soil by reacting with H<sup>+</sup> ions to form <a href="/wiki/Silicic_acid" title="Silicic acid">monosilicic acid</a> (H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub>), a neutral solute.<sup id="cite_ref-VonUexkull1986_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VonUexkull1986-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decreasing_the_pH_of_alkaline_soil">Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pH of an alkaline soil can be reduced by adding acidifying agents or acidic organic materials. Elemental <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> (90–99% S) has been used at application rates of 300–500 kg/ha (270–450 lb/acre) – it slowly oxidises in the soil to form <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>. Acidifying fertilizers, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_sulfate" title="Ammonium sulfate">ammonium sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>, can help to reduce the pH of soil because ammonium oxidises to form <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>. Acidifying organic materials include <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sphagnum" title="Sphagnum">sphagnum</a> peat moss.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox2010_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox2010-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in high-pH soils with a high calcium carbonate content (more than 2%), attempting to reduce the pH with acids can be very costly and ineffective. In such cases, it is often more efficient to add phosphorus, iron, manganese, copper, or zinc instead because deficiencies of these nutrients are the most common reasons for poor plant growth in calcareous soils.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cox2010_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox2010-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_mine_drainage" title="Acid mine drainage">Acid mine drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid_sulfate_soil" title="Acid sulfate soil">Acid sulfate soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">Cation-exchange capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">Liming (soil)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_horticulture" title="Organic horticulture">Organic horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redox_gradient" title="Redox gradient">Redox gradient</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_pH&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThomas1996" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, G. W. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://booksc.me/book/63966872/3a9fd8">"Soil pH and soil acidity"</a>. In Sparks, D. L.; Page, A. L.; Helmke, P. A.; Loeppert, R. H.; Soltanpour, P. N.; Tabatabai, M. A.; Johnston, C. T.; Sumner, M. E. (eds.). <i>Methods of soil analysis</i>. SSSA Book Series. 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Turner, Research Branch, Canadian Department of Agriculture, 1965"</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soil_science610" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soil_science_topics" title="Template:Soil science topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soil_science_topics" title="Template talk:Soil science topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soil_science_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soil science topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soil_science610" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_soil_science" title="History of soil science">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_soil-related_articles" title="Index of soil-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">Soil biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_microbiology" title="Soil microbiology">Soil microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_zoology" title="Soil zoology">Soil zoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">Soil ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_physics" title="Soil physics">Soil physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Soil mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_soil_science" title="Environmental soil science">Environmental soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_soil_science" title="Agricultural soil science">Agricultural soil science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Soil_profile.svg/110px-Soil_profile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Soil_profile.svg/165px-Soil_profile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Soil_profile.svg/220px-Soil_profile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="660" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soil topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedodiversity" title="Pedodiversity">Pedodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">Soil formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">Soil erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Soil compaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction_(agriculture)" title="Soil compaction (agriculture)">Soil compaction (agriculture)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_sealing" title="Soil sealing">Soil sealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Soil salinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soil pH</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">Soil acidification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">Soil health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil life">Soil life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biodiversity" title="Soil biodiversity">Soil biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_quality" title="Soil quality">Soil quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_value" title="Soil value">Soil value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">Soil fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">Soil resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_color" title="Soil color">Soil color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">Soil texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">Soil structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">Pore space in soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">Soil horizon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biomantle" title="Soil biomantle">Soil biomantle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">Soil carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_gas" title="Soil gas">Soil gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">Soil respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">Soil organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">Soil moisture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">Soil water (retention)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_type" title="Soil type">Soil type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soil_classification301" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soil_type" title="Template:Soil type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soil_type" title="Template talk:Soil type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soil_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soil type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soil_classification301" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources" title="World Reference Base for Soil Resources">World Reference Base<br /> for Soil Resources</a> (1998–)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrisol" title="Acrisol">Acrisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alisols">Alisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andosol" title="Andosol">Andosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrosol" title="Anthrosol">Anthrosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psamment" title="Psamment">Arenosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcisol" title="Calcisol">Calcisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambisol" title="Cambisol">Cambisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernozem" title="Chernozem">Chernozem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryosols">Cryosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durisol" title="Durisol">Durisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferralsols" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferralsols">Ferralsols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvisol" title="Fluvisol">Fluvisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleysol" title="Gleysol">Gleysols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Gypsisols">Gypsisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastanozem" title="Kastanozem">Kastanozems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptosol" title="Leptosol">Leptosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lixisol" title="Lixisol">Lixisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luvisol" title="Luvisol">Luvisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisol" title="Nitisol">Nitisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeozem" title="Phaeozem">Phaeozems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planosol" title="Planosol">Planosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinthosol" title="Plinthosol">Plinthosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Podzols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regosol" title="Regosol">Regosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retisol" title="Retisol">Retisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solonchak" title="Solonchak">Solonchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solonetz" title="Solonetz">Solonetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagnosol" title="Stagnosol">Stagnosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technosol" title="Technosol">Technosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrisol" title="Umbrisol">Umbrisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="USDA soil taxonomy">USDA soil taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfisol" title="Alfisol">Alfisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andisol" title="Andisol">Andisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aridisol" title="Aridisol">Aridisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entisol" title="Entisol">Entisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelisol" title="Gelisol">Gelisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inceptisol" title="Inceptisol">Inceptisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollisol" title="Mollisol">Mollisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxisol" title="Oxisol">Oxisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Spodosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultisol" title="Ultisol">Ultisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FAO_soil_classification" title="FAO soil classification">FAO soil classification</a> (1974–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System" title="Unified Soil Classification System">Unified Soil Classification System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System" title="AASHTO Soil Classification System">AASHTO Soil Classification System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiel_p%C3%A9dologique" title="Référentiel pédologique">Référentiel pédologique</a> (French classification system)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_system_of_soil_classification" title="Canadian system of soil classification">Canadian system of soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Soil_Classification" title="Australian Soil Classification">Australian Soil Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification" title="Polish Soil Classification">Polish Soil Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="1938 USDA soil taxonomy">1938 USDA soil taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_soils" title="List of U.S. state soils">List of U.S. state soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types" title="List of vineyard soil types">List of vineyard soil types</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic soil types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claypan" title="Claypan">Claypan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardpan" title="Hardpan">Hardpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypcrust" title="Gypcrust">Gypcrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">Caliche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">Parent material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laimosphere" title="Laimosphere">Laimosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">Rhizosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_soil" title="Bulk soil">Bulk soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_goo" title="Blue goo">Blue goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brickearth" title="Brickearth">Brickearth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_earth" title="Brown earth">Brown earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_grassland" title="Calcareous grassland">Calcareous grassland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_earth" title="Dark earth">Dark earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_quicksand" title="Dry quicksand">Dry quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplex_soil" title="Duplex soil">Duplex soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluvium" title="Eluvium">Eluvium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansive_clay" title="Expansive clay">Expansive clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth" title="Fuller's earth">Fuller's earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic_soil" title="Hydrophobic soil">Hydrophobic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar soil">Lunar soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">Mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">Muskeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">Paleosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_farmland" title="Prime farmland">Prime farmland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quicksand" title="Quicksand">Quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpentine_soil" title="Serpentine soil">Serpentine soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spodic_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Spodic soil">Spodic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagnogley" title="Stagnogley">Stagnogley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaqueous_soil" title="Subaqueous soil">Subaqueous soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takir_(soil)" title="Takir (soil)">Takir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_rossa_(soil)" title="Terra rossa (soil)">Terra rossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_peat" title="Tropical peat">Tropical peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yedoma" title="Yedoma">Yedoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_soil" title="Category:Types of soil">Types of soil</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_management" title="Soil management">Soil management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_survey" title="Soil survey">Soil survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Soil test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_governance" title="Soil governance">Soil governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_value" title="Soil value">Soil value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Soil salinity control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">Liming (soil)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_materials" title="Earth materials">Earth materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrology">Agrology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies, Initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Society_of_Soil_Science_Incorporated" title="Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated">Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Society_of_Soil_Science" title="Canadian Society of Soil Science">Canadian Society of Soil Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Soil_Salinity_Research_Institute" title="Central Soil Salinity Research Institute">Central Soil Salinity Research Institute</a> (India)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Soil_Science_Society" title="German Soil Science Society">German Soil Science Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Soil_Science" title="Indian Institute of Soil Science">Indian Institute of Soil Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Soil_Sciences" title="International Union of Soil Sciences">International Union of Soil Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Soil" title="International Year of Soil">International Year of Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Society_of_Consulting_Soil_Scientists" title="National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists">National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPAL_Soil_Centre" title="OPAL Soil Centre">OPAL Soil Centre</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_Poland" title="Soil Science Society of Poland">Soil Science Society of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_and_Water_Conservation_Society" title="Soil and Water Conservation Society">Soil and Water Conservation Society</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America" title="Soil Science Society of America">Soil Science Society of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Congress_of_Soil_Science" title="World Congress of Soil Science">World Congress of Soil Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Agriculturae_Scandinavica_B" title="Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B">Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Soil_and_Water_Conservation" title="Journal of Soil and Water Conservation">Journal of Soil and Water Conservation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plant_and_Soil" title="Plant and Soil">Plant and Soil</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pochvovedenie" title="Pochvovedenie">Pochvovedenie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Research" title="Soil Research">Soil Research</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">Land conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">Crust (geology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">Impervious surface</a>/<a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrichor" title="Petrichor">Petrichor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Project page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/16px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/23px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/31px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Soil" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil">Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soil" title="Category:Soil">Category soil</a></li> <li>  <a href="/wiki/Category:Soil_science" title="Category:Soil science">Category soil science</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_soil_scientists" title="List of soil scientists">List of soil scientists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plant_nutrition_/_Fertilizer127" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_nutrition" title="Template:Plant nutrition"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plant_nutrition" title="Template talk:Plant nutrition"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plant_nutrition" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plant nutrition"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plant_nutrition_/_Fertilizer127" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Plant nutrition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physiological_plant_disorder" title="Physiological plant disorder">Imbalances</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boron_deficiency_(plant_disorder)" title="Boron deficiency (plant disorder)">Boron deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_deficiency_(plant_disorder)" title="Calcium deficiency (plant disorder)">Calcium deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency_(plant_disorder)" title="Iron deficiency (plant disorder)">Iron deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_deficiency#Plants" title="Magnesium deficiency">Magnesium deficiency#Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_deficiency_(plant)" title="Manganese deficiency (plant)">Manganese deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_deficiency_(plant_disorder)" title="Molybdenum deficiency (plant disorder)">Molybdenum deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_deficiency" title="Nitrogen deficiency">Nitrogen deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_deficiency" title="Phosphorus deficiency">Phosphorus deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_deficiency_(plants)" title="Potassium deficiency (plants)">Potassium deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency_(plant_disorder)" title="Zinc deficiency (plant disorder)">Zinc deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronutrient_deficiency" title="Micronutrient deficiency">Micronutrient deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorosis" title="Chlorosis">Chlorosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer_burn" title="Fertilizer burn">Fertilizer burn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Assimilation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_assimilation" title="Nitrogen assimilation">Nitrogen assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphate_solubilizing_bacteria" title="Phosphate solubilizing bacteria">Phosphorus assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_assimilation" title="Sulfur assimilation">Sulfur assimilation</a></li> <li><a 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