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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>First System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Second System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Third System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Civil War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civil_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Civil War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Minefields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minefields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Minefields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minefields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_during_the_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coast_artillery_weapons_during_the_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Coast artillery weapons during the Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_during_the_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_Civil_War_to_the_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_Civil_War_to_the_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Post Civil War to the creation of the Coast Artillery Corps</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post_Civil_War_to_the_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post Civil War to the creation of the Coast Artillery Corps subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post_Civil_War_to_the_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monitors_for_coast_defense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitors_for_coast_defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Monitors for coast defense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitors_for_coast_defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_between_the_Civil_War_and_Endicott_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coast_artillery_weapons_between_the_Civil_War_and_Endicott_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Coast artillery weapons between the Civil War and Endicott period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_between_the_Civil_War_and_Endicott_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Endicott_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endicott_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Endicott period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endicott_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1901_reorganization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1901_reorganization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>1901 reorganization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1901_reorganization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mine_planters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mine_planters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Mine planters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mine_planters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Endicott_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Endicott_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Coast artillery weapons of the Endicott period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Endicott_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taft_Board_and_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taft_Board_and_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Taft Board and creation of the Coast Artillery Corps</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taft_Board_and_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Taft Board and creation of the Coast Artillery Corps subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Taft_Board_and_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fort_Drum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fort_Drum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Fort Drum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fort_Drum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-propelled_torpedoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-propelled_torpedoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Self-propelled torpedoes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-propelled_torpedoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War I subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Railway_artillery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railway_artillery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Railway artillery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railway_artillery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Taft_period_and_World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Taft_period_and_World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Coast artillery weapons of the Taft period and World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Taft_period_and_World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Between World War I and World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Between World War I and World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drawdown_and_reorganization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drawdown_and_reorganization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Drawdown and reorganization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drawdown_and_reorganization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>New weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coast_artillery_weapons_between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Coast artillery weapons between World War I and World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Fall of the Philippines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Modernization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_coast_defense_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_coast_defense_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Other coast defense operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_coast_defense_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_during_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coast_artillery_weapons_during_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Coast artillery weapons during World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coast_artillery_weapons_during_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar_defensive_missiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_defensive_missiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Postwar defensive missiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar_defensive_missiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References_and_further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_and_further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References and further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_and_further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Seacoast defense in the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Fort_mc_henry_cannon_Baltimore.jpg/250px-Fort_mc_henry_cannon_Baltimore.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Fort_mc_henry_cannon_Baltimore.jpg/375px-Fort_mc_henry_cannon_Baltimore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Fort_mc_henry_cannon_Baltimore.jpg/500px-Fort_mc_henry_cannon_Baltimore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The outer works of <a href="/wiki/Fort_McHenry" title="Fort McHenry">Fort McHenry</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore, Maryland">Baltimore</a> harbor, although built in the 1860s, are broadly similar to early First and Second System forts built before the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, with low earthworks, although mounting much larger cannon and reinforced with masonry. The cannon are 8-inch <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun#Rifled_Rodmans" title="Rodman gun">converted rifles</a> (lined down from 10-inch <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun" title="Rodman gun">Rodman guns</a>) and a 15-inch Rodman gun, typical of the post-<a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> era.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freiheitsstatue_NYC_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Freiheitsstatue_NYC_full.jpg/250px-Freiheitsstatue_NYC_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="379" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Freiheitsstatue_NYC_full.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a> is built on top of Fort Wood of the Second System</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Seacoast defense</b> was a major concern for the United States from its independence until <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Before <a href="/wiki/Military_aviation" title="Military aviation">airplanes</a>, many of America's enemies could only reach it from the sea, making coastal forts an economical alternative to <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing armies</a> or a large <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">navy</a>. Substantial fortifications were built at key locations, especially protecting major harbors. Seacoast defense also included <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">submarine minefields</a>, nets and <a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">booms</a>, ships, and, later, airplanes. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a> played the central role in constructing fixed defenses, but all of the armed forces participated. </p><p>Designs evolved and became obsolete with changes in the technology available to both the attacking forces and the defenders. The evolution of the U.S. seacoast defense system is generally identified among several "systems", which are somewhat defined by the styles used, but more so by the events or trends which periodically stimulated new funding and construction. The division of the early forts into the First and Second Systems was made by later historians, and appears officially in an 1851 report by <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief of Engineers">Chief Engineer</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gilbert_Totten" title="Joseph Gilbert Totten">Joseph Totten</a>, probably the most prolific builder of masonry forts in American history.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the 1940s, it was recognized that fixed <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a> were obsolete and ineffective against aircraft and missiles. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_defenses">Early defenses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early defenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, many coastal fortifications already protected the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">Atlantic coast</a>. Before independence from Britain, the colonies bore cost and responsibilities for their own protection. Urgency would wax and wane based on the political climate in <a href="/wiki/Europe#18th_and_19th_centuries" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Most defenses were <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> protected by <a href="/wiki/Earthwork_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthwork (military)">earthworks</a>, as protection from <a href="/wiki/Pirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirate">pirate</a> raids and foreign incursions. In the American colonies and the United States, coastal forts were generally more heavily constructed than inland forts, and mounted heavier weapons comparable to those on potential attacking ships. Though seldom used, the forts were a deterrent. During the Revolution, additional forts were built by both sides, usually to meet specific threats. Those built by <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriot</a> forces were called Patriot batteries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_System">First System</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the United States gained independence in 1783, the seacoast defense fortifications were in poor condition. Concerned by the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">war in Europe</a> in 1793, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> created a combined unit of "<a href="/wiki/Early_U.S._Artillery_formations" title="Early U.S. Artillery formations">Artillerists and Engineers</a>" to design, build, and garrison forts in 1794, appointed a committee to study coast defense needs, and appropriated money to construct a number of fortifications that would become known as the First System.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Twenty significant forts at 13 harbors were approved for construction, mostly with traditional low-walled structures with low sloped <a href="/wiki/Earthwork_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthwork (military)">earthworks</a> protecting wood or brick walls.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conventional wisdom was that soft earth would cushion the effect of cannon fire against the walls, and that low walls presented less exposure to projectiles. Walls were laid out at angles to each other to form a system of <a href="/wiki/Bastions" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastions">bastions</a>, resembling a <a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">star layout</a>, so that enemy forces could not mass against the bottom of a wall beneath the vertical field of fire from the wall; defenders on any wall could see and fire on the base of the adjacent walls. The angled walls also reduced the chance for more destructive straight-on hits from cannonballs. Most First System forts were relatively small, and with some exceptions mounted only one tier of <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a>, on the roof of the fort. Additional "<i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/water_batteries#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:water batteries">water batteries</a></i>" (located near the waters the forts protected) outside the forts provided more firepower. Four of the First System forts were rebuilds of colonial forts, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Constitution">Fort Constitution</a> in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Independence_(Massachusetts)" title="Fort Independence (Massachusetts)">Fort Independence</a> in Boston, Massachusetts, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wolcott" title="Fort Wolcott">Fort Wolcott</a> in Newport, Rhode Island, and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mifflin" title="Fort Mifflin">Fort Mifflin</a> in Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lacking trained engineers to supervise the work, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Knox" title="Henry Knox">Henry Knox</a> hired a number of European engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some fine forts were constructed, for the most part enthusiasm and funding waned and little work was completed. Most of the partially finished earthworks and wooden structures deteriorated before they were needed to defend against the British in <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">1812</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_System">Second System</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Second System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg/220px-Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg/330px-Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg/440px-Columbiad_10-inch_Model_1840_Side_View.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3221" data-file-height="1837" /></a><figcaption>50-pounder Model 1811 <a href="/wiki/Columbiad" title="Columbiad">Columbiad</a> (7.25 inch or 184 mm bore) and center-pivot mounting designed by <a href="/wiki/George_Bomford" title="George Bomford">George Bomford</a> as an experimental coastal defense gun. This gun was built in 1811 as a component of the Second System.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photographed in <a href="/wiki/Clear_Lake,_Wisconsin" title="Clear Lake, Wisconsin">Clear Lake, Wisconsin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1802, Congress separated the <a href="/wiki/Early_U.S._Artillery_formations" title="Early U.S. Artillery formations">artillerists</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">engineers</a> into separate corps and directed the Corps of Engineers to create a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">military academy</a> at <a href="/wiki/West_Point,_New_York" title="West Point, New York">West Point, New York</a>. One of the driving forces for establishing the new academy was the need to divorce the United States from its reliance on foreign engineers. In 1807–8, new concerns over a possible war with Great Britain prompted <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> to renew fortification programs; this has come to be known as the Second System. One event that foreshadowed war was the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake%E2%80%93Leopard_affair" title="Chesapeake–Leopard affair"><i>Chesapeake–Leopard</i> affair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One common weakness among the typical low-walled open bastion or <a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">star forts</a> was exposure to enemy fire, especially to new devices designed to explode <a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">in mid air</a> and rain <a href="/wiki/Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">shrapnel</a> down on the gunners. Gun emplacements which were at an angle to the sea were vulnerable to a solid shot running parallel to the wall taking out a row of guns and gunners with one <a href="/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade" title="Enfilade and defilade">enfilading</a> shot. In the late 1770s, a French engineer, the <a href="/wiki/Marc_Ren%C3%A9,_marquis_de_Montalembert" title="Marc René, marquis de Montalembert">Marquis de Montalembert</a>, advocated a major change in the design of fortresses to address these problems. His design protected a fort's gunners by placing most of them in covered <a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">casemate</a> walls with openings for the guns. By stacking rows of casemates in high walls more guns could be mounted along shorter walls. This was particularly important for seacoast fortifications, which had only a limited time in which to fire at passing enemy ships. To build these tall forts, walls had to be built of <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a>, but be very thick in order to withstand the pounding of cannon fire. Despite the goal of building multi-tiered forts, only a few of these were completed, notably <a href="/wiki/Castle_Williams" title="Castle Williams">Castle Williams</a> in New York Harbor. Most completed Second System forts generally resembled First System forts, with a one-tier star fort supplemented by water batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Second System was distinguished from the First System by greater use of Montalembert's concepts and the replacement of foreign engineers by American ones, many of them recent graduates of the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">United States Military Academy</a> superintended by Major <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Williams_(engineer)" title="Jonathan Williams (engineer)">Jonathan Williams</a>, who not only instructed the new engineers in new ideas of coastal defense, but also designed and constructed a prototype, <a href="/wiki/Castle_Williams" title="Castle Williams">Castle Williams</a> on <a href="/wiki/Governors_Island" title="Governors Island">Governors Island</a> in New York Harbor.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Again, several fine forts were produced, but generally projects went unfinished, and between the First System and Second System little was prepared to resist the British in the coming <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. However, no First System or Second System fortress was captured by the British. The British succeeded in entering <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a> by capturing a fort on <a href="/wiki/Craney_Island_(Virginia)" title="Craney Island (Virginia)">Craney Island</a> near Norfolk and bypassing the area's two other forts. The invasion of <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore, Maryland">Baltimore</a> was prevented by <a href="/wiki/Fort_McHenry" title="Fort McHenry">Fort McHenry</a> and supporting forts and troops. These included shoreline batteries at Forts Babcock and Covington to the west, Fort Look-Out (or the Six-Gun Battery) on the peninsula to the rear in the west, a temporary naval battery across the Patapsco channel to the east at <a href="/wiki/Lazaretto_Point_Light" title="Lazaretto Point Light">Lazaretto Point</a>, and sunken ships blocking the channels on either side of Fort McHenry, along with 20,000 militia dug in on the east side of the town at "Loudenschlager's Hill" (later "Hampstead Hill" in today's <a href="/wiki/Patterson_Park" title="Patterson Park">Patterson Park</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intense all-night bombardment of Fort McHenry by the British ships offshore was memorialized by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key" title="Francis Scott Key">Francis Scott Key</a>, a Baltimore lawyer who witnessed the ferocious attack from one of the vessels, and put down his thoughts watching the barrage—which failed to either destroy the fort or subdue its defenders—in a four-stanza poem, which became known as <a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">The Star-Spangled Banner</a> and later became America's national anthem. In some cases even incomplete forts (some with fake wooden cannon barrels painted black pointed out the embrasures) were sufficient to deter attack from the sea. But, undefended and unfortified, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, the national capital, was burned after the land militia forces were routed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bladensburg" title="Battle of Bladensburg">Battle of Bladensburg</a> northeast of the capital in <a href="/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County,_Maryland" title="Prince George's County, Maryland">Prince George's County, Maryland</a>. Washington had one fort, which the British bypassed, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Washington_Park" title="Fort Washington Park">Fort Washington</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</a> just below <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia" title="Alexandria, Virginia">Alexandria, Virginia</a>, whose commander ordered the magazine blown when the passing British fleet appeared nearby, after the British had already occupied Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The present Fort Washington was built on the site of the destroyed Fort Washington in the early 1820s as part of the Third System.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the many important and historic documents lost in the British burning of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> were the plans to the first Fort Washington (begun as Fort Warburton) and other Second System forts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_System">Third System</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Third System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fortpoint03162006.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Fortpoint03162006.JPG/220px-Fortpoint03162006.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Fortpoint03162006.JPG/330px-Fortpoint03162006.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Fortpoint03162006.JPG/440px-Fortpoint03162006.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="2097" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fort_Point,_San_Francisco" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Point, San Francisco">Fort Point</a> - San Francisco - example of a mid-1800s Third System fort</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pulaski_Zoom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Pulaski_Zoom.jpg/220px-Pulaski_Zoom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Pulaski_Zoom.jpg/330px-Pulaski_Zoom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Pulaski_Zoom.jpg/440px-Pulaski_Zoom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2571" data-file-height="2388" /></a><figcaption>Damaged wall - <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pulaski" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Pulaski">Fort Pulaski</a> on the coast of Georgia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FortKnoxCannon.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/FortKnoxCannon.JPG/220px-FortKnoxCannon.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/FortKnoxCannon.JPG/330px-FortKnoxCannon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/FortKnoxCannon.JPG/440px-FortKnoxCannon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun" title="Rodman gun">Civil War 10-inch Rodman gun</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Knox_(Maine)" title="Fort Knox (Maine)">Fort Knox (Maine)</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In 1816, following the War of 1812, Congress appropriated over $800,000 for an ambitious seacoast defensive system which was known as the Third System. A Board of Engineers for Fortifications, appointed by President <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, visited potential sites and prepared plans for the new forts. The Board's original 1821 report established the policy which would remain in place for most of the 19th century. The original report suggested 50 sites, but by 1850 the board had identified nearly 200 sites for fortification. The Army built forts at 42 of these sites, with several additional sites containing towers or batteries. </p><p>The forts were originally intended to mount mostly 42-pounder (7 inch or 178 mm) seacoast guns; however, due to a shortage of these weapons many 32-pounder (6.4 inch or 163 mm) seacoast guns and 8-inch (203 mm) and 10-inch (254 mm) <a href="/wiki/Columbiad" title="Columbiad">columbiads</a> were mounted instead. </p><p>The main defensive works were often large structures, based on combining the <a href="/wiki/Marc_Ren%C3%A9,_marquis_de_Montalembert" title="Marc René, marquis de Montalembert">Montalembert</a> concept, with many guns concentrated in tall, thick masonry walls, and the <a href="/wiki/Vauban" class="mw-redirect" title="Vauban">Vauban</a> concept, with layers of low, protected-masonry walls. Most Third System forts had at least two tiers of cannon; the First and Second System forts often had only one tier. Construction was generally overseen by officers of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">Army's Corps of Engineers</a>. Smaller works guarded less significant harbors. U.S. Army engineer officer <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Totten" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Totten">Joseph Totten</a> and former French engineer officer <a href="/wiki/Simon_Bernard" title="Simon Bernard">Simon Bernard</a> (commissioned a <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)" title="Brevet (military)">brevet</a> brigadier general in the U.S. Army) designed the larger forts and key features of most of the smaller forts, such as the Totten <a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">casemate</a>, which allowed a good field of fire with a minimal <a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">embrasure</a> size.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the Third System in 1867, 42 forts covered the major harbors along the coastline. While most of the forts were completed, several of the forts—mostly in New England—were still under construction. A few of these forts, such as Fort Preble, Fort Totten, and Fort Constitution, were readied for armament even though they were far from complete. </p><p>The Corps of Engineers listed the forts from northeast to southwest, then to the Pacific Coast. The same order is used here for the new-construction forts of the Third System: </p> <ul><li>Penobscot River, Maine: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Knox_(Maine)" title="Fort Knox (Maine)">Fort Knox</a>;</li> <li>Kennebec River, Maine: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Popham" title="Fort Popham">Fort Popham</a>;</li> <li>Portland Harbor, Maine: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Gorges" title="Fort Gorges">Fort Gorges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Scammell" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Scammell">Fort Scammell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Preble" title="Fort Preble">Fort Preble</a>;</li> <li>Kittery Point, Maine: <a href="/wiki/Fort_McClary" title="Fort McClary">Fort McClary</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Portsmouth, New Hampshire: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Constitution">Fort Constitution</a>;</li> <li>Boston Harbor, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Warren_(Massachusetts)" title="Fort Warren (Massachusetts)">Fort Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Independence_(Massachusetts)" title="Fort Independence (Massachusetts)">Fort Independence</a>;</li> <li>New Bedford, Massachusetts: Fort at Clark's Point (later <a href="/wiki/Fort_Rodman" title="Fort Rodman">Fort Rodman</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Newport, Rhode Island: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Adams" title="Fort Adams">Fort Adams</a>;</li> <li>New London, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Trumbull" title="Fort Trumbull">Fort Trumbull</a>;</li> <li>New York City, New York: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Schuyler" title="Fort Schuyler">Fort Schuyler</a>, Fort at Willets Point (later <a href="/wiki/Fort_Totten_(Queens)" title="Fort Totten (Queens)">Fort Totten</a>), <a href="/wiki/Fort_Tompkins_(Staten_Island)" title="Fort Tompkins (Staten Island)">Fort Tompkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_Weed" title="Battery Weed">Fort Richmond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hamilton" title="Fort Hamilton">Fort Hamilton</a>, Fort on Sandy Hook, New Jersey (later <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hancock,_New_Jersey" title="Fort Hancock, New Jersey">Fort Hancock</a>);</li> <li>Pea Patch Island, Delaware: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Delaware" title="Fort Delaware">Fort Delaware</a>;</li> <li>Baltimore Harbor, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Carroll" title="Fort Carroll">Fort Carroll</a>;</li> <li>(Washington, D.C.) Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Washington_Park" title="Fort Washington Park">Fort Washington</a>;</li> <li>Norfolk, Virginia: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a>, Fort Calhoun (later <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wool" title="Fort Wool">Fort Wool</a>);</li> <li>Beaufort, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Macon" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Macon">Fort Macon</a>;</li> <li>Wilmington, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Caswell" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Caswell">Fort Caswell</a>;</li> <li>Charleston, South Carolina: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a>;</li> <li>Savannah, Georgia: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pulaski" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Pulaski">Fort Pulaski</a>;</li> <li>St. Marys River, Florida: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Clinch" title="Fort Clinch">Fort Clinch</a>;</li> <li>Key West, Florida: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Taylor">Fort Taylor</a>;</li> <li>Dry Tortugas, Florida: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Jefferson,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Jefferson, Florida">Fort Jefferson</a>;</li> <li>Pensacola Bay, Florida: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pickens" title="Fort Pickens">Fort Pickens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Barrancas" title="Fort Barrancas">Fort Barrancas</a>, Advanced Redoubt, <a href="/wiki/Fort_McRee" title="Fort McRee">Fort McRee</a>;</li> <li>Mobile Bay, Alabama: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Morgan_(Alabama)" title="Fort Morgan (Alabama)">Fort Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Gaines_(Alabama)" title="Fort Gaines (Alabama)">Fort Gaines</a>;</li> <li>New Orleans, Louisiana: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Massachusetts_(Mississippi)" title="Fort Massachusetts (Mississippi)">Fort Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pike" title="Fort Pike">Fort Pike</a>, Fort Wood (later <a href="/wiki/Fort_Macomb" title="Fort Macomb">Fort Macomb</a>), <a href="/wiki/Fort_Jackson,_Louisiana" title="Fort Jackson, Louisiana">Fort Jackson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_St._Philip" title="Fort St. Philip">Fort St. Philip</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Livingston,_Louisiana" title="Fort Livingston, Louisiana">Fort Livingston</a>;</li> <li>San Francisco Bay: <a href="/wiki/Fort_Point,_San_Francisco" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Point, San Francisco">Fort Point</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Alcatraz" title="Fort Alcatraz">Fort Alcatraz</a>.</li></ul> <p>In addition, several towers and batteries were constructed in support of the forts or at lesser harbors. First and Second System forts were renovated during the system as well, and readied for the larger cannon prevalent during that period.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_War">Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Again, changes in technology affected design; the higher velocity ordnance of new rifled cannons crushed and penetrated the masonry walls of Third System forts. Severe damage was inflicted to forts on the Atlantic Coast during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> was bombarded into surrender by <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate</a> batteries in 1861, and reduced to rubble during <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union</a> efforts towards its recapture. In 1862 <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pulaski" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Pulaski">Fort Pulaski</a> in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> was forced to surrender after only 30 hours of bombardment with rifled cannon, primarily large-caliber <a href="/wiki/Parrott_rifle" title="Parrott rifle">Parrott rifles</a>. </p><p>Many of the larger smoothbore cannon (32-pounder and up) were rifled and equipped with breech bands to support larger powder charges and extend their effective range during the Civil War. This process is referred to as "banded and rifled". </p><p>During the Civil War, naval officers learned that their <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamships</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_warship" title="Ironclad warship">ironclad vessels</a> could run past Confederate-held Third System forts with acceptable losses, such as at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a>. </p><p>The urgencies of war required that new forts or improvements be constructed quickly and at low cost. Partially completed Third System forts were finished, but new construction was mostly wood-revetted earthworks. Frequently earthworks were built near a Third System fort in order to supplement its firepower, but often they were stand-alone fortifications. In some cases, cannon from masonry forts were dispersed to earthen bunkers where they were better protected. The fortification of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay" title="San Francisco Bay">San Francisco Bay</a> is a good example, where the typical Third System Fort Point at the mouth of the bay was effectively replaced by dispersed earthworks and low-walled fortifications nearby on <a href="/wiki/Alcatraz_Island" title="Alcatraz Island">Alcatraz Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angel_Island,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Angel Island, California">Angel Island</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marin_Headlands" title="Marin Headlands">Marin Headlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mason" title="Fort Mason">Fort Mason</a>. Following the war, work on masonry forts ended in 1867, leaving several incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minefields">Minefields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Minefields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a> used the term "torpedo" to describe an underwater explosive device in 1805. Samuel Colt experimented with electrical firing of the torpedo. During the Civil War, these <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">underwater mines</a> became an important supplementary defense measure. The <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a>, without a large navy to protect its harbors, relied on mines extensively to deter attacks by Union ships. <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">Electrically fired torpedoes</a>, later termed mines, controlled from mine <a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">casemates</a> ashore were developed during and after the Civil War as part of coastal defenses.<sup id="cite_ref-tormin_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tormin-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_weapons_during_the_Civil_War">Coast artillery weapons during the Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Coast artillery weapons during the Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:200pdrParrott.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/200pdrParrott.jpg/300px-200pdrParrott.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/200pdrParrott.jpg/450px-200pdrParrott.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/200pdrParrott.jpg/600px-200pdrParrott.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2418" data-file-height="1597" /></a><figcaption>Two of the Civil War's heavy weapons: an 8-inch (200-pdr) Parrott rifle (front) and a 15-inch Rodman gun (rear) at <a href="/wiki/Battery_Rodgers" title="Battery Rodgers">Battery Rodgers</a>, Alexandria, Virginia.</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous types of seacoast artillery were used in the Civil War. Except for the 20-inch Rodmans, of which only three Army weapons were built, the following list includes only widely deployed weapons. See <a href="/wiki/Siege_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Siege artillery in the American Civil War">Siege artillery in the American Civil War</a> for more information. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoothbore" title="Smoothbore">Smoothbore</a> weapons:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>32-pounder (6.4-inch or 163 mm) and 42-pounder (7-inch or 178 mm) seacoast guns</li> <li>8-inch (203 mm) and 10-inch (254 mm) <a href="/wiki/Columbiad" title="Columbiad">columbiads</a></li> <li>8-inch, 10-inch, 15-inch (381 mm) and 20-inch (508 mm) <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun" title="Rodman gun">Rodman guns</a> (a type of columbiad)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifled" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifled">Rifled</a> weapons:<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Rifled and sometimes banded variants of smoothbore guns ranging from 24-pounder (5.82-inch) to 10-inch caliber; one Union rifling system was called the <a href="/wiki/James_rifle" title="James rifle">James rifle</a></li> <li>6.4-inch (100-pdr), 8-inch (200-pdr), and 10-inch (300-pdr) <a href="/wiki/Parrott_rifle" title="Parrott rifle">Parrott rifles</a></li> <li>6.4-inch and 7-inch (178 mm) <a href="/wiki/Brooke_rifle" title="Brooke rifle">Brooke rifles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a> made)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post_Civil_War_to_the_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps">Post Civil War to the creation of the Coast Artillery Corps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Post Civil War to the creation of the Coast Artillery Corps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war, construction for several new Third System forts began in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>. These were to be built of stone rather than brick, and designed to accommodate the large-bore cannon developed during the war. However, in 1867 money for masonry fortifications was cut off, and the Third System came to a close. </p><p>The vulnerability of masonry to rifled cannon and large-caliber smoothbore cannon and fewer concerns for invasion led to the construction of well-dispersed masonry-revetted earthen fortifications with brick-lined magazines, often located near Third System forts. These were typically armed with 15-inch <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun" title="Rodman gun">Rodman guns</a> and 8-inch <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun#Rifled_Rodmans" title="Rodman gun">converted rifles</a>; in some cases, the forts were also rearmed with these weapons. All of the larger Parrott rifles had burst frequently during the war, so few of these were retained in service after the war. Also during the 1870s, a number of new projects were started to include large caliber mortars and <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">submarine mines</a>. However, the facilities for the mortars and mines were never completed, and funding for the new fortifications was cut off by 1878, leaving much of the program unfinished. By the 1880s most of the earthen fortifications were in disrepair.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitors_for_coast_defense">Monitors for coast defense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monitors for coast defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monitor_monterrey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Monitor_monterrey.jpg/250px-Monitor_monterrey.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Monitor_monterrey.jpg/375px-Monitor_monterrey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Monitor_monterrey.jpg/500px-Monitor_monterrey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="458" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/USS_Monterey_(BM-6)" title="USS Monterey (BM-6)">USS <i>Monterey</i></a>, a late-<a href="/wiki/19th-century" class="mw-redirect" title="19th-century">19th-century</a> <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> monitor-style coastal defense ship.</figcaption></figure> <p>Though coastal defense was generally within the purview of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a> became more involved in the late <a href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a> with <a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_ship" title="Coastal defence ship">coastal defense ships</a>, generally called <a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">monitors</a>. These monitors were turreted ironclad warships (inspired and named by the famous precedent-setting <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Ironclad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironclad">ironclad</a> warship of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Battle of Hampton Roads</a> harbor in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> of March 1862, during the Civil War), as well as a future type of class for coastal warfare ships which closely followed her design by <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">John Ericsson</a> (1803-1889), the term "monitor" also encompassed more flexible breastwork monitors which had a modest armored superstructure and were thus more seaworthy. These also featured modern rifled breech-loading guns. </p><p>These post-1862 monitor-style ships of steel and iron were used extensively in offensive roles during the Civil War, but were impractical for open-ocean service and offensive action abroad. They were, however, ideally suited for coastal and harbor defense with their shallow draft and large guns. Postwar, Civil War-era monitors were dispersed to important major American harbors, including <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a> on the west coast. From the <a href="/wiki/1870s" title="1870s">1870s</a> to the <a href="/wiki/1890s" title="1890s">1890s</a>, larger and more powerful breastwork monitors were produced, such as the <a href="/wiki/Amphitrite-class_monitor" title="Amphitrite-class monitor"><i>Amphitrite</i> class</a>, while the ocean-going navy was slow to make the transition to steel hulls and armor plating. An improvement on the monitor concept was the coastal battleship, such as the <a href="/wiki/Indiana-class_battleship" title="Indiana-class battleship"><i>Indiana</i> class</a> of the 1890s. </p><p>As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> and the subsequent acquisition of territories of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> and its chain of islands in the central <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> islands in the far western Pacific, off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> in 1898. By the following early <a href="/wiki/1900s" title="1900s">1900s</a>, the expanded American Navy under 26th President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (1858-1919, served 1901-1909), was committed to a <a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue-water navy</a> fleet of ocean-going steel <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">cruisers</a> and ceased building monitors; however, some of the older vessels remained in naval service up to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in combat-prepared roles, and as training or auxiliary vessels thereafter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_weapons_between_the_Civil_War_and_Endicott_period">Coast artillery weapons between the Civil War and Endicott period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coast artillery weapons between the Civil War and Endicott period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Endicott Program was largely implemented 1895–1905. As Endicott facilities were constructed in each harbor defense area, the previous coastal defenses were usually abandoned. Only widely deployed weapons are listed. The larger Parrott rifles had shown a tendency to burst during the war, so only a few were retained in service after the war, in emplacements that took advantage of their long range. </p> <ul><li>10-inch (254 mm) and 15-inch (381 mm) <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun" title="Rodman gun">Rodman smoothbore guns</a></li> <li>8-inch (203 mm) <a href="/wiki/Rodman_gun#Rifled_Rodmans" title="Rodman gun">Rodman converted rifles</a> (converted from 10-inch Rodman guns)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endicott_period">Endicott period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Endicott period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_Casey_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fort_Casey_05.jpg/250px-Fort_Casey_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fort_Casey_05.jpg/375px-Fort_Casey_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fort_Casey_05.jpg/500px-Fort_Casey_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>10-inch disappearing gun installation, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Casey" title="Fort Casey">Fort Casey</a>, Washington state.</figcaption></figure> <p>As early as 1882, the need for heavy fixed artillery for then modern seacoast defense was noted in 21st President <a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a>'s Second Annual Message to the Congress (later known as the <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a> address, after 1913), as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I call your attention to the recommendation of the Secretary and the board that authority be given to construct <a href="/wiki/USS_Atlanta_(1884)" title="USS Atlanta (1884)">two more cruisers</a> of smaller dimensions and one <a href="/wiki/USS_Dolphin_(PG-24)" title="USS Dolphin (PG-24)">fleet dispatch vessel</a>, and that appropriations be made for high-power rifled cannon for the <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">torpedo service</a> and for other harbor defenses.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Prior efforts at harbor defense construction had ceased in the <a href="/wiki/1870s" title="1870s">1870s</a>. Since that time, the design and construction of heavy ordnance in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> had advanced rapidly, including the development of superior breech-loading and longer-ranged cannon, making U.S. harbor defenses obsolete. In 1883, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> began a new construction program and class of steel-hulled, steam-powered propeller warships with rotating gun turrets with an emphasis on offensive rather than defensive vessels. These factors combined to create a need for improved coastal defense systems. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg/250px-6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg/375px-6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg/500px-6in_Rifled_Gun_No_9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Typical Endicott period 6-inch (152 mm) disappearing rifle at <a href="/wiki/Battery_Chamberlin" title="Battery Chamberlin">Battery Chamberlin</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1885, 22nd (& 24th) President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (1837-1908, served 1885-1889 / 1893-1897), in his first term appointed a joint Army, Navy, and civilian board, headed by his <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">U.S. Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Crowninshield_Endicott" title="William Crowninshield Endicott">William Crowninshield Endicott</a>, (1826-1900, served 1885-1889), known as the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Fortifications" title="Board of Fortifications">Board of Fortifications</a>. The findings of the board illustrated a grim picture of existing defenses in its 1886 report and recommended a massive $127 million dollars construction program of breech-loading cannons with rifled / grooved barrels for firing pointed shells (rather than old-fashioned cannon balls), mortars, floating batteries, and submarine mines for some 29 locations on the U.S. coastlines (East, South and West). Most of the new Board's recommendations were adopted by the President, the Congress and the two military executive departments. This led to a large-scale modernization program of <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">harbor and coastal defenses</a> in the United States, especially the construction of modern steel bar-<a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a> fortifications of more formidable defenses and the installation of large caliber breech-loading artillery and <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortar</a> batteries. Typically, Endicott period projects were not fortresses, but a system of well-dispersed emplacements with a few large guns in each location. The structures were usually open-topped concrete walls protected by earthworks berms and embedded in their deep trench sloping walls. Many of these featured <a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">disappearing guns</a>, which sat protected behind the walls, but could be raised to fire. With a few exceptions early in the program, These Endicott-style forts had no significant defenses against an amphibious land attack. <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">Controlled mine fields</a> were a critical component of the defense, and smaller guns were also employed to protect the mine fields from enemy naval <a href="/wiki/Minesweeper" title="Minesweeper">minesweeping vessels</a>. An extensive <a href="/wiki/Coast_Artillery_fire_control_system" title="Coast Artillery fire control system">Coast Artillery fire control system</a> was developed and provided for the forts of each Artillery District.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Endicott fortifications were constructed from 1895 through 1905. As the defenses were constructed, each harbor or river's installations were controlled by Artillery Districts, renamed <a href="/wiki/Coast_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Coast Defense Command">Coast Defense Commands</a> in 1913 and <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">Harbor Defense Commands</a> in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-CACorg_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACorg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> in April 1898, the Endicott Program had completed only a few batteries at each harbor. Following the infamous and tragic explosion and sinking of the new battleship <a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)" title="USS Maine (1889)">USS <i>Maine</i></a> on 15 February, an Act of Congress a month later of 9 March 1898 authorized the construction of batteries that could be rapidly armed at numerous East Coast locations. It was feared that the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish fleet</a> would bombard US ports. Completion of Endicott batteries and refurbishment or redeployment of 1870s batteries were also included. The 1870s-type batteries were armed with Civil War-era Rodman guns and Parrott rifles, along with some new weapons: 21 <a href="/wiki/8-inch_M1888" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch M1888">8-inch M1888</a> guns (slated for incomplete Endicott forts) on modified 1870s Rodman gun carriages.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New batteries were also begun for eight <a href="/wiki/QF_6_inch_/40_naval_gun#US_service" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 6 inch /40 naval gun">6-inch Armstrong guns</a> and 34 <a href="/wiki/QF_4.7-inch_Gun_Mk_I%E2%80%93IV#United_States_service" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 4.7-inch Gun Mk I–IV">4.72-inch Armstrong guns</a>, purchased from the United Kingdom to provide some modern quick-firing medium-caliber guns, as none of the Endicott Program's 6-inch or 3-inch batteries had been completed. <a href="/wiki/Field_artillery" title="Field artillery">Field artillery</a>, primarily 5-inch siege guns and 7-inch siege howitzers, was also deployed, mostly in the southeastern states of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>. Many of these batteries were not completed until 1899, after the war was over, and the 8-inch guns were withdrawn within a few years as modern emplacements for them were completed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1901_reorganization">1901 reorganization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1901 reorganization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Army leaders realized that heavy fixed artillery required different training programs and tactics than mobile field artillery. Prior to 1901 each of the seven artillery regiments contained both heavy and light artillery batteries. In February 1901, with the Endicott program well under way, the Artillery Corps was divided into two types: field artillery and coast artillery. The previous seven artillery regiments were dissolved, and 30 numbered companies of field artillery (commonly called batteries) and 126 numbered companies of coast artillery (CA) were authorized. 82 existing heavy artillery batteries were designated as coast artillery companies, and 44 new CA companies were created by splitting existing units and filling their ranks with recruits. The company-based organization was for flexibility, as each harbor defense command was differently equipped and a task-based organization was needed. The Coast Artillery would alternate between small unit and regimental organization several times over its history. The head of the Artillery Corps became the Chief of Artillery in the rank of brigadier general with jurisdiction over both types of artillery.<sup id="cite_ref-CACorg_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACorg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mine_planters">Mine planters</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mine planters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg/250px-USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg/375px-USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg/500px-USAMP_RINGGOLD_which_planted_practice_groups_of_mines_inthe_Columbia_River_during_the_1920%27s._-_NARA_-_299666.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1813" /></a><figcaption>USAMP <i>Major Samuel Ringgold</i>, built 1904, which planted practice groups of mines in the Columbia River during the 1920s. (National Archives and Records Administration)</figcaption></figure> <p>Circa 1901 the Coast Artillery took responsibility for the installation and operation of the <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">controlled mine fields</a> from the Corps of Engineers; these were planted to be under observation, remotely detonated electrically, and protected by fixed guns.<sup id="cite_ref-CACorg_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACorg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With that responsibility the Coast Artillery began to acquire the vessels required to plant and maintain the mine fields and cables connecting the mines to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227131148/http://www.fortmiles.org/firepower/support/mineplr.html">mine casemate</a> ashore, organized as a "Submarine Mine Battery" within the <a href="/wiki/Coast_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Coast Defense Command">coast defense command</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CACorg_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACorg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger vessels, called "<a href="/wiki/Mine_planter_(U.S._Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mine planter (U.S. Army)">mine planters</a>", were civilian crewed until the creation of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Mine_Planter_Service_(U.S._Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mine Planter Service (U.S. Army)">Army Mine Planter Service</a> (AMPS) and Warrant Officer Corps to provide officers and engineers for these vessels in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miles_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miles-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mine component was considered to be among the principal armament of coastal defense works.<sup id="cite_ref-Miles_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miles-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Coast Artillery Corps was disestablished and the artillery branches merged in 1950,<sup id="cite_ref-CACorg_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACorg-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some of the mine planter vessels were transferred to the U.S. Navy and <a href="/wiki/Hull_classification_symbol" title="Hull classification symbol">redesignated</a> as Auxiliary Minelayers (ACM/MMA).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Endicott_period">Coast artillery weapons of the Endicott period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Coast artillery weapons of the Endicott period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These weapons were emplaced between 1895 and 1905. Only widely deployed weapons are listed. Most except the mortars, 3-inch guns, and some 6-inch guns were on <a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">disappearing carriages</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">barbette</a> carriages (also called pedestal carriages) used for the remainder.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some harbor defenses in less-threatened locations were disarmed following <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (some of these retained minefields), many of these weapons remained in service until superseded by 16-inch guns and scrapped during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_Gun_M1895" class="mw-redirect" title="12-inch Gun M1895">12-inch gun M1888, M1895, M1900</a> (305 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch mortar M1886, M1890</a> (305 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/10-inch_gun_M1895" title="10-inch gun M1895">10-inch gun M1888, M1895, M1900</a> (254 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_gun_M1888" title="8-inch gun M1888">8-inch gun M1888</a> (203 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1897" title="6-inch gun M1897">6-inch gun M1897, M1900, M1903</a> (152 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-inch_gun_M1897" title="5-inch gun M1897">5-inch gun M1897, M1900</a> (127 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1903" title="3-inch gun M1903">3-inch gun M1898, M1902, M1903</a> (76 mm)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taft_Board_and_creation_of_the_Coast_Artillery_Corps">Taft Board and creation of the Coast Artillery Corps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Taft Board and creation of the Coast Artillery Corps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1905, after the experiences of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> appointed a new fortifications board, under Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>. They updated some standards and reviewed the progress on the Endicott Board's program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical; such as adding more <a href="/wiki/Searchlight" title="Searchlight">searchlights</a>, electrification (lighting, communications, and projectile handling), and more sophisticated optical aiming techniques. The board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain: <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, and a few other sites. Defenses in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> were authorized by the <a href="/wiki/Spooner_Act" title="Spooner Act">Spooner Act</a> of 1902. The Taft Program fortifications differed slightly in battery construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott Program. Due to the rapid development of <a href="/wiki/Dreadnought_battleship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreadnought battleship">dreadnought battleships</a>, a new <a href="/wiki/14-inch_gun_M1907" title="14-inch gun M1907">14-inch gun</a> was introduced in a few locations and improved models of other weapons were also introduced. By the beginning of World War I, the United States had a coastal defense system that was equal to any other nation. </p><p>The rapidity of technological advances and changing techniques increasingly separated coastal defenses (heavy) from field artillery (light). Officers were rarely qualified to command both, requiring specialization. As a result, in 1907, Congress split Field Artillery and Coast Artillery into separate branches, creating a separate <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Coast_Artillery_Corps" title="United States Army Coast Artillery Corps">Coast Artillery Corps</a> (CAC), and authorized an increase in the Coast Artillery Corps to 170 numbered companies. In 1907, the Artillery School at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> became the Coast Artillery School, which operated until 1946, and in 1908, the Chief of Artillery became the Chief of Coast Artillery. </p><p>In an exercise in 1907 at <a href="/wiki/Subic_Bay" title="Subic Bay">Subic Bay</a>, Philippines, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">U.S. Marine</a> battalion of the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Base_Force" title="Advanced Base Force">Advanced Base Force</a> commanded by Major <a href="/wiki/Eli_K._Cole" title="Eli K. Cole">Eli K. Cole</a> emplaced forty-four heavy guns for coast defense in a ten-week period, due to the <a href="/wiki/Eight-eight_fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-eight fleet">Eight-eight fleet</a> war scare with Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These guns were operated by the Marines until circa 1910, when the Coast Artillery Corps' modern defenses centered on <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wint" title="Fort Wint">Fort Wint</a> on <a href="/wiki/Grande_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Grande Island">Grande Island</a> were completed.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fort_Drum">Fort Drum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fort Drum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FortDrum_After.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/FortDrum_After.jpg/250px-FortDrum_After.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/FortDrum_After.jpg/375px-FortDrum_After.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/FortDrum_After.jpg/500px-FortDrum_After.jpg 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fort_Drum_(El_Fraile_Island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Drum (El Fraile Island)">Fort Drum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manila_Bay" title="Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a>, Philippines, was a result of the Taft board program</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the most extreme fortresses of the early 20th century was <a href="/wiki/Fort_Drum_(El_Fraile_Island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Drum (El Fraile Island)">Fort Drum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manila_Bay" title="Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. Originally a barren rock island, it was leveled by U.S. Army engineers between 1910 and 1914 and then built up with thick layers of steel-reinforced concrete into a massive structure roughly resembling a concrete battleship. It was the only true <a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">sea fort</a> of the Endicott and Taft programs. The fort was topped with a pair of armored steel gun turrets, each mounting two <a href="/wiki/14-inch_gun_M1907" title="14-inch gun M1907">14-inch (356 mm) M1909 guns</a>; this model was specially designed for Fort Drum and was not deployed elsewhere. Four <a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1908" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1908">6-inch (152 mm) M1908 guns</a> on M1910 pedestal mounts in <a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">casemates</a> were also equipped. Searchlights, <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">anti-aircraft</a> batteries, and a fire direction tower were also mounted on its upper surface. The 25-to-36-foot-thick (7.6 to 11.0 m) fortress walls protected extensive <a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">ammunition</a> magazines, machine spaces, and living quarters for the 200 man garrison. The extensive level of fortification was not typical of the period, but driven by the exposed location. Although the design predated concerns about defense from air attack, the design proved to be exemplary for that purpose. </p><p>After the outbreak of war in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a> on 7 December 1941, Fort Drum withstood heavy <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan">Japanese</a> air and land bombardment as it supported U.S. and Filipino defenders on <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bataan" title="Battle of Bataan">Bataan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corregidor" title="Battle of Corregidor">Corregidor</a> until the very end on 6 May 1942. The fortress was among the last U.S. posts to <a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">hold out against the Japanese</a> and did not surrender until ordered by superiors after Corregidor had been overrun, but not until the U.S. soldiers had sabotaged the guns and ordnance to prevent use by the Japanese. Ironically, even without the guns, the Japanese in Fort Drum were among the last holdouts when U.S. forces <a href="/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippines Campaign (1944–45)">recaptured the Philippines</a> in 1945. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-propelled_torpedoes">Self-propelled torpedoes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Self-propelled torpedoes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mines as we know them today were frequently referred to as torpedoes in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The self-propelled <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a> as we know it was derived from the concept of the mine, with early <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_boat" title="Torpedo boat">torpedo boats</a> evolving as defensive weapons in the 1890s to deliver torpedoes against attacking fleets. During early development, it was not clear whether submarines and torpedo boats would be in the purview of the Army or the Navy, since the Army was responsible for the use and development of stationary minefields and other fixed coastal defenses. As the range and potential uses of submarines and torpedo boats grew, it became more apparent that these were naval vessels, and both surface- and submarine-delivered torpedoes were an important aspect of naval coastal defense strategies. However, self-propelled torpedoes were not included in the Army's coastal defenses. Shore-launched <a href="/wiki/Whitehead_torpedo" title="Whitehead torpedo">Whitehead compressed air driven torpedoes</a> were the first deployed, in Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Submarines and airplanes became more important, with the former being a perceived if not actual threat to U.S. harbors. This concern caused an increase in the use of mines and nets, and demand for superior artillery. However, as the war progressed it became more clear that the enemies did not have the resources to bring the war across the Atlantic, and progress diminished along with concerns. Curiously, despite the rise of air power in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, it received little consideration in U.S. coast defense design until the late 1930s, probably due to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a> as a threat. In response to the rapid improvements in <a href="/wiki/Dreadnought_battleship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreadnought battleship">dreadnought battleships</a>, approximately 14 two-gun batteries of <a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch guns</a> on a new M1917 long-range barbette carriage began construction in 1917, but none were completed until 1920. </p><p>Due to their experience and training with large guns, the Coast Artillery operated all U.S. Army heavy artillery (<a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155mm_GPF" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon de 155mm GPF">155 mm gun</a> and up) in World War I, primarily French- and British-made weapons. They also acquired the <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">anti-aircraft</a> mission in that war. A number of 5-inch and 6-inch guns were withdrawn from coast defenses and remounted on wheeled carriages for use on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>, with about 72 6-inch (possibly including some Navy guns) and 26 <a href="/wiki/5-inch_gun_M1897" title="5-inch gun M1897">5-inch guns</a> shipped to France. However, due to the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice</a>, none of the units equipped with repurposed coast defense guns completed training in time to see action.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a few of the 6-inch guns and none of the 5-inch guns were returned to the coast defenses after the war. Most of the 6-inch guns were stored until remounted in World War II, and the 5-inch guns were declared obsolete and scrapped circa 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-Willi1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willi1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Railway_artillery">Railway artillery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Railway artillery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_people%27s_war_book;_history,_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_(1919)_(14595420937).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814595420937%29.jpg/300px-The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814595420937%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814595420937%29.jpg/450px-The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814595420937%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814595420937%29.jpg/600px-The_people%27s_war_book%3B_history%2C_cyclopaedia_and_chronology_of_the_great_world_war_%281919%29_%2814595420937%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2672" data-file-height="1652" /></a><figcaption>8-inch M1888 railway gun with ammunition wagon.</figcaption></figure> <p>A large-scale program to mount <a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch mortars</a> along with 8-inch, 10-inch, and 12-inch guns and some other weapons as <a href="/wiki/Railway_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway artillery">railway artillery</a> was partially implemented during and shortly after World War I, with the weapons withdrawn from less-threatened forts and from spares. A general program to reduce mortars from four per pit to two per pit created a surplus of these weapons. The cramped pits created difficulties in reloading; a two-mortar pit had roughly the same rate of fire as a four-mortar pit. Despite a large-scale effort, of all these weapons only three 8-inch guns were delivered to France before the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice</a>, due to shipping priorities. The mortars and 8-inch guns were on trainable mounts, thus were suitable for use as coast defense weapons; the other weapons were returned to the forts after the war. Sources indicated that up to 91 12-inch mortars and 47 <a href="/wiki/8-inch_M1888" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch M1888">8-inch guns</a> were retained as railway coast defense weapons through World War II, with most of the 8-inch guns deployed and almost all of the mortars held in reserve.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hogg1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogg1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During World War I, the U.S. Navy implemented a more successful program that delivered five <a href="/wiki/14%22/50_caliber_railway_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="14"/50 caliber railway gun">14"/50 caliber railway guns</a> to France in time to support the final Allied offensives. However, these weapons' mountings were not suitable for coast defense and they were retired after that war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_weapons_of_the_Taft_period_and_World_War_I">Coast artillery weapons of the Taft period and World War I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Coast artillery weapons of the Taft period and World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A new 14-inch (356 mm) gun and improved versions of some Endicott period weapons were introduced from 1905 to 1918, supplementing rather than replacing the previous weapons. The 14-inch guns were emplaced in the new harbor defenses of <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Manila_and_Subic_Bays" title="Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays">Manila Bay</a> in the Philippines. A one-off <a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1895" title="16-inch gun M1895">16-inch gun M1895</a> (406 mm) was also deployed on a disappearing carriage on the Pacific side of the Panama Canal in 1914; this was the first 16-inch gun in U.S. service. Only widely deployed seacoast weapons are included in this list. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/14-inch_gun_M1907" title="14-inch gun M1907">14-inch gun M1907, M1910</a> (356 mm)</li> <li>12-inch mortar M1908, M1912</li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1905" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1905">6-inch gun M1905</a>, M1908</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II">Between World War I and World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Between World War I and World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg/300px-12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg/450px-12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg/600px-12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch gun M1895</a> on long-range <a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">barbette</a> carriage M1917.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FortDuvallM191901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/FortDuvallM191901.jpg/300px-FortDuvallM191901.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/FortDuvallM191901.jpg/450px-FortDuvallM191901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/FortDuvallM191901.jpg/600px-FortDuvallM191901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="619" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1919" class="mw-redirect" title="16-inch gun M1919">16-inch gun M1919</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Duvall" title="Fort Duvall">Fort Duvall</a>, Massachusetts, typical of pre-WWII 16-inch installations.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">Airplanes</a> were a minor but increasingly important factor in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and the threat prompted changes to coastal defenses in the 1920s and 1930s. Demonstrations in the 1920s by U.S. Army General <a href="/wiki/Billy_Mitchell" title="Billy Mitchell">Billy Mitchell</a> showed the vulnerability of warships to air attack; this illustrated the use of aircraft for seacoast defense against ships, but also the vulnerability of defenses against air power. In the isolationist United States, <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bombers</a> were seen as more of a defense against naval attack than a strategic offensive weapon. However, planes like the Boeing <a href="/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-17 Flying Fortress">B-17</a>, which evolved as defensive weapons, turned out to have excellent offensive capacity as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drawdown_and_reorganization">Drawdown and reorganization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Drawdown and reorganization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 1920s several types of weapons, mostly those with only a few deployed, were withdrawn from Coast Artillery service. This was probably to simplify the supply situation. The only widely deployed type withdrawn was the <a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1898" class="mw-redirect" title="3-inch gun M1898">3-inch M1898</a> <a href="/wiki/Driggs-Seabury" title="Driggs-Seabury">Driggs-Seabury</a> gun with <a href="/wiki/Masking_parapet" class="mw-redirect" title="Masking parapet">masking parapet</a> (simplified disappearing) mounts, at least 111 of which had been emplaced. The disappearing function had already been disabled due to interfering with aiming the gun, and the weapon had an alarming tendency for the piston rod to break on firing.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others included <a href="/wiki/QF_6_inch_/40_naval_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 6 inch /40 naval gun">6-inch Armstrong guns</a> (9 guns), all three types of <a href="/wiki/QF_4.7-inch_Gun_Mk_I%E2%80%93IV" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 4.7-inch Gun Mk I–IV">4.72-inch Armstrong guns</a> (34 guns), <a href="/wiki/4%22/40_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="4"/40 caliber gun">4-inch/40 caliber</a> Navy <a href="/wiki/Driggs-Schroeder" title="Driggs-Schroeder">Driggs-Schroeder</a> guns (4 guns), and all models of <a href="/wiki/5-inch_gun_M1897" title="5-inch gun M1897">5-inch guns</a> (52 guns). Twenty-six of the 5-inch guns had been sent to France for use on field carriages.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, approximately 72 6-inch guns withdrawn from coast defenses for field service were not immediately remounted; these were eventually remounted on long-range carriages in new batteries during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Except in a few cases, none of these weapons were directly replaced.<sup id="cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._200-228_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._200-228-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 9 June 1925 the Coast Defense Commands were redesignated as <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">Harbor Defense Commands</a> via a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> order.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the 1920s, eight harbor defense commands in less-threatened areas were completely disarmed. These included the Kennebec River, ME, Baltimore, MD, Potomac River, MD and VA, Cape Fear River, NC, Savannah, GA, Tampa Bay, FL, Mobile, AL, and the Mississippi River, LA. It is possible the mine defenses were retained in reserve. Some of these commands were rearmed with "<a href="/wiki/Panama_mount" title="Panama mount">Panama mounts</a>" for mobile artillery early in World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._200-228_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._200-228-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1922, 274 Coast Artillery companies were authorized, 188 of which were active. During that year 44 companies were inactivated, but 14 new companies were created for the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Scouts" title="Philippine Scouts">Philippine Scouts</a>, and a 15th in 1923. The Philippine Scouts, units of mostly Filipino enlisted men and mostly U.S. officers, manned many of the coast defenses in the Philippines and served in other key roles. The General Staff reconfirmed a commitment to artillery and mines as the most practical and cost-effective methods for seacoast defense, as an alternative to a larger Navy or Air Corps. In 1924 the CAC adopted a regimental system, consolidating the companies into 16 <a href="/wiki/Regular_Army_(United_States)" title="Regular Army (United States)">Regular Army</a> harbor defense regiments, two Philippine Scouts regiments (one harbor defense, one tractor-drawn), three Regular tractor-drawn regiments, and two Regular railway regiments. These were supplemented by 11 harbor defense and two tractor-drawn regiments of the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a>, which trained in peacetime for activation in wartime. The total companies authorized remained the same, at 289 with 144 active. There was also a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Reserve" title="United States Army Reserve">Coast Artillery Reserve</a> of 14 harbor defense regiments, four railway regiments, three tractor-drawn regiments, and 42 anti-aircraft regiments in 8 AA brigades. However, many of the Reserve units had only a small number of personnel assigned, and many were demobilized without activation in 1933 and during World War II, or served in that war with different designations.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CACRegCDSG_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACRegCDSG-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CACNGCDSG_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CACNGCDSG-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1930 to 1932 the army drafted new defense projects for each harbor. In 1931 it established a Harbor Defense Board to supervise the execution of these projects.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_weapons">New weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: New weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rapid evolution of <a href="/wiki/Dreadnought_battleship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreadnought battleship">dreadnought battleships</a> between 1905 and 1920 demonstrated the need for improved coast defenses, as most Endicott and Taft period weapons were on short-range mountings and were not large enough to reliably defeat battleship armor. Thirty existing <a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch M1895 guns</a> were mounted on new long-range M1917 barbette carriages in 16 batteries, including two one-gun batteries in the Philippines. Most of these batteries remained in service through the end of World War II. Other new weapons were deployed, but in limited quantities due to budget constraints. <a href="/wiki/14-inch_M1920_railway_gun" title="14-inch M1920 railway gun">14-inch M1920 railway guns</a> were added to the harbor defenses of the Panama Canal and Los Angeles, two at each location. The future of U.S. coast defense was foreshadowed with the adoption of 16-inch (406 mm) guns, initially the <a href="/wiki/16-inch_howitzer_M1920" title="16-inch howitzer M1920">16-inch howitzer M1920</a> (25 <a href="/wiki/Caliber_(artillery)" title="Caliber (artillery)">calibers</a> long) and <a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1919" class="mw-redirect" title="16-inch gun M1919">16-inch gun M1919</a> (50 calibers long). Based on the Coast Artillery's experience operating heavy weapons in World War I, especially the French-made <a href="/wiki/Obusier_de_400_Mod%C3%A8le_1915/1916" title="Obusier de 400 Modèle 1915/1916">400 mm (15.75 inch) Modèle 1916 railway howitzer</a>, new barbette carriages were designed with an elevation of 65 degrees to allow <a href="/wiki/Plunging_fire" title="Plunging fire">plunging fire</a> as enemy ships approached.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four howitzers were deployed at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Story" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Story">Fort Story</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> and seven guns were deployed at four locations near Boston, Long Island, NY, Queens, NY, and <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. In 1922, the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a> caused the U.S. Navy to cancel the <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota-class_battleship_(1920)" title="South Dakota-class battleship (1920)"><i>South Dakota</i>-class</a> battleships and the <a href="/wiki/Lexington-class_battlecruiser" title="Lexington-class battlecruiser"><i>Lexington</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">battlecruiser</a>, surplusing <a href="/wiki/16%22/50_caliber_Mark_2_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun">16-inch/50 caliber Mark II</a> and Mark III barrels. About 70 guns were completed before the treaty went into effect, and the Navy wished to retain most of them for use in future battleships. Initially only 20 guns were transferred to the Army, who built a new version of the M1919 mount for the naval guns. However, only ten of these guns were deployed until 1940, in Pearl Harbor, Panama, and San Francisco. They were known as the 16-inch Navy gun MkIIMI and MkIIIMI in Army service. The 16-inch guns, firing 2,340 lb (1,060 kg) projectiles up to 49,100 yd (44,900 m), were much more effective than any previous U.S. coast defense guns.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another weapon sparsely deployed in the 1930s would become a bigger part of World War II coast defenses. <a href="/wiki/8-inch_Mk._VI_railway_gun" title="8-inch Mk. VI railway gun">8-inch/45 caliber Mark VI naval guns</a> from older battleships scrapped under the Washington Naval Treaty became available, but only six guns were deployed between 1933 and 1938, all in fixed mountings. Up to 32 guns were initially available from the secondary armament of <a href="/wiki/USS_New_Jersey_(BB-16)" title="USS New Jersey (BB-16)"><i>New Jersey</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Kansas_(BB-21)" title="USS Kansas (BB-21)"><i>Kansas</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Minnesota_(BB-22)" title="USS Minnesota (BB-22)"><i>Minnesota</i></a>, and <a href="/wiki/USS_New_Hampshire_(BB-25)" title="USS New Hampshire (BB-25)"><i>New Hampshire</i></a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia-class_battleship" title="Virginia-class battleship"><i>Virginia</i>-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Connecticut-class_battleship" title="Connecticut-class battleship"><i>Connecticut</i>-class battleships</a>. They were known as the <a href="/wiki/8-inch_Navy_gun_MkVIM3A2" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch Navy gun MkVIM3A2">8-inch Navy gun MkVIM3A2</a> in Army service, and a railway mounting was developed in 1941. The main armament of these ships, the <a href="/wiki/12%22/45_caliber_Mark_5_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="12"/45 caliber Mark 5 gun">12"/45 caliber Mark 5 gun</a>, was also made available to the Army, but these were never deployed by the United States and at least some were sold to Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protection against air attack was slow to evolve. Existing batteries were <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflaged</a>, but if detected, they remained vulnerable to air attack. The first batteries of heavy guns constructed after World War I were, somewhat inexplicably, completely open except for camouflage, but mounted long-range weapons set back from the coast out of direct observation from the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-Conn1_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conn1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, from the late 1930s (in most cases beginning in 1942) these batteries were mounted under thick concrete <a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">casemates</a> covered with vegetation to make them virtually invisible from above and well protected against bombing. Significantly, the Washington Naval Treaty prohibited major improvements to defenses in the Pacific including the Philippines, so the two long-range 12-inch guns at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mills" title="Fort Mills">Fort Mills</a> on <a href="/wiki/Corregidor" title="Corregidor">Corregidor</a> were never casemated (paradoxically, this probably improved their usefulness against the Japanese invasion when it came, as they had large arcs of fire). Another result was that 12 <a href="/wiki/M1918_240_mm_howitzer" title="M1918 240 mm howitzer">240 mm howitzers</a> being shipped to the Philippines were deployed in Hawaii instead.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In anticipation of a conflict with <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan">Japan</a>, most of the limited funds available between 1933 and 1938 were spent on the Pacific coast, especially as several <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a> were operational by then. In 1939, the threat of war in Europe prompted larger appropriations and the resumption of work along the Atlantic coast. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg/220px-Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg/330px-Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg/440px-Sagamore_Hill_Gun_Crew.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>155mm gun <a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155mm_GPF" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon de 155mm GPF">M1918</a> on Panama Mount</figcaption></figure> <p>A new weapon adopted by the U.S. during World War I introduced road and cross-country mobility to the Coast Artillery. The <a href="/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm gun M1918">155 mm gun M1918</a> (6.1 inch), closely derived from the French 155 mm GPF (Grand Puissance Filloux, or high-powered gun designed by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Filloux" title="Louis Filloux">Filloux</a>), could be towed behind heavy <a href="/wiki/Holt_tractor" title="Holt tractor">Holt tractors</a> and deployed to provide some protection for areas not part of existing harbor defenses. Each tractor-drawn regiment was authorized 24 of these weapons. Circular concrete platforms called "<a href="/wiki/Panama_mount" title="Panama mount">Panama mounts</a>" were constructed in existing and new defenses to improve the utility of these weapons, particularly early in World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In anticipation of war, additional mines, <a href="/wiki/Searchlight" title="Searchlight">searchlights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">anti-aircraft</a> guns were installed in 1940 and 1941. However, due to a general shortage, installation of new anti-aircraft guns at harbor defenses was minimal.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the war began, the entire <a href="/wiki/Western_Defense_Command" title="Western Defense Command">Western Defense Command</a> was placed on high alert, but Japanese attacks, including two submarine <a href="/wiki/Deck_gun" title="Deck gun">deck gun</a> attacks and explosive balloons, caused only minor damage. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_net" title="Anti-submarine net">Anti-submarine nets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">naval mines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">controlled mines</a> protected many harbor entrances. Radar and patrol planes could detect enemy vessels at long distances, and aircraft became the first line of defense against intruders. </p><p>A coast defense exercise conducted in the <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Long_Island_Sound" title="Harbor Defenses of Long Island Sound">Harbor Defenses of Long Island Sound</a> in 1930 was notable for including aircraft and <a href="/wiki/Submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarines">submarines</a> (from the nearby <a href="/wiki/Submarine_Base_New_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine Base New London">Submarine Base New London</a>) in the defensive plan. Observation, bombardment, and pursuit (fighter) aircraft were included. The submarines had a dual reconnaissance and counter-attack mission; it was determined that these missions should be separated in future.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_weapons_between_World_War_I_and_World_War_II">Coast artillery weapons between World War I and World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Coast artillery weapons between World War I and World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of Endicott and Taft period weapons remained in service between the wars. U.S. coast artillery introduced between the wars included: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1919" class="mw-redirect" title="16-inch gun M1919">16-inch gun M1919</a> (406 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/16%22/50_caliber_Mark_2_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun">16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun</a> (also Mark 3)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_howitzer_M1920" title="16-inch howitzer M1920">16-inch howitzer M1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14-inch_M1920_railway_gun" title="14-inch M1920 railway gun">14-inch M1920 railway gun</a> (356 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch gun M1895</a> on long-range M1917 barbette carriage (305 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch coast defense mortar</a> (various models) on railway mounting</li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_M1888" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch M1888">8-inch M1888 gun</a> on railway mounting (203 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_Mk._VI_railway_gun" title="8-inch Mk. VI railway gun">8-inch Navy MkVIM3A2 gun</a> (initially on fixed mountings)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm gun M1918">155 mm gun M1918</a>, a tractor-drawn French-designed weapon built for the U.S. Army (6.1 inch)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">American Theater (World War II)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> demonstrated the obsolescence of coastal artillery that was not protected against air attack and the inadequacy of pre-war anti-aircraft defenses. However, perhaps if there was no coastal artillery surface raiders would have been bolder. Coastal defense emplacements in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Philippines</a> (the only occasion since the Civil War on which U.S. coast defenses were heavily engaged) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Singapore</a> were locally effective; however, the Japanese simply attacked where there were no defenses and then enveloped the fortifications. Heavily fortified positions such as Japanese <a href="/wiki/Rabaul" title="Rabaul">Rabaul</a> and Fort Drum in the Philippines demonstrated tactical success amongst strategic failures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Philippines">Fall of the Philippines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Fall of the Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">invaded the Philippines</a> shortly after Pearl Harbor, bringing the <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Manila_and_Subic_Bays" title="Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays">Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays</a> into the war along with the other U.S. and Filipino forces in the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a>. The Japanese initially landed in northern <a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a>, far from the defenses of Manila Bay. Although the Coast Artillery did their best, their weapons were poorly positioned against the direction of enemy attacks and vulnerable to air and high-angle artillery attack. Eight <a href="/wiki/8-inch_M1888" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch M1888">8-inch railway guns</a> had been deployed to the Philippines in 1940, but six were destroyed by air attack while entrained in response to the initial landings, and the other two were placed in fixed mountings on <a href="/wiki/Corregidor" title="Corregidor">Corregidor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bataan" title="Bataan">Bataan</a>, but lacked crews and ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/14-inch_gun_M1909" class="mw-redirect" title="14-inch gun M1909">14-inch turret guns</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Drum_(Philippines)" title="Fort Drum (Philippines)">Fort Drum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch mortars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Battery_Way" title="Battery Way">Battery Way</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corregidor#Battery_Geary" title="Corregidor">Battery Geary</a> were probably the most effective coast defense weapons in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corregidor" title="Battle of Corregidor">Battle of Corregidor</a>, but all but two of the mortars were knocked out before the Japanese landed on the island. The U.S. forces surrendered on 6 May 1942, after destroying their weapons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernization">Modernization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Modernization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939 and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">Fall of France</a> in June 1940 greatly accelerated U.S. defense planning and funding. About this time a severe lack of design coordination resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Iowa-class_battleship" title="Iowa-class battleship"><i>Iowa</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a> being unable to use the Mark 2 and Mark 3 16-inch guns, and a new gun design was required for them.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With war on the horizon, the Navy released the approximately 50 remaining guns, and on 27 July 1940 the Army's Harbor Defense Board recommended the construction of 27 (eventually 38) 16-inch two-gun batteries to protect strategic points along the U.S. coastline, to be <a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">casemated</a> against air attack, as were almost all of the older batteries by this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Conn1_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conn1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:16-inch-Casemated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/16-inch-Casemated.jpg/250px-16-inch-Casemated.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/16-inch-Casemated.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption>16-inch casemated gun.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e9/Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg/250px-Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e9/Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg/375px-Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e9/Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg/500px-Coastal_artillery_gun_at_Fort_Columbia_State_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1229" /></a><figcaption>6-inch gun M1905 on shielded <a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">barbette</a> carriage at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Columbia_State_Park" title="Fort Columbia State Park">Fort Columbia State Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a>, typical of World War II 6-inch batteries.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 16-inch guns were only the top end of the World War II program, which eventually replaced almost all previous coast defense weapons with newer (or remounted) weapons. Most of the 12-inch long-range batteries were casemated and served through the end of the war. Generally, each <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">harbor defense command</a> was to have two or three 16-inch or 12-inch long-range batteries, plus <a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1903" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1903">6-inch guns</a> on new mountings with protected magazines, and <a href="/wiki/90_mm_Gun_M1/M2/M3" class="mw-redirect" title="90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3">90 mm Anti Motor Torpedo Boat (AMTB) guns</a>, which were supplemented with <a href="/wiki/37_mm_Gun_M1" class="mw-redirect" title="37 mm Gun M1">37 mm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_Automatic_Gun_L/60" class="mw-redirect" title="Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60">40 mm</a> anti-aircraft guns.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the proposed 38 new 16-inch (406 mm) batteries with a range of 25 mi (40 km), eleven new 8-inch (203 mm) batteries with a range of 20 mi (32 km) and 87 new 6-inch (152 mm) batteries on high-angle shielded mountings with a range of 15 mi (24 km) were projected.<sup id="cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._224-228_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._224-228-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these batteries had two guns each with heavily protected magazines and plotting rooms and casemated guns (except the 6-inch guns had shielded mountings). Additionally, about 32 <a href="/wiki/8-inch_Mk._VI_railway_gun" title="8-inch Mk. VI railway gun">8-inch MkVIM3A2 railway guns</a> were deployed. In most cases replacing existing harbor defenses, with wartime changes noted, fortifications were planned for the harbor defenses of:<sup id="cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._224-228_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._224-228-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proceedings_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proceedings-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <p><b>East coast</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Portland" title="Harbor Defenses of Portland">Portland, Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Portsmouth" title="Harbor Defenses of Portsmouth">Portsmouth, New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Boston" title="Harbor Defenses of Boston">Boston, Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod_Canal" title="Cape Cod Canal">Cape Cod Canal</a> (16-inch not built)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_New_Bedford" title="Harbor Defenses of New Bedford">New Bedford, Massachusetts</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Narragansett_Bay" title="Harbor Defenses of Narragansett Bay">Narragansett Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_New_York" title="Harbor Defenses of New York">New York City</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Long_Island_Sound" title="Harbor Defenses of Long Island Sound">Long Island Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Southern_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbor Defenses of Southern New York">Southern New York</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_River" title="Delaware River">Delaware River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a> (16-inch not built)</li></ul> <p><b>Gulf coast</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Key_West" title="Key West">Key West</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola, Florida</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston, Texas</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li></ul> <p><b>West coast</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/San_Diego,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Diego, California">San Diego, California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco, California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound" title="Puget Sound">Puget Sound</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Flattery" title="Cape Flattery">Cape Flattery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Harbor,_Alaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Harbor, Alaska">Dutch Harbor, Alaska</a> (biggest guns were 8-inch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska" title="Kodiak, Alaska">Kodiak, Alaska</a> (biggest guns were 8-inch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska" title="Sitka, Alaska">Sitka, Alaska</a> (no heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seward,_Alaska" title="Seward, Alaska">Seward, Alaska</a> (no heavy guns)</li></ul> <p><b>Other U.S. possessions or overseas</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaneohe_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaneohe Bay">Kaneohe Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Shore_(Oahu)" title="North Shore (Oahu)">North Shore</a> of <a href="/wiki/Oahu" title="Oahu">Oahu</a> (biggest guns were 8-inch and 240 mm howitzers)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balboa,_Canal_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Balboa, Canal Zone">Balboa, Canal Zone</a> (no additional heavy guns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal,_Col%C3%B3n" title="Cristóbal, Colón">Cristóbal, Colón</a> (16-inch not built)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Juan,_Puerto_Rico" title="San Juan, Puerto Rico">San Juan, Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Roads_Naval_Station" title="Roosevelt Roads Naval Station">Roosevelt Roads Naval Station</a> (biggest guns were 8-inch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> (no heavy guns built)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> (not built)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Base_Command" title="Bermuda Base Command">Bermuda</a> (biggest guns were 8-inch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defenses_of_Argentia_and_St._John%27s" title="Harbor Defenses of Argentia and St. John's">Argentia, Newfoundland</a> (no heavy guns)</li></ul> </div> <p>With <a href="/wiki/CONUS" class="mw-redirect" title="CONUS">CONUS</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> less threatened as the war progressed, about 21 16-inch gun batteries were completed in 1941-44, but not all of these were armed. Three new 12-inch long-range batteries and five 8-inch batteries (mostly in Alaska) were completed and armed, and about 65 6-inch batteries were completed, but only about 45 of these were armed.<sup id="cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._224-228_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._224-228-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some batteries on Oahu were completed with two <a href="/wiki/14%22/45_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="14"/45 caliber gun">14-inch triple turrets</a> from the sunken <a href="/wiki/USS_Arizona" title="USS Arizona"><i>Arizona</i></a> and eight <a href="/wiki/8%22/55_caliber_gun#Coast_defense_use" class="mw-redirect" title="8"/55 caliber gun">8-inch twin turrets</a> removed from <a href="/wiki/USS_Lexington_(CV-2)" title="USS Lexington (CV-2)"><i>Lexington</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Saratoga_(CV-3)" title="USS Saratoga (CV-3)"><i>Saratoga</i></a> rather than the designed guns. As the areas of combat became more distant from the U.S. and as naval threats were essentially removed, defending harbors against ships became a low priority, and as the new coast defense batteries were completed, almost all of the older seacoast guns were scrapped to become new weapons. Many soldiers of the Coast Artillery were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Field_Artillery_Branch_(United_States)" title="Field Artillery Branch (United States)">field artillery</a>, anti-aircraft, or even infantry duties. When the war ended, it was soon decided that seacoast defense guns were no longer needed, and missiles would eventually fill the role. By 1947, most guns remaining in the seacoast defenses were declared surplus and scrapped, and the last weapons were removed in 1950 when the Coast Artillery was deactivated.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_coast_defense_operations">Other coast defense operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Other coast defense operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two related aspects of seacoast defense in the early part of the war were coastal beach patrols in the continental United States (<a href="/wiki/CONUS" class="mw-redirect" title="CONUS">CONUS</a>) and the maintenance of mobile forces there to respond to potential enemy raids. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a> began these patrols after Pearl Harbor, and in early 1942 the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Defense_Command" title="Eastern Defense Command">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Defense_Command" title="Western Defense Command">Western Defense Commands</a> were assigned the equivalent of up to eight infantry <a href="/wiki/Regimental_combat_team" title="Regimental combat team">regimental combat teams</a> each for both beach patrols and mobile response. With a rapidly diminishing threat after 1942, by mid-1943 these forces were cut back significantly, and were mostly demobilized in early 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the night of 12 June 1942, a patrolling Coast Guard sailor observed <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pastorius" title="Operation Pastorius">German agents landing</a> from a U-boat near <a href="/wiki/Amagansett,_New_York" title="Amagansett, New York">Amagansett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_Island" title="Long Island">Long Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>. Communication difficulties precluded an immediate response, but the four agents were rounded up over the next two weeks, along another four landed near <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a> on 17 June. Capture was made easier when two of the agents in New York decided to defect within a few days.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobbs2007_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobbs2007-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were tried by a military <a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">court-martial</a>, with six of the eight executed; one of the defectors received a life sentence and the other 30 years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg/250px-155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg/375px-155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg/500px-155-mm-gun-4th-defense-battalion-barakoma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/155_mm_Long_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm Long Tom">155 mm Long Tom</a> gun "Scorpion" of the 4th Marine Defense Battalion in <a href="/wiki/Barakoma_Airfield" title="Barakoma Airfield">Barakoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Besides the Coast Artillery, key islands in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a> theater were defended by U.S. <a href="/wiki/Marine_defense_battalions" title="Marine defense battalions">Marine defense battalions</a> throughout the war. Their most famous engagement was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a> in December 1941, in which heavy casualties were inflicted on a <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan">Japanese</a> invasion force that eventually took the island. The U.S. Navy participated in harbor defense with <a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_net" title="Anti-submarine net">anti-submarine nets</a> and magnetic <a href="/wiki/Indicator_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicator loop">indicator loops</a> for detecting submarines;<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> joint harbor defense command posts and harbor entrance control posts were established at <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">harbor defense commands</a> to coordinate army and navy operations. The <a href="/wiki/155_mm_Long_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm Long Tom">155 mm Long Tom</a> artillery piece, an evolution of the 155 mm GPF concept, was used in island and harbor defense in the Pacific from 1943 by both the Marines and the Army. Seven Army Coast Artillery Groups (155 mm Gun) were activated in May–June 1944 as a result of breaking up the tractor-drawn 155 mm gun regiments, which may have been rearmed with the new weapon. Three were deployed to <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a> and the Philippines in 1945 while one was activated in <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>; the remainder never left CONUS.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_weapons_during_World_War_II">Coast artillery weapons during World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Coast artillery weapons during World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>U.S. coast artillery during World War II relied primarily on weapons purchased between the wars or stored since the aftermath of World War I. Essentially all of the Endicott and Taft period weapons were scrapped by late 1944 as new batteries were completed. The weapons deployed during the later part of the war included: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1919" class="mw-redirect" title="16-inch gun M1919">16-inch gun M1919</a> (406 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/16%22/50_caliber_Mark_2_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun">16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun</a> (also Mark 3)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_howitzer_M1920" title="16-inch howitzer M1920">16-inch howitzer M1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14-inch_M1920_railway_gun" title="14-inch M1920 railway gun">14-inch M1920 railway gun</a> (356 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch gun M1895</a> on long-range M1917 barbette carriage (305 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch coast defense mortar</a> (various models) on railway mounting (almost all in reserve)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/240_mm_Howitzer_M1918" class="mw-redirect" title="240 mm Howitzer M1918">240 mm howitzer M1918</a> (9.45 inch) on fixed mountings in Hawaii</li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_M1888" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch M1888">8-inch gun M1888</a> on railway mounting (203 mm)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_Mk._VI_railway_gun" title="8-inch Mk. VI railway gun">8-inch Navy gun MkVIM3A2</a> (on railway and fixed mountings)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/7%22/45_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="7"/45 caliber gun">7"/45 caliber gun</a> (178 mm), ex-Navy guns</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155mm_GPF" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon de 155mm GPF">155 mm gun M1918</a>, a tractor-drawn French-designed weapon built for the U.S. Army (6.1-inch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_Long_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm Long Tom">155 mm Long Tom</a> gun M1/M2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1903" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1903">6-inch gun M1903</a> on a new high-angle shielded mounting (also M1905, M1/T2)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1900" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1900">6-inch gun M1900</a> on pedestal mounting (some retained until after the war)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%22/50_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="6"/50 caliber gun">6"/50 caliber gun</a>, ex-Navy Mark 6 and Mark 8 guns</li> <li><a href="/wiki/5%22/51_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="5"/51 caliber gun">5"/51 caliber gun</a> (127 mm) Mark 15 (early-war <a href="/wiki/Marine_defense_battalions" title="Marine defense battalions">Marine defense battalions</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/4%22/50_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="4"/50 caliber gun">4"/50 caliber gun</a> (102 mm) Mark 9</li> <li><a href="/wiki/90_mm_Gun_M1/M2/M3" class="mw-redirect" title="90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3">90 mm gun M1</a> and M2 (3.5 in) on fixed and towed mounts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1903" title="3-inch gun M1903">3-inch gun M1903</a> (76 mm) (some retained until after the war)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_Automatic_Gun_L/60" class="mw-redirect" title="Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60">40 mm gun M1</a> (1.57 in)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/37_mm_Gun_M1" class="mw-redirect" title="37 mm Gun M1">37 mm Gun M1</a> (1.46 in)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar_defensive_missiles">Postwar defensive missiles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Postwar defensive missiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nike_ajax_32.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Nike_ajax_32.jpg/250px-Nike_ajax_32.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Nike_ajax_32.jpg/375px-Nike_ajax_32.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Nike_ajax_32.jpg/500px-Nike_ajax_32.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption>Nike-Ajax missile</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg/250px-MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg/375px-MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg/500px-MIM-14_Nike-Hercules_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Nike-Hercules missiles</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg/250px-CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg/375px-CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg/500px-CIM-10_Bomarc_missile_battery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption>BOMARC missile site</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Air_Defense_Artillery_Branch_(United_States)#Army_Anti-Aircraft_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Defense Artillery Branch (United States)">A system</a> of 90 mm and <a href="/wiki/120_mm_M1_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="120 mm M1 gun">120 mm anti-aircraft guns</a> was deployed around the periphery of <a href="/wiki/CONUS" class="mw-redirect" title="CONUS">CONUS</a> shortly after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was soon overtaken by technology. Early in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> developed long-range bombers which could reach the United States, and soon after exploded <a href="/wiki/RDS-1" title="RDS-1">their first atomic bomb</a>. Among the most-threatened targets were harbors and naval bases. The mission of the <a href="/wiki/Nike_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Nike missile">Nike surface-to-air missile</a> program was to act as a "last-ditch" line of air defense for selected areas. The Nike system would have been used if the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a>'s interceptor aircraft failed. With some anti-ship capability (especially the later nuclear-capable weapons), these were the last fixed-fortification weapons employed in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan1_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nike_missile_sites" title="List of Nike missile sites">Nike sites</a> were built during the 1950s in "rings" around major urban and industrial areas and key <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> bases. The number of sites constructed in each ring varied, depending on many factors. In relatively flat terrain rings usually consisted of four launch sites, as at Washington, D.C. However, due to mountainous terrain, the San Francisco Bay area required twelve launch sites. Due to the short range of the original Nike missile, the <a href="/wiki/Nike_Ajax" class="mw-redirect" title="Nike Ajax">Nike Ajax</a>, many bases were located close to the center of the areas they protected. Frequently, they were located within heavily populated areas. By 1960, the longer-range, nuclear-capable <a href="/wiki/Nike_Hercules" title="Nike Hercules">Nike Hercules</a> was deployed, with the Air Force's <a href="/wiki/BOMARC" class="mw-redirect" title="BOMARC">BOMARC</a> missile system following soon after.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan1_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the advent of numerous <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a>, the Nike and BOMARC systems were considered obsolete by the mid-1960s and the installations were removed in the early 1970s, ending nearly 200 years of American coastal defense.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan1_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/28px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/42px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/56px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 2x" data-file-width="1875" data-file-height="1875" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">American Civil War portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Base_Force" title="Advanced Base Force">Advanced Base Force</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a> joint effort in coastal defenses of <a href="/wiki/Subic_Bay" title="Subic Bay">Subic Bay</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> areas during the interim years prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coastal_fortifications_of_the_United_States" title="List of coastal fortifications of the United States">List of coastal fortifications of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">Harbor Defense Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Coast_Artillery_Corps" title="United States Army Coast Artillery Corps">United States Army Coast Artillery Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_War_Department_Forms" title="List of United States War Department Forms">List of United States War Department Forms</a> - Lists US Army ordnance publications circa 1895-1920, links online versions, including many coast artillery weapons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">United States Army Corps of Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Siege artillery in the American Civil War">Siege artillery in the American Civil War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 22-24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 55-60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 10-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 14-15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRipley1984" class="citation book cs1">Ripley, Warren (1984). <i>Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War</i>. Charleston: The Battery Press. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artillery+and+Ammunition+of+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Charleston&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=The+Battery+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Ripley&rft.aufirst=Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 137-139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 115–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 130–31, 241–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, p. 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 178-179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade, pp. 177-178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weaver, pp. 123-124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weaver, pp. 3-5, 11-12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.web.maine.gov/cgi-bin/online/doc/parksearch/details.pl?park_id=38">Fort McClary, Kittery Point, Maine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also called Fort Taber</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weaver, pp. 5–9, 16–17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weaver, pp. 53-54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tormin-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tormin_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/archive/fowa/torpedo.htm">National Park Service, Torpedo Defense - COAST DEFENSE OF THE POTOMAC</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ripley, pp. 17-44, 71-86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ripley, pp. 109-136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29523">Chester A. Arthur, Second Annual Message to Congress</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>FM 4-15, Coast Artillery Field Manual - Seacoast Artillery Fire Control and Position Finding</i>, U.S. War Department, 1940, Government Printing Office: Washington, DC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CACorg-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CACorg_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CACorg_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CACorg_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CACorg_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CACorg_25-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/old/reprint%20PDFs/CACorg2011.pdf"><i>Coast Artillery Organization – A Brief Overview</i>, Bolling W. Smith & William C. Gaines</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/fort-and-battery-list/">Fort and Battery list at the Coast Defense Study Group website</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 180–183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUtZAAAAIAAJ&dq=submarine+mine+kennebec&pg=PA3780">Congressional serial set, 1900, <i>Report of the Commission on the Conduct of the War with Spain</i>, Vol. 7, pp. 3778–3780, Washington: Government Printing Office</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 86–87, 92–93, 201–219</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 423–427</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warrantofficerhistory.org/Hist_of_Army_WO.htm">Army Warrant Officer History</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miles-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miles_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miles_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fortmiles.org/firepower/batteries/batt8.html">Ft. Miles, Principal Armament - Mine Field</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227131224/http://www.fortmiles.org/firepower/batteries/batt8.html">Archived</a> 2012-02-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navsource.org/archives/11/01idx.htm">Auxiliary Minelayers at NavSource.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 68–200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan R. Millett, <i>Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps</i>, (New York City, NY: The Free Press, 1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_47-50_mk3.htm">"4.7"/50 Mark 3 Armstrong at NavWeaps.com"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150930200702/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_47-50_mk3.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=4.7%22%2F50+Mark+3+Armstrong+at+NavWeaps.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navweaps.com%2FWeapons%2FWNUS_47-50_mk3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_6-50_mk5.htm">"6"/50 Mark 5 Armstrong at NavWeaps.com"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151008011759/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_6-50_mk5.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=6%22%2F50+Mark+5+Armstrong+at+NavWeaps.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navweaps.com%2FWeapons%2FWNUS_6-50_mk5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, p. 222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.military.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cacunithistories/defeating_the_hun.htm">US Army Coast Artillery Corps in World War I</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/handbookordnanc00unkngoog#page/n92/mode/2up">Handbook of Ordnance Data, November 15, 1918, pp. 86-88</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowell1919" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benedict_Crowell" title="Benedict Crowell">Crowell, Benedict</a> (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/americasmunitio01deptgoog#page/n8/mode/2up"><i>America's Munitions 1917-1918</i></a>. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. pp. 73–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Munitions+1917-1918&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=73-75&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Crowell&rft.aufirst=Benedict&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Famericasmunitio01deptgoog%23page%2Fn8%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Willi1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Willi1_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williford, pp. 92-99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.military.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cacunithistories/Railway%20Artillery.html">US Army Railway Artillery in WWI</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hogg1-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hogg1_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg, pp. 139-140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 70–71, 200–226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2019" class="citation magazine cs1">Smith, Bolling W. (Fall 2019). "The Driggs-Seabury 15-pounder (3-inch) Masking-Parapet Carriage". <i>Coast Defense Journal</i>. Vol. 33, no. 4. Mclean, Virginia: CDSG Press. pp. 12–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coast+Defense+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Driggs-Seabury+15-pounder+%283-inch%29+Masking-Parapet+Carriage&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=12-18&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Bolling+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.military.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cacunithistories/69th_Artillery.html">69th Coast Artillery page at CAC WWI History site</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berhow,_pp._200-228-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._200-228_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._200-228_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 200–226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, p. 432</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 473–477</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACregList.pdf">Coast Artillery Regiments at CDSG</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CACRegCDSG-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CACRegCDSG_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACreg1.pdf">CAC regiments 1-196 at the CDSG</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CACNGCDSG-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CACNGCDSG_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CAregNG.pdf">National Guard CAC regiments 197-265 at the CDSG</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACreg2.pdf">Organized Reserve and Army of the United States Coast Artillery Regiments at CDSG</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann & Kaufmann 2004, p. 346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Vol. II, p. 109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ordnance, pp. 147-149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 61, 227–228</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, p. 227–229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conn1-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conn1_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conn1_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Conn, pp. 45-55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 194–195</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 190–191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conn, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922044747/http://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1930/7/Jul%201930.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Minor Joint Army and Navy Exercises – Harbor Defenses of Long Island Sound", <i>Coast Artillery Journal</i>, July 1930, vol. 73 no. 1, pp. 18-26"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1930/7/Jul%201930.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Minor+Joint+Army+and+Navy+Exercises+%E2%80%93+Harbor+Defenses+of+Long+Island+Sound%22%2C+Coast+Artillery+Journal%2C+July+1930%2C+vol.+73+no.+1%2C+pp.+18-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsill-www.army.mil%2Fada-online%2Fcoast-artillery-journal%2F_docs%2F1930%2F7%2FJul%25201930.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://corregidor.org/chs_bogart/bogart3.htm">The Doomed Philippine Inland Seas Defense Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://corregidor.org/chs_bogart/bogart3a.htm">Account of the 8" railway guns in the Philippines, 1940-42</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, pp. 311-313</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 176–177</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 80–81, 256–258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGovern and Smith, p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berhow,_pp._224-228-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._224-228_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._224-228_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berhow,_pp._224-228_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Berhow 2015, pp. 229–231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Proceedings-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Proceedings_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirchner,_D.P.,_CDR_USN_and_Lewis,_E.R.,_Capt_USAR1968" class="citation journal cs1">Kirchner, D.P., CDR USN and Lewis, E.R., Capt USAR (January 1968). 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United States Naval Institute Proceedings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=American+Harbor+Defenses%3A+The+Final+Era&rft.date=1968-01&rft.au=Kirchner%2C+D.P.%2C+CDR+USN+and+Lewis%2C+E.R.%2C+Capt+USAR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conn, pp. 47-54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis 1979, p. 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conn, pp. 100-101, 107-110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobbs2007-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dobbs2007_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Dobbs2007" class="citation book cs1">Michael Dobbs (18 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TWOKF8-fZtAC&pg=PA119"><i>Saboteurs: The Nazi Raid on America</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 119–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42755-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42755-7"><bdi>978-0-307-42755-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saboteurs%3A+The+Nazi+Raid+on+America&rft.pages=119-&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007-12-18&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42755-7&rft.au=Michael+Dobbs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTWOKF8-fZtAC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conn, pp. 99-101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indicatorloops.com/">Indicator loops website</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanton, pp. 449-450</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northamericanforts.com/East/nycity3.html#cold">Cold War AAA Defenses of New York City at American Forts Network</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200916005013/http://ed-thelen.org/gunsitesusa.html">"US Army AAA Gun Site Program 1951-59 at Ed-Thelen.org"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ed-thelen.org/gunsitesusa.html">the original</a> on 2020-09-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+Army+AAA+Gun+Site+Program+1951-59+at+Ed-Thelen.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fed-thelen.org%2Fgunsitesusa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan1-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan1_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan1_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan1_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Morgan & Berhow 2002</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References_and_further_reading">References and further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References and further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerhow2015" class="citation book cs1">Berhow, Mark A., ed. (2015). <i>American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide</i> (Third ed.). McLean, Virginia: CDSG Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9748167-3-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9748167-3-9"><bdi>978-0-9748167-3-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Seacoast+Defenses%2C+A+Reference+Guide&rft.place=McLean%2C+Virginia&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=CDSG+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-9748167-3-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Browning, Robert S., III. <i>Two If by Sea: The Development of American Coastal Defense Policy</i> (Praeger, 1983)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnEngelmanFairchild2000" class="citation book cs1">Conn, Stetson; Engelman, Rose C.; Fairchild, Byron (2000) [1964]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225041653/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents"><i>Guarding the United States and its Outposts</i></a>. United States Army in World War II. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents">the original</a> on 2007-12-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guarding+the+United+States+and+its+Outposts&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=United+States+Army+in+World+War+II&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Conn&rft.aufirst=Stetson&rft.au=Engelman%2C+Rose+C.&rft.au=Fairchild%2C+Byron&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fbooks%2Fwwii%2FGuard-US%2Findex.htm%23contents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1985" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Norman (1985). <i>U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Annapolis,_Maryland" title="Annapolis, Maryland">Annapolis, Maryland</a>: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Institute" title="United States Naval Institute">United States Naval Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-715-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-715-9"><bdi>978-0-87021-715-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Battleships%3A+An+Illustrated+Design+History&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-87021-715-9&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg1998" class="citation book cs1">Hogg, Ian V. (1998). <i>Allied Artillery of World War I</i>. Ramsbury, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, Ltd. pp. 139–140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86126-104-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-86126-104-7"><bdi>1-86126-104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allied+Artillery+of+World+War+I&rft.place=Ramsbury%2C+Wiltshire%2C+UK&rft.pages=139-140&rft.pub=The+Crowood+Press%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-86126-104-7&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Ian+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmannKaufmann2004" class="citation book cs1">Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2004). <i>Fortress America</i>. Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81294-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-81294-0"><bdi>0-306-81294-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fortress+America&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-306-81294-0&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+H.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1979" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Emanuel Raymond (1979). <i>Seacoast Fortifications of the United States</i>. Annapolis: Leeward Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-929521-11-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-929521-11-4"><bdi>978-0-929521-11-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seacoast+Fortifications+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Annapolis&rft.pub=Leeward+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-929521-11-4&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Emanuel+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>McGovern, Terrance and Smith, Bolling, <i>American Coastal Defences 1885-1950</i> (Fortress series, Book 44), Osprey Publishing 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8417692-2-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-8417692-2-3">1-8417692-2-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1921" class="citation book cs1">Miller, H. W., LTC, USA (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eugeneleeslover.com/ENGINEERING/Railway_artillery_guns_1921.html"><i>Railway Artillery, Vols. I and II</i></a>. Washington: US Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Railway+Artillery%2C+Vols.+I+and+II&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=US+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=H.+W.%2C+LTC%2C+USA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eugeneleeslover.com%2FENGINEERING%2FRailway_artillery_guns_1921.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorganBerhow2002" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Mark L; Berhow, Mark A (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vagljMKPYrkC&pg=PA60"><i>Rings of Supersonic Steel</i></a> (second ed.). Hole in the Head Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-615-12012-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-615-12012-1"><bdi>0-615-12012-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rings+of+Supersonic+Steel&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Hole+in+the+Head+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-615-12012-1&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Mark+L&rft.au=Berhow%2C+Mark+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvagljMKPYrkC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrdnance_Corps1922" class="citation book cs1">Ordnance Corps, US Army (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/p15040coll1/id/361/rec/2"><i>American Coast Artillery Materiel</i></a>. Washington: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Coast+Artillery+Materiel&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Ordnance+Corps&rft.aufirst=US+Army&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcgsc.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fsingleitem%2Fcollection%2Fp15040coll1%2Fid%2F361%2Frec%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Price, Russell Reed. "American coastal defense: The Third System of fortification, 1816-1864" (PhD dissertation, Mississippi State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1999. 9930343).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanton1991" class="citation book cs1">Stanton, Shelby L. (1991). <i>World War II Order of Battle</i>. Galahad Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88365-775-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88365-775-9"><bdi>0-88365-775-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+II+Order+of+Battle&rft.pub=Galahad+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-88365-775-9&rft.aulast=Stanton&rft.aufirst=Shelby+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2011" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Arthur P. (2011). <i>Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications 1794-1815</i>. Mclean, Virginia: CDSG Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9748167-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9748167-2-2"><bdi>978-0-9748167-2-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artillerists+and+Engineers%3A+The+Beginnings+of+American+Seacoast+Fortifications+1794-1815&rft.place=Mclean%2C+Virginia&rft.pub=CDSG+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-9748167-2-2&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Arthur+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeaver_II2001" class="citation book cs1">Weaver II, John R. (2001). <i>A Legacy in Brick and Stone: American Coastal Defense Forts of the Third System, 1816-1867</i>. McLean, VA: Redoubt Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57510-069-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57510-069-X"><bdi>1-57510-069-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Legacy+in+Brick+and+Stone%3A+American+Coastal+Defense+Forts+of+the+Third+System%2C+1816-1867&rft.place=McLean%2C+VA&rft.pub=Redoubt+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-57510-069-X&rft.aulast=Weaver+II&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliford2016" class="citation book cs1">Williford, Glen (2016). <i>American Breechloading Mobile Artillery, 1875-1953</i>. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-5049-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-5049-8"><bdi>978-0-7643-5049-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Breechloading+Mobile+Artillery%2C+1875-1953&rft.place=Atglen%2C+PA&rft.pub=Schiffer+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7643-5049-8&rft.aulast=Williford&rft.aufirst=Glen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZink1994" class="citation book cs1">Zink, Robert D. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.militarymuseum.org/Pages%20from%20CDSGJ82.pdf"><i>The Six-Inch Part of the Modernization Program of 1940</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. CDSG Journal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Six-Inch+Part+of+the+Modernization+Program+of+1940&rft.pub=CDSG+Journal&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Zink&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.militarymuseum.org%2FPages%2520from%2520CDSGJ82.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeacoast+defense+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.militarymuseum.org/HDSF.html">Harbor Defenses of San Francisco</a> The California State Military Museum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121105102511/http://www.cdsg.org/cdsghis4.htm">United States Seacoast Defense Construction 1781-1948: a Brief History</a> at the Coast Defense Study Group, Inc. website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/fort-and-battery-list/">List of all US coastal forts and batteries</a> at the Coast Defense Study Group, Inc. website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Wiki">FortWiki, lists most CONUS and Canadian forts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdsg.org/old/reprint%20PDFs/CACorg2011.pdf">Coast Artillery Organization, A Brief Overview</a> CDSG, Inc.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Forts_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Forts in the United States">Forts in the United States</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.northamericanforts.com/">American Forts Network, lists forts in the US, former US territories, Canada, and Central America</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1935+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA844">"Gun Train Guards Ends of Panama Canal -- Rolling Fort Crosses Isthmus in Two Hours" <i>Popular Mechanics</i>, December 1934 pp.844-845</a> excellent drawings in article on the <a href="/wiki/14-inch_M1920_railway_gun" title="14-inch M1920 railway gun">14-inch M1920 railway gun</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/forts/parks.htm">US National Park Service list of parks with forts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fortwiki.com/Coastal_Battery_Gun_List">FortWiki gun type list</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdsg.org/">Coast Defense Study Group</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/descriptionandi03statgoog#page/n3/mode/1up">Description of Seacoast Guns 8, 10, 12, 14, 16-inch</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdsg.org/old/press2.htm">TM 4-210 page at the CDSG</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWIUSGuns" title="Template talk:WWIUSGuns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWIUSGuns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWIUSGuns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_artillery_of_World_War_I" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">United States <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> of World War I</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Tank guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puteaux_SA_18" title="Puteaux SA 18">Puteaux SA 18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QF_6-pounder_6_cwt_Hotchkiss" title="QF 6-pounder 6 cwt Hotchkiss">QF 6-pounder 6 cwt Hotchkiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Small and pack guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_d%27Infanterie_de_37_mod%C3%A8le_1916_TRP" title="Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP">Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/37_mm_Infantry_Gun_Model_1917" title="37 mm Infantry Gun Model 1917">37 mm Infantry Gun Model 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QF_2.95-inch_mountain_gun" title="QF 2.95-inch mountain gun">QF 2.95-inch mountain gun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Field, medium and heavy guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_M1902_field_gun" title="3-inch M1902 field gun">3-inch M1902 field gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_M1897" class="mw-redirect" title="75 mm gun M1897">75 mm gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_M1916" title="75 mm gun M1916">75 mm gun M1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_M1917" title="75 mm gun M1917">75 mm gun M1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3.2-inch_gun_M1897" title="3.2-inch gun M1897">3.2-inch gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4.7-inch_gun_M1906" title="4.7-inch gun M1906">4.7-inch gun M1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-inch_gun_M1897" title="5-inch gun M1897">5-inch gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M1908_6-inch_howitzer" title="M1908 6-inch howitzer">6-inch howitzer M1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1903" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1903">6-inch gun M1903</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BL_6-inch_gun_Mk_XIX#US_Service" title="BL 6-inch gun Mk XIX">6-inch gun M1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_GPF_M1918" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm GPF M1918">155 mm GPF M1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_howitzer_M1917" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm howitzer M1917">155 mm howitzer M1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BL_8-inch_howitzer_Mk_VI_%E2%80%93_VIII" title="BL 8-inch howitzer Mk VI – VIII">BL 8-inch howitzer Mk VI – VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BL_9.2-inch_howitzer" title="BL 9.2-inch howitzer">BL 9.2-inch howitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/240_mm_trench_mortar" title="240 mm trench mortar">240 mm trench mortar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Anti-aircraft guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_M1897" class="mw-redirect" title="75 mm gun M1897">75 mm gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_M1916" title="75 mm gun M1916">75 mm gun M1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1917" class="mw-redirect" title="3-inch gun M1917">3-inch gun M1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1918" title="3-inch gun M1918">3-inch gun M1918</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Coast artillery guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1903" title="3-inch gun M1903">3-inch gun M1903</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QF_4.7-inch_Mk_I_%E2%80%93_IV_naval_gun#United_States_service" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 4.7-inch Mk I – IV naval gun">4.72-inch Armstrong gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-inch_gun_M1897" title="5-inch gun M1897">5-inch gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QF_6-inch_naval_gun" title="QF 6-inch naval gun">6-inch Armstrong gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1897" title="6-inch gun M1897">6-inch gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_gun_M1888" title="8-inch gun M1888">8-inch gun M1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10-inch_gun_M1895" title="10-inch gun M1895">10-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch coast defense mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14-inch_gun_M1907" title="14-inch gun M1907">14-inch gun M1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1895" title="16-inch gun M1895">16-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1919" class="mw-redirect" title="16-inch gun M1919">16-inch gun M1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1918MI" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm gun M1918MI">155 mm gun M1918MI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Railway artillery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7%22/44_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="7"/44 caliber gun">7"/45 caliber gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_gun_M1888" title="8-inch gun M1888">8-inch gun M1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10-inch_gun_M1895" title="10-inch gun M1895">10-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch coast defense mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch gun M1895MIA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14%22/50_caliber_railway_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="14"/50 caliber railway gun">14"/50 caliber railway gun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWIIUSGuns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_artillery_of_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">United States <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> of World War II</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Tank guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3" title="37 mm gun M3">37 mm gun M5/M6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_gun_M2%E2%80%93M6" title="75 mm gun M2–M6">75 mm gun M2/M3/M6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/76_mm_gun_M1" title="76 mm gun M1">76 mm gun M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1918" title="3-inch gun M1918">3-inch gun M7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/90_mm_gun_M1/M2/M3" title="90 mm gun M1/M2/M3">90 mm gun M3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/90_mm_gun_M1/M2/M3" title="90 mm gun M1/M2/M3">90 mm gun T15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M101_howitzer" title="M101 howitzer">105 mm howitzer M4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/105_mm_gun_T5" title="105 mm gun T5">105 mm gun T5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/120_mm_gun_M1" title="120 mm gun M1">120 mm gun T53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_gun_T7" title="155 mm gun T7">155 mm gun T7</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Anti-tank guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/37_mm_gun_M3" title="37 mm gun M3">37 mm M3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnance_QF_6-pounder" title="Ordnance QF 6-pounder">57 mm M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_field_gun_M1897_on_M2_carriage" title="75 mm field gun M1897 on M2 carriage">75 mm field gun M1897 on M2 carriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M5" title="3-inch gun M5">3 inch M5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/105_mm_gun_T8" title="105 mm gun T8">90 mm T8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/105_mm_gun_T8" title="105 mm gun T8">105mm T8</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Field, medium and heavy guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/75_mm_field_gun_M1897_on_M2_carriage" title="75 mm field gun M1897 on M2 carriage">75 mm field gun M1897 on M2 carriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M116_howitzer" title="M116 howitzer">75 mm howitzer M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M101_howitzer" title="M101 howitzer">105 mm howitzer M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M3_howitzer" title="M3 howitzer">105 mm howitzer M3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4.5-inch_gun_M1" title="4.5-inch gun M1">4.5 inch gun M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155_C_mod%C3%A8le_1917_Schneider" title="Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider">155 mm howitzer M1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M114_155_mm_howitzer" title="M114 155 mm howitzer">155 mm howitzer M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155_mm_GPF" title="Canon de 155 mm GPF">155 mm gun M1918MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_gun_M1" title="155 mm gun M1">155 mm gun M1/M2 "Long Tom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M115_howitzer" title="M115 howitzer">8 inch howitzer M1/M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_gun_M1" title="8-inch gun M1">8-inch gun M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/240_mm_howitzer_M1" title="240 mm howitzer M1">240 mm howitzer M1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Mortars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M2_mortar" title="M2 mortar">60 mm mortar M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M1_mortar" title="M1 mortar">81 mm mortar M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M2_4.2-inch_mortar" title="M2 4.2-inch mortar">4.2 inch mortar M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_David" title="Little David">Little David</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other vehicle-mounted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M116_howitzer" title="M116 howitzer">75 mm howitzer M2/M3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_75_mod%C3%A8le_1897" title="Canon de 75 modèle 1897">75 mm gun M1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M101_howitzer" title="M101 howitzer">105 mm howitzer M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155mm_GPF" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon de 155mm GPF">155 mm gun M1917MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/155_mm_Long_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="155 mm Long Tom">155 mm gun M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M115_howitzer" title="M115 howitzer">8 inch howitzer M1/M2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Anti-aircraft guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/37_mm_gun_M1" title="37 mm gun M1">37 mm M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_automatic_gun_L/60" class="mw-redirect" title="Bofors 40 mm automatic gun L/60">40 mm M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1917" class="mw-redirect" title="3-inch gun M1917">3-inch gun M1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1918" title="3-inch gun M1918">3-inch gun M1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_anti-aircraft_gun_M3" title="3-inch anti-aircraft gun M3">3-inch anti-aircraft gun M3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/90_mm_gun_M1/M2/M3" title="90 mm gun M1/M2/M3">90 mm M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/120_mm_gun_M1" title="120 mm gun M1">120 mm M1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Coast artillery guns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-inch_gun_M1903" title="3-inch gun M1903">3-inch gun M1903</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/90_mm_gun_M1/M2/M3" title="90 mm gun M1/M2/M3">90 mm M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-inch_gun_M1903" class="mw-redirect" title="6-inch gun M1903">6-inch gun M1903</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_155mm_GPF" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon de 155mm GPF">155 mm gun M1918MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7%22/44_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="7"/44 caliber gun">7"/45 caliber gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_Mk._VI" class="mw-redirect" title="8-inch Mk. VI">8-inch Mk. VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_gun_M1888" title="8-inch gun M1888">8-inch gun M1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10-inch_gun_M1895" title="10-inch gun M1895">10-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch coast defense mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_gun_M1895" title="12-inch gun M1895">12-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14-inch_gun_M1907" title="14-inch gun M1907">14-inch gun M1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1895" title="16-inch gun M1895">16-inch gun M1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_gun_M1919" class="mw-redirect" title="16-inch gun M1919">16-inch gun M1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16%22/50_caliber_Mark_2_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun">16-inch Marks 2 and 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16-inch_howitzer_M1920" title="16-inch howitzer M1920">16-inch howitzer M1920</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Railway artillery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_Mk._VI_railway_gun" title="8-inch Mk. VI railway gun">8-inch Mk. VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-inch_gun_M1888" title="8-inch gun M1888">8-inch gun M1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-inch_coast_defense_mortar" title="12-inch coast defense mortar">12-inch coast defense mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14-inch_M1920_railway_gun" title="14-inch M1920 railway gun">14-inch M1920</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fortifications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fortifications" title="Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fortifications" title="Template talk:Fortifications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fortifications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortifications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abatis" title="Abatis">Abatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Agger_(ancient_Rome)" title="Agger (ancient Rome)">Agger</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco"><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Burgus" title="Burgus">Burgus</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">Castellum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castros</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chengqiang</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">City gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">Crannog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">Defensive wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faussebraye" title="Faussebraye">Faussebraye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">Gatehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwehr_(border)" title="Landwehr (border)">Landwehr</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuraghe" title="Nuraghe">Nuraghe</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">Pincer gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">Rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a> (Rath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schwedenschanze" title="Schwedenschanze">Schwedenschanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">Stockade</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">Sudis</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trou_de_loup" title="Trou de loup">Trou de loup</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">Vallum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">Wagon fort</a> (<span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Laager</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_fort" title="Vitrified fort">Vitrified fort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_work" title="Advanced work">Advanced work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">Alcazaba</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(landform)" title="Amba (landform)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">Barbican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartizan" title="Bartizan">Bartizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_tower" title="Battery tower">Battery tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">Battlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">Bawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_entrance" title="Bent entrance">Bent entrance</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfried</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">Berm</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">Boom</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Bret%C3%A8che" title="Bretèche">Bretèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_tower" title="Bridge tower">Bridge tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">Burh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter-churn_tower" title="Butter-churn tower">Butter-churn tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">Caer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">Caltrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_gate" title="Chamber gate">Chamber gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartaque" title="Chartaque">Chartaque</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chashi" title="Chashi">Chashi</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">Chemin de ronde</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">Chemise</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cheval_de_frise" title="Cheval de frise">Cheval de frise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corner_tower" title="Corner tower">Corner tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">Drawbridge</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">Enceinte</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">Embrasure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanking_tower" title="Flanking tower">Flanking tower</a></li> <li>Fortified buildings (<a href="/wiki/Fortified_church" title="Fortified church">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortified_house" title="Fortified house">house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_tulou" title="Fujian tulou">Fujian tulou</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_tower" title="Gate tower">Gate tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">Glacis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" title="Guard tower">Guard tower</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gulyay-gorod" title="Gulyay-gorod">Gulyay-gorod</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gusuku" title="Gusuku">Gusuku</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_tower" title="Half tower">Half tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(castle)" title="Hoarding (castle)">Hoarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_bailey" title="Inner bailey">Inner bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep" title="Keep">Keep</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_(fortification)" title="Kremlin (fortification)">Kremlin</a></i></span> <small>(<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Detinets" title="Detinets">Detinets</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">Merlon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_hole" title="Murder hole">Murder hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ditch" title="Neck ditch">Neck ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_bailey" title="Outer bailey">Outer bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwork" title="Outwork">Outwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">Peel tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">Portcullis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postern" title="Postern">Postern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_tower" title="Powder tower">Powder tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">Reduit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricetto" title="Ricetto">Ricetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundel_(fortification)" title="Roundel (fortification)">Roundel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">Shell keep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_wall_(castle)" title="Shield wall (castle)">Shield wall</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_castle" title="Japanese castle">Shiro</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">Tower house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">Turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking ring fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">Wall tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_(castle)" title="Bailey (castle)">Bailey (or ward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">Watchtower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_tower" title="Witch tower">Witch tower</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yagura_(tower)" title="Yagura (tower)">Yagura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yett" title="Yett">Yett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwinger" title="Zwinger">Zwinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Abwurfdach" class="mw-redirect" title="Abwurfdach">Abwurfdach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">Barricade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Caponier" title="Caponier">Caponier</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_(fortification)" title="Cavalier (fortification)">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterguard" title="Counterguard">Counterguard</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Couvreface" title="Couvreface">Couvreface</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Coupure" title="Coupure">Coupure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covertway" title="Covertway">Covertway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crownwork" title="Crownwork">Crownwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_Forts" title="Device Forts">Device Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrenchment_(fortification)" title="Entrenchment (fortification)">Entrenchment</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fl%C3%A8che_(fortification)" title="Flèche (fortification)">Flèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorge_(fortification)" title="Gorge (fortification)">Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_magazine" title="Gunpowder magazine">Gunpowder magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwork" title="Hornwork">Hornwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Kotta mara</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Lunette_(fortification)" title="Lunette (fortification)">Lunette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)" title="Magazine (artillery)">Magazine</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Orillon" title="Orillon">Orillon</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">Ostrog</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanka_(fortification)" title="Palanka (fortification)">Palanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place-of-arms" title="Place-of-arms">Place-of-arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">Presidio</a></i></span> (Spanish America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Punji sticks</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ravelin" title="Ravelin">Ravelin</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Redan" title="Redan">Redan</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrenchment_(military)" title="Retrenchment (military)">Retrenchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">Sandbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterscarp" title="Counterscarp">Scarp and Counterscarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(fortification)" title="Sconce (fortification)">Sconce</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Schanze" title="Schanze">Schanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">Sea fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_(frontier_defensive_structure)" title="Station (frontier defensive structure)">Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star fort</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Tenaille" title="Tenaille">Tenaille</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">Barbed wire</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">Barbette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_outpost" title="Border outpost">Border outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">Coastal artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control_tower" title="Fire control tower">Fire control tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Gun turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martello_tower" title="Martello tower">Martello tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">Wire obstacles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_scaffolding" title="Admiralty scaffolding">Admiralty scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">Anti-tank trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbed tape">Barbed tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointet-element" title="Cointet-element">Belgian gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">Blast wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Border security">Border security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">Bomb shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoy_anti-tank_obstacle" title="Buoy anti-tank obstacle">Buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremer_wall" title="Bremer wall">Bremer wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">Concertina wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Defensive fighting position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparations_of_the_Second_World_War#Lines_and_islands" title="British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War">British "hedgehog" road block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_teeth_(fortification)" title="Dragon's teeth (fortification)">Dragon's teeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">Entry control point (ECP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">Electric fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_support_base" title="Fire support base">Fire support base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardened_aircraft_shelter" title="Hardened aircraft shelter">Hardened aircraft shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">Hesco bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabal_(earthworks)" title="Kabal (earthworks)">Kabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_line_of_resistance" title="Main line of resistance">Main line of resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">Pillbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment_(aircraft)" title="Revetment (aircraft)">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_gun" title="Sentry gun">Sentry gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Submarine pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_storage_area" title="Weapon storage area">Weapon storage area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_Storage_and_Security_System" title="Weapons Storage and Security System">Weapons Storage and Security System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_castle" title="Cave castle">Cave castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_castle" title="Hill castle">Hill castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillside_castle" title="Hillside castle">Hillside castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilltop_castle" title="Hilltop castle">Hilltop castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_castle" title="Island castle">Island castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_castle" title="Lowland castle">Lowland castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_castle" title="Marsh castle">Marsh castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Moated castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_castle" title="Ridge castle">Ridge castle</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Rocca_(fortification)" title="Rocca (fortification)">Rocca</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_castle" title="Rock castle">Rock castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_castle" title="Spur castle">Spur castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Water castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Floating water castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_barrier" title="Border barrier">Border barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">Fence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Hunting lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_castle" title="Imperial castle">Imperial castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpfalz" title="Kaiserpfalz">Kaiserpfalz</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lustschloss" title="Lustschloss">Lustschloss</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstacle" title="Obstacle">Obstacle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ordensburg" title="Ordensburg">Ordensburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_castle" title="Urban castle">Urban castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_fort" title="Bastion fort">Bastion fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-plan_castle" title="Z-plan castle">Z-plan castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bastion_forts" title="List of bastion forts">Bastion forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles" title="List of castles">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_defensive_walls" title="List of cities with defensive walls">Cities with defensive walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_line" title="Defense line">Defense line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified estate">Fortified estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fortifications" title="List of fortifications">Fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts" title="List of forts">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Military installations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">Walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related word</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">Castle town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">Château</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festung" title="Festung">Festung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_gateway" title="Fortified gateway">Fortified gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper" title="Gatekeeper">Gatekeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_redoubt" title="National redoubt">National redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palas" title="Palas">Palas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">Picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schloss" title="Schloss">Schloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedette_(sentry)" title="Vedette (sentry)">Vedette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">Continuity of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_urbanism" title="Military urbanism">Military urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_siege_engines" title="List of siege engines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_guerrilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nobold">See also</span>: <b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fortification" title="Category:Fortification">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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