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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_political_career:_1960–1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early political career: 1960–1963 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_political_career:_1960–1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imprisonment:_1963–1975" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imprisonment:_1963–1975"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Imprisonment: 1963–1975 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imprisonment:_1963–1975-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guerrilla_war:_1975–1979" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guerrilla_war:_1975–1979"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Guerrilla war: 1975–1979 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guerrilla_war:_1975–1979-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lancaster_House_Agreement:_1979" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lancaster_House_Agreement:_1979"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Lancaster House Agreement: 1979 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lancaster_House_Agreement:_1979-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electoral_campaign:_1980" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electoral_campaign:_1980"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Electoral campaign: 1980 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electoral_campaign:_1980-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe:_1980–1987" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe:_1980–1987"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Prime Minister of Zimbabwe: 1980–1987 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe:_1980–1987-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prime Minister of Zimbabwe: 1980–1987 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe:_1980–1987-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Race_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Race relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_ZAPU_and_the_Gukurahundi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_ZAPU_and_the_Gukurahundi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Relations with ZAPU and the Gukurahundi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_ZAPU_and_the_Gukurahundi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-President_of_Zimbabwe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President_of_Zimbabwe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 President of Zimbabwe </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-President_of_Zimbabwe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle President of Zimbabwe subsection </button> <ul id="toc-President_of_Zimbabwe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitutional_and_economic_reform:_1987–1995" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_and_economic_reform:_1987–1995"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Constitutional and economic reform: 1987–1995 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_and_economic_reform:_1987–1995-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_decline:_1995–2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_decline:_1995–2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Economic decline: 1995–2000 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_decline:_1995–2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_seizures_and_growing_condemnation:_2000–2008" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_seizures_and_growing_condemnation:_2000–2008"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Land seizures and growing condemnation: 2000–2008 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_seizures_and_growing_condemnation:_2000–2008-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power-sharing_with_the_opposition_MDC:_2008–2013" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power-sharing_with_the_opposition_MDC:_2008–2013"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Power-sharing with the opposition MDC: 2008–2013 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power-sharing_with_the_opposition_MDC:_2008–2013-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years:_2013–2017" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years:_2013–2017"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Later years: 2013–2017 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years:_2013–2017-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coup_d'état_and_resignation:_2017" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coup_d'état_and_resignation:_2017"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Coup d'état and resignation: 2017 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coup_d'état_and_resignation:_2017-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-presidency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-presidency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Post-presidency </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-presidency-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Post-presidency subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Post-presidency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Illness,_death_and_funeral:_2019" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illness,_death_and_funeral:_2019"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Illness, death and funeral: 2019 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illness,_death_and_funeral:_2019-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Ideology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marriages_and_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriages_and_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Marriages and children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriages_and_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_image_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_image_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Public image and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_image_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Robert Mugabe</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 119 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-119" aria-hidden="true" > 119 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%AE%E1%89%A0%E1%88%AD%E1%89%B5_%E1%88%99%E1%8C%8B%E1%89%A4" title="ሮበርት ሙጋቤ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሮበርት ሙጋቤ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="روبرت موغابي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="روبرت موغابي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A9_%D5%84%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A7" title="Ռոպերթ Մուկապէ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ռոպերթ Մուկապէ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Muqabe" title="Robert Muqabe – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Robert Muqabe" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87" title="রবার্ট মুগাবে – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রবার্ট মুগাবে" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8D" title="Роберт Мугабэ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Роберт Мугабэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8D" title="Робэрт Мугабэ – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Робэрт Мугабэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Робърт Мугабе – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Робърт Мугабе" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gabriel_Mugabe" title="Robert Gabriel Mugabe – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Robert Gabriel Mugabe" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%84_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5" title="Ρόμπερτ Μουγκάμπε – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρόμπερτ Μουγκάμπε" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87" title="رابرت موگابه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رابرت موگابه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%B2%84%ED%8A%B8_%EB%AC%B4%EA%B0%80%EB%B2%A0" title="로버트 무가베 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로버트 무가베" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BF_%D5%84%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5" title="Ռոբերտ Մուգաբե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռոբերտ Մուգաբե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87" title="रॉबर्ट मुगाबे – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रॉबर्ट मुगाबे" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%98_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%92%D7%90%D7%91%D7%94" title="רוברט מוגאבה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רוברט מוגאבה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94" title="რობერტ მუგაბე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რობერტ მუგაბე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertus_Mugabe" title="Robertus Mugabe – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Robertus Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberts_Mugabe" title="Roberts Mugabe – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Roberts Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Роберт Мугабе – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Роберт Мугабе" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86" title="റോബർട്ട് മുഗാബെ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റോബർട്ട് മുഗാബെ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87" title="रॉबर्ट मुगाबे – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रॉबर्ट मुगाबे" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94" title="რობერტ მუგაბე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რობერტ მუგაბე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%89" title="روبرت موجابى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روبرت موجابى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87" title="رابرت موگابه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="رابرت موگابه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Роберт Мугабе – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Роберт Мугабе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87" title="रोबर्ट मुगाबे – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रोबर्ट मुगाबे" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A0%E3%82%AC%E3%83%99" title="ロバート・ムガベ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロバート・ムガベ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%99%DF%8F%DF%93%DF%8D%DF%9F_%DF%A1%DF%8E%DF%9C%DF%AD%DF%8A%DF%93%DF%8B%DF%AB" title="ߙߏߓߍߟ ߡߎߜ߭ߊߓߋ߫ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߙߏߓߍߟ ߡߎߜ߭ߊߓߋ߫" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F_%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%87" title="ରବର୍ଟ ମୁଗାବେ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ରବର୍ଟ ମୁଗାବେ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robart_Mugaabee" title="Robart Mugaabee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Robart Mugaabee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%90%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="روبېرت موگابي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="روبېرت موگابي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82" title="Мугабе, Роберт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мугабе, Роберт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%86%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ڕۆبێرت مووگابی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕۆبێرت مووگابی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Роберт Мугабе – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Роберт Мугабе" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87" title="இராபர்ட் முகாபே – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இராபர்ட் முகாபே" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Tayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Tayal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tayal</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%87" title="రాబర్ట్ ముగాబే – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రాబర్ట్ ముగాబే" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%95_%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5" title="รอเบิร์ต มูกาบี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รอเบิร์ต มูกาบี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Роберт Мугабе – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Роберт Мугабе" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Роберт Мугабе – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Роберт Мугабе" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%B9_%D9%85%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%92" title="رابرٹ موگابے – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رابرٹ موگابے" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E5%8A%A0%E8%B2%9D" title="穆加貝 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="穆加貝" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%A9%86%E5%8A%A0%E8%B4%9D" title="罗伯特·穆加贝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="罗伯特·穆加贝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E6%8B%94%C2%B7%E7%A9%86%E5%8A%A0%E5%8D%91" title="羅拔·穆加卑 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="羅拔·穆加卑" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%A9%86%E5%8A%A0%E8%B2%9D" title="羅伯特·穆加貝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="羅伯特·穆加貝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Robert Mugabe" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q10707#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">President of Zimbabwe from 1987 to 2017</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For his son, see <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe_Jr." title="Robert Mugabe Jr.">Robert Mugabe Jr.</a> For the Ugandan military officer, see <a href="/wiki/Robert_Freeman_Mugabe" title="Robert Freeman Mugabe">Robert Freeman Mugabe</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mugabe" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Mugabe_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Mugabe (disambiguation)">Mugabe (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Robert Mugabe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mugabe_1979_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of Robert Mugabe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mugabe_1979_a.jpg/220px-Mugabe_1979_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mugabe_1979_a.jpg/330px-Mugabe_1979_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mugabe_1979_a.jpg/440px-Mugabe_1979_a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2087" data-file-height="2783" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Mugabe in 1979</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">2nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_Zimbabwe" title="President of Zimbabwe">President of Zimbabwe</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 31 December 1987 – 21 November 2017</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Tsvangirai" title="Morgan Tsvangirai">Morgan Tsvangirai</a> (2009–2013)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President of Zimbabwe">Vice President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>First Vice Presidents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Muzenda" title="Simon Muzenda">Simon Muzenda</a> (1987–2003)</li> <li>Vacant (2003–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joice_Mujuru" title="Joice Mujuru">Joice Mujuru</a> (2004–2014)</li> <li>Emmerson Mnangagwa (2014–2017)</li> <li>Second Vice Presidents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Nkomo" title="Joshua Nkomo">Joshua Nkomo</a> (1990–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Msika" title="Joseph Msika">Joseph Msika</a> (1999–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nkomo" title="John Nkomo">John Nkomo</a> (2009–2013)</li> <li>Vacant (2013–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phelekezela_Mphoko" title="Phelekezela Mphoko">Phelekezela Mphoko</a> (2014–2017)</li></ul> </div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Banana" title="Canaan Banana">Canaan Banana</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Prime Minister of Zimbabwe</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 18 April 1980 – 31 December 1987</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Canaan Banana</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Deputy Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Deputy</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Simon Muzenda</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abel_Muzorewa" title="Abel Muzorewa">Abel Muzorewa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia">Zimbabwe Rhodesia</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Morgan Tsvangirai (2009)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Leader and First Secretary of <a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><a href="/wiki/ZANU" class="mw-redirect" title="ZANU">ZANU</a> (1975–1987)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 18 March 1975 – 19 November 2017</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Chairman</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Joseph Msika</li> <li>John Nkomo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppah_Muchinguri" title="Oppah Muchinguri">Oppah Muchinguri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Khaya_Moyo" title="Simon Khaya Moyo">Simon Khaya Moyo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Second Secretary</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Joseph Msika</li> <li>John Nkomo</li> <li>Joice Mujuru</li> <li>Emmerson Mnangagwa</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Chitepo" title="Herbert Chitepo">Herbert Chitepo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Emmerson Mnangagwa</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">13th <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union" title="Chairperson of the African Union">Chairperson of the African Union</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 30 January 2015 – 30 January 2016</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Leader</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nkosazana_Dlamini-Zuma" title="Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma">Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ould_Abdel_Aziz" title="Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz">Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Idriss_D%C3%A9by" title="Idriss Déby">Idriss Déby</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">10th <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement">Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 6 September 1986 – 7 September 1989</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zail_Singh" title="Zail Singh">Zail Singh</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Janez_Drnov%C5%A1ek" title="Janez Drnovšek">Janez Drnovšek</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Robert Gabriel Mugabe</div> (1924-02-21)21 February 1924 <a href="/wiki/Kutama,_Zimbabwe" title="Kutama, Zimbabwe">Kutama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a> (now Zimbabwe)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">6 September 2019(2019-09-06) (aged 95) <a href="/wiki/Gleneagles_Hospital" title="Gleneagles Hospital">Gleneagles Hospital</a>, Singapore</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label">Kutama, Zimbabwe</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress_Youth_League" title="African National Congress Youth League">ANCYL</a> (1949–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(Southern_Rhodesia)" title="National Democratic Party (Southern Rhodesia)">NDP</a> (1960–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People's Union">ZAPU</a> (1961–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">ZANU</a> (1963–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a> (1987–2017)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sally_Mugabe" title="Sally Mugabe">Sally Hayfron</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1961; died 1992)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Grace_Mugabe" title="Grace Mugabe">Grace Marufu</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1996)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">4, including <a href="/wiki/Bona_Mugabe" title="Bona Mugabe">Bona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Mugabe Jr">Robert Jr</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Fort_Hare" title="University of Fort Hare">University of Fort Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Africa" title="University of South Africa">University of South Africa</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/University_of_London_International_Programmes" class="mw-redirect" title="University of London International Programmes">University of London International Programmes</a></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Robert Mugabe's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg/128px-Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg/192px-Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg/256px-Signature_of_Robert_Mugabe_clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="382" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Robert Gabriel Mugabe (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/mʊˈɡɑːbi/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Shona: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[muɡaɓe]</a>; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) was a Zimbabwean revolutionary and politician who served as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Prime Minister of Zimbabwe</a> from 1980 to 1987 and then as <a href="/wiki/President_of_Zimbabwe" title="President of Zimbabwe">President</a> from 1987 to 2017. He served as Leader of the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a> (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 and led its successor political party, the <a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU – Patriotic Front</a> (ZANU–PF), from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an <a href="/wiki/African_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="African nationalist">African nationalist</a>, during the 1970s and 1980s he identified as a <a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist–Leninist">Marxist–Leninist</a>, and as a <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> during the 1990s and the remainder of his career. Mugabe was born to a poor <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Kutama,_Zimbabwe" title="Kutama, Zimbabwe">Kutama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a>. Educated at <a href="/wiki/Kutama_College" title="Kutama College">Kutama College</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Fort_Hare" title="University of Fort Hare">University of Fort Hare</a> in South Africa, he then worked as a schoolteacher in Southern Rhodesia, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a>, and Ghana. Angered by <a href="/wiki/White_people_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="White people in Zimbabwe">white minority</a> rule of his homeland within the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, Mugabe embraced <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and joined <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African</a> nationalists calling for an independent state controlled by the black majority. After making antigovernmental comments, he was convicted of <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a> and imprisoned between 1964 and 1974. On release, he fled to Mozambique, established his leadership of ZANU, and oversaw its role in the <a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a>, fighting <a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Ian Smith</a>'s predominantly white government. He reluctantly participated in peace talks in the United Kingdom that resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement</a>, putting an end to the war. In the <a href="/wiki/1980_Southern_Rhodesian_general_election" title="1980 Southern Rhodesian general election">1980 general election</a>, Mugabe led ZANU-PF to victory, becoming Prime Minister when the country, now renamed Zimbabwe, gained internationally recognized independence later that year. Mugabe's administration expanded healthcare and <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and—despite his professed desire for a <a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">socialist society</a>—adhered largely to <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream</a> economic policies. Mugabe's calls for racial reconciliation failed to stem growing white emigration, while relations with <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Nkomo" title="Joshua Nkomo">Joshua Nkomo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People's Union">Zimbabwe African People's Union</a> (ZAPU) also deteriorated. In the <a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a> of 1982–1987, Mugabe's <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Brigade_(Zimbabwe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Brigade (Zimbabwe)">Fifth Brigade</a> crushed ZAPU-linked opposition in <a href="/wiki/Matabeleland" title="Matabeleland">Matabeleland</a> in a campaign that killed at least 20,000 people, mostly <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_people" title="Northern Ndebele people">Ndebele</a> civilians. Internationally, he sent troops into the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a> and chaired the <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a> (1986–1989), the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a> (1997–1998), and the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> (2015–2016). Pursuing <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">decolonisation</a>, Mugabe emphasized the <a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe">redistribution of land</a> controlled by white <a href="/wiki/Farmers" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmers">farmers</a> to landless blacks, initially on a "willing seller–willing buyer" basis. Frustrated at the slow rate of redistribution, from 2000 he encouraged black Zimbabweans to violently seize white-owned farms. Food production was severely impacted, leading to famine, economic decline, and foreign sanctions. Opposition to Mugabe grew, but he was re-elected in <a href="/wiki/2002_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="2002 Zimbabwean presidential election">2002</a>, <a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2008 Zimbabwean general election">2008</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2013_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2013 Zimbabwean general election">2013</a> through campaigns dominated by violence, <a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">electoral fraud</a>, and nationalistic appeals to his rural Shona voter base. In 2017, members of his party <a href="/wiki/2017_Zimbabwean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état">ousted him in a coup</a>, replacing him with former vice president <a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a>. Having dominated Zimbabwe's politics for nearly four decades, Mugabe was a controversial figure. He was praised as a revolutionary hero of the African liberation struggle who helped free Zimbabwe from British <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, and white minority rule. Critics accused Mugabe of being a dictator responsible for <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe">economic mismanagement</a> and widespread <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Zimbabwe" title="Corruption in Zimbabwe">corruption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Zimbabwe" title="Human rights in Zimbabwe">human rights abuses</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Racism in Zimbabwe">anti-white racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and genocide. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood:_1924–1945">Childhood: 1924–1945</h3></div> Robert Gabriel Mugabe was born on 21 February 1924 at the <a href="/wiki/Kutama,_Zimbabwe" title="Kutama, Zimbabwe">Kutama Mission</a> village in Southern Rhodesia's <a href="/wiki/Zvimba_District" title="Zvimba District">Zvimba District</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200217Meredith200219-2">[2]</a> His father, Gabriel Matibiri, was a carpenter while his mother Bona was a Christian <a href="/wiki/Catechist" class="mw-redirect" title="Catechist">catechist</a> for the village children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198111Blair200217Meredith200219,_21Norman200815-3">[3]</a> They had been trained in their professions by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> religious order which had established the mission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200219-4">[4]</a> Bona and Gabriel had six children: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), <a href="/wiki/Sabina_Mugabe" title="Sabina Mugabe">Sabina</a>, and Bridgette.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198111Blair200217-5">[5]</a> They belonged to the Zezuru clan, one of the smallest branches of the <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona tribe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200226-6">[6]</a> Mugabe's paternal grandfather was <a href="/wiki/Chieftain" class="mw-redirect" title="Chieftain">Chief</a> Constantine Karigamombe, alias "Matibiri", a powerful figure who served King <a href="/wiki/Lobengula" title="Lobengula">Lobengula</a> in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Through his father, he claimed membership of the <a href="/wiki/Chieftaincy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chieftaincy">chieftaincy</a> family that has provided the hereditary rulers of Zvimba for generations.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The Jesuits were strict disciplinarians and under their influence Mugabe developed an intense self-discipline,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200219-4">[4]</a> while also becoming a devout Catholic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland20083-9">[9]</a> Mugabe excelled at school,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218-10">[10]</a> where he was a secretive and solitary child,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218Meredith200220-11">[11]</a> preferring to read, rather than playing sports or socialising with other children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218Meredith200220–21-12">[12]</a> He was taunted by many of the other children, who regarded him as a coward and a <a href="/wiki/Mother%27s_boy" title="Mother's boy">mother's boy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland20086–7-13">[13]</a> In about 1930 Gabriel had an argument with one of the Jesuits, and as a result the Mugabe family was expelled from the mission village by its French leader, Father Jean-Baptiste Loubière.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200217–18-14">[14]</a> The family settled in a village about 11 kilometres (7 miles) away; the children were permitted to remain at the mission primary school, living with relatives in Kutama during term-time and returning to their parental home on weekends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218-10">[10]</a> Around the same time, Robert's older brother Raphael died, likely of <a href="/wiki/Diarrhoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrhoea">diarrhoea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218-10">[10]</a> In early 1934, Robert's other older brother, Michael, also died, after consuming poisoned maize.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198111Blair200218Holland2008224-15">[15]</a> Later that year, Gabriel left his family in search of employment in <a href="/wiki/Bulawayo" title="Bulawayo">Bulawayo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218Meredith200221Norman200815-16">[16]</a> He subsequently abandoned Bona and their six children and established a relationship with another woman, with whom he had three further offspring.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200221-17">[17]</a> Loubière died shortly after and was replaced by an Irishman, Father Jerome O'Hea, who welcomed the return of the Mugabe family to Kutama.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218-10">[10]</a> In contrast to the racism that permeated Southern Rhodesian society, under O'Hea's leadership the Kutama Mission preached an ethos of racial equality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198115Norman200816-18">[18]</a> O'Hea nurtured the young Mugabe; shortly before his death in 1970 he described the latter as having "an exceptional mind and an exceptional heart".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198112Blair200218Norman200816-19">[19]</a> As well as helping provide Mugabe with a Christian education, O'Hea taught him about the <a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a>, in which Irish revolutionaries had overthrown the British imperial regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200221Norman200816-20">[20]</a> After completing six years of elementary education, in 1941 Mugabe was offered a place on a teacher training course at <a href="/wiki/Kutama_College" title="Kutama College">Kutama College</a>. Mugabe's mother could not afford the tuition fees, which were paid in part by his grandfather and in part by O'Hea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198114Blair200218Meredith200221Norman200816-21">[21]</a> As part of this education, Mugabe began teaching at his old school, earning £2 per month, which he used to support his family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218Norman200816-22">[22]</a> In 1944, Gabriel returned to Kutama with his three new children, but died shortly after, leaving Robert to take financial responsibility for both his three siblings and three half-siblings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200218Norman200816-22">[22]</a> Having attained a teaching diploma, Mugabe left Kutama in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200222-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_education_and_teaching_career:_1945–1960">University education and teaching career: 1945–1960</h3></div> During the following years, Mugabe taught at various schools around Southern Rhodesia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198116Blair200219Meredith200222-24">[24]</a> among them the Dadaya Mission school in <a href="/wiki/Zvishavane" title="Zvishavane">Shabani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198116Norman200816–17-25">[25]</a> There is no evidence that Mugabe was involved in political activity at the time, and he did not participate in the country's <a href="/wiki/1948_in_Southern_Rhodesia" title="1948 in Southern Rhodesia">1948 general strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200219-26">[26]</a> In 1949 he won a scholarship to study at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Fort_Hare" title="University of Fort Hare">University of Fort Hare</a> in South Africa's <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Cape" title="Eastern Cape">Eastern Cape</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198116Blair200219Meredith200222Norman200817-27">[27]</a> There he joined the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> youth league (ANCYL)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198117Norman200817-28">[28]</a> and attended <a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalist</a> meetings, where he met a number of Jewish South African <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> who introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198116Meredith200222-29">[29]</a> He later related that despite this exposure to Marxism, his biggest influence at the time were the actions of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198117Meredith200222–23-30">[30]</a> In 1952, he left the university with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and English literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200219Norman200817-31">[31]</a> In later years he described his time at Fort Hare as the "turning point" in his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198117-32">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kwame_Nkrumah_(JFKWHP-AR6409-A).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Kwame_Nkrumah_%28JFKWHP-AR6409-A%29.jpg/170px-Kwame_Nkrumah_%28JFKWHP-AR6409-A%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Kwame_Nkrumah_%28JFKWHP-AR6409-A%29.jpg/255px-Kwame_Nkrumah_%28JFKWHP-AR6409-A%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Kwame_Nkrumah_%28JFKWHP-AR6409-A%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe was inspired by the example set by Ghana's <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a>.</figcaption></figure> Mugabe returned to Southern Rhodesia in 1952,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200219Meredith200223-33">[33]</a> by which time—he later related— he was "completely hostile to the [colonialist] system".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200223-34">[34]</a> Here, his first job was as a teacher at the Driefontein Roman Catholic Mission School near <a href="/wiki/Mvuma" title="Mvuma">Umvuma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198117Norman200817-28">[28]</a> In 1953 he relocated to the Highfield Government School in <a href="/wiki/Harare" title="Harare">Salisbury</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mbare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbare">Harari township</a> and in 1954 to the Mambo Township Government School in <a href="/wiki/Gwelo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwelo">Gwelo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200817-35">[35]</a> Meanwhile, he gained a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Education" title="Bachelor of Education">Bachelor of Education</a> degree by correspondence from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Africa" title="University of South Africa">University of South Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200223Norman200817-36">[36]</a> and ordered a number of Marxist tracts—among them <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Capital:_Critique_of_Political_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital: Critique of Political Economy">Capital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>' <a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a>—from a London mail-order company.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198118Meredith200223-37">[37]</a> Despite his growing interest in politics, he was not active in any political movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200223-34">[34]</a> He joined a number of inter-racial groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Capricorn_Africa_Society" title="Capricorn Africa Society">Capricorn Africa Society</a>, through which he mixed with both black and white Rhodesians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198118–19-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Guy_Clutton-Brock" title="Guy Clutton-Brock">Guy Clutton-Brock</a>, who knew Mugabe through this group, later noted that he was "an extraordinary young man" who could be "a bit of a cold fish at times" but "could talk about <a href="/wiki/Elvis_Presley" title="Elvis Presley">Elvis Presley</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bing_Crosby" title="Bing Crosby">Bing Crosby</a> as easily as politics".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198119Blair200218–19-39">[39]</a> From 1955 to 1958, Mugabe lived in neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a>, where he worked at Chalimbana Teacher Training College in <a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200223Norman200817-36">[36]</a> There he continued his education by working on a second degree by correspondence, this time a Bachelor of Administration from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London_International_Programmes" class="mw-redirect" title="University of London International Programmes">University of London International Programmes</a> through distance and learning. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200223Norman200817-36">[36]</a> In Northern Rhodesia, he was taken in for a time by the family of <a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a>, whom Mugabe inspired to join the liberation movement and who would later go on to be <a href="/wiki/President_of_Zimbabwe" title="President of Zimbabwe">President of Zimbabwe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-40">[40]</a> In 1958, Mugabe moved to Ghana to work at St Mary's Teacher Training College in <a href="/wiki/Takoradi" class="mw-redirect" title="Takoradi">Takoradi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198121Blair200219Meredith200223-41">[41]</a> He taught at Apowa Secondary School, also at Takoradi, after obtaining his local certification at <a href="/wiki/Achimota_School" title="Achimota School">Achimota College</a> (1958–1960), where he met his first wife, <a href="/wiki/Sally_Mugabe" title="Sally Mugabe">Sally Hayfron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> According to Mugabe, "I went [to Ghana] as an adventurist. I wanted to see what it would be like in an independent African state".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198122-43">[43]</a> Ghana had been the first African state to gain independence from European colonial powers and under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a> underwent a range of African nationalist reforms; Mugabe reveled in this environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198121Blair200219Meredith200223–24-44">[44]</a> In tandem with his teaching, Mugabe attended the <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah_Ideological_Institute" title="Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute">Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Winneba" title="Winneba">Winneba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200818Ndlovu-Gatsheni20091142-45">[45]</a> Mugabe later claimed that it was in Ghana that he finally embraced Marxism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198122Blair200219Meredith200224Norman200818-46">[46]</a> He also began a relationship there with Hayfron who worked at the college and shared his political interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198122Meredith200224Holland200811–12Norman200817-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutionary_activity">Revolutionary activity</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_political_career:_1960–1963">Early political career: 1960–1963</h3></div> While Mugabe was teaching abroad, an anti-colonialist African nationalist movement was established in Southern Rhodesia. It was first led by <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Nkomo" title="Joshua Nkomo">Joshua Nkomo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_African_National_Congress" title="Southern Rhodesia African National Congress">Southern Rhodesia African National Congress</a>, founded in September 1957 and then banned by the colonial government in February 1959.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198133–34Meredith200224–25-48">[48]</a> SRANC was replaced by the more radically oriented <a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(Southern_Rhodesia)" title="National Democratic Party (Southern Rhodesia)">National Democratic Party</a> (NDP), founded in January 1960.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198135Meredith200226-49">[49]</a> In May 1960, Mugabe returned to Southern Rhodesia, bringing Hayfron with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198124Meredith200226-50">[50]</a> The pair had planned for their visit to be short, however Mugabe's friend, the African nationalist <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Takawira" title="Leopold Takawira">Leopold Takawira</a>, urged them to stay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200226-51">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joshua_Nkomo_(1978).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Joshua_Nkomo_%281978%29.jpg/170px-Joshua_Nkomo_%281978%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Joshua_Nkomo_%281978%29.jpg/255px-Joshua_Nkomo_%281978%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Joshua_Nkomo_%281978%29.jpg/340px-Joshua_Nkomo_%281978%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1209" data-file-height="1612" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Nkomo" title="Joshua Nkomo">Joshua Nkomo</a> became one of the leading figures of resistance to white minority rule in Southern Rhodesia.</figcaption></figure> In July 1960, Takawira and two other NDP officials were arrested; in protest, Mugabe joined a demonstration of 7,000 people who planned to march from <a href="/wiki/Highfield,_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Highfield, Zimbabwe">Highfield</a> to the Prime Minister's office in Salisbury. The demonstration was stopped by riot police outside Stoddart Hall in Harare township.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198125–26Meredith200226Norman200843-52">[52]</a> By midday the next day, the crowd had grown to 40,000 and a makeshift platform had been erected for speakers. Having become a much-respected figure through his profession, his possession of three degrees, and his travels abroad, Mugabe was among those invited to speak to the crowd.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198127Meredith200226Holland200813-53">[53]</a> Following this event, Mugabe decided to devote himself full-time to activism, resigning his teaching post in Ghana (after having served two years of the four-year teaching contract).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200227-54">[54]</a> He chaired the first NDP congress, held in October 1960, assisted by <a href="/wiki/Chitepo" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitepo">Chitepo</a> on the procedural aspects. Mugabe was elected the party's publicity secretary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198137Meredith200227Norman200844-55">[55]</a> Mugabe consciously injected emotionalism into the NDP's African nationalism, hoping to broaden its support among the wider population by appealing to traditional cultural values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198137-56">[56]</a> He helped to form the NDP Youth Wing and encouraged the incorporation of ancestral prayers, traditional costume, and female <a href="/wiki/Ululation" title="Ululation">ululation</a> into its meetings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198137–38-57">[57]</a> In February 1961 he married Hayfron in a Roman Catholic ceremony conducted in Salisbury; she had converted to Catholicism to make this possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198138Blair200220Meredith200227Holland200813Norman200844-58">[58]</a> The British government held a Salisbury conference in 1961 to determine Southern Rhodesia's future. Nkomo led an NDP delegation, which hoped that the British would support the creation of an independent state governed by the black majority. Representatives of the country's white minority—who then controlled Southern Rhodesia's government—were opposed to this, promoting continued white minority rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200227–28-59">[59]</a> Following negotiations, Nkomo agreed to a proposal which would allow the black population representation through 15 of the 65 seats in the country's parliament. Mugabe and others in the NDP were furious at Nkomo's compromise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198139–40Meredith200228-60">[60]</a> Following the conference, Southern Rhodesia's African nationalist movement fell into disarray.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200228-61">[61]</a> Mugabe spoke at a number of NDP rallies before the party was banned by the government in December 1961.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198142Meredith200229Norman200844-62">[62]</a> Many of its members re-grouped as the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People's Union">Zimbabwe African People's Union</a> (ZAPU) several days later,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844-63">[63]</a> with Mugabe appointed as ZAPU's publicity secretary and general secretary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200844-64">[64]</a> Racial violence was growing in the country, with aggrieved black Africans targeting the white community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200229-65">[65]</a> Mugabe deemed such conflict a necessary tactic in the overthrow of British colonial dominance and white minority rule. This contrasted with Nkomo's view that African nationalists should focus on international diplomacy to encourage the British government to grant their demands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200229-65">[65]</a> Nine months after it had been founded, ZAPU was also banned by the government,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844-63">[63]</a> and in September 1962 Mugabe and other senior party officials were arrested and restricted to their home districts for three months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844-63">[63]</a> Both Mugabe and his wife were in trouble with the law; he had been charged with making subversive statements in a public speech and awarded bail before his trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145Meredith200231-66">[66]</a> Hayfron had been sentenced to two years imprisonment—suspended for 15 months—for a speech in which she declared that the British Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a> "can go to hell".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145–46Meredith200231-67">[67]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Europeans must realise that unless the legitimate demands of African nationalism are recognised, then racial conflict is inevitable. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">— Mugabe, early 1960s<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198142Norman200844-68">[68]</a></cite> </div> The rise of African nationalism generated a white backlash in Southern Rhodesia, with the right-wing <a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Front" title="Rhodesian Front">Rhodesian Front</a> winning the <a href="/wiki/1962_Southern_Rhodesian_general_election" title="1962 Southern Rhodesian general election">December 1962 general election</a>. The new government sought to preserve white minority rule by tightening security and establishing full independence from the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145Meredith200230-69">[69]</a> Mugabe met with colleagues at his house in Salisbury's Highbury district, where he argued that as political demonstrations were simply being banned, it was time to move towards armed resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200230-70">[70]</a> Both he and others rejected Nkomo's proposal that they establish a government-in-exile in <a href="/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam" title="Dar es Salaam">Dar es Salaam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198144–45Meredith200230–31-71">[71]</a> He and Hayfron skipped bail to attend a ZAPU meeting in the <a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_(1961%E2%80%931964)" title="Tanganyika (1961–1964)">Tanganyikan</a> city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198146–47Meredith200231-72">[72]</a> There, the party leadership met Tanganyika's president, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a>, who also dismissed the idea of a government-in-exile and urged ZAPU to organise their resistance to white minority rule within Southern Rhodesia itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198147Meredith200231-73">[73]</a> In August, Hayfron gave birth to Mugabe's son, whom they named Nhamodzenyika, a Shona term meaning "suffering country".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198148Blair200220Meredith200232Holland200814Norman200845-74">[74]</a> Mugabe insisted that she take their son back to Ghana, while he decided to return to Southern Rhodesia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Meredith200232-75">[75]</a> There, African nationalists opposed to Nkomo's leadership had established a new party, the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a> (ZANU), in August; <a href="/wiki/Ndabaningi_Sithole" title="Ndabaningi Sithole">Ndabaningi Sithole</a> became the group's president, while appointing Mugabe to be the group's secretary-general in absentia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Meredith200232Norman200846-76">[76]</a> Nkomo responded by forming his own group, the People's Caretaker Council, which was widely referred to as "ZAPU" after its predecessor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200232-77">[77]</a> ZAPU and ZANU violently opposed one another and soon gang warfare broke out between their rival memberships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200233-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-struggleforzimbabwe7071-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imprisonment:_1963–1975">Imprisonment: 1963–1975</h3></div> Mugabe was arrested on his return to Southern Rhodesia in December 1963.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Blair200221Meredith200233Norman200849-80">[80]</a> His trial lasted from January to March 1964, during which he refused to retract the subversive statements that he had publicly made.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Meredith200233-81">[81]</a> In March 1964 he was sentenced to 21 months' imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200233-78">[78]</a> Mugabe was first imprisoned at Salisbury Maximum Security Prison, before being moved to the <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_Prison_Service" title="Rhodesia Prison Service">Wha Wha</a> detention centre and then the Sikombela detention centre in <a href="/wiki/Kwekwe" title="Kwekwe">Que Que</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198151Blair200221Meredith200233–34Norman200850-82">[82]</a> At the latter, he organised study classes for the inmates, teaching them basic literacy, maths, and English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198154Meredith200234Holland200827Norman200851-83">[83]</a> Sympathetic black warders smuggled messages from Mugabe and other members of the ZANU executive committee to activists outside the prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155-84">[84]</a> At the executive's bidding, ZANU activist <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Chitepo" title="Herbert Chitepo">Herbert Chitepo</a> had organised a small guerrilla force in <a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>. In April 1966 the group carried out a failed attempt to destroy power pylons at <a href="/wiki/Sinoia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinoia">Sinoia</a>, and shortly after attacked a white-owned farm near <a href="/wiki/Chegutu" title="Chegutu">Hartley</a>, killing its inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155–56-85">[85]</a> The government responded by returning the members of the ZANU executive, including Mugabe, to Salisbury Prison in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155Meredith200234-86">[86]</a> There, forty prisoners were divided among four communal cells, with many sleeping on the concrete floor due to overcrowding;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198156-87">[87]</a> Mugabe shared his cell with Sithole, <a href="/wiki/Enos_Nkala" title="Enos Nkala">Enos Nkala</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Tekere" title="Edgar Tekere">Edgar Tekere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200234-88">[88]</a> He remained there for eight years, devoting his time to reading and studying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200234-88">[88]</a> During this period, he gained several further degrees from the University of London: a masters in economics, a bachelor of administration, and two law degrees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Meredith200234-89">[89]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ian_Smith_1975.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ian_Smith_1975.jpg/194px-Ian_Smith_1975.jpg" decoding="async" width="194" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Ian_Smith_1975.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>While Mugabe was imprisoned, <a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Ian Smith</a> became leader of Rhodesia.</figcaption></figure> While imprisoned, Mugabe learned that his son had died of <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a> at the age of three. Mugabe was grief-stricken and requested a leave of absence to visit his wife in Ghana. He never forgave the prison authorities for refusing this request.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198157–58Blair200221–22Meredith200234–35Holland200827–28-90">[90]</a> Claims have also circulated among those who knew him at the time that Mugabe was subjected to both physical and mental torture during his imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008158-91">[91]</a> According to Father Emmanuel Ribeiro, who was Mugabe's priest during his imprisonment, Mugabe got through the experience "partly through the strength of his spirituality" but also because his "real strength was study and helping others to learn".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008152-92">[92]</a> While Mugabe was imprisoned, in August 1964, the Rhodesian Front government—now under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Ian Smith</a>—banned ZANU and ZAPU and arrested all remaining leaders of the country's African nationalist movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200233Norman200851-93">[93]</a> Smith's government made a <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom</a> in November 1965, renaming Southern Rhodesia as Rhodesia; the UK refused to recognize the legitimacy of this and imposed economic sanctions on the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155Blair200221Meredith200235–36Norman200854-94">[94]</a> In 1972, the African nationalists launched a guerrilla war against Smith's government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith200236–37-95">[95]</a> Among the revolutionaries, it was known as the "Second Chimurenga".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Alao201221-96">[96]</a> Paramilitary groups based themselves in neighboring Tanzania and Zambia; many of their fighters were inadequately armed and trained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198161-97">[97]</a> ZANU's military wing, the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Liberation_Army" title="Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army">Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army</a> (ZANLA), consisted largely of Shona. It was based in neighboring <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and gained funds from the People's Republic of China. ZAPU's military wing, the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_People%27s_Revolutionary_Army" title="Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army">Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army</a> (ZIPRA), was instead funded by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, was based in Zambia, and consisted largely of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_people" title="Northern Ndebele people">Ndebele</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith200236–37Alao201220-98">[98]</a> Mugabe and other senior ZANU members had growing doubts about Sithole's leadership, deeming him increasingly irritable and irrational.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198166-99">[99]</a> In October 1968 Sithole had tried to smuggle a message out of the prison commanding ZANU activists to assassinate Smith. His plan was discovered, and he was put on trial in January 1969; desperate to avoid a death sentence, he declared that he renounced violence and his previous ideological commitments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198166–68Norman200855-100">[100]</a> Mugabe denounced Sithole's "treachery" in rejecting ZANU's cause, and the executive removed him as ZANU President in a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a>, selecting Mugabe as his successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198168Blair200222Norman200856-101">[101]</a> In November 1974, the ZANU executive voted to suspend Sithole's membership of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198172Norman200857-102">[102]</a> Fearing that the guerrilla war would spread south, the South African government pressured Rhodesia to advance the process of détente with the politically moderate black governments of Zambia and Tanzania. As part of these negotiations, Smith's government agreed to release a number of black revolutionaries who had been indefinitely detained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Norman200857-103">[103]</a> After almost eleven years of imprisonment, Mugabe was released in November 1974.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Meredith200237Norman200859-104">[104]</a> He moved in with his sister Sabina at her home in Highfield township.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222-105">[105]</a> He was intent on joining the ZANU forces and taking part in the guerrilla war,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200237-106">[106]</a> recognizing that to secure dominance of ZANU he would have to take command of ZANLA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223-107">[107]</a> This was complicated by internal violence within the paramilitary group, predominately between members of the <a href="/wiki/Manyika_tribe" title="Manyika tribe">Manyika</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karange&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karange (page does not exist)">Karange</a> groups of Shona.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198176–78-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guerrilla_war:_1975–1979">Guerrilla war: 1975–1979</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg/220px-Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg/330px-Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg/440px-Flag_of_ZANU-PF.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The flag of the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a> (ZANU)</figcaption></figure> In March 1975, Mugabe resolved to leave Rhodesia for Mozambique, ambitious to take control of ZANU's guerrilla campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20024-109">[109]</a> After his friend <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Nyagumbo" title="Maurice Nyagumbo">Maurice Nyagumbo</a> was arrested, he feared the same fate but was hidden from the authorities by Ribeiro. Ribeiro and a sympathetic nun then assisted him and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Tekere" title="Edgar Tekere">Edgar Tekere</a> in smuggling themselves into Mozambique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith20024–5-110">[110]</a> Mugabe remained in exile there for two years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20025-111">[111]</a> Mozambique's Marxist President <a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a> was sceptical of Mugabe's leadership abilities and was unsure whether to recognise him as ZANU's legitimate leader. Machel gave him a house in <a href="/wiki/Quelimane" title="Quelimane">Quelimane</a> and kept him under partial <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a>, with Mugabe requiring permission to travel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198180–81Blair200223-112">[112]</a> It would be almost a year before Machel accepted Mugabe's leadership of ZANU.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223-107">[107]</a> Mugabe travelled to various ZANLA camps in Mozambique to build support among its officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198181-113">[113]</a> By mid-1976, he had secured the allegiance of ZANLA's military commanders and established himself as the most prominent guerrilla leader battling Smith's regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223-107">[107]</a> In August 1977, he was officially declared ZANU President at a meeting of the party's central committee held in <a href="/wiki/Chimoio" title="Chimoio">Chimoio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981101Norman200862-114">[114]</a> During the war, Mugabe remained suspicious of many of ZANLA's commanders and had a number of them imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> In 1977 he imprisoned his former second-in-command, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilfred_Mhanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilfred Mhanda (page does not exist)">Wilfred Mhanda</a>, for suspected disloyalty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Tongogara" title="Josiah Tongogara">Josiah Tongogara</a> was killed in a car accident in 1979, there were suggestions made that Mugabe may have had some involvement in it; these rumours were never substantiated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224Holland200855–56-116">[116]</a> Mugabe remained aloof from the day-to-day military operations of ZANLA, which he entrusted to Tongogara.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223-107">[107]</a> In January 1976, ZANLA launched its first major infiltration from Mozambique, with nearly 1000 guerrillas crossing the border to attack white-owned farms and stores.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198183Norman200860-117">[117]</a> In response, Smith's government enlisted all men under the age of 35, expanding the Rhodesian army by 50%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198183Norman200860-117">[117]</a> ZANLA's attacks forced large numbers of white landowners to abandon their farms; their now-unemployed black workers joined ZANLA by the thousands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981100-118">[118]</a> By 1979, ZANLA were in a position to attack a number of Rhodesian cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981115–116-119">[119]</a> Over the course of the war, at least 30,000 people were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200210-120">[120]</a> As a proportion of their wider population, the whites had higher number of fatalities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200210-120">[120]</a> and by the latter part of the decade the guerrillas were winning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981109-121">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mugabe76Romania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mugabe76Romania.jpg/220px-Mugabe76Romania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mugabe76Romania.jpg/330px-Mugabe76Romania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mugabe76Romania.jpg/440px-Mugabe76Romania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1336" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe in a meeting with Romanian communist leader <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> in 1976</figcaption></figure> Mugabe focused on the propaganda war, making regular speeches and radio broadcasts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223-107">[107]</a> In these, he presented himself as a <a href="/wiki/Marxism-Leninism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxism-Leninism">Marxist-Leninist</a>, speaking warmly of Marxist-Leninist revolutionaries like <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> Despite his Marxist views, Mugabe's meetings with Soviet representatives were unproductive, for they insisted on Nkomo's leadership of the revolutionary struggle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198188Norman200861-122">[122]</a> His relationship with the People's Republic of China was far warmer, as the Chinese Maoist government supplied ZANLA with armaments without any conditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198188-123">[123]</a> He also sought support from Western nations, visiting Western embassies in Mozambique,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198189-124">[124]</a> and travelled to both Western states like Italy and Switzerland and Marxist-governed states like the Soviet Union, China, North Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198199,_109,_114Norman200861,_63–64-125">[125]</a> Mugabe called for the overthrow of Rhodesia's predominately white government, the execution of Smith and his "criminal gang", the expropriation of white-owned land, and the transformation of Rhodesia into a <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">one-party Marxist state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027-126">[126]</a> He repeatedly called for violence against the country's white minority,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200211-127">[127]</a> referring to white Rhodesians as "blood-sucking exploiters", "sadistic killers", and "hard-core racists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> In one typical example, taken from a 1978 radio address, Mugabe declared: "Let us hammer [the white man] to defeat. Let us blow up his citadel. Let us give him no time to rest. Let us chase him in every corner. Let us rid our home of this settler vermin".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200211-127">[127]</a> For Mugabe, armed struggle was an essential part of the establishment of a new state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20022-128">[128]</a> In contrast to other black nationalist leaders like Nkomo, Mugabe opposed a negotiated settlement with Smith's government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20022-128">[128]</a> In October 1976 ZANU nevertheless established a joint platform with ZAPU known as the Patriotic Front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198192–94Norman200861-129">[129]</a> In September 1978 Mugabe met with Nkomo in Lusaka. He was angry with the latter's secret attempts to negotiate with Smith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981112-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lancaster_House_Agreement:_1979">Lancaster House Agreement: 1979</h3></div> The beginning of the end for Smith came when South African Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/B._J._Vorster" class="mw-redirect" title="B. J. Vorster">B. J. Vorster</a> concluded that white minority rule was unsustainable in a country where blacks outnumbered whites 22:1.<a href="#cite_note-impression-131">[131]</a> Under pressure from Vorster, Smith accepted in principle that white minority rule could not be maintained forever. He oversaw the <a href="/wiki/1979_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_general_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1979 Zimbabwe Rhodesia general election">1979 general election</a> which resulted in <a href="/wiki/Abel_Muzorewa" title="Abel Muzorewa">Abel Muzorewa</a>, a politically moderate black bishop, being elected Prime Minister of the reconstituted <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Rhodesia" title="Zimbabwe Rhodesia">Zimbabwe Rhodesia</a>. Both ZANU and ZAPU had boycotted the election, which did not receive international recognition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981117Norman200863-132">[132]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting_1979" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1979">Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1979</a>, held in Lusaka, the British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> surprised delegates by announcing that the UK would officially recognize the country's independence if it transitioned to democratic majority rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981118–120-133">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lancaster_House_(5880536589).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Lancaster_House_%285880536589%29.jpg/220px-Lancaster_House_%285880536589%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Lancaster_House_%285880536589%29.jpg/330px-Lancaster_House_%285880536589%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Lancaster_House_%285880536589%29.jpg/440px-Lancaster_House_%285880536589%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Lancaster House in London's St James's district</figcaption></figure> The negotiations took place at <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House" title="Lancaster House">Lancaster House</a> in London and were led by the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative Party</a> politician <a href="/wiki/Peter_Carington,_6th_Baron_Carrington" title="Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington">Peter Carington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200858-134">[134]</a> Mugabe refused to attend these London peace talks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20026–7-135">[135]</a> opposing the idea of a negotiated rather than military solution to the Rhodesian War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122Holland200860-136">[136]</a> Machel insisted that he must, threatening to end Mozambican support for the ZANU-PF if he did not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027Holland200860Norman200869Tendi2011310-137">[137]</a> Mugabe arrived in London in September 1979.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122Meredith20027-138">[138]</a> There, he and Nkomo presented themselves as part of the "Patriotic Front" but established separate headquarters in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200238Holland200858-139">[139]</a> At the conference the pair were divided in their attitude; Nkomo wanted to present himself as a moderate while Mugabe played up to his image as a Marxist revolutionary, with Carrington exploiting this division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200861-140">[140]</a> Throughout the negotiations, Mugabe did not trust the British and believed that they were manipulating events to their own advantage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122–123Meredith20027–8-141">[141]</a> The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement</a> called for all participants in the Rhodesian Bush War to agree to a ceasefire, with a British governor, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Soames" title="Christopher Soames">Christopher Soames</a>, arriving in Rhodesia to oversee an election in which the various factions could compete as political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028Norman200867-142">[142]</a> It outlined a plan for a transition to formal independence as a sovereign republic under black-majority rule, also maintaining that Rhodesia would be renamed Zimbabwe, a name adopted from the Iron Age archaeological site of <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200211Norman200869-143">[143]</a> The agreement also ensured that the country's white minority retained many of its economic and political privileges,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011313-144">[144]</a> with 20 seats to be reserved for whites in the new Parliament.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981127Norman200867Tendi2011311-145">[145]</a> By insisting on the need for a democratic black majority government, Carington was able to convince Mugabe to compromise on the other main issue of the conference, that of land ownership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200862–63-146">[146]</a> Mugabe agreed to the protection of the white community's privately owned property on the condition that the UK and U.S. governments provide financial assistance allowing the Zimbabwean government to purchase much land for redistribution among blacks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200863-147">[147]</a> Mugabe was opposed to the idea of a ceasefire, but under pressure from Machel he agreed to it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028-148">[148]</a> Mugabe signed the agreement, but felt cheated,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028-148">[148]</a> remaining disappointed that he had never achieved a military victory over the Rhodesian forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002235Tendi2011313-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electoral_campaign:_1980">Electoral campaign: 1980</h3></div> Returning to Salisbury in January 1980, Mugabe was greeted by a supportive crowd.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029Norman200870-150">[150]</a> He settled into a house in <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pleasant,_Harare" title="Mount Pleasant, Harare">Mount Pleasant</a>, a wealthy, white-dominated suburb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200213Norman200871-151">[151]</a> Machel had cautioned Mugabe not to alienate Rhodesia's white minority, warning him that any white flight after the election would cause economic damage as it had in Mozambique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029Norman2008101Tendi2011313-152">[152]</a> Accordingly, during his electoral campaign, Mugabe avoided the use of Marxist and revolutionary rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029-153">[153]</a> Mugabe insisted that in the election, ZANU would stand as a separate party to ZAPU, and refused Nkomo's request for a meeting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200238Norman200870-154">[154]</a> He formed ZANU into a political party, known as <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union_%E2%80%93_Patriotic_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front">Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front</a> (ZANU–PF).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200870-155">[155]</a> Predictions were made that ZANU–PF would win the election on the basis of the country's ethnic divisions; Mugabe was Shona, a community that made up around 70% of the country's population, while Nkomo was Ndebele, a tribal group who made up only around 20%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200212-156">[156]</a> For many in the white community and in the British government, this outcome was a terrifying prospect due to Mugabe's avowed Marxist beliefs and the inflammatory comments that he had made about whites during the guerrilla war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200211-127">[127]</a> During the campaign, Mugabe survived two assassination attempts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200211Norman200871-157">[157]</a> In the first, which took place on 6 February, a grenade was thrown at his Mount Pleasant home, where it exploded against a garden wall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200211Norman200871-157">[157]</a> In the second, on 10 February, a roadside bomb exploded near his motorcade as he left a <a href="/wiki/Masvingo" title="Masvingo">Fort Victoria</a> rally. Mugabe himself was unharmed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200211Norman200871-157">[157]</a> Mugabe accused the Rhodesian security forces of being responsible for these attacks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200211-158">[158]</a> In an attempt to quell the possibility that Rhodesia's security forces would launch a coup to prevent the election, Mugabe met with <a href="/wiki/Peter_Walls" title="Peter Walls">Peter Walls</a>, the commander of Rhodesia's armed forces, and asked him to remain in his position in the event of a ZANU–PF victory. At the time Walls refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200212-159">[159]</a> The electoral campaign was marred by widespread <a href="/wiki/Voter_intimidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Voter intimidation">voter intimidation</a>, perpetrated by Nkomo's ZAPU, <a href="/wiki/Abel_Muzorewa" title="Abel Muzorewa">Abel Muzorewa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/United_African_National_Council" title="United African National Council">United African National Council</a> (UANC), and Mugabe's ZANU–PF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210Norman200873-160">[160]</a> Commenting on ZANU–PF's activities in eastern Rhodesia, Nkomo complained that "the word intimidation is mild. People are being terrorized. It is terror."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210-161">[161]</a> Reacting to ZANU–PF's acts of voter intimidation, Mugabe was called before Soames at Government House. Mugabe regarded the meeting as a British attempt to thwart his electoral campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210–11-162">[162]</a> Under the terms of the negotiation, Soames had the power to disqualify any political party guilty of voter intimidation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200211-158">[158]</a> Rhodesia's security services, Nkomo, Muzorewa, and some of his own advisers all called on Soames to disqualify ZANU–PF. After deliberation, Soames disagreed, believing that ZANU–PF were sure to win the election and that disqualifying them would wreck any chance of an <a href="/wiki/Peaceful_transition_of_power" title="Peaceful transition of power">orderly transition of power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200211-158">[158]</a> In <a href="/wiki/1980_Southern_Rhodesian_general_election" title="1980 Southern Rhodesian general election">the February election</a>, ZANU–PF secured 63% of the national vote, gaining 57 of the 80 parliamentary seats allocated for black parties and providing them with an <a href="/wiki/Majority_of_the_entire_membership" class="mw-redirect" title="Majority of the entire membership">absolute majority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200212Meredith200213Norman200873-163">[163]</a> ZAPU had gained 20 seats, and UANC had three.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200212-156">[156]</a> Mugabe was elected MP for the Salisbury constituency of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Highfield_(parliamentary_constituency)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Highfield (parliamentary constituency) (page does not exist)">Highfield</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002156-164">[164]</a> Attempting to calm panic and prevent white flight, Mugabe appeared on television and called for national unity, stability, and law and order, insisting that the pensions of white civil servants would be guaranteed and that private property would be protected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200213Holland2008xiiiNorman200874-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe:_1980–1987">Prime Minister of Zimbabwe: 1980–1987</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heroes_Acre_Monument,_Harare,_Zimbabwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Heroes_Acre_Monument%2C_Harare%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg/170px-Heroes_Acre_Monument%2C_Harare%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Heroes_Acre_Monument%2C_Harare%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg/255px-Heroes_Acre_Monument%2C_Harare%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Heroes_Acre_Monument%2C_Harare%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg/340px-Heroes_Acre_Monument%2C_Harare%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Statues atop the tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Heroes' Acre; the monument was designed by North Korean architects who reported directly to Mugabe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008194-166">[166]</a></figcaption></figure> Southern Rhodesia gained internationally recognized independence on 18 April 1980. Mugabe took the <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office" title="Oath of office">oath of office</a> as the newly minted country's first Prime Minister shortly after midnight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair20029-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> He gave a speech at Salisbury's <a href="/wiki/Rufaro_Stadium" title="Rufaro Stadium">Rufaro Stadium</a> announcing that Rhodesia would be renamed "Zimbabwe" and pledged racial reconciliation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214–15-169">[169]</a> Soames aided Mugabe in bringing about an <a href="/wiki/Orderly_transition_of_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Orderly transition of power">orderly transition of power</a>; for this Mugabe remained grateful, describing Soames as a good friend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214-170">[170]</a> Mugabe unsuccessfully urged Soames to remain in Zimbabwe for several more years,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214Holland200872-171">[171]</a> and also failed to convince the UK to assume a two-year "guiding role" for his government because most ZANU–PF members lacked experience in governing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011311-172">[172]</a> ZANU–PF's absolute parliamentary majority allowed them to rule alone, but Mugabe created a government of national unity by inviting members of rival parties to join his cabinet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214-173">[173]</a> Mugabe moved into the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_House,_Harare" title="Zimbabwe House, Harare">Premier's residence</a> in Salisbury, which he left furnished in the same style as Smith had left it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200241-174">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_meeting_with_Prime_Minister_Robert_Mugabe_of_Zimbabwe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2625" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe with US president <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> in 1983</figcaption></figure> Across the country, statues of <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a> were removed and squares and roads named after prominent colonial figures were renamed after black nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248-175">[175]</a> In 1982 Salisbury was <a href="/wiki/List_of_renamed_places_in_Zimbabwe" title="List of renamed places in Zimbabwe">renamed</a> Harare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248Norman200878-176">[176]</a> Mugabe employed North Korean architects to design <a href="/wiki/National_Heroes%27_Acre_(Zimbabwe)" title="National Heroes' Acre (Zimbabwe)">Heroes' Acre</a>, a monument and complex in western Harare to commemorate the struggle against minority rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200277-177">[177]</a> Zimbabwe also received much aid from Western countries, whose governments hoped that a stable and prosperous Zimbabwe would aid the transition of South Africa away from apartheid and minority rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247-178">[178]</a> The United States provided Zimbabwe with a $25 million three-year aid package.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247-178">[178]</a> The UK financed a land reform program,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246-179">[179]</a> and provided military advisers to aid the integration of the guerrilla armies and old Rhodesian security forces into a <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Defence_Forces" title="Zimbabwe Defence Forces">new Zimbabwean military</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246Norman200875-180">[180]</a> Members of both ZANLA and ZIPRA were integrated into the army; though, there remained a strong rivalry between the two groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200259-181">[181]</a> As Prime Minister, Mugabe retained Walls as the head of the armed forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214Norman200874-182">[182]</a> Mugabe's government continued to make regular pronouncements about converting Zimbabwe into a socialist society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200278-183">[183]</a> In contrast to Mugabe's talk of socialism, his government's budgetary policies were conservative, operating within a capitalist framework and emphasizing the need for foreign investment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248-175">[175]</a> In office, Mugabe sought a gradual transformation away from capitalism and tried to build upon existing state institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214-170">[170]</a> From 1980 to 1990, the country's economy grew by an average of 2.7% a year, but this was outstripped by population growth and <a href="/wiki/Real_income" title="Real income">real income</a> declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> The unemployment rate rose, reaching 26% in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> The government ran a budget deficit year-on-year that averaged at 10% of the country's gross domestic product.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> Under Mugabe's leadership, there was a massive expansion in education and health spending.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> In 1980, Zimbabwe had just 177 secondary schools, by 2000 this number had risen to 1,548.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> During that period, the adult literacy rate rose from 62% to 82%, one of the highest levels in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> Levels of child immunization were raised from 25% of the population to 92%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> A new leadership elite were formed, who often expressed their newfound status through purchasing large houses and expensive cars, sending their children to private schools, and obtaining farms and businesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281-185">[185]</a> To contain their excesses, in 1984 Mugabe drew up a "leadership code" which prohibited any senior figures from obtaining more than one salary or owning over 50-acres of agricultural land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281-185">[185]</a> There were exceptions, with Mugabe giving permission to General <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Mujuru" title="Solomon Mujuru">Solomon Mujuru</a> to expand his business empire, resulting in his becoming one of the Zimbabwe's wealthiest people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282-186">[186]</a> Growing corruption among the socio-economic elite generated resentment among the wider population, much of which was living in poverty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200283-187">[187]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Mugabe_September_1983,_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Robert_Mugabe_September_1983%2C_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg/220px-Robert_Mugabe_September_1983%2C_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Robert_Mugabe_September_1983%2C_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg/330px-Robert_Mugabe_September_1983%2C_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Robert_Mugabe_September_1983%2C_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg/440px-Robert_Mugabe_September_1983%2C_DF-SC-84-10031.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3030" data-file-height="1940" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe departing <a href="/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base" title="Andrews Air Force Base">Andrews Air Force Base</a> after a state visit to the United States in 1983</figcaption></figure> ZANU–PF also began establishing its own business empire, founding the M&S Syndicate in 1980 and the Zidoo Holdings in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282-186">[186]</a> By 1992, the party had fixed assets and businesses worth an estimated Z$500 million (US$75 million).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282-186">[186]</a> In 1980, ZANU–PF used Nigerian funds to set up the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mass_Media_Trust&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mass Media Trust (page does not exist)">Mass Media Trust</a>, through which they bought out a South African company that owned most of Zimbabwe's newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200280–81Norman200875-188">[188]</a> The white editors of these newspapers were sacked and replaced by government appointees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281Norman200875-189">[189]</a> These media outlets subsequently became a source of the party's propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281Norman200875-189">[189]</a> At independence, 39% of Zimbabwe's land was under the ownership of around 6000 white large-scale commercial farmers, while 4% was owned by black small-scale commercial farmers, and 41% was 'communal land' where 4 million people lived, often in overcrowded conditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002120-190">[190]</a> The Lancaster House agreement ensured that until 1990, the sale of land could only take place on a "willing seller-willing buyer" basis. The only permitted exceptions were if the land was "underutilized" or needed for a public purpose, in which case the government could compulsorily purchase it while fully compensating the owner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002119-191">[191]</a> This meant that Mugabe's government was largely restricted to purchasing land which was of poor quality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002119-191">[191]</a> Its target was to resettle 18,000 black families on 2.5 million acres of white-owned land over three years. This would cost £30 million (US$60 million), half of which was to be provided by the UK government as per the Lancaster House Agreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002120-190">[190]</a> In 1986, Mugabe became chair of the <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a> (NAM), a position that he retained until 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200285-192">[192]</a> As the leader of one of the <a href="/wiki/Front_Line_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Front Line States">Front Line States</a>, the countries bordering apartheid South Africa, he gained credibility within the anti-apartheid movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200285-192">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_relations">Race relations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The wrongs of the past must now stand forgiven and forgotten. If ever we look to the past, let us do so for the lesson the past has taught us, namely that <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a> and racism are inequalities that must never find scope in our political and social system. It could never be a correct justification that just because the whites oppressed us yesterday when they had power, the blacks must oppress them today because they have power. An evil remains an evil whether practised by white against black or black against white. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">— Mugabe's speech after his 1980 victory<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200215-193">[193]</a></cite> </div> Mugabe initially emphasized racial reconciliation and he was keen to build a good relationship with white Zimbabweans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214Meredith200241-194">[194]</a> He hoped to avoid a white <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">exodus</a> and tried to allay fears that he would nationalize white-owned property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011313–314-195">[195]</a> He appointed two white ministers—<a href="/wiki/David_Smith_(Rhodesian_politician)" title="David Smith (Rhodesian politician)">David Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denis_Norman" title="Denis Norman">Denis Norman</a>—to his government,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214–15Meredith200242,_44Holland2008107Norman200874-196">[196]</a> met with white leaders in agriculture, industry, mining, and commerce,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200215Meredith200245-197">[197]</a> and impressed senior figures in the outgoing administration like Smith and <a href="/wiki/Ken_Flower" title="Ken Flower">Ken Flower</a> with his apparent sincerity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200213,_15Meredith200242-198">[198]</a> With the end of the war, petrol rationing, and economic sanctions, life for white Zimbabweans improved during the early years of Mugabe's rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200245-199">[199]</a> In the economic boom that followed, the white minority—which controlled considerable property and dominated commerce, industry, and banking—were the country's main beneficiaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246-179">[179]</a> Nevertheless, many white Zimbabweans complained that they were the victims of <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200250-200">[200]</a> Many whites remained uneasy about living under the government of a black Marxist and they also feared that their children would be unable to secure jobs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246-179">[179]</a> There was a growing exodus to South Africa, and in 1980, 17,000 whites—approximately a tenth of the white Zimbabwean population—emigrated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246Norman200875-180">[180]</a> Mugabe's government had pledged support for the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Internal resistance to apartheid">anti-apartheid</a> forces within South Africa but did not allow them to use Zimbabwe as a base for their military operations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247-178">[178]</a> To protest apartheid and white minority rule in South Africa, Mugabe's government banned Zimbabwe from engaging South Africa in any sporting competitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247-178">[178]</a> In turn, South Africa tried to destabilise Zimbabwe by blocking trade routes into the country and supporting anti-Mugabe militants among the country's white minority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200251Holland20087636–37Norman2008-201">[201]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_,_president_Zimbabwe,_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez,_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_%2C_president_Zimbabwe%2C_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg/170px-Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_%2C_president_Zimbabwe%2C_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_%2C_president_Zimbabwe%2C_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg/255px-Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_%2C_president_Zimbabwe%2C_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_%2C_president_Zimbabwe%2C_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg/340px-Persconferentie_Robert_Magabe_%2C_president_Zimbabwe%2C_op_Schiphol_na_driedaags_bez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_932-1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2438" data-file-height="3680" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe in the Netherlands, 1982</figcaption></figure> In December 1981, a bomb struck ZANU–PF headquarters, killing seven and injuring 124.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252Norman200877-202">[202]</a> Mugabe blamed South African-backed white militants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252-203">[203]</a> He criticised "reactionary and counter-revolutionary elements" in the white community, stating that despite the fact that they had faced no punishment for their past actions, they rejected racial reconciliation and "are acting in collusion with South Africa to harm our racial relations, to destroy our unity, to sabotage our economy, and to overthrow the popularly elected government I lead".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252-203">[203]</a> Increasingly he criticised not only the militants but the entire white community for holding a monopoly on "Zimbabwe's economic power".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252–53-204">[204]</a> This was a view echoed by many government ministers and the government-controlled media.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200250-200">[200]</a> One of these ministers, Tekere, was involved in an incident in which he and seven armed men stormed a white-owned farmhouse, killing an elderly farmer; they alleged that in doing so they were foiling a coup attempt. Tekere was acquitted of murder; however, Mugabe dropped him from his cabinet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200249-205">[205]</a> Racial mistrust and suspicion continued to grow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200253-206">[206]</a> In December 1981, the elderly white MP <a href="/wiki/Wally_Stuttaford" title="Wally Stuttaford">Wally Stuttaford</a> was accused of being a South African agent, arrested, and tortured, generating anger among whites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200253Norman200877-207">[207]</a> In July 1982, South African-backed white militants destroyed 13 aircraft at <a href="/wiki/Gweru-Thornhill_Air_Base" title="Gweru-Thornhill Air Base">Thornhill</a>. A number of white military officers were accused of complicity, arrested, and tortured. They were put on trial but cleared by judges, after which they were immediately re-arrested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200254Holland200837Norman200878-208">[208]</a> Their case generated an international outcry, which Mugabe criticized, stating that the case only gained such attention because the accused were white.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200254Holland200837-209">[209]</a> His defence of torture and contempt for legal procedures damaged his international standing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200255Holland200838-210">[210]</a> White flight continued to grow, and within three years of Mugabe's premiership half of all white Zimbabweans had emigrated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200255-211">[211]</a> In the 1985 election, Smith's <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Alliance_of_Zimbabwe" title="Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe">Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe</a> won 15 of the 20 seats allocated for white Zimbabweans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256-212">[212]</a> Mugabe was outraged by this result,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256Holland2008115-213">[213]</a> lambasting white Zimbabweans for not repenting "in any way" by continuing to support Smith and other white politicians who had committed "horrors against the people of Zimbabwe".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256-212">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_with_ZAPU_and_the_Gukurahundi">Relations with ZAPU and the Gukurahundi</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg/220px-Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg/330px-Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg/440px-Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>The flag of ZAPU, which was largely eliminated by ZANU-PF in the Gukurahundi.</figcaption></figure> Under the new constitution, Zimbabwe's presidency was a ceremonial role with no governmental power; the first President was <a href="/wiki/Canaan_Banana" title="Canaan Banana">Canaan Banana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200874-214">[214]</a> Mugabe had previously offered the position to Nkomo, who had turned it down in favour of becoming Minister of Home Affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200239Norman200874-215">[215]</a> While working together, there remained an aura of resentment and suspicion between Mugabe and Nkomo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200239-216">[216]</a> Mugabe gave ZAPU four cabinet seats, but Nkomo demanded more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200259–60-217">[217]</a> In contrast, some ZANU–PF figures argued that ZAPU should not have any seats in government, suggesting that Zimbabwe be converted into a one-party state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260-218">[218]</a> Tekere and <a href="/wiki/Enos_Nkala" title="Enos Nkala">Enos Nkala</a> were particularly adamant that there should be a crackdown on ZAPU.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260-218">[218]</a> After Nkala called for ZAPU to be violently crushed during a rally in <a href="/wiki/Entumbane" class="mw-redirect" title="Entumbane">Entumbane</a>, street clashes between the two parties broke out in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200261Norman200876-219">[219]</a> In January 1981, Mugabe demoted Nkomo in a cabinet reshuffle; the latter warned that this would anger ZAPU supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200261-220">[220]</a> In February, violence between ZAPU and ZANU–PF supporters broke out among the battalion stationed at <a href="/wiki/Ntabazinduna" class="mw-redirect" title="Ntabazinduna">Ntabazinduna</a>, soon spreading to other army bases, resulting in 300 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200261–62-221">[221]</a> An arms cache featuring land mines and anti-aircraft missiles were then discovered at Ascot Farm, which was part-owned by Nkomo. Mugabe cited this as evidence that ZAPU were plotting a coup, an allegation that Nkomo denied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200262,_64Norman200877-222">[222]</a> Likening Nkomo to "a cobra in the house", Mugabe sacked him from the government, and ZAPU-owned businesses, farms, and properties were seized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200263Norman200878-223">[223]</a> Members of both ZANLA and ZIPRA had deserted their positions and engaged in <a href="/wiki/Banditry" title="Banditry">banditry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260-218">[218]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Matabeleland" title="Matabeleland">Matabeleland</a>, ZIPRA deserters who came to be known as "dissenters" engaged in robbery, holding up buses, and attacking farmhouses, creating an environment of growing lawlessness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200264-224">[224]</a> These dissidents received support from South Africa through its <a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Mute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Mute (page does not exist)">Operation Mute</a>, by which it hoped to further destabilize Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200264-225">[225]</a> The government often conflated ZIPRA with the dissenters,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200266-226">[226]</a> although Nkomo denounced the dissidents and their South African supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200265-227">[227]</a> Mugabe authorized the police and army to crack down on the Matabeleland dissenters, declaring that state officers would be granted legal immunity for any "extra-legal" actions they may perform while doing so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200265-227">[227]</a> During 1982 he had established the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_Fifth_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwean Fifth Brigade">Fifth Brigade</a>, an elite armed force trained by the North Koreans; membership was drawn largely from Shona-speaking ZANLA soldiers and were answerable directly to Mugabe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200265Norman200877-228">[228]</a> In January 1983, the Fifth Brigade were deployed in the region, overseeing a campaign of beatings, arson, public executions, and massacres of those accused of being sympathetic to the dissidents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200267-229">[229]</a> The scale of the violence was greater than that witnessed in the Rhodesian War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200267-230">[230]</a> Interrogation centres were established where people were tortured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200270-231">[231]</a> Mugabe acknowledged that civilians would be persecuted in the violence, claiming that "we can't tell who is a dissident and who is not."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200233-232">[232]</a> The ensuing events became known as the "Gukurahundi", a Shona word meaning "wind that sweeps away the chaff before the rains".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200231-233">[233]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matabeleland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Matabeleland.svg/170px-Matabeleland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Matabeleland.svg/255px-Matabeleland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Matabeleland.svg/340px-Matabeleland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption>The Gukurahundi took place in Zimbabwe's western provinces of Matabeleland (highlighted).</figcaption></figure> In 1984 the Gukurahundi spread to <a href="/wiki/Matabeleland_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Matabeleland South">Matabeleland South</a>, an area then in its third year of drought. The Fifth Brigade closed all stores, halted all deliveries, and imposed a curfew, exacerbating starvation for a period of two months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200232Meredith200269-234">[234]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Bulawayo" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bulawayo">Bishop of Bulawayo</a> accused Mugabe of overseeing a project of systematic starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200270-231">[231]</a> When a Roman Catholic delegation provided Mugabe with a dossier listing atrocities committed by the Fifth Brigade, Mugabe refuted all its allegations and accused the clergy of being disloyal to Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200267–68-235">[235]</a> He had the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Commission_for_Justice_and_Peace_in_Zimbabwe" title="Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe">Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe</a> suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008148–149-236">[236]</a> In 1985, an <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> report on the Gukurahundi was dismissed by Mugabe as "a heap of lies".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200273Norman200879-237">[237]</a> Over the course of four years, approximately 10,000 civilians had been killed, and many others had been beaten and tortured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200275Norman2008109-238">[238]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide Watch">Genocide Watch</a> later estimated that approximately 20,000 had been killed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011308-239">[239]</a> and classified the events as genocide.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>'s UK government was aware of the killings but remained silent on the matter, cautious not to anger Mugabe and threaten the safety of white Zimbabweans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200866Tendi2011308–309-241">[241]</a> The United States also did not raise strong objections, with President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> welcoming Mugabe to the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> in September 1983.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200234-242">[242]</a> In October 1983, Mugabe attended the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting_1983" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1983">Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting</a> in New Delhi, where no participating states mentioned the Gukurahundi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200234-242">[242]</a> In 2000, Mugabe acknowledged that the mass killings had happened, stating that it was "an act of madness ... it was wrong and both sides were to blame".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200274-243">[243]</a> His biographer <a href="/wiki/Martin_Meredith" title="Martin Meredith">Martin Meredith</a> argued that Mugabe and his ZANU–PF were solely to blame for the massacres.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200274-243">[243]</a> Various Mugabe biographers have seen the Gukurahundi as a deliberate attempt to eliminate ZAPU and its support base to advance his desire for a ZANU–PF one-party state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200232Meredith200274-244">[244]</a> There was further violence in the build-up to the 1985 election, with ZAPU supporters facing harassment from <a href="/w/index.php?title=ZANU%E2%80%93PF_Youth_League&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ZANU–PF Youth League (page does not exist)">ZANU–PF Youth League</a> brigades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271-245">[245]</a> Despite this intimidation, ZAPU won all 15 of the parliamentary seats in Matabeleland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271-245">[245]</a> Mugabe then appointed <a href="/wiki/Enos_Nkala" title="Enos Nkala">Enos Nkala</a> as the new police minister. Nkala subsequently detained over 100 ZAPU officials, including five of its MPs and the Mayor of Bulawayo, banned the party from holding rallies or meetings, closed all of their offices, and dissolved all of the district councils that they controlled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271–73-246">[246]</a> To avoid further violence, in December 1987 Nkomo signed a Unity Accord in which ZAPU was officially disbanded and its leadership merged into ZANU–PF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200234Meredith200273Norman200879-247">[247]</a> The merger between the two parties left ZANU–PF with 99 of the 100 seats in parliament,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200279-248">[248]</a> and established Zimbabwe as a de facto one-party state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200234-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="President_of_Zimbabwe">President of Zimbabwe</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_and_economic_reform:_1987–1995">Constitutional and economic reform: 1987–1995</h3></div> In late 1987, Zimbabwe's parliament amended the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236-249">[249]</a> On 30 December it declared Mugabe to be executive president, a new position that combined the roles of head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279Norman200880-250">[250]</a> This position gave him the power to dissolve parliament, declare <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>, and run for an unlimited number of terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279-251">[251]</a> According to Meredith, Mugabe now had "a virtual stranglehold on government machinery and unlimited opportunities to exercise patronage".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279-251">[251]</a> The constitutional amendments also abolished the twenty parliamentary seats reserved for white representatives,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Norman200880-252">[252]</a> and left parliament less relevant and independent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200280-253">[253]</a> In the build-up to the 1990 election, parliamentary reforms increased the number of seats to 120; of these, twenty were to be appointed by the President and ten by the Council of Chiefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200289-254">[254]</a> This measure made it more difficult for any opposition to Mugabe to gain a parliamentary majority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200289-255">[255]</a> The main opposition party in that election was the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Unity_Movement" title="Zimbabwe Unity Movement">Zimbabwe Unity Movement</a> (ZUM), launched in April 1989 by Tekere;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200287Norman200880-256">[256]</a> although a longstanding friend of Mugabe, Tekere accused him of betraying the revolution and establishing a dictatorship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200880-257">[257]</a> ZANU–PF propaganda made threats against those considering voting ZUM in the election; one television advert featured images of a car crash with the statement "This is one way to die. Another is to vote ZUM. Don't commit suicide, vote ZANU-PF and live."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200291-258">[258]</a> In the election, Mugabe was re-elected President with nearly 80% of the vote, while ZANU–PF secured 116 of the 119 available parliamentary seats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200293-259">[259]</a> Mugabe had long hoped to convert Zimbabwe into a one-party state, but in 1990 he officially "postponed" these plans as both Mozambique and many <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> states transitioned from one-party states to multi-party republics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200297-260">[260]</a> Following the collapse of the Marxist-Leninist regimes in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, in 1991 ZANU–PF removed references to "Marxism-Leninism" and "<a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">scientific socialism</a>" in its material; Mugabe maintained that "socialism remains our sworn ideology".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200297Norman200881-261">[261]</a> That year, Mugabe pledged himself to free market economics and accepted a <a href="/wiki/Structural_adjustment_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural adjustment programme">structural adjustment programme</a> provided by the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237Holland2008136-262">[262]</a> This economic reform package called for Zimbabwe to privatise state assets and reduce import tariffs;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">[184]</a> Mugabe's government implemented some but not all of its recommendations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237Holland2008136-262">[262]</a> The reforms encouraged employers to cut their wages, generating growing opposition from the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Congress_of_Trade_Unions" title="Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions">Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200238-263">[263]</a> By 1990, 52,000 black families had been settled on 6.5 million acres. This was insufficient to deal with the country's overcrowding problem, which was being exacerbated by the growth in the black population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002121-264">[264]</a> That year, Zimbabwe's parliament passed an amendment allowing the government to expropriate land at a fixed price while denying land-owners the right of appeal to the courts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122-265">[265]</a> The government hoped that by doing so it could settle 110,000 black families on 13 million acres, which would require the expropriation of approximately half of all white-owned land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122-265">[265]</a> Zimbabwe's <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Farmers_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Farmers Union">Commercial Farmers Union</a> argued that the proposed measures would wreck the country's economy, urging the government to instead settle landless blacks on the half-a-million acres of land that was either unproductive or state-owned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122–123-266">[266]</a> Concerns about the proposed measure—particularly its denial of the right to appeal—were voiced by the UK, US, and Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122-265">[265]</a> The US, UK, <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>, and <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> threatened that if Zimbabwe implemented the law, it would forfeit foreign aid packages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002123-267">[267]</a> Responding to the criticisms, the government removed the ban on court appeals from the bill, which was then passed as law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002123–124-268">[268]</a> Over the following few years, hundreds of thousands of acres of largely white-owned land were expropriated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002124-269">[269]</a> In April 1994, a newspaper investigation found that not all of this was redistributed to landless blacks; much of the expropriated land was being leased to ministers and senior officials such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Witness_Mangwede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Witness Mangwede (page does not exist)">Witness Mangwede</a>, who was leased a 3000-acre farm in <a href="/wiki/Hwedza" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwedza">Hwedza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002126–127Norman2008127–128-270">[270]</a> Responding to this scandal, in 1994 the UK government—which had supplied £44 million for land redistribution—halted its payments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002127Holland200898-271">[271]</a> In January 1992, Mugabe's wife died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296Norman200881-272">[272]</a> In April 1995, Horizon magazine revealed that Mugabe had secretly been having an affair with his secretary <a href="/wiki/Grace_Mugabe" title="Grace Mugabe">Grace Marufu</a> since 1987 and that she had borne him a son and a daughter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002107Norman200880-273">[273]</a> His secret revealed, Mugabe decided to hold a much-publicized wedding. 12,000 people were invited to the August 1996 ceremony, which took place in Kutama and was orchestrated by the head of the Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Harare" title="Archbishop of Harare">Archbishop of Harare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Fani_Chakaipa" title="Patrick Fani Chakaipa">Patrick Chakaipa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108Norman200882-274">[274]</a> The ceremony was controversial among the Catholic community because of the adulterous nature of Mugabe and Marufu's relationship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108Holland2008148-275">[275]</a> To house his family, Mugabe then built a new mansion at <a href="/wiki/Borrowdale,_Harare" title="Borrowdale, Harare">Borrowdale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002109-276">[276]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1995_Zimbabwean_parliamentary_election" title="1995 Zimbabwean parliamentary election">1995 parliamentary election</a>—which saw a low turnout of 31.7%—ZANU–PF gained 147 out of 150 seats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200238-263">[263]</a> Following the election, Mugabe expanded his cabinet from 29 to 42 ministers while the government adopted a 133% pay rise for MPs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002127-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_decline:_1995–2000">Economic decline: 1995–2000</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> By the mid-1990s Mugabe had become an irascible and petulant dictator, brooking no opposition, contemptuous of the law and human rights, surrounded by sycophantic ministers and indifferent to the incompetence and corruption around him. His record of economic management was lamentable. He had failed to satisfy popular expectations in education, health, land reform, and employment. And he had alienated the entire white community. Yet all the while Mugabe continued to believe in his own greatness. Isolated and remote from ordinary reality, possessing no close friends and showing clear signs of paranoia, he listened only to an inner circle of conspiratorial aides and colleagues. Whatever difficulties occurred he attributed to old enemies—Britain, the West, the old Rhodesian network—all bent, he believed, on destroying his "revolution". </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">— Mugabe biographer <a href="/wiki/Martin_Meredith" title="Martin Meredith">Martin Meredith</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002131-278">[278]</a></cite> </div> Over the course of the 1990s, Zimbabwe's economy steadily deteriorated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200239-279">[279]</a> By 2000, living standards had declined from 1980; life expectancy was reduced, average wages were lower, and unemployment had trebled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200217-280">[280]</a> By 1998, unemployment was almost at 50%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200239-279">[279]</a> As of 2009, three to four million Zimbabweans—the greater part of the nation's skilled workforce—had left the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200971-281">[281]</a> In 1997 there were growing demands for pensions from those who had fought for the guerrilla armies in the revolutionary war, and in August 1997 Mugabe put together a pension package that would cost the county Z$4.2 billion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200239Holland2008123-282">[282]</a> To finance this pension scheme, Mugabe's government proposed new taxes, but a general strike was called in protest in December 1997; amid protest from ZANU–PF itself, Mugabe's government abandoned the taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200239Norman200883-283">[283]</a> In January 1998, riots about lack of access to food broke out in Harare; the army was deployed to restore order, with at least ten killed and hundreds injured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200239Norman2008110-284">[284]</a> Mugabe increasingly blamed the country's economic problems on Western nations and the white Zimbabwean minority, who still controlled most of its commercial agriculture, mines, and manufacturing industry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200242Meredith200217,_128-285">[285]</a> He called on supporters "to strike fear in the hearts of the white man, our real enemy",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200217-280">[280]</a> and accused his black opponents of being dupes of the whites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200218-286">[286]</a> Amid growing internal opposition to his government, he remained determined to stay in power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200217-280">[280]</a> He revived the regular use of revolutionary rhetoric and sought to re-assert his credentials as an important revolutionary leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200968-287">[287]</a> Mugabe also developed a growing preoccupation with homosexuality, lambasting it as an "un-African" import from Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002129-288">[288]</a> He described gay people as being "guilty of sub-human behavior", and of being "worse than dogs and pigs".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002131Norman2008115-289">[289]</a> This attitude may have stemmed in part from his strong conservative values, but it was strengthened by the fact that several ministers in the British government were gay. Mugabe began to believe that there was a "gay mafia" and that all of his critics were homosexuals.<a href="#cite_note-bbc_perspective_2009-290">[290]</a> Critics also accused Mugabe of using <a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">homophobia</a> to distract attention from the country's problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002129-288">[288]</a> In August 1995, he was due to open a human rights-themed <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_International_Book_Fair" title="Zimbabwe International Book Fair">Zimbabwe International Book Fair</a> in Harare but refused to do so until a stall run by the group Gays and Lesbians of Zimbabwe was evicted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002129–130-291">[291]</a> In 1996, Mugabe was appointed chair of the defense arm of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Development_Community" title="Southern African Development Community">Southern African Development Community</a> (SADC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002147–148-292">[292]</a> Without consulting parliament, in August 1998 he ordered Zimbabwean troops into the Democratic Republic of the Congo to side with President <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Kabila" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurent Kabila">Laurent Kabila</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002148-293">[293]</a> He initially committed 3000 troops to the operation; this gradually rose to 11,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002148-293">[293]</a> He also persuaded Angola and Namibia to commit troops to the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002148-293">[293]</a> Involvement in the war cost Zimbabwe an approximate US$1 million a day, contributing to its economic problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002148-293">[293]</a> Opinion polls demonstrated that it was unpopular among Zimbabwe's population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200241Meredith2002148-294">[294]</a> However, several Zimbabwean businesses profited, having been given mining and timber concessions and preferential trade terms in minerals from Kabila's government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002148-293">[293]</a> In January 1999, 23 military officers were arrested for plotting a coup against Mugabe. The government sought to hide this, but it was reported by journalists from <a href="/wiki/The_Standard_(Zimbabwe)" title="The Standard (Zimbabwe)">The Standard</a>. The military subsequently illegally arrested the journalists and tortured them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200241Meredith2002149–150-295">[295]</a> This brought international condemnation, with the EU and seven donor nations issuing protest notes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002151-296">[296]</a> Lawyers and human rights activists protested outside parliament until they were dispersed by riot police,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002151-296">[296]</a> and the country's <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Zimbabwe" title="Supreme Court of Zimbabwe">Supreme Court</a> judges issued a letter condemning the military's actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002151–152-297">[297]</a> In response, Mugabe publicly defended the use of extra-legal arrest and torture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002153-298">[298]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tony_Blair_2010_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tony_Blair_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Tony_Blair_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tony_Blair_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Tony_Blair_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tony_Blair_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Tony_Blair_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="2428" /></a><figcaption>British prime minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>, with whom Mugabe had a particularly antagonistic relationship</figcaption></figure> In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> was elected Prime Minister of the UK after 18 years of Conservative rule. His <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> government expressed reticence toward restarting the land resettlement payments promised by the Lancaster House Agreement, with minister <a href="/wiki/Clare_Short" title="Clare Short">Clare Short</a> rejecting the idea that the UK had any moral obligation to fund land redistribution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002133Holland200895,_97-299">[299]</a> This attitude fuelled anti-imperialist sentiment across Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008102-300">[300]</a> In October 1999, Mugabe visited Britain and in London, the human rights activist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tatchell" title="Peter Tatchell">Peter Tatchell</a> attempted to place him under <a href="/wiki/Citizen%27s_arrest" title="Citizen's arrest">citizen's arrest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002134Holland200895-301">[301]</a> Mugabe believed that the British government had deliberately engineered the incident to embarrass him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002135-302">[302]</a> It further damaged Anglo-Zimbabwean relations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002135-302">[302]</a> with Mugabe expressing scorn for what he called "Blair and company".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002136-303">[303]</a> In May 2000, the UK froze all development aid to Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002138-304">[304]</a> In December 1999, the IMF terminated financial support for Zimbabwe, citing economic mismanagement and widespread corruption as impediments to reform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200249Norman2008119-305">[305]</a> To meet growing demand for constitutional reform, in April 1999 Mugabe's government appointed a 400-member Constitutional Commission to draft a new constitution which could be put to a referendum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001163Meredith2002163-306">[306]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Constitutional_Assembly" title="National Constitutional Assembly">National Constitutional Assembly</a>—a pro-reform pressure group established in 1997—expressed concern that this commission was not independent of the government, noting that Mugabe had the power to amend or reject the draft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001163-307">[307]</a> The NCA called for the draft constitution to be rejected, and in a <a href="/wiki/2000_Zimbabwean_constitutional_referendum" title="2000 Zimbabwean constitutional referendum">February 2000 referendum</a> it was, with 53% against to 44% in favor; turnout was under 25%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001164Blair200258Meredith2002165-308">[308]</a> It was ZANU–PF's first major electoral defeat in twenty years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001165-309">[309]</a> Mugabe was furious, and blamed the white minority for orchestrating his defeat, referring to them as "enemies of Zimbabwe".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008138-310">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_seizures_and_growing_condemnation:_2000–2008">Land seizures and growing condemnation: 2000–2008</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe">Land reform in Zimbabwe</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg/180px-Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg/270px-Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg/360px-Morgan_Tsvangirai_Oslo_2009_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Tsvangirai" title="Morgan Tsvangirai">Morgan Tsvangirai</a> led the MDC to growing success in opposing Mugabe's regime in the 2000 parliamentary election.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/2000_Zimbabwean_parliamentary_election" title="2000 Zimbabwean parliamentary election">June 2000 parliamentary elections</a> were Zimbabwe's most important since 1980.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001160-311">[311]</a> Sixteen parties took part, and the <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Democratic_Change_(prior_to_2005)" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement for Democratic Change (prior to 2005)">Movement for Democratic Change</a> (MDC)—led by trade unionist <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Tsvangirai" title="Morgan Tsvangirai">Morgan Tsvangirai</a>—was particularly successful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001160-311">[311]</a> During the election campaign, MDC activists were regularly harassed and in some cases killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002178–179-312">[312]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zimbabwe_Human_Rights_Forum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zimbabwe Human Rights Forum (page does not exist)">Zimbabwe Human Rights Forum</a> documented 27 murders, 27 rapes, 2466 assaults, and 617 abductions, with 10,000 people displaced by violence; the majority, but not all, of these actions were carried out by ZANU–PF supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002158-313">[313]</a> Observers from the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) ruled that the election was neither free nor fair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002165–166Norman200886-314">[314]</a> The vote produced 48% and 62 parliamentary seats for ZANU-PF and 47% and 57 parliamentary seats for the MDC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002164Meredith2002188Norman200886-315">[315]</a> For the first time, ZANU–PF were denied the two-thirds parliamentary majority required to push through constitutional change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESithole2001160-311">[311]</a> ZANU–PF had relied heavily on their support base in rural Shona-speaking areas, and retained only one urban constituency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002188-316">[316]</a> In February 2000, land invasions began as armed gangs attacked and occupied white-owned farms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002167-317">[317]</a> The government referred to the attackers as "war veterans" but the majority were unemployed youth too young to have fought in the Rhodesian War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002167-317">[317]</a> Mugabe claimed that the attacks were a spontaneous uprising against white land owners, although the government had paid Z$20 million to <a href="/wiki/Chenjerai_Hunzvi" title="Chenjerai Hunzvi">Chenjerai Hunzvi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_National_Liberation_War_Veterans_Association" title="Zimbabwe National Liberation War Veterans Association">War Veterans Association</a> to lead the land invasion campaign and ZANU–PF officials, police, and military figures were all involved in facilitating it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200273Meredith2002169-318">[318]</a> Some of Mugabe's colleagues described the invasions as retribution for the white community's alleged involvement in securing the success of the 'no' vote in the recent referendum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002169-319">[319]</a> Mugabe justified the seizures by the fact that this land had been seized by white settlers from the indigenous African population in the 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002180-320">[320]</a> He portrayed the invasions as a struggle against colonialism and alleged that the UK was trying to overthrow his government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002171-321">[321]</a> In May 2000, he issued a decree under the Presidential Powers (Temporary Measures) Act which empowered the government to seize farms without providing compensation, insisting that it was the British government that should make these payments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002184-322">[322]</a> In March 2000, Zimbabwe's <a href="/w/index.php?title=High_Court_of_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="High Court of Zimbabwe (page does not exist)">High Court</a> ruled that the land invasions were illegal; they nevertheless continued,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200276Meredith2002170-323">[323]</a> and Mugabe began vilifying Zimbabwe's judiciary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002200Meredith200217–8-324">[324]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Zimbabwe" title="Supreme Court of Zimbabwe">Supreme Court</a> also backed this decision, the government called on its judges to resign, successfully pressuring Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Gubbay" title="Anthony Gubbay">Anthony Gubbay</a> to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002198–199,_214–219Meredith2002204–205Norman2008105-325">[325]</a> ZANU–PF member <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Chidyausiku" title="Godfrey Chidyausiku">Godfrey Chidyausiku</a> was appointed to replace him, while the number of Supreme Court judges was expanded from five to eight; the three additional seats went to pro-Mugabe figures. The first act of the new Supreme Court was to reverse the previous declaration that the land seizures were illegal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002218,_238Meredith2002207-326">[326]</a> In November 2001, Mugabe issued a presidential decree permitting the expropriation of virtually all white-owned farms in Zimbabwe without compensation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002223-327">[327]</a> The farm seizures were often violent; by 2006 a reported sixty white farmers had been killed, with many of their employees experiencing intimidation and torture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010899-328">[328]</a> A large number of the seized farms remained empty, while many of those redistributed to black peasant-farmers were unable to engage in production for the market because of their lack of access to fertiliser.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010900-329">[329]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The courts can do whatever they want, but no judicial decision will stand in our way ... My own position is that we should not even be defending our position in the courts. This country is our country and this land is our land ... They think because they are white they have a divine right to our resources. Not here. The white man is not indigenous to Africa. Africa is for Africans, Zimbabwe is for Zimbabweans. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">— Mugabe on the land seizures<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002203-330">[330]</a></cite> </div> The farm invasions severely impacted agricultural development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002236Howard-Hassmann2010899-331">[331]</a> Zimbabwe had produced over two million tons of maize in 2000; by 2008 this had declined to approximately 450,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010899-328">[328]</a> By October 2003, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> reported that half of the country's population were <a href="/wiki/Food_insecure" class="mw-redirect" title="Food insecure">food insecure</a>, lacking enough food to meet basic needs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010901-332">[332]</a> By 2009, 75% of Zimbabwe's population were relying on food aid, the highest proportion of any country at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010901-332">[332]</a> Zimbabwe faced continuing economic decline. In 2000, the country's GDP was US$7.4 billion; by 2005 this had declined to US$3.4 billion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008122-333">[333]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe">Hyperinflation</a> resulted in economic crisis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010900-329">[329]</a> By 2007, Zimbabwe had the highest inflation rate in the world, at 7600%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008122-333">[333]</a> By 2008, inflation exceeded 100,000% and a loaf of bread cost a third of the average daily wage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008135-334">[334]</a> Increasing numbers of Zimbabweans relied on remittances from relatives abroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010901-332">[332]</a> Other sectors of society were negatively affected too. By 2005, an estimated 80% of Zimbabwe's population were unemployed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010903-335">[335]</a> and by 2008 only 20% of children were in schooling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010903-335">[335]</a> The breakdown of water supplies and sewage systems resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> outbreak in late 2008, with over 98,000 cholera cases in Zimbabwe between August 2008 and mid-July 2009.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010904-336">[336]</a> The ruined economy also impacted the <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> epidemic in the country; by 2008 the HIV/AIDS rate for individuals aged between 15 and 49 was 15.3%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010907-337">[337]</a> In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> declared the average life expectancy in Zimbabwe to be 34 for women and 36 for men, down from 63 and 54 respectively in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008122-333">[333]</a> The country's lucrative tourist industry was decimated,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008121-338">[338]</a> and there was a rise in <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a>, including of <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008121-338">[338]</a> Mugabe directly exacerbated this problem when he ordered the killing of 100 elephants to provide meat for an April 2007 feast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008121-338">[338]</a> In October 2000, the MDC's MPs attempted to <a href="/wiki/Impeachment" title="Impeachment">impeach</a> Mugabe, but were thwarted by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Speakers_of_the_House_of_Assembly_of_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Speakers of the House of Assembly of Zimbabwe">Speaker of the House</a>, Mugabe loyalist <a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002196Norman200886-339">[339]</a> ZANU–PF increasingly equated itself with Zimbabwean patriotism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091140OnslowRedding200968-340">[340]</a> with MDC supporters being portrayed as traitors and enemies of Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091140-341">[341]</a> The party presented itself as being on the progressive side of history, with the MDC representing a counter-revolutionary force that seeks to undermine the achievements of the ZANU–PF revolution and of decolonization itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200969-342">[342]</a> Mugabe claimed that the build-up to the 2002 presidential election represented "the third Chimurenga" and that it would set Zimbabwe free from its colonial heritage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002191-343">[343]</a> In the build-up to the election, the government changed the electoral rules and regulations to improve Mugabe's chances of victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002226-344">[344]</a> New security legislation was introduced making it illegal to criticize the president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002226-344">[344]</a> The defense force commander, <a href="/wiki/Vitalis_Zvinavashe" title="Vitalis Zvinavashe">General Vitalis Zvinavashe</a>, stated that the military would not recognize any election result other than a Mugabe victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002227-345">[345]</a> The EU withdrew its observers from the country, stating that the vote was neither free nor fair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002227-345">[345]</a> The election resulted in Mugabe securing 56% of the vote to Tsvangirai's 42%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002228–229-346">[346]</a> In the aftermath of the election Mugabe declared that the state-owned Grain Marketing Board had the sole right to import and distribute grain, with the state distributors giving food to ZANU–PF supporters while withholding it from those suspected of backing the MDC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002231Norman200888–89-347">[347]</a> In 2005, Mugabe instituted <a href="/wiki/Operation_Murambatsvina" title="Operation Murambatsvina">Operation Murambatsvina</a> ("Operation Drive Out the Rubbish"), a project of forced slum clearance; a UN report estimated that 700,000 were left homeless. Since the inhabitants of the shantytowns overwhelmingly voted MDC, many alleged that the bulldozing was politically motivated.<a href="#cite_note-telegraphtatters-348">[348]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mugabecloseup2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mugabecloseup2008.jpg/220px-Mugabecloseup2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mugabecloseup2008.jpg/330px-Mugabecloseup2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mugabecloseup2008.jpg/440px-Mugabecloseup2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1992" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe in 2008</figcaption></figure> Mugabe's actions brought strong criticism. The <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Council_of_Churches" title="Zimbabwe Council of Churches">Zimbabwe Council of Churches</a> accused him of plunging the country into "a de facto state of warfare" to stay in power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002221–222-349">[349]</a> Several Southern African states remonstrated with him at a summit in Harare in September 2001.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002222-350">[350]</a> In 2002, the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> expelled Zimbabwe from among its ranks; Mugabe blamed this on anti-black racism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010912-351">[351]</a> a view echoed by South Africa's President <a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010911-352">[352]</a> Mbeki favoured a policy of "quiet diplomacy" in dealing with Mugabe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200970-353">[353]</a> and prevented the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> (AU) from introducing sanctions against him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010910-354">[354]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Africa-Europe_Summit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Africa-Europe Summit (page does not exist)">Africa-Europe Summit</a>, scheduled to take place in <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in April 2003, was deferred repeatedly because African leaders refused to attend while Mugabe was banned; it eventually took place in 2007 with Mugabe in attendance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008131Tendi2011316-355">[355]</a> In 2004, the EU imposed a travel ban and asset freeze on Mugabe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010912-351">[351]</a> It extended these sanctions in 2008,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010912-351">[351]</a> with the US government introducing further sanctions this same year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010913-356">[356]</a> The US and UK introduced a resolution at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">UN Security Council</a> calling for an arms embargo of Zimbabwe alongside an asset freeze and travel ban of Mugabe and other government figures; it was vetoed by Russia and China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010913-356">[356]</a> In 2009, the SADC demanded that Western states lift their targeted sanctions against Mugabe and his government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010911-352">[352]</a> ZANU–PF presented the sanctions as a form of Western <a href="/wiki/Neo-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-colonialism">neo-colonialism</a> and blamed the West for Zimbabwe's economic problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011316–317-357">[357]</a> According to Carren Pindiriri of the University of Zimbabwe, sanctions did not negatively affect employment and poverty in the country.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> British prime minister Tony Blair allegedly planned <a href="/wiki/Regime_change" title="Regime change">regime change</a> in Zimbabwe in the early 2000s as pressure intensified for Mugabe to step down.<a href="#cite_note-guardian2013-zimbabwe-359">[359]</a> British General <a href="/wiki/Charles_Guthrie,_Baron_Guthrie_of_Craigiebank" title="Charles Guthrie, Baron Guthrie of Craigiebank">Charles Guthrie</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)" title="Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)">Chief of the Defence Staff</a>, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-independent2007-guthrie-360">[360]</a> However, Guthrie advised against military action: "Hold hard, you'll make it worse."<a href="#cite_note-independent2007-guthrie-360">[360]</a> In 2013, South African President Thabo Mbeki said that Blair had also pressured South Africa to join in a "regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force" in Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-guardian2013-zimbabwe-359">[359]</a> Mbeki refused because he felt that "Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem."<a href="#cite_note-guardian2013-zimbabwe-359">[359]</a> However, a spokesman for Blair said that "he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention."<a href="#cite_note-guardian2013-zimbabwe-359">[359]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power-sharing_with_the_opposition_MDC:_2008–2013">Power-sharing with the opposition MDC: 2008–2013</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 Zimbabwean presidential election">2008 Zimbabwean presidential election</a></div> In March 2008, the parliamentary and presidential elections were held. In the former, ZANU–PF secured 97 seats to the MDC's 99 and the rival <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Democratic_Change_%E2%80%93_Ncube" title="Movement for Democratic Change – Ncube">MDC – Ncube</a>'s 9.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008143-361">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> In May, the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Electoral_Commission" title="Zimbabwe Electoral Commission">Zimbabwe Electoral Commission</a> announced the presidential vote results, confirming that Tsvangirai secured 47.9%, to Mugabe's 43.2%. As neither candidate secured 50%, a run-off vote was scheduled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008157-363">[363]</a> Mugabe saw his defeat as an unacceptable personal humiliation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013963-364">[364]</a> He deemed it a victory for his Western, and in particular British, detractors, whom he believed were working with Tsvangirai to end his political career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013963-364">[364]</a> ZANU–PF claimed that the MDC had rigged the election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008144-365">[365]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg/220px-Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg/330px-Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg/440px-Mugabe_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe in 2011</figcaption></figure> After the election, Mugabe's government deployed its "war veterans" in a violent campaign against Tsvangirai supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008146-366">[366]</a> Between March and June 2008, at least 153 MDC supporters were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010905-367">[367]</a> There were reports of women affiliated with the MDC being subjected to <a href="/wiki/Gang_rape" title="Gang rape">gang rape</a> by Mugabe supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010905-367">[367]</a> Tens of thousands of Zimbabweans were internally displaced by the violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010905-367">[367]</a> These actions brought international condemnation of Mugabe's government.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] UN Secretary-General <a href="/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon" title="Ban Ki-moon">Ban Ki-moon</a> expressed concern about the violence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008173-368">[368]</a> which was also unanimously condemned by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">UN Security Council</a>, which declared that a free and fair election was "impossible".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008173-368">[368]</a> 40 senior African leaders—among them <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rawlings" title="Jerry Rawlings">Jerry Rawlings</a>—signed an open letter calling for an end to the violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008170–171-369">[369]</a> In response to the violence, Tsvangirai pulled out of the run-off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200874-214">[214]</a> In the second round, Mugabe was pronounced victor with 85.5% of the vote, and immediately re-inaugurated as president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008175-370">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN2008-371">[371]</a> The SADC oversaw the establishment of a power-sharing agreement; brokered by Mbeke, it was signed in September 2008.<a href="#cite_note-edition.cnn.com-372">[372]</a> Under the agreement, Mugabe remained President while Tsvangirai became Prime Minister and the MDC's <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Mutambara" title="Arthur Mutambara">Arthur Mutambara</a> became Vice Prime Minister.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The cabinet was equally divided among MDC and ZANU–PF members.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] ZANU–PF nevertheless displayed unwillingness to share power,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChigoraGuzura201124-373">[373]</a> and were anxious to prevent any sweeping political changes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200963-374">[374]</a> Under the power-sharing agreement, a number of limited reforms were passed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013965-375">[375]</a> In early 2009, Mugabe's government declared that—to combat rampant inflation—it would recognize US dollars as legal tender and would pay government employees in this currency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010904-336">[336]</a> This helped to stabilize prices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010904-336">[336]</a> ZANU–PF blocked many of the proposed reforms and a new constitution was passed in March 2013.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013965-375">[375]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years:_2013–2017">Later years: 2013–2017</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg/220px-Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg/330px-Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg/440px-Grace_Mugabe_with_Robert_Mugabe_2013-08-04_11-53.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3452" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe and his wife in 2013</figcaption></figure> Declaring that he would "fight like a wounded animal" for re-election,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013963-364">[364]</a> Mugabe approached the <a href="/wiki/2013_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2013 Zimbabwean general election">2013 elections</a> believing that it would be his last.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013964-376">[376]</a> He hoped that a decisive electoral victory would secure his legacy, signal his triumph over his Western critics, and irreparably damage Tsvangirai's credibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013964-376">[376]</a> The opposition parties believed that this election was their best chance for ousting Mugabe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201527–28-377">[377]</a> They portrayed him as a feeble old man who was being told what to do by the military;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013967-378">[378]</a> at least one academic observer argued that this was untrue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013967-378">[378]</a> In contrast to 2008, there was no organised dissent against Mugabe within ZANU–PF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013969-379">[379]</a> The party elite decided to avoid the violence that had marred the 2008 election so as not to undermine its credibility,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013965-375">[375]</a> particularly in the eyes of the SADC, thus allowing Zimbabwe's government to consolidate its rule without interference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013965-375">[375]</a> Mugabe called upon supporters to avoid violence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013965-375">[375]</a> and attended far fewer rallies than in past elections, in part because of his advanced age and in part to ensure that those rallies he did attend were larger.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013966-380">[380]</a> The ZANU–PF offered gifts, including food and clothing, to many members of the electorate to encourage them to vote for the party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201538–39-381">[381]</a> ZANU–PF won a landslide victory, with 61% of the presidential vote and over two-thirds of parliamentary seats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201528-382">[382]</a> The elections were not considered free and fair; there were widespread stories of vote rigging and many voters might have been fearful of the violence that had surrounded the 2008 election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201528-382">[382]</a> During the campaign, many MDC supporters had remained quiet about their views out of fear of reprisals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201535–36-383">[383]</a> The MDC was also negatively impacted by its time in the coalition government, with perceptions that it had been just as corrupt as ZANU–PF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201541–42-384">[384]</a> ZANU–PF had also capitalized on its appeals to African race, land, and liberation, while the MDC was often associated with white farmers, Western nations, and perceived Western values such as <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights">LGBT rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher201543–44-385">[385]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg/170px-Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg/255px-Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg/340px-Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_cropped_Robert_Mugabe_and_Shinzo_Abe_20160328_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe meeting Japanese prime minister <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Shinzo Abe</a> in 2016</figcaption></figure> In February 2014, Mugabe underwent a <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a> operation in Singapore; on return he celebrated his ninetieth birthday at a <a href="/wiki/Marondera" title="Marondera">Marondera</a> football stadium.<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a> In December 2014, Mugabe fired his vice-president, <a href="/wiki/Joice_Mujuru" title="Joice Mujuru">Joice Mujuru</a>, accusing her of plotting his overthrow.<a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a> In January 2015, Mugabe was elected as the <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union" title="Chairperson of the African Union">Chairperson</a> of the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> (AU).<a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a> In November 2015, he announced his intention to run for re-election as Zimbabwe's president in 2018, at the age of 94, and was accepted as the ZANU–PF candidate.<a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a> In February 2016, Mugabe said he had no plans for retirement and would remain in power "until God says 'come'".<a href="#cite_note-390">[390]</a> In February 2017, right after his 93rd birthday, Mugabe stated he would not retire nor pick a successor, even though he said he would let his party choose a successor if it saw fit.<a href="#cite_note-93rdPledgeRemain-391">[391]</a><a href="#cite_note-392">[392]</a> In May 2017, Mugabe took a weeklong trip to <a href="/wiki/Canc%C3%BAn" title="Cancún">Cancún</a>, Mexico, ostensibly to attend a three-day conference on disaster risk reduction, eliciting criticism of wasteful spending from opposition figures.<a href="#cite_note-393">[393]</a><a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a> He made three medical trips to Singapore in 2017, and Grace Mugabe called on him to name a successor.<a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a> In October 2017, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) appointed Mugabe as a <a href="/wiki/Goodwill_ambassador" title="Goodwill ambassador">goodwill ambassador</a>; this attracted criticism from both the Zimbabwean opposition and various foreign governments given the poor state of the Zimbabwean health system.<a href="#cite_note-396">[396]</a> Responding to the outcry, WHO revoked Mugabe's appointment a day later.<a href="#cite_note-397">[397]</a>  In response, foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mzembi" title="Walter Mzembi">Walter Mzembi</a> said the United Nations system should be reformed.<a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coup_d'état_and_resignation:_2017">Coup d'état and resignation: 2017</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2017_Zimbabwean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état">2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état</a></div> On 6 November 2017, Mugabe sacked his first vice-president, <a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a>. This fuelled speculation that he intended to name Grace his successor. Grace was very unpopular with the ZANU–PF old guard. On 15 November 2017, the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_National_Army" title="Zimbabwe National Army">Zimbabwe National Army</a> placed Mugabe under <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a> at his <a href="/wiki/Blue_Roof" title="Blue Roof">Blue Roof</a> mansion as part of what it described as an action against "criminals" in Mugabe's circle.<a href="#cite_note-399">[399]</a><a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a><a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a> On 19 November, he was sacked as leader of ZANU–PF, and Mnangagwa was appointed in his place.<a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a> The party also gave Mugabe an ultimatum: resign by noon the following day, or it would introduce an <a href="/wiki/Impeachment" title="Impeachment">impeachment</a> resolution against him. In a nationally televised speech that night, Mugabe refused to say that he would resign.<a href="#cite_note-403">[403]</a> In response, ZANU–PF deputies introduced an impeachment resolution on 21 November 2017, which was seconded by the MDC–T.<a href="#cite_note-404">[404]</a> The constitution stipulated that removing a president from office required a two-thirds majority of both the House of Assembly and Senate in a joint sitting. However, with both major parties supporting the motion and controlling all but six seats in both houses between them (all but four in the lower house and all but two in the upper house), Mugabe's impeachment and removal appeared all but certain. As per the constitution, both chambers met in joint session to debate the resolution. Hours after the debate began, the Speaker of the House of Assembly read a letter from Mugabe announcing that he had resigned, effective immediately.<a href="#cite_note-auto-405">[405]</a> Mugabe and his wife had negotiated a deal before his resignation, under which he and his kin were exempted from prosecution, his business interests would remain untouched, and he would receive a payment of at least $10 million.<a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a><a href="#cite_note-407">[407]</a> In July 2018, the Zimbabwe Supreme Court ruled that Mugabe had resigned voluntarily, despite some of the ex-president's subsequent comments.<a href="#cite_note-Voluntary-408">[408]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-presidency">Post-presidency</h2></div> Late in December 2017, according to a government gazette, Mugabe was given full <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_immunity" title="Diplomatic immunity">diplomatic status</a> and, out of public funds, a five-bedroom house, up to 23 staff members, and personal vehicles. He further was permitted to keep the business interests and other wealth which he had amassed while in power, and he received an additional payment of about ten million dollars.<a href="#cite_note-409">[409]</a> On 15 March 2018, in his first interview since removal from the presidency, Mugabe insisted that he had been ousted in a "coup d'état" which must be undone. He stated that he would not work with Mnangagwa and termed Mnangagwa's presidency "illegal" and "unconstitutional".<a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a> In a lawsuit brought by two political parties, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(Zimbabwe)" title="Liberal Democrats (Zimbabwe)">Liberal Democrats</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolutionary_Freedom_Fighters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Revolutionary Freedom Fighters (page does not exist)">Revolutionary Freedom Fighters</a>, and others, the court found that the resignation was legal, and that Mnangagwa, as vice-president, duly took over the presidency.<a href="#cite_note-Voluntary-408">[408]</a> The state media reported that Mugabe had backed the <a href="/wiki/National_Patriotic_Front_(Zimbabwe)" title="National Patriotic Front (Zimbabwe)">National Political Front</a>, which was formed by <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Mutinhiri" title="Ambrose Mutinhiri">Ambrose Mutinhiri</a>, a former high-ranking ZANU-PF politician who resigned in protest against Mugabe's removal from the presidency. The NPF posted a picture of Mutinhiri posing with Mugabe<a href="#cite_note-411">[411]</a> and issued a press release in which it said that the former president had praised the decision.<a href="#cite_note-412">[412]</a> On the eve of the <a href="/wiki/2018_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2018 Zimbabwean general election">29 July 2018 general election</a>, the first in 38 years in which he would not be a candidate, Mugabe held a surprise press conference, in which he stated that he would not vote for President Mnangagwa and ZANU–PF, the party he founded. Instead, he intended to vote for <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Chamisa" title="Nelson Chamisa">Nelson Chamisa</a>, the candidate for his long-time rivals, the MDC.<a href="#cite_note-413">[413]</a><a href="#cite_note-414">[414]</a><a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a><a href="#cite_note-416">[416]</a> Mnangagwa won the re-election. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illness,_death_and_funeral:_2019">Illness, death and funeral: 2019</h3></div> Mugabe was unable to walk, according to Emmerson Mnangagwa in November 2018, and had been receiving treatment in Singapore for the previous two months.<a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> He was hospitalised there in April 2019, making the last of several trips to the country for medical treatment, as he had done late in his presidency and following his resignation.<a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a><a href="#cite_note-419">[419]</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a> He died at <a href="/wiki/Gleneagles_Hospital" title="Gleneagles Hospital">Gleneagles Hospital</a> on 6 September 2019 at about 10:40 am, aged 95 (<a href="/wiki/Singapore_Standard_Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Singapore Standard Time">Singapore Standard Time</a>), according to a senior Zimbabwean diplomat.<a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_death" title="Cause of death">cause of death</a> was not officially disclosed,<a href="#cite_note-cbsnews.com-422">[422]</a> Mnangagwa, his successor, told ZANU–PF supporters in New York City that Mugabe had advanced cancer and his <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a> treatment had ceased to be effective.<a href="#cite_note-423">[423]</a><a href="#cite_note-424">[424]</a> On 11 September 2019, his body was flown back to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gabriel_Mugabe_International_Airport" title="Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport">Harare airport</a> in Zimbabwe,<a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a><a href="#cite_note-426">[426]</a> where 1,000 had gathered to wait for the body and listen to a speech from Mnangagwa.<a href="#cite_note-crowdsoba-427">[427]</a> Mugabe's body was then driven to the family residence in Borrowdale for a private <a href="/wiki/Wake_(ceremony)" title="Wake (ceremony)">wake</a> attended by his friends and family, but not Mnangagwa.<a href="#cite_note-crowdsoba-427">[427]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> reported that no supporters had gathered along the procession route, but 500 mourners gathered in his birthplace of <a href="/wiki/Zvimba" class="mw-redirect" title="Zvimba">Zvimba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-crowdsoba-427">[427]</a> On 13 September 2019, it was announced that the Mugabe family had accepted the Mnangagwa government's request to have Mugabe buried at <a href="/wiki/National_Heroes%27_Acre_(Zimbabwe)" title="National Heroes' Acre (Zimbabwe)">Heroes' Acre Cemetery</a> and to have his burial be delayed for 30 days.<a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a><a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a> The Mugabe family had initially rejected the government's burial plan and intended for him to be buried in Zvimba on either 16 or 17 September, a day later than the government's proposal.<a href="#cite_note-crowdsoba-427">[427]</a><a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a><a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a><a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a> On 14 September 2019, Mugabe's <a href="/wiki/State_funeral" title="State funeral">state funeral</a>,<a href="#cite_note-433">[433]</a><a href="#cite_note-434">[434]</a> which was open to the public, was held at the <a href="/wiki/National_Sports_Stadium_(Zimbabwe)" title="National Sports Stadium (Zimbabwe)">National Sports Stadium</a>, with an aerial photo showing the 60,000 capacity stadium to be about a quarter full.<a href="#cite_note-africaleadersfuneral-435">[435]</a> The funeral was attended by leaders and former leaders of various African countries, among them were Mnangagwa, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a> of Zambia, <a href="/wiki/Olusegun_Obasanjo" title="Olusegun Obasanjo">Olusegun Obasanjo</a> of Nigeria, <a href="/wiki/Sam_Nujoma" title="Sam Nujoma">Sam Nujoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hifikepunye_Pohamba" title="Hifikepunye Pohamba">Hifikepunye Pohamba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hage_Geingob" title="Hage Geingob">Hage Geingob</a> of Namibia, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kabila" title="Joseph Kabila">Joseph Kabila</a> of <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Kenyatta" title="Uhuru Kenyatta">Uhuru Kenyatta</a> of Kenya and <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa" title="Cyril Ramaphosa">Cyril Ramaphosa</a> of South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-africaleadersfuneral-435">[435]</a> On 26 September 2019, Nick Mangwana stated that Mugabe would be buried in his home town of Kutama "to respect the wishes of families of deceased heroes".<a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a> The burial took place in the courtyard of his home in Kutama on 28 September 2019.<a href="#cite_note-437">[437]</a><a href="#cite_note-438">[438]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideology">Ideology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Mugabeism as a form of populist reason is a multifaceted phenomenon requiring a multi-pronged approach to decipher its various meanings. At one level it represents pan-African memory and patriotism and at another level it manifests itself as a form of radical left-nationalism dedicated to resolving intractable national and agrarian questions. Yet, to others, it is nothing but a symbol of crisis, chaos and tyranny emanating from the exhaustion of nationalism. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">— Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091154-439">[439]</a></cite> </div> Mugabe embraced <a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-colonialism">anti-colonialism</a> during the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20151-440">[440]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sabelo_J._Ndlovu-Gatsheni" title="Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni">Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni</a> characterised "Mugabeism" as a <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> movement that was "marked by ideological simplicity, emptiness, vagueness, imprecision, and multi-class character",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091141-441">[441]</a> further noting that it was "a broad church".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091150-442">[442]</a> He also characterised it as a form of "left-nationalism",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091142-443">[443]</a> which consistently railed against <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091143-444">[444]</a> He also argued that it was a form of <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091146–1147-445">[445]</a> which was permeated by a strong "cult of victimisation" in which a binary view was propagated where Africa was a "victim" and the West was its "tormentor".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091148-446">[446]</a> He suggested that it had been influenced by a wide range of ideologies, among them forms of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> like <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a>, as well as African nationalist ideologies like <a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a>, and African neo-traditionalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091141-441">[441]</a> Mugabeism sought to deal with the problem of white settler racism by engaging in a project of anti-white racism that sought to deny white Zimbabweans citizenship by constantly referring to them as "amabhunu/Boers", thus enabling their removal from their land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091151-447">[447]</a> ZANU–PF claimed that it was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a>; Onslow and Redding stated that in contrast to the Marxist emphasis on the urban <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> as the main force of socio-economic change, Mugabe's party accorded that role to the rural peasantry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200969-342">[342]</a> As a result of this pro-rural view, they argued, Mugabe and the ZANU–PF demonstrated an anti-urban bias.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200969-342">[342]</a> The English academic <a href="/wiki/Claire_Palley" title="Claire Palley">Claire Palley</a> met Mugabe in 1962, later noting that "he struck me as not so much a doctrinaire Marxist but an old-fashioned African nationalist",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143-448">[448]</a> while Tekere claimed that for Mugabe, Marxism-Leninism was "just rhetoric" with "no genuine vision or belief behind it".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200849-449">[449]</a> Carington noted that while Mugabe used Marxist rhetoric during the Lancaster House negotiations, "of course he didn't actually practise what he preached, did he? Once in office he became a capitalist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200865-450">[450]</a> Mugabe has stated that "<a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> has to be much more Christian than <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198115-451">[451]</a> The Zimbabwean scholar <a href="/wiki/George_Shire" title="George Shire">George Shire</a> described Mugabe's policies as being "broadly-speaking" <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social-democratic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShire200733-452">[452]</a> During the 1980s, Mugabe indicated his desire to transform Zimbabwe from a multi-party state into a one-party state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200229-453">[453]</a> In 1984 he stated that "the one-party state is more in keeping with African tradition. It makes for greater unity for the people. It puts all opinions under one umbrella, whether these opinions are radical or reactionary".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200229-453">[453]</a> The political scientist Sue Onslow and historian Sean Redding stated that Zimbabwe's situation was "more complex than pure venial dictatorship", but that it was an "ideo-dictatorship".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200968-287">[287]</a> Mugabe openly admired <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, praising him just before he was <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">overthrown</a> in December 1989.<a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a> Ndlovu-Gatsheni argued that since the mid-1990s, Mugabe's rhetoric and speeches came to be dominated by three main themes: an obsession with a perceived British threat to re-colonise Zimbabwe, to transfer the land controlled by white farmers to the black population, and issues of belonging and patriotism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091139–1140-455">[455]</a> References to the Rhodesian Bush War featured prominently in his speeches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013964-376">[376]</a> The scholar of <a href="/wiki/African_studies" title="African studies">African studies</a> Abiodun Alao noted that Mugabe was determined to "take advantage of the past in order to secure a firm grip on national security".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlao2012xii-456">[456]</a> David Blair stated that "Mugabe's collected writings amount to nothing more than crude <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, couched in the ponderous English of the mission school", remarking that they were heavily informed by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a>, and displayed little originality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> Blair noted that Mugabe's writings called for "<a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">command economics</a> in a peasant society, mixed with anti-colonial nationalism", and that in this he held "the same opinions as almost every other African guerrilla leader" of that period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> Mugabe argued that following the overthrow of European colonial regimes, Western countries continued to keep African countries in a state of subservience because they desired the continent's natural resources while preventing it from industrializing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008239-457">[457]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg/220px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg/330px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg/440px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1160" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe meeting Russian president <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> in 2015</figcaption></figure> Mugabe measured a little over 1.70 metres (5 ft 7 in),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> and exhibited what his biographer David Blair described as "curious, effeminate mannerisms".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> Mugabe took great care with his appearance, typically wearing a three-piece suit,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> and insisted that members of his cabinet dressed in a similar Anglophile fashion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008109–110-459">[459]</a> On taking power in 1980, Mugabe's hallmark was his wide-rimmed glasses,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214-173">[173]</a> and he was also known for his <a href="/wiki/Toothbrush_moustache" title="Toothbrush moustache">tiny moustache</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> Unlike a number of other African leaders, Mugabe did not seek to mythologise his childhood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200217-460">[460]</a> He avoided smoking and drinking,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200223-34">[34]</a> and—according to his first biographers, David Smith and Colin Simpson—had "enormous affection for children".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198148-461">[461]</a> During his early life he had an operation on his genitals which generated rumours that he had only one testicle or half a penis; such rumours were used by opponents to ridicule him and by supporters to bolster the claim that he was willing to make severe sacrifices for the revolutionary cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008174-462">[462]</a> Mugabe spoke English fluently with an adopted English accent when pronouncing certain words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> He was also a fan of the English game of <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a>, stating that "cricket civilizes people and creates good gentlemen".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> Blair noted that this cultivation of British traits suggested that Mugabe respected and perhaps admired Britain while at the same time resenting and loathing the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200226-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heidi_Holland" title="Heidi Holland">Heidi Holland</a> suggested that these Anglophile traits arose in early life, as Mugabe—who had long experienced the anti-black racism of Rhodesian society—"grasped Englishness as an antidote" to the "self-loathing" induced by societal racism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008211-463">[463]</a> The academic Blessing-Miles Tendi stated that Mugabe was "an extremely complex figure, not easily captured by conventional categories".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011307–308-464">[464]</a> Blair described him as an "exceptionally complex personality".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200226-6">[6]</a> Smith and Simpson noted that the Zimbabwean leader had been "a serious young man, something of a loner, diligent, hard-working, a voracious reader who used every minute of his time, not much given to laughter: but above all, single-minded".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198115–16-465">[465]</a> Blair commented that Mugabe's "self-discipline, intelligence and appetite for hard work were remarkable",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> adding that his "prime characteristics" were "ruthlessness and resilience".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">[115]</a> Blair argued that Mugabe shared many character traits with Ian Smith, stating that they were both "proud, brave, stubborn, charismatic, deluded fantasists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002244-466">[466]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> With his poor childhood development record, even minor criticism would be experienced as a wound by Mugabe. He is a person who cannot tolerate difference. Being profoundly doubtful about himself, he is oversensitive to the idea that he is not as good as everyone else. People are either with him or against him. Differences of opinion are provocative and hurtful to Mugabe, who may think that compromise reduces him. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Heidi Holland<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200852-467">[467]</a></cite> </div> Meredith described Mugabe as having a "soft-spoken demeanour, ... broad intellect, and ... articulate manner", all of which disguised his "hardened and single-minded ambition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200237-106">[106]</a> Ndlovu-Gatsheni characterized him as "one of the most charismatic African leaders", highlighting that he was "very eloquent" and was able to make "fine speeches".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091142-443">[443]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Moyo" title="Jonathan Moyo">Jonathan Moyo</a>, who briefly served as Mugabe's information minister before falling out with him, stated that the President could "express himself well, that is his great strength".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008183-468">[468]</a> Tendi stated that Mugabe had a natural wittiness, but often hid this behind "an outwardly pensive and austere manner and his penchant for ceremony and tradition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013964–965-469">[469]</a> Heidi Holland suggested that due to his "dysfunctional" upbringing, Mugabe had a "fragile self-image",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200851-470">[470]</a> describing him as "a man cut off from his feelings, devoid of ordinary warmth and humanity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200867-471">[471]</a> According to her, Mugabe had a "marked emotional immaturity",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200884-472">[472]</a> and was homophobic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200895-473">[473]</a> as well as racist and xenophobic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200883-474">[474]</a> According to Meredith, Mugabe presented himself as "articulate, thoughtful, and conciliatory" after his 1980 election victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214-170">[170]</a> Blair noted that at this period of his career, Mugabe displayed "genuine magnanimity and moral courage" despite his "intense personal reasons for feeling bitterness and hatred" toward the members of the former regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200217-460">[460]</a> Following his dealing with Mugabe during the 1979 negotiations, Michael Pallister, head of the <a href="/wiki/British_Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="British Foreign Office">British Foreign Office</a>, described Mugabe as having "a very sharp, sometimes rather aggressive, and unpleasant manner".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027-126">[126]</a> The British diplomat Peter Longworth stated that in private, Mugabe was "very charming and very articulate and he's not devoid of humour. It's very difficult to relate the man you meet with the man ranting on television".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225-458">[458]</a> Norman stated that "I always found him personable and honourable in his dealings. He also had a warm side to him which I saw quite clearly sometimes".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008119-475">[475]</a> <a href="/wiki/Colin_Legum" title="Colin Legum">Colin Legum</a>, a journalist with <a href="/wiki/The_Observer" title="The Observer">The Observer</a>, argued that Mugabe had a "paranoidal personality", in that while he did not suffer from clinical <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, he did behave in a paranoid fashion when placed under severe and sustained pressure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200226-6">[6]</a> Mugabe biographer Andrew Norman suggested that the leader may have suffered from <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial personality disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008163-476">[476]</a> Several Mugabe biographers have observed that he had an obsession with accruing power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200225Meredith200216-477">[477]</a> According to Meredith, "power for Mugabe was not a means to an end, but the end itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002233-478">[478]</a> Conversely, Onslow and Redding suggested that Mugabe's craving for power stemmed from "ideological and personal reasons" and his belief in the illegitimacy of his political opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200969-342">[342]</a> <a href="/wiki/Denis_Norman" title="Denis Norman">Denis Norman</a>, a white politician who served in Mugabe's cabinet for many years, commented that "Mugabe isn't a flashy man driven by wealth but he does enjoy power. That's always been his motivation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008125-479">[479]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriages_and_children">Marriages and children</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mugabe_family" title="Mugabe family">Mugabe family</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sally_Hayfron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sally_Hayfron.jpg/170px-Sally_Hayfron.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sally_Hayfron.jpg/255px-Sally_Hayfron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sally_Hayfron.jpg/340px-Sally_Hayfron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>Mugabe's first wife, <a href="/wiki/Sally_Mugabe" title="Sally Mugabe">Sally Hayfron</a>, in 1983</figcaption></figure> According to Holland, Mugabe's first wife, <a href="/wiki/Sally_Mugabe" title="Sally Mugabe">Sally Hayfron</a>, was Mugabe's "confidante and only real friend",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200825-480">[480]</a> being "one of the few people who could challenge Mugabe's ideas without offending him".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200821-481">[481]</a> Their only son, Michael Nhamodzenyika Mugabe, born 27 September 1963, died on 26 December 1966 from cerebral <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> in Ghana where Sally was working while Mugabe was in prison. Sally Mugabe was a trained teacher who asserted her position as an independent political activist and campaigner.<a href="#cite_note-482">[482]</a> Mugabe called on Zimbabwe's media to refer to his wife as "Amai" ("Mother of the Nation"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296-483">[483]</a> although many Zimbabweans resented the fact that she was a foreigner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200823-484">[484]</a> She was appointed as the head of ZANU–PF's women's league,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296-483">[483]</a> and was involved in a number of charitable operations, and was widely regarded as corrupt in these dealings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200824-485">[485]</a> During Mugabe's premiership she suffered from renal failure, and initially had to travel to Britain for <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a> until Soames arranged for a dialysis machine to be sent to Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200876-486">[486]</a> While married to Hayfron, in 1987 Mugabe began an extra-marital affair with his secretary, <a href="/wiki/Grace_Mugabe" title="Grace Mugabe">Grace Marufu</a>; she was 41 years his junior and at the time was married to <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Goreraza" title="Stanley Goreraza">Stanley Goreraza</a>. In 1988 she bore Mugabe a daughter, Bona, and in 1990 a son, Robert.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296Norman200880-487">[487]</a> The relationship was kept secret from the Zimbabwean public; Hayfron was aware of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296-483">[483]</a> According to her niece Patricia Bekele, with whom she was particularly close, Hayfron was not happy that Mugabe had an affair with Marufu but "she did what she used to tell me to do: 'Talk to your pillow if you have problems in your marriage. Never, ever, humiliate your husband.' Her motto was to carry on in gracious style".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200822-488">[488]</a> Hayfron died in 1992 from a chronic kidney ailment.<a href="#cite_note-489">[489]</a> Following Hayfron's death in 1992, Mugabe and Marufu were married in a large Catholic ceremony in August 1996.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108-490">[490]</a> As <a href="/wiki/First_Lady_of_Zimbabwe" title="First Lady of Zimbabwe">First Lady of Zimbabwe</a>, Grace gained a reputation for indulging her love of luxury, with a particular interest in shopping, clothes, and jewellery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108–109-491">[491]</a> These lavish shopping sprees led to her receiving the nickname "<a href="/wiki/Gucci" title="Gucci">Gucci</a> Grace".<a href="#cite_note-492">[492]</a> She too developed a reputation for corruption.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002109-276">[276]</a> In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Grace_Mugabe" title="Grace Mugabe">Grace Mugabe</a> gave birth to the couple's third child, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chatunga_Bellarmine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chatunga Bellarmine (page does not exist)">Chatunga Bellarmine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-493">[493]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe_Jr." title="Robert Mugabe Jr.">Robert Mugabe Jr.</a> and his younger brother, Chatunga, are known for posting their lavish lifestyle on social media, which drew accusations from opposition politician <a href="/wiki/Tendai_Biti" title="Tendai Biti">Tendai Biti</a> that they were wasting Zimbabwean taxpayers' money.<a href="#cite_note-veconomist-494">[494]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_image_and_legacy">Public image and legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The story of Robert Mugabe is a microcosm of what bedevils African democracy and economic recovery at the beginning of the 21st century. It is a classic case of a genuine hero—the guerrilla idol who conquered the country's former leader and his white supremacist regime—turning into a peevish autocrat whose standard response to those suggesting he steps down is to tell them to get lost. It is also the story of activists who try to make a better society but bear the indelible scars of the old system. Mugabe's political education came from the autocrat Ian Smith, who had learnt his formative lessons from imperious British colonisers. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">— Heidi Holland<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008xiv–xv-495">[495]</a></cite> </div> By the twenty-first century, Mugabe was regarded as one of the world's most controversial political leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20091139-496">[496]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Scholar" title="The Black Scholar">The Black Scholar</a> journal, "depending on who you listen to...Mugabe is either one of the world's great tyrants or a fearless nationalist who has incurred the wrath of the West."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShire200732-497">[497]</a> He has been widely described as a "dictator", a "tyrant", and a "threat",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShire200735-498">[498]</a> and has been referred to as one of Africa's "most brutal" leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlao2012xi-499">[499]</a> At the same time he continued to be regarded as a hero in many <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a> countries and received a warm reception when travelling throughout Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008214-500">[500]</a> For many in Southern Africa, he remained one of the "grand old men" of the African liberation movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010911-352">[352]</a> Mugabe was known to have close ties with former <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Malaysian Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-501">[501]</a> According to Ndlovu-Gatsheni, within ZANU–PF, Mugabe was regarded as a "demi-god" who was feared and rarely challenged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni20152-502">[502]</a> Within the ZANU movement, a <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a> began to be developed around Mugabe during the Bush War and was consolidated after 1980.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENdlovu-Gatsheni201513-503">[503]</a> Mugabe had a considerable following within Zimbabwe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2013966-380">[380]</a> with David Blair noting that "it would be wrong to imply that he lacked genuine popularity" in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200238-263">[263]</a> Holland believed that the "great majority" of Zimbabwe's population supported him "enthusiastically" during the first twenty years of his regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008192-504">[504]</a> His strongholds of support were Zimbabwe's Shona-dominated regions of <a href="/wiki/Mashonaland" title="Mashonaland">Mashonaland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manicaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicaland">Manicaland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Masvingo" title="Masvingo">Masvingo</a>, while he remained far less popular in the non-Shona areas of Matabeleland and <a href="/wiki/Bulawayo" title="Bulawayo">Bulawayo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200238-263">[263]</a> and among the Zimbabwean diaspora living abroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnslowRedding200971-281">[281]</a> At the time of his 1980 election victory, Mugabe was internationally acclaimed as a revolutionary hero who was embracing racial reconciliation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200215-193">[193]</a> and for the first decade of his governance he was widely regarded as "one of post-colonial Africa's most progressive leaders".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008xx-505">[505]</a> David Blair argued that while Mugabe did exhibit a "conciliatory phase" between March 1980 and February 1982, his rule was otherwise "dominated by a ruthless quest to crush his opponents and remain in office at whatever cost".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200246-506">[506]</a> In 2011, the scholar Blessing-Miles Tendi stated that "Mugabe is often presented in the international media as the epitome of the popular leader gone awry: the independence struggle hero who seemed initially a progressive egalitarian, but has gradually been corrupted through his attachment to power during a long and increasingly repressive spell in office."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011307-507">[507]</a> Tendi argued that this was a misleading assessment, because Mugabe had displayed repressive tendencies from his early years in office, namely through the repression of ZAPU in Matabeleland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011308-239">[239]</a> Abiodun Alao concurred, suggesting that Mugabe's approach had not changed over the course of his leadership, but merely that international attention had intensified in the twenty-first century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlao2012xi-499">[499]</a> For many Africans, Mugabe exposed the <a href="/wiki/Double_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Double standards">double standards</a> of Western countries; the latter had turned a blind eye to the massacre of over 20,000 black Ndebele civilians in the Gukarakundi but strongly censured the Zimbabwean government when a small number of white farmers were killed during the land seizures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008214-500">[500]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG/220px-Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG/330px-Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG/440px-Demonstration_against_Mugabe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption>Example of foreign criticism: a demonstration against Mugabe's regime next to the Zimbabwe embassy in London (mid-2006)</figcaption></figure> During the guerrilla war, Ian Smith referred to Mugabe as "the apostle of Satan".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200213Meredith200214Norman2008162Alao20124-508">[508]</a> George Shire expressed the view that there was "a strong racist animus" against Mugabe within Zimbabwe, and that this had typically been overlooked by Western media representations of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShire200733-452">[452]</a> Mugabe himself was accused of racism; <a href="/wiki/John_Sentamu" title="John Sentamu">John Sentamu</a>, the Uganda-born <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_York" title="Archbishop of York">Archbishop of York</a> in the United Kingdom, called Mugabe "the worst kind of racist dictator", for having "targeted the whites for their apparent riches".<a href="#cite_note-509">[509]</a><a href="#cite_note-ukanger-510">[510]</a><a href="#cite_note-mcgreal2007-511">[511]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bentley2007-512">[512]</a> <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a> stated that Mugabe became "increasingly insecure, he's hitting out. One just wants to weep. It's very sad."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008162-513">[513]</a> South African President <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> was also critical of Mugabe, referring to him as a politician who "despise[s] the very people who put [him] in power and think[s] it's a privilege to be there for eternity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008162-513">[513]</a> Writing for the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Quarterly" title="Human Rights Quarterly">Human Rights Quarterly</a>, Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann claimed that there was "clear evidence that Mugabe was guilty of crimes against humanity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010909-514">[514]</a> In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Stanton" title="Gregory Stanton">Gregory Stanton</a>, then President of the <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Genocide_Scholars" title="International Association of Genocide Scholars">International Association of Genocide Scholars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Helen_Fein" title="Helen Fein">Helen Fein</a>, then executive director of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Institute_for_the_Study_of_Genocide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Institute for the Study of Genocide (page does not exist)">Institute for the Study of Genocide</a>, published a letter in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> stating that there was sufficient evidence of crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to trial in front of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010917-515">[515]</a> Australia and New Zealand had previously called for this in 2005,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010917-515">[515]</a> and a number of Zimbabwean NGOs did so in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Hassmann2010917-515">[515]</a> A 2005 article from the New American titled "Democide in Zimbabwe" says that Mugabe reduced the population of Zimbabwe by millions in just a few years.<a href="#cite_note-516">[516]</a> In 1994, Mugabe received an honorary knighthood from the British state; this was stripped from him at the advice of the UK government in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2008174-517">[517]</a> Mugabe held several honorary degrees and doctorates from international universities, awarded to him in the 1980s; at least three of these have since been revoked. In June 2007, he became the first international figure ever to be stripped of an honorary degree by a British university, when the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> withdrew the degree awarded to him in 1984.<a href="#cite_note-timesonline.co.uk-518">[518]</a><a href="#cite_note-519">[519]</a> On 12 June 2008, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst" title="University of Massachusetts Amherst">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> Board of Trustees voted to revoke the law degree awarded to Mugabe in 1986, the first time one of its honorary degrees has been revoked.<a href="#cite_note-boston.com-520">[520]</a> In the month after being deposed, but before he died, many of the public references to Mugabe – street names, for example – had been removed from public places.<a href="#cite_note-521">[521]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mugabe_and_the_White_African" title="Mugabe and the White African">Mugabe and the White African</a> (2009 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugabe%27s_Zimbabwe" title="Mugabe's Zimbabwe">Mugabe's Zimbabwe</a> (2010 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Interpreter_(2005_film)" title="The Interpreter (2005 film)">The Interpreter</a> (2005 film featuring a fictional African president based on Mugabe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Zimbabwean_Black_Friday" title="1997 Zimbabwean Black Friday">1997 Zimbabwean Black Friday</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Mugabe">"Mugabe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a>. 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<a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 27; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200227–28-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200227–28_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198139–40Meredith200228-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198139–40Meredith200228_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 39–40; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200228-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200228_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198142Meredith200229Norman200844-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198142Meredith200229Norman200844_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 42; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198143Meredith200229Norman200844_63-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 43; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200844-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200844_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200229-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200229_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200229_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145Meredith200231-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145Meredith200231_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145–46Meredith200231-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145–46Meredith200231_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 45–46; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198142Norman200844-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198142Norman200844_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 42; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145Meredith200230-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198145Meredith200230_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200230-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200230_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198144–45Meredith200230–31-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198144–45Meredith200230–31_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 44–45; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198146–47Meredith200231-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198146–47Meredith200231_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 46–47; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198147Meredith200231-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198147Meredith200231_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 47; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198148Blair200220Meredith200232Holland200814Norman200845-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198148Blair200220Meredith200232Holland200814Norman200845_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 48; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 32; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 14; 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Johnson, Phyllis (July 1981). The Struggle for Zimbabwe (First ed.). <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber" class="mw-redirect" title="Faber and Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. pp. 70–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-11066-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-571-11066-7"><bdi>978-0-571-11066-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Zimbabwe&rft.pages=70-71&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=1981-07&rft.isbn=978-0-571-11066-7&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Phyllis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Blair200221Meredith200233Norman200849-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Blair200221Meredith200233Norman200849_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 49; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 21; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 33; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Meredith200233-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198149Meredith200233_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 49; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198151Blair200221Meredith200233–34Norman200850-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198151Blair200221Meredith200233–34Norman200850_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 21; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 33–34; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198154Meredith200234Holland200827Norman200851-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198154Meredith200234Holland200827Norman200851_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 54; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 34; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 27; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155–56-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155–56_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155Meredith200234-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155Meredith200234_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 55; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198156-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198156_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200234-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200234_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200234_88-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Meredith200234-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Meredith200234_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 22; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198157–58Blair200221–22Meredith200234–35Holland200827–28-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198157–58Blair200221–22Meredith200234–35Holland200827–28_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 57–58; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, pp. 21–22; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 34–35; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008158-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2008158_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008152-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2008152_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200233Norman200851-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200233Norman200851_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 33; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155Blair200221Meredith200235–36Norman200854-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198155Blair200221Meredith200235–36Norman200854_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 55; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 21; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 35–36; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith200236–37-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith200236–37_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Alao201221-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Alao201221_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFAlao2012">Alao 2012</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198161-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198161_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith200236–37Alao201220-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith200236–37Alao201220_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 36–37; <a href="#CITEREFAlao2012">Alao 2012</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198166-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198166_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198166–68Norman200855-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198166–68Norman200855_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 66–68; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198168Blair200222Norman200856-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198168Blair200222Norman200856_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 68; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 22; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198172Norman200857-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198172Norman200857_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 72; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Norman200857-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Norman200857_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 22; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Meredith200237Norman200859-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200222Meredith200237Norman200859_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 22; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 37; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200222-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200222_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200237-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200237_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200237_106-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223_107-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223_107-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198176–78-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198176–78_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 76–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20024-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20024_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith20024–5-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200223Meredith20024–5_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20025-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20025_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198180–81Blair200223-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198180–81Blair200223_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 80–81; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198181-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198181_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981101Norman200862-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981101Norman200862_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 101; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224_115-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200224Holland200855–56-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200224Holland200855–56_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 24; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198183Norman200860-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198183Norman200860_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198183Norman200860_117-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 83; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981100-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981100_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981115–116-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981115–116_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 115–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200210-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200210_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200210_120-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981109-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981109_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198188Norman200861-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198188Norman200861_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198188-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198188_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198189-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198189_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198199,_109,_114Norman200861,_63–64-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198199,_109,_114Norman200861,_63–64_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 99, 109, 114; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, pp. 61, 63–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027_126-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200211-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200211_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200211_127-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200211_127-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20022-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20022_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20022_128-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198192–94Norman200861-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson198192–94Norman200861_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 92–94; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981112-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981112_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-impression-131"><a href="#cite_ref-impression_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090531063909/http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/Wright/Wright12/Wright12.html">"APF newsletter, "Appraisal of Rhodesia in 1975""</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/Wright/Wright12/Wright12.html">the original</a> on 31 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=APF+newsletter%2C+%22Appraisal+of+Rhodesia+in+1975%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aliciapatterson.org%2FAPF001975%2FWright%2FWright12%2FWright12.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981117Norman200863-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981117Norman200863_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 117; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981118–120-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981118–120_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 118–120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200858-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200858_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20026–7-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20026–7_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122Holland200860-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122Holland200860_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 122; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027Holland200860Norman200869Tendi2011310-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20027Holland200860Norman200869Tendi2011310_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 7; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 60; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 69; <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 310. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122Meredith20027-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122Meredith20027_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 122; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200238Holland200858-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200238Holland200858_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 38; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200861-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200861_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122–123Meredith20027–8-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981122–123Meredith20027–8_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, pp. 122–123; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028Norman200867-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028Norman200867_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 8; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200211Norman200869-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200211Norman200869_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011313-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETendi2011313_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 313. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981127Norman200867Tendi2011311-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSimpson1981127Norman200867Tendi2011311_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithSimpson1981">Smith & Simpson 1981</a>, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 67; <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 311. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200862–63-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200862–63_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, pp. 62–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200863-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200863_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20028_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002235Tendi2011313-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002235Tendi2011313_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 235; <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 313. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029Norman200870-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029Norman200870_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200213Norman200871-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200213Norman200871_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029Norman2008101Tendi2011313-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029Norman2008101Tendi2011313_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 101; <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 313. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith20029_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200238Norman200870-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200238Norman200870_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 38; 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<a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210–11-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200210–11_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200212Meredith200213Norman200873-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200212Meredith200213Norman200873_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2002156-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair2002156_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200213Holland2008xiiiNorman200874-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200213Holland2008xiiiNorman200874_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 13; 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Retrieved 15 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Zimbabwe+Gains+Independence&rft.date=1980-04-18&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1980%2F04%2F18%2Fzimbabwe-gains-independence%2F185c3573-e9e4-4d3a-9dce-5fe89bf04605%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214–15-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214–15_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214_170-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214Holland200872-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214Holland200872_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 14; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011311-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETendi2011311_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 311. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200214_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200214_173-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200241-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200241_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248_175-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248Norman200878-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200248Norman200878_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 48; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200277-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200277_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247_178-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200247_178-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246_179-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246_179-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246Norman200875-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246Norman200875_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200246Norman200875_180-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 46; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200259-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200259_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214Norman200874-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200214Norman200874_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 14; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200278-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200278_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237_184-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281_185-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282_186-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200282_186-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200283-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200283_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200280–81Norman200875-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200280–81Norman200875_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 80–81; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281Norman200875-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281Norman200875_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200281Norman200875_189-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 81; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002120-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002120_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002120_190-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002119-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002119_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002119_191-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200285-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200285_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200285_192-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200215-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200215_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200215_193-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214Meredith200241-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200214Meredith200241_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 14; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011313–314-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETendi2011313–314_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, pp. 313–314. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200214–15Meredith200242,_44Holland2008107Norman200874-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200214–15Meredith200242,_44Holland2008107Norman200874_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, pp. 14–15; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 42, 44; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 107; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200215Meredith200245-197"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200215Meredith200245_197-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 15; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200213,_15Meredith200242-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200213,_15Meredith200242_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, pp. 13, 15; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200245-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200245_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200250-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200250_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200250_200-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200251Holland20087636–37Norman2008-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200251Holland20087636–37Norman2008_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 76; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252Norman200877-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252Norman200877_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252_203-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252–53-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200252–53_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200249-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200249_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200253-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200253_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200253Norman200877-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200253Norman200877_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 53; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200254Holland200837Norman200878-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200254Holland200837Norman200878_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 54; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 37; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200254Holland200837-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200254Holland200837_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 54; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200255Holland200838-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200255Holland200838_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 55; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200255-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200255_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256-212">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256_212-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256_212-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256Holland2008115-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200256Holland2008115_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 56; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200874-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200874_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200874_214-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200239Norman200874-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200239Norman200874_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 39; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200239-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200239_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200259–60-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200259–60_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260_218-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200260_218-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200261Norman200876-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200261Norman200876_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200261-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200261_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200261–62-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200261–62_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 61–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200262,_64Norman200877-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200262,_64Norman200877_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 62, 64; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200263Norman200878-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200263Norman200878_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200264-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200264_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200264-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200264_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200266-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200266_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200265-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200265_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200265_227-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200265Norman200877-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200265Norman200877_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 65; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200267-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200230Meredith200267_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200267-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200267_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200270-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200270_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200270_231-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200233-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200233_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200231-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200231_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200232Meredith200269-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200232Meredith200269_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 32; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200267–68-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200267–68_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 67–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2008148–149-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2008148–149_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, pp. 148–149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200273Norman200879-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200273Norman200879_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 73; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200275Norman2008109-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200275Norman2008109_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 75; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETendi2011308-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETendi2011308_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETendi2011308_239-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, p. 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2019" class="citation news cs1">Smith, David (6 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/zimbabwes-intellectual-despot-how-mugabe-became-africas-fallen-angel">"Zimbabwe's intellectual despot: how Mugabe became Africa's fallen angel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 10 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Zimbabwe%27s+intellectual+despot%3A+how+Mugabe+became+Africa%27s+fallen+angel&rft.date=2019-09-06&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2019%2Fsep%2F06%2Fzimbabwes-intellectual-despot-how-mugabe-became-africas-fallen-angel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200866Tendi2011308–309-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200866Tendi2011308–309_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 66; <a href="#CITEREFTendi2011">Tendi 2011</a>, pp. 308–309. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200234-242">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200234_242-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200234_242-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200234_242-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200274-243">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200274_243-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200274_243-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200232Meredith200274-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200232Meredith200274_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 32; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271-245">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271_245-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271_245-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271–73-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200271–73_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 71–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200234Meredith200273Norman200879-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200234Meredith200273Norman200879_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 34; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 73; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200279-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200279_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200236_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279Norman200880-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279Norman200880_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 79; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279-251">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279_251-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200279_251-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Norman200880-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Norman200880_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200280-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200280_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200289-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200289_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200289-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200289_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200287Norman200880-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200287Norman200880_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 87; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200880-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200880_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200291-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200291_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200293-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200236Meredith200293_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200297-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200297_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200297Norman200881-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200297Norman200881_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 97; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200237Holland2008136-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237Holland2008136_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200237Holland2008136_262-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 37; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair200238-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200238_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200238_263-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200238_263-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair200238_263-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlair2002">Blair 2002</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002121-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002121_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122-265">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122_265-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122_265-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122_265-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122–123-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002122–123_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002123-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002123_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002123–124-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002123–124_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 123–124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002124-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002124_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002126–127Norman2008127–128-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002126–127Norman2008127–128_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, pp. 126–127; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, pp. 127–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002127Holland200898-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002127Holland200898_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFHolland2008">Holland 2008</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296Norman200881-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith200296Norman200881_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 96; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002107Norman200880-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002107Norman200880_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 107; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108Norman200882-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108Norman200882_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 108; <a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108Holland2008148-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2002108Holland2008148_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2002">Meredith 2002</a>, p. 108; 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<a href="#CITEREFNorman2008">Norman 2008</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc_perspective_2009-290"><a href="#cite_ref-bbc_perspective_2009_290-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7899057.stm">"Meeting Zimbabwe's 'Uncle Bob'"</a>. 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CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171114223043/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2017. 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BBC. 19 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171119115929/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42043370">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ruling+party+sacks+Mugabe+as+leader&rft.date=2017-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-42043370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoyo2017" class="citation news cs1">Moyo, Jeffrey (19 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/19/world/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe.html">"Robert Mugabe, in Speech to Zimbabwe, Refuses to Say if He Will Resign"</a>. 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Daily News. 11 December 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171213181921/https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2017/12/11/mugabe-mphoko-due-for-big-payout">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+News&rft.atitle=Mugabe%2C+Mphoko+due+for+big+payout&rft.date=2017-12-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailynews.co.zw%2Farticles%2F2017%2F12%2F11%2Fmugabe-mphoko-due-for-big-payout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Voluntary-408">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Voluntary_408-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Voluntary_408-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-mugabe-resigned-voluntarily-freely/4486081.html">"Zimbabwe Court Says Mugabe Stepped Down Freely, Voluntarily"</a>. Voice of America. 17 July 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718111705/https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-mugabe-resigned-voluntarily-freely/4486081.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Zimbabwe+Court+Says+Mugabe+Stepped+Down+Freely%2C+Voluntarily&rft.date=2018-07-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voazimbabwe.com%2Fa%2Fzimbabwe-mugabe-resigned-voluntarily-freely%2F4486081.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-409"><a href="#cite_ref-409">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollier2017" class="citation news cs1">Collier, Hatty (28 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/robert-mugabes-lavish-retirement-package-includes-firstclass-flights-a-fivebedroom-house-and-23-a3728106.html">"Robert Mugabe's lavish retirement package includes first-class flights, a five-bedroom house and 23 staff"</a>. 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Retrieved 8 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evening+Standard&rft.atitle=Robert+Mugabe%27s+lavish+retirement+package+includes+first-class+flights%2C+a+five-bedroom+house+and+23+staff&rft.date=2017-12-28&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Hatty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.standard.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Frobert-mugabes-lavish-retirement-package-includes-firstclass-flights-a-fivebedroom-house-and-23-a3728106.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-410"><a href="#cite_ref-410">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/16/robert-mugabe-zimbabwe-disgraceful-coup-must-be-undone">"Robert Mugabe says 'disgraceful' Zimbabwe coup must be undone"</a>. The Guardian. 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Retrieved 15 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Robert+Mugabe+says+%27disgraceful%27+Zimbabwe+coup+must+be+undone&rft.date=2018-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fmar%2F16%2Frobert-mugabe-zimbabwe-disgraceful-coup-must-be-undone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-411"><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news24.com/Africa/Zimbabwe/new-party-forms-in-zimbabwe-with-mugabes-backing-20180305">"New party forms in Zimbabwe with Mugabe's backing"</a>. news24. 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Retrieved 1 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pantograph+Punch&rft.atitle=What%27s+left+of+the+Mugabe+way%3F&rft.date=2018-01-31&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Murdoch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpantograph-punch.com%2Fposts%2Fmugabe-public-space&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlao2012" class="citation book cs1">Alao, Abiodun (2012). Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-4044-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-4044-6"><bdi>978-0-7735-4044-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mugabe+and+the+Politics+of+Security+in+Zimbabwe&rft.place=Montreal+and+Kingston&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6&rft.aulast=Alao&rft.aufirst=Abiodun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlair2002" class="citation book cs1">Blair, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai">Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe</a>. London and New York: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5974-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5974-9"><bdi>978-0-8264-5974-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Degrees+in+Violence%3A+Robert+Mugabe+and+the+Struggle+for+Power+in+Zimbabwe&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdegreesinviolenc0000blai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChigoraGuzura2011" class="citation journal cs1">Chigora, Percyslage; Guzura, Tobias (2011). 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African Journal of History and Culture. 3 (2): 20–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Journal+of+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+the+Government+of+National+Unity+%28GNU%29+and+Power+Sharing+in+Zimbabwe%3A+Challenges+and+Prospects+for+Democracy&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=20-26&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Chigora&rft.aufirst=Percyslage&rft.au=Guzura%2C+Tobias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallagher2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gallagher, Julia (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf">"The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence"</a> (PDF). Journal of Modern African Studies. 53 (1): 27–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022278X14000640">10.1017/S0022278X14000640</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-278X">0022-278X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154398977">154398977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Battle+for+Zimbabwe+in+2013%3A+From+Polarisation+to+Ambivalence&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-49&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154398977%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-278X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022278X14000640&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F26245%2F1%2Fgallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2008" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Heidi (2008). Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-104079-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-104079-0"><bdi>978-0-14-104079-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dinner+with+Mugabe%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+a+Freedom+Fighter+Who+Became+a+Tyrant&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-14-104079-0&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward-Hassmann2010" class="citation journal cs1">Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E. (2010). "Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect". Human Rights Quarterly. 32 (4): 898–920. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhrq.2010.0030">10.1353/hrq.2010.0030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143046672">143046672</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Mugabe%27s+Zimbabwe%2C+2000%E2%80%932009%3A+Massive+Human+Rights+Violations+and+the+Failure+to+Protect&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=898-920&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhrq.2010.0030&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143046672%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Howard-Hassmann&rft.aufirst=Rhoda+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeredith2002" class="citation book cs1">Meredith, Martin (2002). Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe. New York: Public Affairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-186-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-186-5"><bdi>978-1-58648-186-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Votes%2C+Our+Guns%3A+Robert+Mugabe+and+the+Tragedy+of+Zimbabwe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Public+Affairs&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-58648-186-5&rft.aulast=Meredith&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNdlovu-Gatsheni2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J. (2009). "Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe'". Third World Quarterly. 30 (6): 1139–1158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436590903037424">10.1080/01436590903037424</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143775424">143775424</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Making+Sense+of+Mugabeism+in+Local+and+Global+Politics%3A+%27So+Blair%2C+keep+your+England+and+let+me+keep+my+Zimbabwe%27&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1139-1158&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436590903037424&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143775424%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ndlovu-Gatsheni&rft.aufirst=Sabelo+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNdlovu-Gatsheni2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"> ———  (2015). "Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe". In Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni (ed.). Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-54344-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-54344-8"><bdi>978-1-137-54344-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Mugabeism+and+Entanglements+of+History%2C+Politics%2C+and+Power+in+the+Making+of+Zimbabwe&rft.btitle=Mugabeism%3F+History%2C+Politics%2C+and+Power+in+Zimbabwe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-25&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-137-54344-8&rft.aulast=Ndlovu-Gatsheni&rft.aufirst=Sabelo+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2008" class="citation book cs1">Norman, Andrew (2008). Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant. Stroud: The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86227-491-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86227-491-4"><bdi>978-1-86227-491-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mugabe%3A+Teacher%2C+Revolutionary%2C+Tyrant&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-86227-491-4&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOnslowRedding2009" class="citation journal cs1">Onslow, Sue; Redding, Sean (2009). "Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe". 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Representation. 47 (3): 307–318. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00344893.2011.596439">10.1080/00344893.2011.596439</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154541752">154541752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Representation&rft.atitle=Robert+Mugabe+and+Toxicity%3A+History+and+Context+Matter&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=307-318&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00344893.2011.596439&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154541752%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tendi&rft.aufirst=Blessing-Miles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTendi2013" class="citation journal cs1"> ———  (2013). "Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign". Journal of Southern African Studies. 39 (4): 963–970. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057070.2013.858537">10.1080/03057070.2013.858537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145432632">145432632</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Robert+Mugabe%27s+2013+Presidential+Election+Campaign&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=963-970&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03057070.2013.858537&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145432632%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tendi&rft.aufirst=Blessing-Miles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Robert Mugabe at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Robert Mugabe">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Robert Mugabe">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Robert Mugabe">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="q:Robert Mugabe">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Robert Mugabe">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Robert Mugabe">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Robert_Mugabe" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Robert Mugabe">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne2011" class="citation book cs1">Bourne, Richard (2011). Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?. Zed. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84813-521-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84813-521-5"><bdi>978-1-84813-521-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catastrophe%3A+What+Went+Wrong+in+Zimbabwe%3F&rft.pub=Zed&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84813-521-5&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2002" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Stephen (2002). Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence. I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-873-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-873-1"><bdi>978-1-86064-873-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Mugabe%3A+A+Life+of+Power+and+Violence&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-873-1&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodwin2011" class="citation book cs1">Godwin, Peter (2011). The Fear: The Last Days of Robert Mugabe. London: Picador. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-50777-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-50777-6"><bdi>978-0-330-50777-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fear%3A+The+Last+Days+of+Robert+Mugabe&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Picador&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-330-50777-6&rft.aulast=Godwin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoyoYeros2007" class="citation journal cs1">Moyo; Yeros, P (2007). "The Radicalised State: Zimbabwe's Interrupted Revolution". Review of African Political Economy. 34 (111): 103–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03056240701340431">10.1080/03056240701340431</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10.1080%2F03056240701340431">10.1080/03056240701340431</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20406365">20406365</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153894802">153894802</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+African+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Radicalised+State%3A+Zimbabwe%27s+Interrupted+Revolution&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=111&rft.pages=103-121&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10.1080%2F03056240701340431&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153894802%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20406365%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03056240701340431&rft.au=Moyo&rft.au=Yeros%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaftopoulos2006" class="citation journal cs1">Raftopoulos, Brian (2006). "The Zimbabwean crisis and the challenges of the Left". Journal of Southern African Studies. 32 (2): 203–219. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JSAfS..32..203R">2006JSAfS..32..203R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057070600655988">10.1080/03057070600655988</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25065088">25065088</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59371826">59371826</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Zimbabwean+crisis+and+the+challenges+of+the+Left&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=203-219&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03057070600655988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59371826%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25065088%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JSAfS..32..203R&rft.aulast=Raftopoulos&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Mugabe" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFBF00;">Party political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Chitepo" title="Herbert Chitepo">Herbert Chitepo</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Leader of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a> 1975–1987 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Position abolished </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New political party <div style="font-size:90%">Merger of ZANU and ZAPU</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Leader of <a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front</a> 1987–2017 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Abel_Muzorewa" title="Abel Muzorewa">Abel Muzorewa</a></div>as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia">Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia</a> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Prime Minister of Zimbabwe</a> 1980–1987 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%">Position suspended</div><div style="font-size:90%">Title next held by</div><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Tsvangirai" title="Morgan Tsvangirai">Morgan Tsvangirai</a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Banana" title="Canaan Banana">Canaan Banana</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of Zimbabwe">President of Zimbabwe</a> 1987–2017 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FACEFF;">Diplomatic posts </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Zail_Singh" title="Zail Singh">Zail Singh</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Secretary General of the <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a> 1986–1989 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Janez_Drnov%C5%A1ek" title="Janez Drnovšek">Janez Drnovšek</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Biya" title="Paul Biya">Paul Biya</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity">Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity</a> 1997–1998 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Compaor%C3%A9" title="Blaise Compaoré">Blaise Compaoré</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ould_Abdel_Aziz" title="Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz">Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union" title="Chairperson of the African Union">Chairperson of the African Union</a> 2015–2016 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Idriss_D%C3%A9by" title="Idriss Déby">Idriss Déby</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Robert_Mugabe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Robert_Mugabe" title="Template:Robert Mugabe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Robert_Mugabe" title="Template talk:Robert Mugabe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Robert_Mugabe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Robert Mugabe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Robert_Mugabe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Mugabe</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>1st <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Prime Minister of Zimbabwe</a> (1980–1987)</li> <li>2nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_Zimbabwe" title="President of Zimbabwe">President of Zimbabwe</a> (1987–2017)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Revolutionary activity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Zimbabwe)" title="Patriotic Front (Zimbabwe)">Patriotic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union_%E2%80%93_Patriotic_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front">Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Liberation_Army" title="Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army">Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1976)" title="Geneva Conference (1976)">Geneva Conference (1976)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement (1979)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Robert_Mugabe_May_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg/100px-Robert_Mugabe_May_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Robert_Mugabe_May_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Robert_Mugabe_May_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Robert_Mugabe_May_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg/200px-Robert_Mugabe_May_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="900" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Premiership & presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Entumbane_clashes" title="1980 Entumbane clashes">Entumbane I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_Entumbane_uprising" title="1981 Entumbane uprising">Entumbane II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe">Hyperinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Murambatsvina" title="Operation Murambatsvina">Operation Murambatsvina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mavhoterapapi" title="Operation Mavhoterapapi">Operation Mavhoterapapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dzikisai_Madhishi" title="Operation Dzikisai Madhishi">Operation Dzikisai Madhishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Operations_Command_(Zimbabwe)" title="Joint Operations Command (Zimbabwe)">Joint Operations Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Zimbabwe">LGBT persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Zimbabwean_political_negotiations" class="mw-redirect" title="2008–09 Zimbabwean political negotiations">2008–09 political negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Government_of_National_Unity_of_2009" title="Zimbabwe Government of National Unity of 2009">2009 Government of National Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Zimbabwean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état">2017 coup d'état and resignation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>As Prime Minister (<a href="/wiki/1980_Southern_Rhodesian_general_election" title="1980 Southern Rhodesian general election">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Zimbabwean_parliamentary_election" title="1985 Zimbabwean parliamentary election">1985</a>)</li> <li>As President (<a href="/wiki/1990_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="1990 Zimbabwean general election">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="1996 Zimbabwean presidential election">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="2002 Zimbabwean presidential election">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2008 Zimbabwean general election">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2013 Zimbabwean general election">2013</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mugabe_and_the_White_African" title="Mugabe and the White African">Mugabe and the White African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugabe%27s_Zimbabwe" title="Mugabe's Zimbabwe">Mugabe's Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mugabe_family" title="Mugabe family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Mugabe" title="Sally Mugabe">Sally Mugabe</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Mugabe" title="Grace Mugabe">Grace Mugabe</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Mugabe Jr">Robert Mugabe Jr</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bona_Mugabe" title="Bona Mugabe">Bona Mugabe</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabina_Mugabe" title="Sabina Mugabe">Sabina Mugabe</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Gara" title="Tony Gara">Tony Gara</a> (cousin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Zhuwao" title="Patrick Zhuwao">Patrick Zhuwao</a> (nephew)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Residences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_House,_Harare" title="Zimbabwe House, Harare">Zimbabwe House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_House_(Zimbabwe)" class="mw-redirect" title="State House (Zimbabwe)">State House, Harare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_House_(Bulawayo)" class="mw-redirect" title="State House (Bulawayo)">State House, Bulawayo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Roof" title="Blue Roof">Blue Roof</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gabriel_Mugabe_International_Airport" title="Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport">Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Robert_Mugabe" title="Statue of Robert Mugabe">Statue of Robert Mugabe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Banana" title="Canaan Banana">← Canaan Banana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Robert_Mugabe" title="Category:Robert Mugabe">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Related_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;background:#ccccff"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="24px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Zimbabwe&#124;link=Zimbabwe_Ministers_of_the_Zimbabwean_Government_of_Robert_Mugabe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Zimbabwe_government_ministers_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Template:Zimbabwe government ministers 2000–2009"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Zimbabwe_government_ministers_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Template talk:Zimbabwe government ministers 2000–2009"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Zimbabwe_government_ministers_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Zimbabwe government ministers 2000–2009"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="24px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Zimbabwe&#124;link=Zimbabwe_Ministers_of_the_Zimbabwean_Government_of_Robert_Mugabe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe"><img alt="Zimbabwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/24px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/36px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/48px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ministers_of_the_Zimbabwean_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministers of the Zimbabwean Government">Ministers of the Zimbabwean Government</a> of Robert Mugabe</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>June 2000 – February 2009</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:53%;"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Mugabe</a> (President)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joice_Mujuru" title="Joice Mujuru">Joice Mujuru</a> (Vice President)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Chigwedere" title="Aeneas Chigwedere">Aeneas Chigwedere</a> (Education, Sports and Culture)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Chinamasa" title="Patrick Chinamasa">Patrick Chinamasa</a> (Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Midzi" title="Amos Midzi">Amos Midzi</a> (2002–2004) / <a href="/wiki/Mike_Nyambuya" title="Mike Nyambuya">Mike Nyambuya</a> (2005–present) (Energy and Power Development)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swithun_Mombeshora" title="Swithun Mombeshora">S Mombeshora</a> / <a href="/wiki/Chris_Mushohwe" title="Chris Mushohwe">C Mushohwe</a> (Transport and Communications)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Moyo" title="Jonathan Moyo">J Moyo</a> (2000–2005) / <a href="/wiki/Tichaona_Jokonya" title="Tichaona Jokonya">T Jokonya</a> (2005–2007) / <a href="/wiki/Sikhanyiso_Ndlovu" title="Sikhanyiso Ndlovu">S Ndlovu</a> (2007–2009) / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Mangwana" title="Paul Mangwana">P Mangwana</a> (acting since 2009) (Information)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Gono" title="Gideon Gono">Gideon Gono</a> (RBZ Governor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_Makoni" title="Simba Makoni">S Makoni</a> (2000–2002) / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Murerwa" title="Herbert Murerwa">H Murerwa</a> (2002–2007) / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mumbengegwi" title="Samuel Mumbengegwi">S C Mumbengegwi</a> (since 2007) (Finance)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugare_Gumbo" title="Rugare Gumbo">Rugare Gumbo</a> (Agriculture)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Made" title="Joseph Made">Joseph Made</a> (Agriculture Mechanization)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simbarashe_Mumbengegwi" title="Simbarashe Mumbengegwi">Simbarashe Mumbengegwi</a> (Foreign Affairs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Sekeramayi" title="Sydney Sekeramayi">Sydney Sekeramayi</a> (Defence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Mutinhiri" title="Ambrose Mutinhiri">Ambrose Mutinhiri</a> (Youth Development and Medium Enterprises Development)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:46%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kembo_Mohadi" title="Kembo Mohadi">Kembo Mohadi</a> (Home Affairs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obert_Mpofu" title="Obert Mpofu">Obert Mpofu</a> (Industry and International Trade)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivia_Muchena" title="Olivia Muchena">Olivia Muchena</a> (Science and Technology Development)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Parirenyatwa" title="David Parirenyatwa">David Parirenyatwa</a> (Health and Child Welfare)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Goche" title="Nicholas Goche">Nicholas Goche</a> (Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatious_Chombo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignatious Chombo">Ignatious Chombo</a> (Local Government, Public Works and Urban Development)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nkomo" title="John Nkomo">John Nkomo</a> (Special Affairs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Tungamirai" title="Josiah Tungamirai">J Tungamirai</a> (2004–2005) / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mumbengegwi" title="Samuel Mumbengegwi">S C Mumbengegwi</a> (2005–2007) / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Mangwana" title="Paul Mangwana">P Mangwana</a> (since 2007) (Indigenisation and Empowerment)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a> (Rural Housing and Social Amenities)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opa_Muchinguri" class="mw-redirect" title="Opa Muchinguri">Opa Muchinguri</a> (Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sithembiso_Nyoni" title="Sithembiso Nyoni">Sithembiso Nyoni</a> (Small and Medium Enterprises Development)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webster_Shamu" title="Webster Shamu">Webster Shamu</a> (Policy Implementation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didymus_Mutasa" title="Didymus Mutasa">Didymus Mutasa</a> (State Security)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election_and_subsequent_events" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:2008_elections,_Zimbabwe" title="Template:2008 elections, Zimbabwe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:2008_elections,_Zimbabwe" title="Template talk:2008 elections, Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:2008_elections,_Zimbabwe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:2008 elections, Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election_and_subsequent_events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2008 Zimbabwean general election">2008 Zimbabwean presidential election</a> and subsequent events</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Mugabe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union_%E2%80%93_Patriotic_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front">ZANU-PF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Tsvangirai" title="Morgan Tsvangirai">Morgan Tsvangirai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Democratic_Change_%E2%80%93_Tsvangirai" title="Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai">MDC-T</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_Makoni" title="Simba Makoni">Simba Makoni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mavambo/Kusile/Dawn" title="Mavambo/Kusile/Dawn">Mavambo/Kusile/Dawn</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Simba_Makoni_2008_presidential_campaign" title="Simba Makoni 2008 presidential campaign">campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langton_Towungana" title="Langton Towungana">Langton Towungana</a> (independent)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2008 Zimbabwean general election">First round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_general_election" title="2008 Zimbabwean general election">Parliamentary election</a> (<a href="/wiki/Constituency_results_of_the_2008_Zimbabwean_parliamentary_election" title="Constituency results of the 2008 Zimbabwean parliamentary election">constituency results</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaigning_for_the_2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="Campaigning for the 2008 Zimbabwean presidential election">Campaigning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_counting_for_the_2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="Vote counting for the 2008 Zimbabwean presidential election">Vote counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Southern_African_Development_Community_emergency_meeting" title="2008 Southern African Development Community emergency meeting">SADC meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Yue_Jiang" title="An Yue Jiang">An Yue Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mavhoterapapi" title="Operation Mavhoterapapi">Operation Mavhoterapapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ngatipedzenavo" title="Operation Ngatipedzenavo">Operation Ngatipedzenavo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_round_of_voting_in_the_2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="Second round of voting in the 2008 Zimbabwean presidential election">Second round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_reaction_to_the_2008_Zimbabwean_presidential_election" title="International reaction to the 2008 Zimbabwean presidential election">International reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Zimbabwean_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Zimbabwean Parliament">Seventh Zimbabwean Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Zimbabwean_political_negotiations" title="2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations">Political negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_cholera_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwean cholera outbreak">Cholera outbreak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Mutambara" title="Arthur Mutambara">Arthur Mutambara</a> (<a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Democratic_Change_%E2%80%93_Mutambara" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement for Democratic Change – Mutambara">MDC-M</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Operations_Command_(Zimbabwe)" title="Joint Operations Command (Zimbabwe)">Joint Operations Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Democratic_Change_(pre-2005)" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement for Democratic Change (pre-2005)">Movement for Democratic Change (MDC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union_%E2%80%93_Patriotic_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front">Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Government_of_National_Unity_of_2009" title="Zimbabwe Government of National Unity of 2009">Government of National Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Monitoring_and_Implementation_Committee" title="Joint Monitoring and Implementation Committee">Joint Monitoring and Implementation Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_Zimbabwe_and_its_antecedents" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template:Presidents of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template talk:Presidents of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_Zimbabwe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_Zimbabwe_and_its_antecedents" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_Zimbabwe" title="President of Zimbabwe">Presidents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and its antecedents</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> (1965–1979, <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">an unrecognised state</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Dupont" title="Clifford Dupont">Clifford Dupont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Everard" title="Henry Everard">Henry Everard</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wrathall" title="John Wrathall">John Wrathall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Everard" title="Henry Everard">Henry Everard</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Pithey" title="Jack Pithey">Jack Pithey</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Everard" title="Henry Everard">Henry Everard</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Rhodesia" title="Zimbabwe Rhodesia">Zimbabwe Rhodesia</a> (1979, <a href="/wiki/Internal_Settlement" title="Internal Settlement">an unrecognised state</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Zion_Gumede" title="Josiah Zion Gumede">Josiah Zion Gumede</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/46px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> (since 1980, <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">a recognised state</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Banana" title="Canaan Banana">Canaan Banana</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Emmerson Mnangagwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>*Acting President</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prime_Ministers_of_Zimbabwe_and_its_antecedents" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:ZimbabwePMs" title="Template:ZimbabwePMs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:ZimbabwePMs" title="Template talk:ZimbabwePMs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:ZimbabwePMs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:ZimbabwePMs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prime_Ministers_of_Zimbabwe_and_its_antecedents" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Prime Ministers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and its antecedents</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931964%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931964%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931964%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a> (1923–1965, the internationally accepted legal name until 1980)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Coghlan_(politician)" title="Charles Coghlan (politician)">Charles Coghlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Unwin_Moffat" title="Howard Unwin Moffat">Howard Unwin Moffat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mitchell_(Rhodesian_politician)" title="George Mitchell (Rhodesian politician)">George Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Huggins" title="Godfrey Huggins">Godfrey Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garfield_Todd" title="Garfield Todd">Garfield Todd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Whitehead" title="Edgar Whitehead">Edgar Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Field" title="Winston Field">Winston Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Ian Smith</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_%281953%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_%281953%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_%281953%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_%281953%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_%281953%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_%281953%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="750" /> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland" title="Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland">Rhodesia and Nyasaland</a> (1953–1963, of which <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a> was part)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Huggins,_1st_Viscount_Malvern" class="mw-redirect" title="Godfrey Huggins, 1st Viscount Malvern">Godfrey Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Welensky" title="Roy Welensky">Roy Welensky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> (1965–1979, <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">an unrecognised state</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Ian Smith</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe_Rhodesia_%281979%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Rhodesia" title="Zimbabwe Rhodesia">Zimbabwe Rhodesia</a> (1979, <a href="/wiki/Internal_Settlement" title="Internal Settlement">an unrecognised state</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Muzorewa" title="Abel Muzorewa">Abel Muzorewa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/46px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> (since 1980, <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">a recognised state</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Tsvangirai" title="Morgan Tsvangirai">Morgan Tsvangirai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chairpersons_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity_and_the_African_Union" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_Union_chairpersons" title="Template:African Union chairpersons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_Union_chairpersons" title="Template talk:African Union chairpersons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_Union_chairpersons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African Union chairpersons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chairpersons_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity_and_the_African_Union" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity">Chairpersons of the Organisation of African Unity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union" title="Chairperson of the African Union">African Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisation of African Unity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Arthur_Ankrah" title="Joseph Arthur Ankrah">Ankrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne" title="Houari Boumédiène">Boumédiène</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadou_Ahidjo" title="Ahmadou Ahidjo">Ahidjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moktar_Ould_Daddah" title="Moktar Ould Daddah">Daddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_II_of_Morocco" title="Hassan II of Morocco">Hassan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakubu_Gowon" title="Yakubu Gowon">Gowon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Barre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam" title="Seewoosagur Ramgoolam">Ramgoolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Bongo" title="Omar Bongo">Bongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaafar_Nimeiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaafar Nimeiry">Nimeiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tolbert" title="William Tolbert">Tolbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Senghor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siaka_Stevens" title="Siaka Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_arap_Moi" title="Daniel arap Moi">Moi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdou_Diouf" title="Abdou Diouf">Diouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moussa_Traor%C3%A9" title="Moussa Traoré">Traoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoweri_Museveni" title="Yoweri Museveni">Museveni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Babangida" title="Ibrahim Babangida">Babangida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdou_Diouf" title="Abdou Diouf">Diouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali" title="Zine El Abidine Ben Ali">Ben Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Biya" title="Paul Biya">Biya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Compaor%C3%A9" title="Blaise Compaoré">Compaoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdelaziz_Bouteflika" title="Abdelaziz Bouteflika">Bouteflika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnassingb%C3%A9_Eyad%C3%A9ma" title="Gnassingbé Eyadéma">Eyadéma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chiluba" title="Frederick Chiluba">Chiluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levy_Mwanawasa" title="Levy Mwanawasa">Mwanawasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">African Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano" title="Joaquim Chissano">Chissano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olusegun_Obasanjo" title="Olusegun Obasanjo">Obasanjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kufuor" title="John Kufuor">Kufuor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakaya_Kikwete" title="Jakaya Kikwete">Kikwete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bingu_wa_Mutharika" title="Bingu wa Mutharika">Mutharika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teodoro_Obiang_Nguema_Mbasogo" title="Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo">Obiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boni_Yayi" title="Thomas Boni Yayi">Boni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailemariam_Desalegn" title="Hailemariam Desalegn">Hailemariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ould_Abdel_Aziz" title="Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz">Abdel Aziz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idriss_D%C3%A9by" title="Idriss Déby">Déby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Cond%C3%A9" title="Alpha Condé">Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Kagame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi" title="Abdel Fattah el-Sisi">Sisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa" title="Cyril Ramaphosa">Ramaphosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Tshisekedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macky_Sall" title="Macky Sall">Sall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azali_Assoumani" title="Azali Assoumani">Assoumani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ould_Ghazouani" title="Mohamed Ould Ghazouani">Ghazouani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chairs_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:NAMSecretary-General" title="Template:NAMSecretary-General"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:NAMSecretary-General" title="Template talk:NAMSecretary-General"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:NAMSecretary-General" title="Special:EditPage/Template:NAMSecretary-General"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chairs_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement#Chair" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Chairs of the Non-Aligned Movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Tito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne" title="Houari Boumédiène">Boumédiène</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gopallawa" title="William Gopallawa">Gopallawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._R._Jayewardene" title="J. R. Jayewardene">Jayewardene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">F. Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neelam_Sanjiva_Reddy" title="Neelam Sanjiva Reddy">Reddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zail_Singh" title="Zail Singh">Singh</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janez_Drnov%C5%A1ek" title="Janez Drnovšek">Drnovšek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borisav_Jovi%C4%87" title="Borisav Jović">Jović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stjepan_Mesi%C4%87" title="Stjepan Mesić">Mesić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Kosti%C4%87" title="Branko Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobrica_%C4%86osi%C4%87" title="Dobrica Ćosić">Ćosić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Samper" title="Ernesto Samper">Samper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Pastrana_Arango" title="Andrés Pastrana Arango">Pastrana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ahmad_Badawi" title="Abdullah Ahmad Badawi">Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">F. Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Castro" title="Raúl Castro">R. Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Hussein_Tantawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Hussein Tantawi">Tantawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Morsi" title="Mohamed Morsi">Morsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad" title="Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">Ahmadinejad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Rouhani" title="Hassan Rouhani">Rouhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Maduro" title="Nicolás Maduro">Maduro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev" title="Ilham Aliyev">Aliyev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Members_of_the_1st_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe_(1980–1985)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Members_of_the_1st_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template:Members of the 1st Parliament of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Members_of_the_1st_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template talk:Members of the 1st Parliament of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Members_of_the_1st_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Members of the 1st Parliament of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Members_of_the_1st_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe_(1980–1985)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Members of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=1st_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1st Parliament of Zimbabwe (page does not exist)">1st Parliament of Zimbabwe</a> (1980–1985)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Zimbabwe" title="Prime Minister of Zimbabwe">Prime Minister</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Mugabe</a> (<a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a>); Leader of the Opposition: <a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Ian Smith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Front" title="Rhodesian Front">RF</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Members_of_the_1st_Senate_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template:Members of the 1st Senate of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Members_of_the_1st_Senate_of_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Members of the 1st Senate of Zimbabwe (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Members_of_the_1st_Senate_of_Zimbabwe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Members of the 1st Senate of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Senate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Zimbabwe" title="Senate of Zimbabwe">Senate</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Senate_of_Zimbabwe" title="List of presidents of the Senate of Zimbabwe">President</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nolan_Makombe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nolan Makombe (page does not exist)">Nolan Makombe</a> (<a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a>); Deputy President: <a href="/wiki/Kayisa_Ndiweni" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayisa Ndiweni">Kayisa Ndiweni</a> (<a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Chidzero" title="Bernard Chidzero">Chidzero</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Chinengundu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Chinengundu (page does not exist)">Chinengundu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mudhumeni_Chivende&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mudhumeni Chivende (page does not exist)">Chivende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Culverwell" title="Joseph Culverwell">Culverwell</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnson_Hungwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnson Hungwe (page does not exist)">Hungwe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lameck_Makanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lameck Makanda (page does not exist)">Makanda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agrippa_Makunde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agrippa Makunde (page does not exist)">Makunde</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fred_Moyo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fred Moyo (page does not exist)">Moyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simbi_Mubako" title="Simbi Mubako">Mubako</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsitsi_Munyati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsitsi Munyati (page does not exist)">Munyati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alick_Ndlovu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alick Ndlovu (page does not exist)">A. Ndlovu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moven_Ndlovu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moven Ndlovu (page does not exist)">M. Ndlovu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enos_Nkala" title="Enos Nkala">Nkala</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Shoniwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Shoniwa (page does not exist)">Shoniwa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunny_Takawira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunny Takawira (page does not exist)">Takawira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rekayi_Tangwena" title="Rekayi Tangwena">Tangwena</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarisai_Ziyambi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarisai Ziyambi (page does not exist)">Ziyambi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Front" title="Rhodesian Front">Rhodesian Front</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lou_Ankers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lou Ankers (page does not exist)">Ankers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bob_Blunt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bob Blunt (page does not exist)">Blunt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Margaret_Clark_(Zimbabwean_politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Margaret Clark (Zimbabwean politician) (page does not exist)">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Fleming_(politician)" title="Ken Fleming (politician)">Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hamilton_Ritchie" title="Douglas Hamilton Ritchie">Hamilton Ritchie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wilson" title="Archibald Wilson">Wilson</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Esme_Scott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Esme Scott (page does not exist)">Scott</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Hartley_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Hartley (politician)">Hartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Mussett" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack Mussett">Mussett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Partridge" title="Mark Partridge">Partridge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Savage_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Savage (politician) (page does not exist)">Savage</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brian_Grubb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brian Grubb (page does not exist)">Grubb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sam_Whaley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sam Whaley (page does not exist)">Whaley</a></li> <li>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Terence_Oatt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Terence Oatt (page does not exist)">Oatt</a>)</li> <li>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Rosenfels&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Rosenfels (page does not exist)">Rosenfels</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People's Union">ZAPU</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Msika" title="Joseph Msika">Msika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garfield_Todd" title="Garfield Todd">Todd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">Independent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Norman" title="Denis Norman">Norman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chiefs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanuel_Chingoma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fanuel Chingoma (page does not exist)">Chingoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=C._P._Chitanga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C. P. Chitanga (page does not exist)">Chitanga</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myinga_Dakamela&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myinga Dakamela (page does not exist)">Dakamela</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Titus_Mukarati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Titus Mukarati (page does not exist)">Mukarati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mtozima_Gwebu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mtozima Gwebu (page does not exist)">Gwebu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lameck_Mashayamombe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lameck Mashayamombe (page does not exist)">Mashayamombe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edgar_Tiyeni_Msikavanhu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edgar Tiyeni Msikavanhu (page does not exist)">Msikavanhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayisa_Ndiweni" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayisa Ndiweni">Ndiweni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=M._M._Nyati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M. M. Nyati (page does not exist)">Nyati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=M._K._Ncube&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M. K. Ncube (page does not exist)">Ncube</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=M._D._M._Whata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M. D. M. Whata (page does not exist)">Whata</a></li> <li>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zephaniah_Charumbira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zephaniah Charumbira (page does not exist)">Charumbira</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Members_of_the_1st_House_of_Assembly_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template:Members of the 1st House of Assembly of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Members_of_the_1st_House_of_Assembly_of_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Members of the 1st House of Assembly of Zimbabwe (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Members_of_the_1st_House_of_Assembly_of_Zimbabwe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Members of the 1st House of Assembly of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="House_of_Assembly" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Zimbabwe" title="National Assembly of Zimbabwe">House of Assembly</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Speakers_of_the_Parliament_of_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Speakers of the Parliament of Zimbabwe">Speaker</a>: <a href="/wiki/Didymus_Mutasa" title="Didymus Mutasa">Didymus Mutasa</a> (<a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a>); Deputy Speaker: <a href="/wiki/Simbarashe_Mumbengegwi" title="Simbarashe Mumbengegwi">Simbarashe Mumbengegwi</a> (<a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Bassopo_Moyo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Bassopo Moyo (page does not exist)">Bassopo-Moyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Chidyausiku" title="Godfrey Chidyausiku">Chidyausiku</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enos_Chikowore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enos Chikowore (page does not exist)">Chikowore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Chitepo" title="Victoria Chitepo">Chitepo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=J._Chivaura&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. Chivaura (page does not exist)">Chivaura</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joshua_Dhube&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joshua Dhube (page does not exist)">Dhube</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Nuda_Dube&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Nuda Dube (page does not exist)">Dube</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Hove&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Hove (page does not exist)">Hove</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jack_Hunda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jack Hunda (page does not exist)">Hunda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abraham_Kabasa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abraham Kabasa (page does not exist)">Kabasa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Kadungure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Kadungure (page does not exist)">Kadungure</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kumbirai_Kangai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kumbirai Kangai (page does not exist)">Kangai</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Kaparadza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Kaparadza (page does not exist)">Kaparadza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moven_Mahachi" title="Moven Mahachi">Mahachi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nollan_Makombe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nollan Makombe (page does not exist)">Makombe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Columbus_Makoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Columbus Makoni (page does not exist)">C. Makoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_Makoni" title="Simba Makoni">S. Makoni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Mamutse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samuel Mamutse (page does not exist)">Mamutse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witness_Mangwende" title="Witness Mangwende">Mangwende</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robson_Manyika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robson Manyika (page does not exist)">Manyika</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Marere&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Marere (page does not exist)">Marere</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Farai_Masango&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Farai Masango (page does not exist)">Masango</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moton_Malianga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moton Malianga (page does not exist)">Malianga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saviour_Mativenga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saviour Mativenga (page does not exist)">Mativenga</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dzikamai_Mavhaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dzikamai Mavhaire (page does not exist)">Mavhaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nelson_Mawema&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nelson Mawema (page does not exist)">Mawema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mazorodze" title="Simon Mazorodze">Mazorodze</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swethan_Mombeshora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Swethan Mombeshora (page does not exist)">Mombeshora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmerson_Mnangagwa" title="Emmerson Mnangagwa">Mnangagwa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexio_Mudzingwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexio Mudzingwa (page does not exist)">Mudzingwa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joice_Mujuru" title="Joice Mujuru">Mujuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mumbengegwi" title="Samuel Mumbengegwi">Mumbengegwi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Munyaradzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oliver Munyaradzi (page does not exist)">Munyaradzi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philemon_Murambiwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philemon Murambiwa (page does not exist)">Murambiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didymus_Mutasa" title="Didymus Mutasa">Mutasa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dzingai_Mutumbuka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dzingai Mutumbuka (page does not exist)">Mutumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Muzenda" title="Simon Muzenda">Muzenda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moses_Mvenge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moses Mvenge (page does not exist)">Mvenge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Ndangana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Ndangana (page does not exist)">Ndangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Nhiwatiwa" title="Naomi Nhiwatiwa">Nhiwatiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Nyagumbo" title="Maurice Nyagumbo">Nyagumbo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Horace_Nyazika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Horace Nyazika (page does not exist)">Nyazika</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Pswarayi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Pswarayi (page does not exist)">Pswarayi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shadreck_Rambanepasi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shadreck Rambanepasi (page does not exist)">Rambanepasi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Rutanhire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Rutanhire (page does not exist)">Rutanhire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ezekiel_Sanyangare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ezekiel Sanyangare (page does not exist)">Sanyangare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Sekeramayi" title="Sydney Sekeramayi">Sekeramayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Shamuyarira" title="Nathan Shamuyarira">Shamuyarira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Shava" title="Frederick Shava">Shava</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edson_Shirihuru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edson Shirihuru (page does not exist)">Shirihuru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_Taderera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert Taderera (page does not exist)">Taderera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheba_Tavarwisa" title="Sheba Tavarwisa">Tavarwisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Tekere" title="Edgar Tekere">Tekere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Ushewokunze" title="Herbert Ushewokunze">Ushewokunze</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grafton_Ziyenge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grafton Ziyenge (page does not exist)">Ziyenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddison_Zvobgo" title="Eddison Zvobgo">E. Zvobgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Tukai_Zvobgo" title="Julia Tukai Zvobgo">J. Zvobgo</a></li> <li>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Jekanyika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Jekanyika (page does not exist)">Jekanyika</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People's Union">ZAPU</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ariston_Chambati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ariston Chambati (page does not exist)">Chambati</a> (<a href="/wiki/Josiah_Chinamano" title="Josiah Chinamano">J. Chinamano</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenneth_Mano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenneth Mano (page does not exist)">Mano</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Chinamano" title="Ruth Chinamano">R. Chinamano</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Kona&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Kona (page does not exist)">Kona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thenjiwe_Lesabe" title="Thenjiwe Lesabe">Lesabe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sydney_Malunga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sydney Malunga (page does not exist)">Malunga</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_Mangena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald Mangena (page does not exist)">Mangena</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mutanga" title="Mutanga">Mutanga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boyson_Mguni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boyson Mguni (page does not exist)">Mguni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vote_Moyo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vote Moyo (page does not exist)">Moyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephas_Msipa" title="Cephas Msipa">Msipa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clement_Muchachi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clement Muchachi (page does not exist)">Muchachi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Akim_Ndlovu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akim Ndlovu (page does not exist)">A. Ndlovu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callistus_Ndlovu" title="Callistus Ndlovu">C. Ndlovu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Ndlovu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Ndlovu (page does not exist)">E. Ndlovu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Ngwenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Ngwenya (page does not exist)">D. Ngwenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Ngwenya" title="Jane Ngwenya">J. Ngwenya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Njini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Njini (page does not exist)">Njini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nkomo" title="John Nkomo">John Nkomo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Nkomo" title="Joshua Nkomo">Joshua Nkomo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Nkomo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Nkomo (page does not exist)">S. Nkomo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jini_Ntuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Jini Ntuta">Ntuta</a></li> <li>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamai_Vivian_Mpofu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tamai Vivian Mpofu (page does not exist)">Mpofu</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Front" title="Rhodesian Front">Rhodesian Front</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chris_Andersen_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chris Andersen (politician) (page does not exist)">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desmond_Butler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desmond Butler (page does not exist)">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._K._van_der_Byl" title="P. 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href="/w/index.php?title=Titus_Mukarati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Titus Mukarati (page does not exist)">Mukarati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silas_Mundawarara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silas Mundawarara (page does not exist)">Mundawarara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Muzorewa" title="Abel Muzorewa">Muzorewa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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