Spatial Structure of Vertical Motions and Associated Heat Flux Induced by Mesoscale Eddies in the Upper Kuroshio‐Oyashio Extension - Qu - 2022 - Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans

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async></script> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1029/2022JC018781"> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="10.1029/2022JC018781"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Spatial Structure of Vertical Motions and Associated Heat Flux Induced by Mesoscale Eddies in the Upper Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="127"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="10"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="e2022JC018781"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/10/01"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2022/09/28"> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2169-9291"> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Yushan Qu"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography Ocean University of China Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Shengpeng Wang"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography Ocean University of China Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao) Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Zhao Jing"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography Ocean University of China Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao) Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hong Wang"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography Ocean University of China Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao) Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Lixin Wu"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography Ocean University of China Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao) Qingdao China"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2022JC018781"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022JC018781"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2022JC018781"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="John Wiley & Sons, Ltd"> <meta 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(2022). Spatial structure of vertical motions and associated heat flux induced by mesoscale eddies in the upper Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 127, e2022JC018781. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JC018781 "> <meta name="Description" content="Abstract Vertical motions induced by mesoscale eddies in the upper ocean play a vital role in the heat transport over the global ocean. 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aria-hidden="true" class="icon-icon-lock_open"></i> <div class="doi-access"> Open Access </div> </div> </div> <div class="doi-access-wrapper"> <a target="_blank" class="access-icon-wrapper" aria-label="Creative Commons license information" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><span aria-hidden="true" class="access-icon icon-cc"></span><span aria-hidden="true" class="access-icon icon-by"></span></a> </div> </div> <h1 class="citation__title" lang="en">Spatial Structure of Vertical Motions and Associated Heat Flux Induced by Mesoscale Eddies in the Upper Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension</h1> <div class="pb-dropzone" data-pb-dropzone="publicaitonContent-versions">  </div> <div class="loa comma visible-xs mobile-authors loa-authors-trunc"> <div class="comma__list"> <span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Qu/Yushan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="am1" data-db-target-for="am1" aria-controls="am1" aria-haspopup="true" id="am1_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Yushan Qu</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="am1" aria-labelledby="am1_Ctrl" role="region" id="am1"> <p class="author-name">Yushan Qu</p> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a target="_blank" class="sm-account__link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6287-6572"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-orcid"></i><span>orcid.org/0000-0002-6287-6572</span></a></li> </ul> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Qu/Yushan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Shengpeng?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="am2" data-db-target-for="am2" aria-controls="am2" aria-haspopup="true" id="am2_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Shengpeng Wang<i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-mail_outline"></i></span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="am2" aria-labelledby="am2_Ctrl" role="region" id="am2"> <p class="author-type mb-1">Corresponding Author</p> <p class="author-name">Shengpeng Wang</p> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a class="sm-account__link" title="Link to email address" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#87f0e6e9e0f4efe2e9e0f7e2e9e0c7e8f2e4a9e2e3f2a9e4e9"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-ic_mail_solid"></i><span><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="95e2f4fbf2e6fdf0fbf2e5f0fbf2d5fae0f6bbf0f1e0bbf6fb">[email protected]</span></span></a></li> </ul> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a target="_blank" class="sm-account__link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2024-7396"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-orcid"></i><span>orcid.org/0000-0003-2024-7396</span></a></li> </ul> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p> <p><b>Correspondence to:</b></p> <p>S. Wang,</p> <p><a class="corr-email" title="Link to email address" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#7c0b1d121b0f1419121b0c19121b3c13091f52191809521f12"><span><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="d7a0b6b9b0a4bfb2b9b0a7b2b9b097b8a2b4f9b2b3a2f9b4b9">[email protected]</span></span></a></p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Shengpeng?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Jing/Zhao?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="am3" data-db-target-for="am3" aria-controls="am3" aria-haspopup="true" id="am3_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Zhao Jing</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="am3" aria-labelledby="am3_Ctrl" role="region" id="am3"> <p class="author-name">Zhao Jing</p> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a target="_blank" class="sm-account__link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8430-9149"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-orcid"></i><span>orcid.org/0000-0002-8430-9149</span></a></li> </ul> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Jing/Zhao?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Hong?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="am4" data-db-target-for="am4" aria-controls="am4" aria-haspopup="true" id="am4_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Hong Wang</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="am4" aria-labelledby="am4_Ctrl" role="region" id="am4"> <p class="author-name">Hong Wang</p> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Hong?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wu/Lixin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="am5" data-db-target-for="am5" aria-controls="am5" aria-haspopup="true" id="am5_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Lixin Wu</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="am5" aria-labelledby="am5_Ctrl" role="region" id="am5"> <p class="author-name">Lixin Wu</p> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wu/Lixin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span> </div> </div> <div class="loa-wrapper loa-authors hidden-xs desktop-authors"> <div id="sb-1" class="accordion"> <div class="comma__list"> <div class="accordion-tabbed"> <span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Qu/Yushan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="a1" data-db-target-for="a1" aria-controls="a1" aria-haspopup="true" id="a1_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Yushan Qu</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="a1" aria-labelledby="a1_Ctrl" role="region" id="a1"> <p class="author-name">Yushan Qu</p> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a target="_blank" class="sm-account__link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6287-6572"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-orcid"></i><span>orcid.org/0000-0002-6287-6572</span></a></li> </ul> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Qu/Yushan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Shengpeng?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="a2" data-db-target-for="a2" aria-controls="a2" aria-haspopup="true" id="a2_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Shengpeng Wang<i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-mail_outline"></i></span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="a2" aria-labelledby="a2_Ctrl" role="region" id="a2"> <p class="author-type mb-1">Corresponding Author</p> <p class="author-name">Shengpeng Wang</p> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a class="sm-account__link" title="Link to email address" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#2552444b42564d404b4255404b42654a50460b4041500b464b"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-ic_mail_solid"></i><span><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="82f5e3ece5f1eae7ece5f2e7ece5c2edf7e1ace7e6f7ace1ec">[email protected]</span></span></a></li> </ul> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a target="_blank" class="sm-account__link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2024-7396"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-orcid"></i><span>orcid.org/0000-0003-2024-7396</span></a></li> </ul> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p> <p><b>Correspondence to:</b></p> <p>S. Wang,</p> <p><a class="corr-email" title="Link to email address" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cdbaaca3aabea5a8a3aabda8a3aa8da2b8aee3a8a9b8e3aea3"><span><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="9deafcf3faeef5f8f3faedf8f3faddf2e8feb3f8f9e8b3fef3">[email protected]</span></span></a></p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Shengpeng?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Jing/Zhao?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="a3" data-db-target-for="a3" aria-controls="a3" aria-haspopup="true" id="a3_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Zhao Jing</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="a3" aria-labelledby="a3_Ctrl" role="region" id="a3"> <p class="author-name">Zhao Jing</p> <ul class="rlist sm-account"> <li class="sm-account__item"><a target="_blank" class="sm-account__link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8430-9149"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-orcid"></i><span>orcid.org/0000-0002-8430-9149</span></a></li> </ul> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Jing/Zhao?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Hong?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="a4" data-db-target-for="a4" aria-controls="a4" aria-haspopup="true" id="a4_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Hong Wang</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="a4" aria-labelledby="a4_Ctrl" role="region" id="a4"> <p class="author-name">Hong Wang</p> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wang/Hong?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span><span class="accordion-tabbed__tab-mobile accordion__closed"><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wu/Lixin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="author-name accordion-tabbed__control" data-id="a5" data-db-target-for="a5" aria-controls="a5" aria-haspopup="true" id="a5_Ctrl" role="button"><span>Lixin Wu</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a><span class="comma-separator">, </span> <div class="author-info accordion-tabbed__content" data-db-target-of="a5" aria-labelledby="a5_Ctrl" role="region" id="a5"> <p class="author-name">Lixin Wu</p> <p>Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System and Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China</p> <p>Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China</p><a class="moreInfoLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/authored-by/Wu/Lixin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Search for more papers by this author</a> </div></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="epub-sections"> <div class="epub-section"> <span class="epub-state">First published: </span><span class="epub-date">21 September 2022</span> </div> <div class="epub-section"> <a class="epub-doi" aria-label="Digital Object Identifier for enSpatial Structure of Vertical Motions and Associated Heat Flux Induced by Mesoscale Eddies in the Upper Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JC018781">https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JC018781</a> </div> <div class="epub-section cited-by-count"> <span>Citations: <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#citedby-section">3</a></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="fixedCoolBar"> <nav aria-label="Article navigation and tools" class="coolBar stickybar"> <div class="stickybar__wrapper coolBar__wrapper clearfix"> <div class="rlist coolBar__zone"> <div class="coolBar__section"> <a href="javascript:void(0)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" data-db-target-for="article" data-db-switch="icon-close_thin" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="article_Pop" role="button" id="article_Ctrl" class="coolBar__ctrl hidden-lg"><i class="icon-abstract"></i><span>About</span></a> <div data-db-target-of="article" aria-labelledby="article_Ctrl" id="article_Pop" class="coolBar__drop fixed rlist dropBlock__holder"> <div data-target=".article-row-right .tab__nav, .coolBar--download" data-remove="false" data-targetclass="hidden-xs hidden-sm" data-toggle="transplant" 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class="at-icon-wrapper icon-wechat"></i>Wechat</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="accessDenialslot" class="accessDenialslot"></div> <div class="article__body "> <article lang="en"> <div class="abstract-group metis-abstract"> <section class="article-section article-section__abstract" lang="en" data-lang="en" lang-name="English" id="section-1-en"> <h2 id="d194607957" class="article-section__header section__title main abstractlang_en main">Abstract</h2> <div class="article-section__content en main"> <p>Vertical motions induced by mesoscale eddies in the upper ocean play a vital role in the heat transport over the global ocean. However, the spatial structure of vertical eddy velocity and associated heat flux remains unclear. This study addresses this issue in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension based on an eddy-rich Community Earth System Model simulation. Adopting a mesoscale eddy composite analysis, we show that the vertical eddy velocity is enhanced at edges of mesoscale eddies with a maximum magnitude of 0.8 m day<sup>−1</sup> in the upper ocean for anticyclonic eddies (AEs) and 0.5 m day<sup>−1</sup> for cyclonic eddies (CEs). The associated vertical heat flux is upward, reaching 52 and 32 W m<sup>−2</sup> along AEs' and CEs' periphery, respectively. Diagnostic analysis suggests that the enhanced vertical eddy motions at eddy edges are primarily attributed to the ageostrophic secondary circulation (ASC) under the turbulent thermal wind balance that accounts for more than 70% of the vertical eddy velocity and 80% of vertical eddy heat flux in the upper ocean. This ASC is stronger in winter than summer due to the intense turbulent mixing induced by strong surface cooling and wind stirring in winter. Accordingly, the vertical eddy velocity and associated heat flux exhibit a distinct seasonal cycle.</p> </div> </section> <section class="article-section article-section__abstract" lang="en" data-lang="en" lang-name="English" id="section-3-en"> <h2 id="d194607959" class="article-section__header section__title short abstractlang_en short">Key Points</h2> <div class="article-section__content en short"> <p></p> <ul class="unordered-list"> <li><p>Enhanced eddy-induced vertical motions and vertical heat flux are located at edges rather than in the cores within eddies in winter</p></li> <li><p>Turbulent thermal wind and Ekman pumping, respectively, govern the spatial structure of eddy-induced vertical motions in winter and in summer</p></li> <li><p>Turbulent thermal wind can account for more than 70% of eddy-induced vertical motions and 80% of vertical eddy heat flux in winter</p></li> </ul> <p></p> </div> </section> <section class="article-section article-section__abstract" lang="en" data-lang="en" lang-name="English" id="section-2-en"> <h2 id="d194607962" class="article-section__header section__title synopsis abstractlang_en synopsis">Plain Language Summary</h2> <div class="article-section__content en synopsis"> <p>Eddies (with a radius of tens to hundreds of kilometers at midlatitudes) can induce strong vertical velocity and transport heat from the subsurface to the surface ocean. Yet, the spatial structure of vertical eddy velocity and the associated heat flux is still poorly understood. By using an eddy-rich (i.e., models with a horizontal grid size of ∼0.1°) climate model, we address this problem in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension (144−178°E, 28–48°N). By computing the averaged fields of detected eddies, we found that the vertical velocity in the upper ocean is more evident at edges of eddies than in the eddy cores in winter. The enhanced vertical motions at eddy edges are mainly attributed to the effect of vertical mixing of momentum that is largely overlooked by the classical theories and can further induce an upward heat flux in the upper ocean. These results suggest that studying vertical motions in the upper ocean should take into consideration of the vertical mixing at eddy edges, especially in winter when the air-sea heat exchanges are significant.</p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="pb-dropzone" data-pb-dropzone="below-abstract-group">  </div> <section class="article-section article-section__full"> <section class="article-section__content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0010"> <h2 class="article-section__title section__title section1" id="jgrc25197-sec-0010-title">1 Introduction</h2> <p>Mesoscale eddies are ubiquitous in the upper ocean as evidenced by satellite observations and eddy-rich model simulations over the past two decades (e.g., Biastoch & Krauss, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0001" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0001_R_d194607947e374" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1999</a></span>; Chelton et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0006" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0006_R_d194607947e377" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2011</a></span>). They are approximately in geostrophic balance and contribute significantly to the global mechanical energy budget (Ferrari & Wunsch, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0011" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0011_R_d194607947e380" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2010</a></span>; McWilliams, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0027" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0027_R_d194607947e383" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2008</a></span>). Furthermore, they can produce strong material transport and thus have an impact on the global climate and ocean ecosystem (Bryden & Brady, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0003" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0003_R_d194607947e386" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1989</a></span>; Dufois et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0009" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0009_R_d194607947e390" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2014</a></span>; Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0015" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0015_R_d194607947e393" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2013</a></span>; Klein & Lapeyre, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0020" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0020_R_d194607947e396" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2009</a></span>; Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e399" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>; McGillicuddy et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0026" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0026_R_d194607947e402" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2003</a></span>, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0025" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0025_R_d194607947e405" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2007</a></span>; Qiu & Chen, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0033" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0033_R_d194607947e409" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2005</a></span>; Zhang et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0045" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0045_R_d194607947e412" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2014</a></span>). Specifically, eddies can transport nutrients and phytoplankton from the deep layers into the euphotic zone, affecting open ocean primary production and potentially influencing the global carbon cycle (e.g., Chen et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0007" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0007_R_d194607947e415" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>). Another essential role of eddies is their influence on the upper-ocean thermal structure by transporting heat from the subsurface to the surface ocean (Jing et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0019" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0019_R_d194607947e418" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>).</p> <p>Many efforts have been put into understanding the mechanisms controlling the vertical motions and associated heat flux by mesoscale eddies in the upper ocean. The eddy-atmosphere interactions are thought to play an important role in driving the vertical motions in eddies in the near-surface layer. On one hand, the difference between surface wind and surface eddy currents can generate a surface wind stress curl anomaly and generate vertical motions within mesoscale eddies through the (linear) Ekman pumping (Dewar & Flierl, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0008" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0008_R_d194607947e424" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1987</a></span>; McGillicuddy et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0025" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0025_R_d194607947e427" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2007</a></span>). This linear Ekman pumping can predict a monopole structure of vertical motions in the cores of eddies, and this structure has been confirmed by satellite observations and high-resolution numerical simulations (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e430" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>; Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e433" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>). On the other hand, interactions between surface wind stress and eddy-induced surface geostrophic relative vorticity could lead to a dipole structure of vertical motions within eddies through the nonlinear Ekman pumping (Mahadevan et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0024" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0024_R_d194607947e436" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2008</a></span>; Stern, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0035" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0035_R_d194607947e440" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1965</a></span>; Wenegrat & Thomas, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0037" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0037_R_d194607947e443" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2017</a></span>). As evaluated by the satellite observations and the high-resolution climate model, the above Ekman pumping dynamics can work together to generate upwelling or downwelling with magnitudes of <i>O</i>(0.1) m day<sup>−1</sup> (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e450" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>; Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e453" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>). Besides, eddy-induced sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) could also induce a wind stress curl anomaly above eddies by affecting the stability of the overlying atmospheric boundary layer, resulting in Ekman pumping within eddies (Chelton et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0005" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0005_R_d194607947e457" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2001</a></span>; O'Neill, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0030" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0030_R_d194607947e460" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2012</a></span>). Furthermore, recent studies suggest that as the turbulent mixing is vigorous in the mixed layer, the viscous effect provides another efficient way to generate vertical motion and associated heat flux through the turbulent thermal wind balance (Gula et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0016" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0016_R_d194607947e463" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2014</a></span>; Jing et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0019" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0019_R_d194607947e466" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>).</p> <p>While previous studies have significantly improved our understanding of the vertical motions induced by oceanic mesoscale eddies, some critical issues remain unsolved. First and most importantly, most studies concerning eddy-induced Ekman pumping are based on satellite observations, so they are incapable of illustrating the spatial structure of the vertical eddy velocity in a more realistic ocean and to what extent the Ekman pumping can contribute to the total vertical motions within eddies. Second, vertical velocity within eddies retrieved based on the Ekman theory (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e472" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>), assuming that the geostrophic shear inside the mixed layer could be ignored. However, many studies have found that enhanced geostrophic shear exists within eddies and has a significant impact on the vertical motions of the upper ocean through vertical turbulent viscosity (Jing et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0019" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0019_R_d194607947e475" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>; Yang et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0042" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0042_R_d194607947e478" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2022</a></span>). Last but not least, most of the existing studies constrain their focus on vertical velocity rather than vertical heat flux induced by mesoscale eddies. However, not all vertical motions can cause vertical heat flux due to the mismatch between vertical velocity and temperature anomaly (Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e481" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>; Yang et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0040" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0040_R_d194607947e484" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021a</a></span>). Recent studies found that although the Ekman pumping can produce intense vertical motions, its associated vertical eddy heat flux is weak, which accounts for only 23% and 12% of the total vertical eddy heat flux at 50 m depth during summer and winter, respectively (Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e488" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>). This paper will examine the abovementioned issues in a more realistic situation as simulated by an eddy-rich coupled climate model simulation.</p> <p>In this study, we analyze the spatial structure of vertical eddy velocity and associated heat flux as well as its mechanisms in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension (KOE), where most intense mesoscale eddy activities and air-sea interactions take place in the North Pacific, based on a 0.1° coupled global climate model by adopting an eddy composite method. The paper is organized as follows: Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0020">2</a> briefly describes the coupled global climate model configuration, observation data sets, and the methodology of this study. The spatial structure of vertical velocity and vertical heat flux within mesoscale eddies is examined in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0090">3</a> and the underlying dynamics are presented. Discussion and conclusions are provided in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0130">4</a>.</p> </section> <section class="article-section__content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0020"> <h2 class="article-section__title section__title section1" id="jgrc25197-sec-0020-title">2 Data and Methods</h2> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0030"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0030-title">2.1 CESM Configuration</h3> <p>To reveal the spatial structure of vertical eddy velocity and associated heat flux in the upper KOE, an eddy-rich global climate simulation based on the Community Earth System Model (CESM) is used in this study (Chang et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0004" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0004_R_d194607947e517" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>). The CESM configuration includes the Parallel Ocean Program version 2 (POP2) as its oceanic component and the Community Atmospheric Model version 5 (CAM5) as its atmospheric component. A detailed model description could be found in Chang et al. (<span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0004" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0004_R_d194607947e520" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>). CAM5 and POP2 have horizontal resolutions of about 0.25° and 0.1°, respectively. For POP2, there are 62 levels in the vertical with increasing grid space from 5 m near the sea surface to 250 m near the bottom. The oceanic and atmospheric components in the CESM communicate with each other based on a coupler, where POP2 provides sea surface temperature (SST) and surface current to CAM5 and CAM5 provides updated fluxes to POP2 using the Large and Yeager (<span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0022" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0022_R_d194607947e523" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2009</a></span>) surface layer scheme every 6 h. The K-profile parameterization (KPP) turbulent mixing closure scheme is used for vertical mixing (Large et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0021" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0021_R_d194607947e526" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1994</a></span>).</p> <p>The simulation consists of a 250 year historical and future transient climate simulation, following the design protocol of the Coupled Model Intercomparing Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) experiments. It saves the monthly averaged three-dimensional oceanic variables and daily averaged two-dimensional sea surface variables. In addition, daily averaged three-dimensional oceanic variables as well as diagnostic outputs for the tracer and momentum equations are output during 1920–1934 and 2086–2100. In this study, we use the data during 1920–1934 to analyze the underlying dynamics of the seasonal variations of the vertical eddy velocity and associated vertical heat transport. Although the time period used for analysis is somewhat arbitrary, it is unlikely that using different time periods could have a substantial impact on the major findings of this study. As to the model validation based on SST and sea surface height (SSH), the time period from 1993 to 2020 is selected, consistent with that of the observational data. The results presented below are based on the analysis performed in the KOE region (144−178°E, 28−48°N).</p> <div class="paragraph-element"> In POP2, the vertical velocity is obtained by vertically integrating the continuity equation from the top with a linearized free-surface boundary condition, neglecting the change of sea water column caused by the freshwater flux at the sea surface (Smith et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0034" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0034_R_d194607947e534" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2010</a></span>): <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0001"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/86258e24-468f-4435-a58f-5b092d400fe6/jgrc25197-math-0001.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0001" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0001" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label"></span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0002"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/91063585-549f-4720-b1d0-5b9b7ee5368e/jgrc25197-math-0002.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0002" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0002" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label"></span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0003"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/0c26d6eb-4147-433e-867d-54502cc0b3c5/jgrc25197-math-0003.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0003" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0003" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label"></span> </div>where (<i>u</i>,<i>v</i>,<i>w</i>) are the three-dimensional velocity, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0004" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/834ee87d-f18d-4650-8d1b-3fffd278fe0d/jgrc25197-math-0004.png"> is the displacement of the free surface relative to <i>z</i> = 0, and <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0005" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/2fa0218a-2556-4bfc-ad8b-e1bfaa391849/jgrc25197-math-0005.png"> represents the bottom boundary. Here, the freshwater flux is assumed to be zero for simplicity. Then, the vertical velocity in the interior ocean can be calculated as <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0004"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/31ba693c-1aa9-4708-97ad-262de14e8428/jgrc25197-math-0006.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0006" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0006" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label"></span> </div> </div> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0040"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0040-title">2.2 Observational Data</h3> <p>Two observational data sets are used to validate the CESM model output in the study region. The merged SSH data set is provided by Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS, <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://marine.copernicus.eu" class="linkBehavior">https://marine.copernicus.eu</a>), which is derived from all the flying satellites: Jason-3, Sentinel-3A, HY-2A, Saral/AltiKa, Cryosat-2, Jason-2, Jason-1, T/P, ENVISAT, GFO, and ERS1/2. The gridded SSH dataset is obtained through Optimal Interpolation (Pujol et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0032" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0032_R_d194607947e577" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2016</a></span>) with a spatial resolution of 0.25° and a temporal resolution of 1 day and is used to validate the simulated mesoscale eddy activities in CESM. The optimum interpolation sea surface temperature (OISST, <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oisst" class="linkBehavior">https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oisst</a>) provided by the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Climate Data Center (NCDC) is selected to validate the simulated mean state and eddy characteristics in the KOE region. By applying bias adjustment methodology, OISST incorporates observations from satellites, ships, buoys, and Argo float into a regular global grid. The SST data set also has a spatial grid resolution of 0.25° and a temporal resolution of 1 day. The temporal period from 1 January 1993–30 June 2020 is used in this study.</p> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0050"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0050-title">2.3 Eddy Identification, Tracking, and Composites</h3> <p>A complete eddy identification and tracking algorithm method, which was developed by Faghmous et al. (<span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0010" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0010_R_d194607947e592" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2013</a></span>), is conducted in this study. First, the SSH field is high-pass filtered to remove large-scale signals with wavelength scales larger than 20° of longitude by 10° of latitude. Second, all extrema of the SSH field for each daily mean SSH snapshot are identified as the possible centers of eddies. Third, filtered SSH isolines around SSH extrema are incrementally increased (decreased) by 0.05 cm to construct the interior of CEs (AEs). The increase (decrease) stops when two extrema are included in the interior, and then it sets the eddy's outermost contour as that of the step prior to merging two extrema. The eddy radius <i>R</i> is defined as the radius of a circle with an area equal to that enclosed by this SSH contour. We eliminate eddies with a radius shorter than 45 km both in the observations and CESM, because these small-scale eddies cannot be well resolved by observations (Chelton et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0006" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0006_R_d194607947e597" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2011</a></span>; Faghmous et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0010" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0010_R_d194607947e600" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2013</a></span>). The eddy amplitude is defined as the difference between the SSH extremum in the eddy interior and the mean SSH value along the outermost SSH contour. After identifying eddies based on their daily averaged SSH, we conduct eddy tracking with a tolerance of 10 day disappearance. Sensitivity tests suggest that the tracking results change a little for tolerance of disappearance ranging from 5 to 10 days. Eddies with a lifetime less than 6 weeks or with their interiors within 1.5° of the Oyashio Extension (OE) front and Kuroshio Extension (KE) front are excluded to eliminate the effects of current meanders and fronts. Here, the OE front is identified based on the maximum value of the meridional gradient of the monthly SST field between 38° and 47°N (Frankignoul et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0013" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0013_R_d194607947e603" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2011</a></span>), and the KE front is determined by the meridional gradient of the monthly SSH field between 28° and 42°N (Nonaka et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0029" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0029_R_d194607947e607" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2006</a></span>). This way of screening yields 20214 (24368) snapshots for AEs and 25349 (28051) snapshots for CEs in winter (summer) during 1920–1934 from CESM simulation in the KOE region, respectively.</p> <p>Mesoscale eddies in western boundary current extension regions are found to have a high deformation rate (e.g., Ji et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0018" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0018_R_d194607947e613" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2018</a></span>). To get a clear image of the spatial pattern with eddies, we reform each eddy to be a near-perfect circle before calculating composite averages of eddies. First, we assume that the azimuthal angle is conserved before and after the reformation. The outermost SSH contour is stretched to be a circle with its center at its SSH extremum <i>O</i> and its radius same as the eddy radius <i>R</i> (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0001">1</a>). For each grid point, by both considering the distance from the eddy SSH extremum and the shape of the outermost SSH contour, the distance of each grid point from the eddy center, taking <i>OB</i> as an example, is stretched to be (<i>OB/OP</i>)<i>·R</i>, where <i>OP</i> is the corresponding distance from the eddy perimeter point to the eddy center with the same azimuthal angle <i>β</i> as <i>OB</i>. Last, each normalized grid location is then interpolated onto a high-resolution grid for normalized zonal and meridional coordinates ranging from −2.5 to 2.5<i>R</i>. Noted that all variables and the dynamic analysis in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0080">2.6</a> were calculated first on the original grids of the CESM and then interpolated to a normalized map for eddy compositing, and thus, the eddy properties are assumed to be conserved.</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0001"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/22d56b33-5d3c-4f25-83a8-1c6a271c2342/jgrc25197-fig-0001-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/22d56b33-5d3c-4f25-83a8-1c6a271c2342/jgrc25197-fig-0001-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/33504602-f33e-44bc-a280-d598cf56538a/jgrc25197-fig-0001-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/22d56b33-5d3c-4f25-83a8-1c6a271c2342/jgrc25197-fig-0001-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 1<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0001&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>The normalization of an eddy with an unregular form. The solid black line is the outermost sea surface height (SSH) contour for the identified eddy. <i>O</i> is the SSH extremum inside the eddy. <i>B</i> is a point inside the eddy. <i>P</i> is the intersection of the extension of <i>OB</i> and the outermost contour. The left is the original unregular form, and the right is the standard circular form after normalization.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>Furthermore, eddy-induced Ekman pumping depends strongly on the direction of the large-scale wind direction (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e677" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>), so we rotate the eddy images to align with the background wind direction such that the winds are always westerly.</p> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0060"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0060-title">2.4 Stern-Ekman Pumping-Induced Vertical Velocity</h3> <div class="paragraph-element"> Existing studies have revealed that mesoscale eddies could produce significant upwelling in the AEs' cores and downwelling in the CEs' cores due to relative motions of their surface currents and the surface wind (Dewar & Flierl, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0008" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0008_R_d194607947e689" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1987</a></span>), referred to as the classical Ekman pumping. Considering the effect of the geostrophic vorticity of eddies on the vertical motions, Stern (<span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0035" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0035_R_d194607947e692" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1965</a></span>) improved the classical Ekman pumping and gave a complete expression: <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0005"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/72fd8990-0c98-4ce2-9e98-96f76fcf6b77/jgrc25197-math-0007.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0007" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0007" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label"></span> </div>where <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0008" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/54f8a02e-02c3-4025-ab5f-c41b082889a6/jgrc25197-math-0008.png"> = 1,027.5 kg m<sup>−3</sup> is the reference density of seawater, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0009" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/8c676389-de14-4f3d-8dae-3b41548bd589/jgrc25197-math-0009.png"> is the Coriolis parameter, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0010" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/bede2cbf-82c3-4d35-ab4b-555d7c318f08/jgrc25197-math-0010.png"> is the vertical component of surface geostrophic vorticity, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0011" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/50449996-c9b6-45be-a09b-eb83126cbadb/jgrc25197-math-0011.png"> is the surface wind stress, and <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0012" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/48b001d9-5f3f-4af9-8e9d-14e673a282ab/jgrc25197-math-0012.png">. </div> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0070"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0070-title">2.5 Computation of Vertical Eddy Heat Flux (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0013" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/3b487808-1ba3-4253-bd5f-ddf47ceced2d/jgrc25197-math-0013.png">)</h3> <div class="paragraph-element"> The vertical eddy heat flux is calculated by <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0006"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/e253afed-1556-415a-af38-99cf9a21a98f/jgrc25197-math-0014.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0014" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0014" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label"></span> </div>where <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0015" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/aaa3c4f5-d6ca-4eab-863c-c7fac8b141e5/jgrc25197-math-0015.png"> is the temperature, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0016" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/4f8938e6-2c8e-400c-8d6b-f164ee66d5ff/jgrc25197-math-0016.png"> is the seawater-specific heat capacity, and the prime represents mesoscale eddy anomalies. Mesoscale anomalies in this study are defined as the high-pass component using a 3° × 3° rectangular boxcar filter. </div> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0080"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0080-title">2.6 Turbulent Thermal Wind Balance</h3> <p>During the winter in the KOE, the extensive atmospheric forcing manifests the vertical turbulent viscosity in the upper ocean and a turbulent thermal wind (TTW) balance achieves a dominant position instead of classical thermal wind balance (Gula et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0016" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0016_R_d194607947e741" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2014</a></span>; Jing et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0019" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0019_R_d194607947e744" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>).</p> <div class="paragraph-element"> The TTW balance is the dynamical balance between the horizontal pressure gradient, the Coriolis force, and the vertical mixing of momentum. Total motions <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0017" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/97d97820-3579-4b04-9f6a-063f05996b95/jgrc25197-math-0017.png"> can be divided into geostrophic component <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0018" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/88b29b56-d64a-4994-aa72-bd805f9230c3/jgrc25197-math-0018.png"> and ageostrophic component <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0019" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/7f9bcce7-33b3-4e3c-9220-438fbb9b4752/jgrc25197-math-0019.png"> and the equations come to <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0007"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/c681f50c-ce75-469c-b152-0e80b8f1523a/jgrc25197-math-0020.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0020" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0020" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(1a)</span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0008"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/72e53c46-860f-4e6a-941f-0682b867c8e5/jgrc25197-math-0021.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0021" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0021" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(1b)</span> </div>where <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0022" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/60c4f1a3-ef30-4691-9b1f-59ef0065021c/jgrc25197-math-0022.png"> is the vertical mixing coefficient for momentum parameterized by the KPP scheme (Large et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0021" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0021_R_d194607947e773" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1994</a></span>). </div> <div class="paragraph-element"> Following Yang et al. (<span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0041" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0041_R_d194607947e779" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021b</a></span>), <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0023" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/957b3069-4001-45bd-9eb8-6aa6c523fd22/jgrc25197-math-0023.png"> in the TTW balance can be further separated into components driven by wind stress (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0024" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/e876ea75-7cda-4c65-add5-d044a97bec1f/jgrc25197-math-0024.png">) and geostrophic shear (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0025" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/89c01f87-a51d-474b-9754-f11b7a1ce9ac/jgrc25197-math-0025.png">). The former <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0026" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/d87c9336-9e5b-4165-a49f-13e75c147bdd/jgrc25197-math-0026.png"> is governed by <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0009"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/86c66fce-af21-42ad-894d-9af0a9976801/jgrc25197-math-0027.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0027" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0027" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(2a)</span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0010"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/d42d9556-a370-48ae-9aee-fc4fd88afed2/jgrc25197-math-0028.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0028" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0028" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(2b)</span> </div>with the boundary conditions: <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0011"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/5e820138-d1bd-4ba1-aed1-da9e13f9c7d4/jgrc25197-math-0029.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0029" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0029" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(2c)</span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0012"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/45fb8832-2a40-44eb-bd51-6969786085d0/jgrc25197-math-0030.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0030" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0030" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(2d)</span> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph-element"> The latter <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0031" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/a58d33aa-9786-4d4f-bec5-74c50130d390/jgrc25197-math-0031.png">, slaved to the destruction of the vertical geostrophic shear by vertical mixing, is governed by <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0013"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/2b8dadc5-455d-4887-8fd1-b722d581e96b/jgrc25197-math-0032.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0032" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0032" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(3a)</span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0014"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/6854e5c3-f34f-4eec-94d7-f9d2174c9fa4/jgrc25197-math-0033.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0033" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0033" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(3b)</span> </div>with the boundary conditions: <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0015"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/dcb9d8f0-9bf2-4a45-a8cd-7806d4913de7/jgrc25197-math-0034.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0034" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0034" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(3c)</span> </div> <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0016"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/2c4813b9-9c95-4e47-8786-855994467415/jgrc25197-math-0035.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0035" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0035" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(3d)</span> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph-element"> Following Yang et al. (<span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0041" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0041_R_d194607947e854" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021b</a></span>), we use the relaxation method (Ortega & Rheinboldt, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0031" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0031_R_d194607947e857" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1970</a></span>) to solve Equations <a class="equationLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-disp-0001" title="Link to equation">2</a> and <a class="equationLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-disp-0001" title="Link to equation">3</a>, replacing <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0036" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/eb5fdf1f-3b95-4e00-ae93-cfebc5cceb18/jgrc25197-math-0036.png"> with a depth of 500 m that is far below the surface boundary layer (defined based on KPP scheme) in the KOE. Assuming continuity, the vertical velocity associated with Equations <a class="equationLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-disp-0001" title="Link to equation">2</a> and <a class="equationLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-disp-0001" title="Link to equation">3</a> can be computed as <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0017"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/f0c2eec3-59c7-43b5-9cd9-485ba908f4fb/jgrc25197-math-0037.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0037" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0037" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(4)</span> </div>and <div class="inline-equation" id="jgrc25197-disp-0018"> <span class="inline-equation__construct"><img class="" src="/cms/asset/79a808a5-222e-4f5f-9794-700d3d29d3e0/jgrc25197-math-0038.png" alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0038" title="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0038" loading="lazy"></span><span class="inline-equation__label">(5)</span> </div>where <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0039" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/523e1d68-1af6-4def-a5f6-61dd9f26047f/jgrc25197-math-0039.png"> is the unit vector in the <i>z</i> direction. </div> </section> </section> <section class="article-section__content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0090"> <h2 class="article-section__title section__title section1" id="jgrc25197-sec-0090-title">3 Vertical Eddy Velocity and Associated Heat Flux in the Upper Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension</h2> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0100"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0100-title">3.1 Eddy Characteristics Simulated by CESM</h3> <p>Before analyzing the vertical motions and vertical eddy heat flux as well as their dynamics in the upper KOE, we quantified the performance of CESM in simulating eddy characteristics using CMEMS and OISST data sets. As shown in Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0002">2</a>, the simulated background circulations, including western boundary currents and meanders, agree reasonably well with the observations. Nevertheless, the simulated SST is several degrees Celsius higher than OISST in the east of Japan, and the simulated SSH is about 0.4 m lower than CMEMS. The simulated magnitude of the SSH gradient along the central axis of the Kuroshio Current in CESM is a little stronger than that in the CMEMS with a difference smaller than 10%. The simulated time-mean locations of OE and KE front generally follow the observations, although they are somewhat more zonal in CESM. Despite the slightly stronger magnitude, the simulated mesoscale activities also bear much resemblance to CMEMS. In the upstream KE, it is characterized by large values in the vicinity of the Kuroshio jet with maximums located at the crests of meanders. However, in the downstream KE, mesoscale eddies become much weaker as they are dissipated and cascade energy upscales to the mean flow (Waterman & Jayne, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0036" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0036_R_d194607947e911" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2011</a></span>; Yang & San Liang, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0043" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0043_R_d194607947e914" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2016</a></span>; Yang et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0039" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0039_R_d194607947e917" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2018</a></span>).</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0002"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/8dbe9c60-0b2e-48b7-9530-223564e9410a/jgrc25197-fig-0002-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/8dbe9c60-0b2e-48b7-9530-223564e9410a/jgrc25197-fig-0002-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/40c61851-3b24-42da-8621-30f86c784f1a/jgrc25197-fig-0002-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/8dbe9c60-0b2e-48b7-9530-223564e9410a/jgrc25197-fig-0002-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 2<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0002&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Time-mean state of sea surface height (SSH), sea surface temperature (SST), and front location in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension (KOE). Time-mean state of SST and contours of SSH of (a) Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) and optimum interpolation sea surface temperature (OISST) and (b) Community Earth System Model (CESM) during 1993–2020; time-mean state of the fields of eddy kinetic energy (EKE) of (c) CMEMS and (d) CESM during 1993–2020. The Oyashio Extension (OE) front is depicted in blue and the Kuroshio Extension (KE) front is depicted in green. The SSH contour interval is 0.2 m. The eddy composites described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a> are conducted in the region indicated by the box in (c).</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>By compositing the eddy-induced anomalies of SSH and SST, we further evaluate the model's ability to capture spatial characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the region of our interest. In total, 1,469 (1,450) CEs (AEs) in CESM and 1,844 (1,971) CEs (AEs) in observations satisfied the criterion described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a> during 1993–2020. Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0003">3</a> shows the composite averages of daily SSH anomaly (SSHA) and SST anomaly (SSTA) fields in CESM and observations during 1993–2020. The simulated pattern of SSTA resembles that in the observations: within AEs, the positive SSTA is located on the northwest side of eddies, while in CEs, significantly negative SSTA is displaced southwestward. The slight northwestward displacement in AEs and southwestward displacement in CEs may result from the eddy-induced volume transport in a southward background SST gradient (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e956" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>). Over the KOE, the simulated radius of identified CEs (AEs) eddies ranges from 47.0 (46.5) to 228.5 (212.0) km, comparable to 48.5 (47.9) to 186.4 (218.8) km obtained from satellite observations and the averaged eddy amplitude of CEs (AEs) is 0.098 (0.117) m in the CESM and 0.094 (0.129) m in the observation, providing further evidence for the credibility of the CESM simulation (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0004">4</a>). It should be noted that the simulated magnitude of composite SSTA and SSHA is slightly stronger than that in the observations, which might result from the higher spatial resolutions in the CESM than in the observations. In general, the CESM shows good consistency with the observations in capturing eddy characteristics in the KOE.</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0003"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/5f723813-5f38-41e0-811f-750374c184f8/jgrc25197-fig-0003-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/5f723813-5f38-41e0-811f-750374c184f8/jgrc25197-fig-0003-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/d4682c4f-8ac9-4bfb-a784-83da8aa3589c/jgrc25197-fig-0003-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/5f723813-5f38-41e0-811f-750374c184f8/jgrc25197-fig-0003-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 3<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0003&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Composite averages of sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) and contours of sea surface height anomaly (SSHA) of (a) Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service and optimum interpolation sea surface temperature and (b) Community Earth System Model for (left) AEs and (right) CEs during 1993–2020. The <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> coordinates of the composite averages are normalized using the method described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a>. The contour interval of the SSHA is 0.04 m.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0004"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/e10ec048-467d-4ac6-bc70-c8b2466f04c3/jgrc25197-fig-0004-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/e10ec048-467d-4ac6-bc70-c8b2466f04c3/jgrc25197-fig-0004-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/f3c3e368-c177-4fc8-99f4-302402d588e4/jgrc25197-fig-0004-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/e10ec048-467d-4ac6-bc70-c8b2466f04c3/jgrc25197-fig-0004-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 4<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0004&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Histograms of eddy radius for (a) Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) and (c) Community Earth System Model (CESM) during 1993–2020; histograms of eddy amplitude for (b) CMEMS and (d) CESM during 1993–2020. Red lines denote AEs and blue lines denote CEs.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0110"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0110-title">3.2 Vertical Eddy Velocity in the Upper Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension</h3> <p>As shown in Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5</a>, the intensity of vertical eddy velocity in the KOE exhibits a pronounced seasonal difference with larger and smaller values occurring in winter and summer, respectively. Moreover, the vertical eddy velocity exhibits a shallower peak centered around 100 m in winter, while this peak moves to 350 m in summer (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5a</a>). Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5b</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5c</a> displays two snapshots of vertical eddy velocity at 100 m in the KOE in winter and in summer, respectively. As predicted by the Ekman pumping theory, the spatial patterns of vertical eddy velocity are in the forms of mesoscale anomalies in summer and are located along the central axis of the Kuroshio Current (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5c</a>). However, there is a local enhancement of vertical eddy velocity in the forms of thin and long filaments along the eddy periphery in winter (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5b</a>), suggesting that there exist specific dynamics in winter to induce large vertical motions at eddy edges.</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0005"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/8396b97d-750b-448b-9ac4-5424cce75707/jgrc25197-fig-0005-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/8396b97d-750b-448b-9ac4-5424cce75707/jgrc25197-fig-0005-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/acbbb194-1729-40fd-863f-b902e20ae0b1/jgrc25197-fig-0005-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/8396b97d-750b-448b-9ac4-5424cce75707/jgrc25197-fig-0005-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 5<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0005&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>(a) Vertical profile of <i>w'</i><sup><i>2</i></sup> of the annual mean (black line), winter mean (blue line), and summer mean (green line) calculated inside the box in (b and c); snapshots of <i>w'</i> at 100 m on (b) 1 January 1925 and (c) 1 October 1925.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>An eddy composite analysis is performed to further reveal the spatial structure of vertical eddy velocity within eddies. As shown in Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6</a>, we composite vertical eddy velocity at 20/50/100/150/200/260 m within eddies in this study. Consistent with the KOE's spatial mean, the composite vertical eddy velocity is quantitatively larger in winter than in summer (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6</a>). In winter, vertical eddy velocity within both AEs and CEs has a unique “ring-like” structure with the bigger values existing at eddy edges rather than in the cores, especially at 50/100 m (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6a</a>). As the depth increases to 200 m, the structure approaches a dipole structure with upwelling located at the north (south) and downwelling located at the south (north) of AEs (CEs). For AEs in winter, there is upwelling inside the eddies, while the upward eddy vertical velocity peaks around the northwest edge of the eddies exceeding 0.8 m day<sup>−1</sup> at 50 m. In contrast, there is downwelling outside the AEs' periphery with a maximum of 0.4 m day<sup>−1</sup> located at the southeast edge of the eddies at 50 m. There is a similar pattern in composite CEs with downwelling inside the eddies peaking at the northwest edge of the eddies exceeding 0.5 m day<sup>−1</sup> and upwelling outside the southeast eddy edge with a maximum of 0.3 m day<sup>−1</sup> at 50 m. However, the composite <i>w'</i> structure shows a huge difference in summer (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6b</a>). Nearly, the symmetric dipole structure is found both in AEs and CEs in the upper layer from 20 to 260 m with magnitudes of about 0.2 m day<sup>−1</sup>.</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0006"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/1e9f46ed-f5b4-43db-a98f-6c372cddbb2b/jgrc25197-fig-0006-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/1e9f46ed-f5b4-43db-a98f-6c372cddbb2b/jgrc25197-fig-0006-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/5045d77c-32fd-48f8-ad05-c4843344578f/jgrc25197-fig-0006-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/1e9f46ed-f5b4-43db-a98f-6c372cddbb2b/jgrc25197-fig-0006-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 6<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0006&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Composite averages of <i>w'</i> for anticyclonic eddies (AEs) (left) and cyclonic eddies (CEs) (right) at 20/50/100/150/200/260 m in winter (a) and summer (b). The contours are depicted at 0.5, 0.7 m day<sup>−1</sup> for AEs and −0.4, −0.3 m day<sup>−1</sup> for CEs in winter and −0.3, −0.2, −0.1, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 m day<sup>−1</sup> for AEs and CEs in summer. The solid contours denote positive values and the dotted contours denote negative values. The <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> coordinates of the composite averages are normalized using the method described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a>.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>Previous studies have suggested that Ekman pumping may play an important role in shaping the spatial structure of vertical motions within mesoscale eddies (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e1150" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>; Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e1153" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>). Indeed, decomposition of the vertical eddy velocity due to the Stern-Ekman pumping (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0040" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/bf31b253-bcfe-42f0-91ac-a6a4c83fb2c6/jgrc25197-math-0040.png">) suggests that the Ekman pumping plays a dominant role in shaping the dipolar pattern of vertical eddy velocity in the surface layer in summer (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6b</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0007">7b</a>) with a correlation coefficient of 0.77 and 0.82 and with their peak values differing by less than 4.4% and 9.3% for AEs and CEs at 50 m. While in winter, the dipolar pattern of vertical eddy velocity at 100 m and deeper can also be partly attributed to Stern-Ekman pumping (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6a</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0007">7a</a>). The most notable feature for <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0041" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/6f10d363-95ba-445d-847a-c8dbc0d8040d/jgrc25197-math-0041.png"> is the dipolar velocity structure in the opposite flanks of eddies, which is attributed to the interaction of the surface stress with the surface current vorticity gradient. This dipole structure of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0042" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/e55608d3-59b4-4031-b650-ce6d6f5d06fb/jgrc25197-math-0042.png"> is consistent with previous studies (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0014" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0014_R_d194607947e1175" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>; Li et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0023" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0023_R_d194607947e1178" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2021</a></span>). However, this cannot explain the unique “ring-like” structure and a larger magnitude of vertical eddy velocity at eddy edges in the upper 100 m in winter (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6a</a>), suggesting that there exist other essential dynamics dominating <i>w'</i>.</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0007"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/e580efd3-d2c7-44b3-a5cd-d04d34bf8d1c/jgrc25197-fig-0007-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/e580efd3-d2c7-44b3-a5cd-d04d34bf8d1c/jgrc25197-fig-0007-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/c6ad3389-0e9b-4302-8742-48e160ebbe4e/jgrc25197-fig-0007-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/e580efd3-d2c7-44b3-a5cd-d04d34bf8d1c/jgrc25197-fig-0007-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 7<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0007&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Composite averages of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0043" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/c74a1e16-ddb9-4a67-be63-40bc6e4675e5/jgrc25197-math-0043.png"> for anticyclonic eddies (AEs) (left) and cyclonic eddies (CEs) (right) in (a) winter and (b) summer. The contours are depicted at −0.6, −0.4, −0.2, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 m day<sup>−1</sup> for AEs and CEs in winter and −0.15, 0.15 m day<sup>−1</sup> for AEs and CEs in summer. The solid contours denote positive values and the dotted contours denote negative values. The <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> coordinates of the composite averages are normalized using the method described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a>.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>Turbulent mixing may destroy the vertical shear of geostrophic velocity within mesoscale eddies and induce pronounced vertical motions at fronts in the mixed layer through turbulent thermal wind balance (Jing et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0019" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0019_R_d194607947e1228" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>). Indeed, the spatial structure of composite averaged vertical geostrophic velocity shear within CEs and AEs is consistent with that of the <i>w'</i> at 50 m (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6a</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0008">8</a>). In particular, it also exhibits a pronounced enhancement at edges of eddies, suggesting that turbulent thermal wind balance may play an important role in shaping the spatial structure of vertical motions at eddy edges in winter.</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0008"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/9d4abc33-14ce-4734-bf39-2b76fb03c908/jgrc25197-fig-0008-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/9d4abc33-14ce-4734-bf39-2b76fb03c908/jgrc25197-fig-0008-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/e3b519d2-0300-4841-b1c6-afc2c74a2f85/jgrc25197-fig-0008-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/9d4abc33-14ce-4734-bf39-2b76fb03c908/jgrc25197-fig-0008-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 8<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0008&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Composite averages of geostrophic shear and contours of sea surface height anomaly (SSHA) in winter for anticyclonic eddies (left) and cyclonic eddies (right) in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension region. The <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> coordinates of the composite averages are normalized using the method described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a>. The contour interval of the SSHA is 0.04 m.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>To test this hypothesis, we compare <i>w'</i> and that inferred from the TTW balance (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6a</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0009">9a</a>). The spatial structures of composite <i>w'</i> and <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0044" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/ca2dffe6-aad2-492a-b2d5-84667c1edb74/jgrc25197-math-0044.png"> agree reasonably well in the upper ocean with a correlation coefficient of 0.94 (0.90) and 0.86 (0.74) and with their peak values differing by less than 22.9% (29.8%) and 6.0% (26.5%) for AEs and CEs at 50 (100) m in the KOE, respectively. Moreover, by separating the ageostrophic motions driven by wind stress and geostrophic shear in the TTW balance, we show that the destruction of the vertical geostrophic shear by vertical mixing (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0045" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/c3b2a188-3fd0-4d82-b9d5-a885fd39bfb6/jgrc25197-math-0045.png">) accounts mostly for the total <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0046" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/e2224a9e-3e44-423b-b7e8-7dc37a963916/jgrc25197-math-0046.png"> with their peak values differing less than 15.3% and 8.3% for AEs and CEs and also dominates its spatial structure with a spatial correlation coefficient of 0.80 and 0.75 for AEs and CEs at 50 m, respectively (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0009">9</a>). Therefore, strong ageostrophic secondary circulation induced to restore the vertical shear against the destruction by turbulent vertical mixing makes a dominant contribution in shaping the structure of <i>w'</i> in the upper layer in winter. Under 150 m, however, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0047" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/247fd1be-8683-4e71-84ec-3db15c880019/jgrc25197-math-0047.png"> dominates <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0048" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/ce6d8d04-7325-4902-8d39-f8a8a9cc52d8/jgrc25197-math-0048.png"> by generating upwelling inside AEs and downwelling inside CEs as projected by the classical Ekman pumping theory. Note that <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0049" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/288d56b7-eb80-4e38-be6a-ccb20379fc4b/jgrc25197-math-0049.png"> peaks at the south edge of CEs in accordance with the spatial structure of geostrophic shear (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0010">10</a>), while the real <i>w'</i> peaks at the northwest edge of CEs (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6a</a>). This displacement may be attributed to the fact that interactions between surface wind stress and eddy geostrophic vorticity are neglected for the calculation of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0050" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/5dd306b4-507b-43a4-9e90-d7cee06abf8f/jgrc25197-math-0050.png"> in the TTW balance (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0006">6</a>, <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0007">7</a>, and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0008">8</a>).</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0009"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/2bda565d-5d57-471c-95fb-275d20a40fed/jgrc25197-fig-0009-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/2bda565d-5d57-471c-95fb-275d20a40fed/jgrc25197-fig-0009-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/955db088-b9b7-4817-ad13-5483eae67f03/jgrc25197-fig-0009-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/2bda565d-5d57-471c-95fb-275d20a40fed/jgrc25197-fig-0009-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 9<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0009&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Composite averages of (a) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0051" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/70724dce-baa4-4a40-a885-3fe251d7ad43/jgrc25197-math-0051.png">, (b) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0052" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/b3e3cf81-56d9-4792-88e5-e668eb5220b0/jgrc25197-math-0052.png">, and (c) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0053" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/82911e88-d579-4f64-9ed9-59ee920261c7/jgrc25197-math-0053.png"> of 20/50/100/150/200/260 m in the winter Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension (KOE) for anticyclonic eddies (AEs) (left) and cyclonic eddies (CEs) (right). In (a and c), the black contours are depicted for <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0054" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/917e093b-f1a8-4349-896d-364cf09cdba7/jgrc25197-math-0054.png"> and <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0055" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/93d06dc8-8cde-4ea8-a51b-7aee2cc0592a/jgrc25197-math-0055.png"> at 0.5, 0.7 m day<sup>−1</sup> for AEs and −0.4, −0.3 m day<sup>−1</sup> for CEs. In (b), the red and blue contours are depicted for the wind stress curl from −4 × 10<sup>−6</sup> to 4 × 10<sup>−6</sup> N m<sup>−3</sup> with an interval of 1 × 10<sup>−7</sup> N m<sup>−3</sup>. The <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> coordinates of the composite averages are normalized using the method described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a>.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0010"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/94d1870a-0565-4c73-93e0-24a7a90c68b0/jgrc25197-fig-0010-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/94d1870a-0565-4c73-93e0-24a7a90c68b0/jgrc25197-fig-0010-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/6797291b-d229-4a92-a4c1-b4c1a1217096/jgrc25197-fig-0010-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/94d1870a-0565-4c73-93e0-24a7a90c68b0/jgrc25197-fig-0010-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 10<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0010&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Time-mean state of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0056" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/b9aac7db-2bc6-43da-9bfe-182ebdd9ede0/jgrc25197-math-0056.png"> in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension at 50 m during 1920–1934.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> </section> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0120"> <h3 class="article-section__sub-title section2" id="jgrc25197-sec-0120-title">3.3 Spatial Structure of Vertical Eddy Heat Flux in Winter</h3> <p>The spatial structure of vertical heat flux within mesoscale eddies is further revealed in this section. As shown in Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0010">10</a>, the annual mean vertical eddy heat flux (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0057" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/9739e9a9-2a35-46a4-a763-bb42c0e694e4/jgrc25197-math-0057.png">) is positive almost everywhere, suggesting universal upward heat flux from the subsurface to the surface ocean. Existing literature (Jing et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0019" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0019_R_d194607947e1417" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2020</a></span>) reveals an important role of this upward eddy heat flux in maintaining the KE front as well as other western boundary current extension fronts. Similar to <i>w'</i>, <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0058" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/82717ae0-2dc4-4044-a33b-3968329157d5/jgrc25197-math-0058.png"> in the KOE also exhibits a pronounced seasonal difference with the larger and smaller values occurring in winter and summer, respectively (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5a</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0011">11a</a>). Specifically, the positive <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0059" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/5b2c1914-7314-4d71-a79b-9386e1eb1b33/jgrc25197-math-0059.png"> also manifests itself in the forms of fronts and filaments both at edges of AEs and CEs in the winter season (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0011">11b</a>). In other words, mesoscale eddies seem to bring significant heat from the subsurface to surface along the eddy periphery instead of in the eddy cores in winter. However, the <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0060" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/b72c7983-79ee-48fd-9581-9b5ba7b32601/jgrc25197-math-0060.png"> majorly takes place in the form of vortexes and peaks at a deeper depth in the summer season (Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0011">11a</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0011">11c</a>).</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0011"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/57475736-f65f-47cd-a550-5a22d1ca5bff/jgrc25197-fig-0011-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/57475736-f65f-47cd-a550-5a22d1ca5bff/jgrc25197-fig-0011-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/29a40d91-e80e-45fe-9b7b-396121ba9585/jgrc25197-fig-0011-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/57475736-f65f-47cd-a550-5a22d1ca5bff/jgrc25197-fig-0011-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 11<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0011&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>(a) Vertical profile of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0061" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/42008237-6229-41f0-acc3-934873c020a5/jgrc25197-math-0061.png"> of the annual mean (black line), winter mean (blue line), and summer mean (green line) calculated inside the box in Figures <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5b</a> and <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0005">5c</a>; Snapshots of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0062" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/71455435-837a-437e-9d00-1672db891fd6/jgrc25197-math-0062.png"> at 50 m on (b) 1 January 1925 and (c) 1 October 1925.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> <p>We further conduct eddy composites to show the spatial structure of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0063" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/149a9ede-8a57-4372-a81f-9bfeb7c799aa/jgrc25197-math-0063.png"> within eddies in winter (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0012">12a</a>). It is found that the <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0064" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/a5dc9b8d-9e80-451e-8b32-2c54fe27e556/jgrc25197-math-0064.png"> is stronger along the eddy periphery and is inhibited in the eddy cores, showing a “ring-like” structure in CEs and AEs. Moreover, similar to the spatial patterns of <i>w'</i>, the heat flux is strongest at the north side (northwest side) of the AEs (CEs) with a maximum value of 53 (32) W m<sup>−2</sup> at 50 m. Similar to <i>w'</i>, the strong vertical heat flux around the eddy periphery in winter upper KOE can also be well explained by the TTW balance (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0012">12b</a>). When averaged within two times of radius for AEs and CEs, the <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0065" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/9b214b4b-5c26-475a-bd4b-1394a345c00f/jgrc25197-math-0065.png"> can account for 92.4% (81.8%) and 98.3% (85.3%) of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0066" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/eae79249-245b-466e-ad4f-ee02df671dd4/jgrc25197-math-0066.png"> at 50 (100) m. The spatial structure of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0067" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/5f9ad25b-423e-41b0-a343-33478f9aff39/jgrc25197-math-0067.png"> is also highly correlated to that of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0068" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/d28506f7-483d-4e99-af41-043419b48b03/jgrc25197-math-0068.png"> with a correlation coefficient of 0.89 and 0.93 for CEs and AEs at 50 m, respectively. The peak values of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0069" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/4cfc1548-bad3-487e-b5e1-3999a47b2edc/jgrc25197-math-0069.png"> are 33 W m<sup>−2</sup> and 44 W m<sup>−2</sup> for CEs and AEs at 50 m, differing less than 16.9% and 3.1% from <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0070" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/98c9fa12-df8e-44d4-8674-928991dd41b1/jgrc25197-math-0070.png"> for AEs and CEs, respectively. Furthermore, the shear-induced vertical eddy heat flux (<img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0071" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/a1abc004-8b7f-4198-b044-b0f5a602842d/jgrc25197-math-0071.png">) also dominates the <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0072" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/573fde1b-3e5e-4e7b-b9fb-0fc4963c4d13/jgrc25197-math-0072.png"> with their peak values differing only by 7.7% and 10.6% for CEs and AEs at 50 m (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0012">12d</a>). This provides strong evidence that the pronounced peak of <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0073" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/0fb2987a-bb57-407e-948f-d3a5bae5ba58/jgrc25197-math-0073.png"> at eddy edges is due to the destruction of vertical geostrophic shear by mixing associated with the TTW balance. Although the <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0074" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/79af94df-1b3e-424b-8aed-7af220abab0a/jgrc25197-math-0074.png"> plays a negligible role above in the upper ocean, it can generate an upward heat flux in the cores of eddies below the mixed layer bottom (Figure <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-fig-0012">12c</a>).</p> <section class="article-section__inline-figure"> <figure class="figure" id="jgrc25197-fig-0012"> <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/2b747a46-e8e0-403f-a994-f99f5aca9d60/jgrc25197-fig-0012-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <picture> <source srcset="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/cms/asset/2b747a46-e8e0-403f-a994-f99f5aca9d60/jgrc25197-fig-0012-m.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" media="(min-width: 1650px)"> <img class="figure__image" src="/cms/asset/637abf8f-fa4f-442b-85f9-3a2bcecefb50/jgrc25197-fig-0012-m.png" data-lg-src="/cms/asset/2b747a46-e8e0-403f-a994-f99f5aca9d60/jgrc25197-fig-0012-m.jpg" alt="Details are in the caption following the image" title="Details are in the caption following the image" loading="lazy"> </picture></a> <figcaption class="figure__caption"> <div class="figure__caption__header"> <strong class="figure__title">Figure 12<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></strong> <div class="figure-extra"> <a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="open-figure-link">Open in figure viewer</a><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/action/downloadFigures?id=jgrc25197-fig-0012&partId&doi=10.1029/2022JC018781&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ppt-figure-link"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-Icon_Download"></i><span>PowerPoint</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="figure__caption figure__caption-text"> <p>Composite averages of (a) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0075" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/e61b3324-78fa-451d-be8c-ea933b18814b/jgrc25197-math-0075.png">, (b) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0076" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/412a5c9e-8c73-4f3c-927d-ec0908d6345c/jgrc25197-math-0076.png">, (c) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0077" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/235e5bdc-d529-4639-90f8-dec7642dd4c9/jgrc25197-math-0077.png">, and (d) <img alt="urn:x-wiley:21699275:media:jgrc25197:jgrc25197-math-0078" loading="lazy" class="section_image" src="/cms/asset/f5fd2028-4cc6-4ef2-a362-8388af923ba3/jgrc25197-math-0078.png"> of 20/50/100/150/200/260 m in the winter Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension for anticyclonic eddies (AEs) (left) and cyclonic eddies (CEs) (right). The <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> coordinates of the composite averages are normalized using the method described in Section <a class="sectionLink scrollableLink" href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-sec-0050">2.3</a>.</p> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </section> </section> </section> <section class="article-section__content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0130"> <h2 class="article-section__title section__title section1" id="jgrc25197-sec-0130-title">4 Discussion and Conclusions</h2> <div class="paragraph-element"> In this paper, we study the vertical velocity and associated heat flux within mesoscale eddies in the KOE based on a 0.1° air-sea coupling model. An eddy composite method and a TTW analysis are combined to explore their spatial structure and dynamical mechanisms. The major conclusions are listed as follows: <ol start="1" class=""> <li><p>The structure of vertical velocity in the upper ocean within mesoscale eddies exhibits pronounced seasonal variations. The vertical eddy velocity within eddies shows a complicated spatial structure with enhanced vertical motions located at edges of mesoscale eddies in winter and in the cores of mesoscale eddies in summer, respectively.</p></li> <li><p>In summer, the Ekman pumping plays an essential role in generating the dipole structure of vertical eddy velocity. However, the “ring-like” structure of vertical eddy velocity above 100 m in winter is mainly due to the destruction of vertical geostrophic shear by vertical mixing with the Ekman pumping playing a secondary role.</p></li> <li><p>Similar to vertical motions, the vertical eddy heat flux is more pronounced in winter. In winter, the vertical eddy heat flux is also dominated by a “ring-like” structure with a larger magnitude along the eddy periphery rather than inside the eddy cores, which could be mainly explained by the TTW balance.</p></li> </ol> </div> <p>The results in this study reveal pronounced differences in the magnitude and spatial structure of vertical velocity and associated heat flux within mesoscale eddies between the winter and summer. In winter, it is the turbulent thermal wind balance rather than the Ekman pumping that contributes dominantly to the generation of vertical velocity and associated heat flux in the upper ocean. As the vertical geostrophic shear is enhanced at edges of mesoscale eddies, the strongest vertical motions are located along the eddy periphery rather than inside the eddy cores. It should be noted that the spatial structure of the vertical motions along the eddy periphery is asymmetric with a stronger magnitude on the northern (southern) flank for AEs (CEs) and a weaker magnitude on the opposite side, which is consistent with the asymmetric structure of geostrophic shear. Moreover, the asymmetric structure of geostrophic shear, which majorly depends on the intensity of the local horizontal buoyancy gradient, is also confirmed by the observations (not shown). The underlying dynamic for the asymmetric pattern of the geostrophic shear is beyond the scope of our study but is an interesting finding that deserves future studies. Previous studies have found that mesoscale eddies associated with the vertical velocity can influence the biogeochemical cycle in the upper ocean, highlighting the role of current-induced Ekman pumping on sustaining the positive anomaly on chlorophyll in anticyclones in winter (Gaube et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0015" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0015_R_d194607947e1599" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2013</a></span>; McGillicuddy et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0025" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0025_R_d194607947e1602" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2007</a></span>). In this paper, we found that the TTW balance in winter can generate much stronger vertical velocity than Ekman pumping, particularly around the eddy periphery. This is a possible mechanism for chlorophyll rings that have been observed in anticyclones occasionally (e.g., Xu et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0038" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0038_R_d194607947e1605" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2019</a></span>; Zhang et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0044" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0044_R_d194607947e1608" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2015</a></span>). A complete accounting for TTW balance would lead to a better understanding of phytoplankton growth and distribution in the upper ocean. If this process can be parameterized into the climate models, we will have a better understanding of the relevant issues.</p> <p>It should be noted that our results are based on the CESM with an oceanic horizontal resolution of 0.1°. The CESM cannot resolve eddies at submesoscales. Neither is any submesoscale eddy parameterization applied in CESM. The submesoscale processes are suggested to contribute notably to the vertical motions and vertical heat flux in the mixed layer through baroclinic instability and frontogenesis and possibly the mechanism documented in this study (Boccaletti et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0002" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0002_R_d194607947e1614" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2007</a></span>; Fox-Kemper et al., <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0012" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0012_R_d194607947e1617" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2008</a></span>; Hoskins, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0017" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0017_R_d194607947e1620" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">1982</a></span>; McWilliams, <span><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#jgrc25197-bib-0028" id="#jgrc25197-bib-0028_R_d194607947e1623" class="bibLink tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references">2016</a></span>). The mixed layer instability and frontogenesis work most efficiently in the frontal region along the periphery of mesoscale eddies associated with the large eddy available potential energy. Thus, our study is likely to provide a conservative estimate of vertical eddy heat flux at edges of mesoscale eddies. Global submesoscale eddy-resolving simulations are thus necessary to further improve the structure of vertical velocity and associated heat flux within mesoscale eddies for future studies.</p> </section> <div class="article-section__content"> <h2 class="article-section__title section__title section1" id="jgrc25197-sec-0140-title">Acknowledgments</h2> <p>This research is supported by National Science Foundation of China (42006011) and Taishan Scholar Funds (tsqn201909052). The model simulation and many of the computations were executed at the High Performance Computing Center of Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao).</p> <ol></ol> </div> <section class="article-section__content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0150"> <h2 class="article-section__title section__title section1" id="jgrc25197-sec-0150-title">Conflict of Interest</h2> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest relevant to this study.</p> </section> <section id="openResearch" class="article-section article-section__open-research"> <div class="accordion article-accordion"> <h2><a href="https://agupubs-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.translate.goog/doi/10.1029/2022JC018781?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="accordion__control" role="button" aria-controls="open-research-content" aria-expanded="false"><span class="section__title" id="open-research-section">Open Research</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i></a></h2> <div class="accordion__content" role="region" aria-labelledby="open-research-section" id="open-research-content"> <h1></h1> <section class="article-section__sub-content" id="jgrc25197-sec-0170"> <h1>Data Availability Statement</h1> <p>All data needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper as well as references cited therein. The CESM code is available at ZENODO via <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3637771" class="linkBehavior">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3637771</a>. Eddy identification and tracking algorithm can be downloaded via <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://github.com/jfaghm/OceanEddies" class="linkBehavior">https://github.com/jfaghm/OceanEddies</a>. Additional data related to this paper may be requested from the authors.</p> </section> </div> </div> </section> <section class="article-section article-section__references" id="article-references-section-1"> <div class="accordion article-accordion"> <h2> <div tabindex="0" role="button" class="accordion__control" aria-controls="idjgrc25197-bibl-0001" aria-expanded="false" data-references="/action/ajaxShowEnhancedAbstract?widgetId=5cf4c79f-0ae9-4dc5-96ce-77f62de7ada9&ajax=true&doi=10.1029%2F2022JC018781&pbContext=%3Bjournal%3Ajournal%3A21562202c%3Bpage%3Astring%3AArticle%2FChapter+View%3Bissue%3Aissue%3Adoi%5C%3A10.1002%2Fjgrc.v127.10%3Bctype%3Astring%3AJournal+Content%3BrequestedJournal%3Ajournal%3A21699291%3Bwebsite%3Awebsite%3Aagupubs%3Bwgroup%3Astring%3APublication+Websites%3BpageGroup%3Astring%3APublication+Pages%3BsubPage%3Astring%3AFull+Text%3Barticle%3Aarticle%3Adoi%5C%3A10.1029%2F2022JC018781&widgetKey=ux3-publicationContent-widget_5cf4c79f-0ae9-4dc5-96ce-77f62de7ada9_3067_144859_en&accordionHeadingWrapper=h2&onlyLog=true"> <span class="section__title" id="references-section-1">References</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-section_arrow_d"></i> </div></h2> <div class="accordion__content" style="display: none;" role="region" aria-labelledby="references-section-1" id="jgrc25197-bibl-0001"> <ul class="rlist separator"> <li 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Spatial Structure of Vertical Motions and Associated Heat Flux Induced by Mesoscale Eddies in the Upper Kuroshio‐Oyashio Extension - Qu - 2022 - Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans - Wiley Online Library