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Liquid–liquid extraction - Wikipedia

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</button> <ul id="toc-Measures_of_effectiveness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distribution_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Distribution ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Separation factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measures_of_success" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measures_of_success"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Measures of success</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measures_of_success-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Batch_wise_single_stage_extractions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Batch_wise_single_stage_extractions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Batch wise single stage extractions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Batch_wise_single_stage_extractions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dispersive_liquid–liquid_microextraction_(DLLME)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispersive_liquid–liquid_microextraction_(DLLME)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dispersive_liquid–liquid_microextraction_(DLLME)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_organic_extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_organic_extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Direct organic extraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_organic_extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multistage_countercurrent_continuous_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multistage_countercurrent_continuous_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Multistage countercurrent continuous processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multistage_countercurrent_continuous_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mixer–settlers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixer–settlers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Mixer–settlers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixer–settlers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Centrifugal_extractors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centrifugal_extractors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Centrifugal extractors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centrifugal_extractors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraction_without_chemical_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraction_without_chemical_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Extraction without chemical change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraction_without_chemical_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solvation_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solvation_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Solvation mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solvation_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ion_exchange_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ion_exchange_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Ion exchange mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ion_exchange_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ion_pair_extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ion_pair_extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Ion pair extraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ion_pair_extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_of_aqueous_two-phase_extractions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_aqueous_two-phase_extractions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Types of aqueous two-phase extractions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_aqueous_two-phase_extractions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_purification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_purification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>DNA purification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_purification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.3</span> <span>Food industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytical_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytical_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.4</span> <span>Analytical chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytical_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purification_of_amines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purification_of_amines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.5</span> <span>Purification of amines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purification_of_amines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Temperature swing solvent extraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinetics_of_extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetics_of_extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Kinetics of extraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetics_of_extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aqueous_complexing_agents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aqueous_complexing_agents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aqueous complexing agents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aqueous_complexing_agents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_process_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_process_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Industrial process design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industrial_process_design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Industrial process design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Industrial_process_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liquid-liquid_equilibrium_calculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquid-liquid_equilibrium_calculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Liquid-liquid equilibrium calculations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquid-liquid_equilibrium_calculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraction_of_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraction_of_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Extraction of metals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Extraction_of_metals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Extraction of metals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Extraction_of_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cobalt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cobalt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Cobalt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cobalt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Copper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neodymium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neodymium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Neodymium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neodymium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nickel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nickel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Nickel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nickel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palladium_and_platinum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palladium_and_platinum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Palladium and platinum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palladium_and_platinum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polonium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polonium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Polonium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polonium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zinc_and_cadmium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zinc_and_cadmium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Zinc and cadmium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zinc_and_cadmium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Lithium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B5_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84-%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84" title="استخلاص سائل-سائل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="استخلاص سائل-سائل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracci%C3%B3_l%C3%ADquid-l%C3%ADquid" title="Extracció líquid-líquid – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Extracció líquid-líquid" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A6ske-v%C3%A6ske-ekstraktion" title="Væske-væske-ekstraktion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Væske-væske-ekstraktion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCssig-Fl%C3%BCssig-Extraktion" title="Flüssig-Flüssig-Extraktion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Flüssig-Flüssig-Extraktion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BA%CF%87%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Εκχύλιση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εκχύλιση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracci%C3%B3n_l%C3%ADquido-l%C3%ADquido" title="Extracción líquido-líquido – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Extracción líquido-líquido" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likido-likido_erauzketa" title="Likido-likido erauzketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Likido-likido erauzketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B9-%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B9" title="استخراج مایع-مایع – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استخراج مایع-مایع" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraction_liquide-liquide" title="Extraction liquide-liquide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Extraction liquide-liquide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekstraksi_pelarut" title="Ekstraksi pelarut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekstraksi pelarut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-solvent_extraction" title="I-solvent extraction – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-solvent extraction" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrazione_liquido-liquido" title="Estrazione liquido-liquido – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Estrazione liquido-liquido" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vloeistof-vloeistofextractie" title="Vloeistof-vloeistofextractie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vloeistof-vloeistofextractie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BA%B6%E5%AA%92%E6%8A%BD%E5%87%BA%E6%B3%95" title="溶媒抽出法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="溶媒抽出法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra%C3%A7%C3%A3o_l%C3%ADquido-l%C3%ADquido" title="Extração líquido-líquido – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Extração líquido-líquido" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B9-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="مائع-مائع استخراج – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="مائع-مائع استخراج" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_extraction" title="Solvent extraction – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Solvent extraction" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li 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#36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>&#32;in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Funnels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Funnels.jpg/330px-Funnels.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Funnels.jpg/495px-Funnels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Funnels.jpg/660px-Funnels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3856" data-file-height="2892" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Separatory_funnel" title="Separatory funnel">separatory funnel</a> used for liquid–liquid extraction, as evident by the two immiscible liquids.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Liquid–liquid extraction</b>, also known as <b>solvent extraction</b> and <b>partitioning</b>, is a method to separate compounds or <a href="/wiki/Metal_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal complex">metal complexes</a>, based on their relative <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubilities</a> in two different <a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">immiscible</a> liquids, usually water (polar) and an organic solvent (non-polar). There is a net transfer of one or more <a href="/wiki/Chemical_species" title="Chemical species">species</a> from one liquid into another liquid phase, generally from aqueous to organic. The transfer is driven by chemical potential, i.e. once the transfer is complete, the overall system of chemical components that make up the solutes and the solvents are in a more stable configuration (lower free energy). The solvent that is enriched in solute(s) is called extract. The feed solution that is depleted in solute(s) is called the <a href="/wiki/Raffinate" title="Raffinate">raffinate</a>. Liquid–liquid extraction is a basic technique in chemical laboratories, where it is performed using a variety of apparatus, from <a href="/wiki/Separatory_funnels" class="mw-redirect" title="Separatory funnels">separatory funnels</a> to <a href="/wiki/Countercurrent_distribution" title="Countercurrent distribution">countercurrent distribution</a> equipment called as <a href="/wiki/Mixer-settler" title="Mixer-settler">mixer settlers</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources in the body of the article. (May 2014)">not verified in body</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> This type of process is commonly performed after a chemical reaction as part of the <a href="/wiki/Work-up_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Work-up (chemistry)">work-up</a>, often including an acidic work-up. </p><p>The term <i>partitioning</i> is commonly used to refer to the underlying chemical and physical processes involved in <i>liquid–liquid extraction</i>, but on another reading may be fully synonymous with it. The term <i>solvent extraction</i> can also refer to the separation of a substance from a mixture by preferentially dissolving that substance in a suitable solvent. In that case, a soluble compound is separated from an insoluble compound or a complex matrix.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources in the body of the article. (May 2014)">not verified in body</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>From a <a href="/wiki/Hydrometallurgy" title="Hydrometallurgy">hydrometallurgical</a> perspective, solvent extraction is exclusively used in separation and purification of uranium and plutonium, zirconium and hafnium, separation of cobalt and nickel, separation and purification of rare earth elements etc., its greatest advantage being its ability to selectively separate out even very similar metals. One obtains high-purity single metal streams on 'stripping' out the metal value from the 'loaded' organic wherein one can precipitate or deposit the metal value. Stripping is the opposite of extraction: Transfer of mass from organic to aqueous phase. </p><p>Liquid–liquid extraction is also widely used in the production of fine <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>, the processing of <a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfumes</a>, the production of <a href="/wiki/Vegetable_fats_and_oils" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetable fats and oils">vegetable oils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">biodiesel</a>, and other industries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources in the body of the article. (May 2014)">not verified in body</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> It is among the most common initial separation techniques, though some difficulties result in extracting out closely related functional groups. </p><p>Liquid-Liquid extraction can be substantially accelerated in <a href="/wiki/Microfluidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic">microfluidic</a> devices, reducing extraction and separation times from minutes/hours to mere seconds compared to conventional extractors.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Liquid–liquid extraction is possible in non-aqueous systems: In a system consisting of a molten metal in contact with <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt" title="Molten salt">molten salts</a>, metals can be extracted from one phase to the other. This is related to a <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a> where a metal can be reduced, the metal will often then dissolve in the mercury to form an <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgam</a> that modifies its electrochemistry greatly. For example, it is possible for <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> to be reduced at a mercury <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Sodium_amalgam" title="Sodium amalgam">sodium amalgam</a>, while at an inert electrode (such as platinum) the sodium cations are not reduced. Instead, water is reduced to hydrogen. A <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergent</a> or fine <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> can be used to stabilize an <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Third_phase" title="Third phase">third phase</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources in the body of the article. (May 2014)">not verified in body</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measures_of_effectiveness">Measures of effectiveness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Measures of effectiveness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>&#32;in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution_ratio">Distribution ratio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Distribution ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In solvent extraction, a distribution ratio (D) is often quoted as a measure of how well-extracted a species is. The distribution ratio is a measure of the total <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Solute" class="mw-redirect" title="Solute">solute</a> in the organic phase divided by its concentration in the <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueous phase">aqueous phase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The partition or distribution coefficient (K<sub>d</sub>) is the ration of solute concentration in each layer upon reaching equilibrium.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This distinction between D and <i>K<sub>d</sub></i> is important. The partition coefficient is a thermodynamic equilibrium constant and has a fixed value for the solute’s partitioning between the two phases. The distribution ratio’s value, however, changes with solution conditions if the relative amounts of <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> change. If we know the solute’s equilibrium reactions within each phase and between the two phases, we can derive an algebraic relationship between K<sub>d</sub> and <i>D</i>. The partition coefficient and the distribution ratio are identical if the solute has only one chemical form in each phase; however, if the solute exists in more than one chemical form in either phase, then <i>K<sub>d</sub></i> and <i>D</i> usually have different values.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Depending on the system, the distribution ratio can be a function of temperature, the concentration of chemical species in the system, and a large number of other parameters. Note that <i>D</i> is related to the Gibbs Free Energy (Δ<i>G)</i> of the extraction process.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In solvent extraction, two immiscible liquids are shaken together. The more <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar</a> solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. In this experiment, the nonpolar halogens preferentially dissolve in the non-polar mineral oil.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_factors">Separation factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Separation factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The separation factor is one distribution ratio divided by another; it is a measure of the ability of the system to separate two solutes. For instance, if the distribution ratio for <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> (D<sub>Ni</sub>) is 10 and the distribution ratio for <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> (D<sub>Ag</sub>) is 100, then the silver/nickel separation factor (SF<sub>Ag/Ni</sub>) is equal to D<sub>Ag</sub>/D<sub>Ni</sub> = SF<sub>Ag/Ni</sub> = 10.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measures_of_success">Measures of success</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Measures of success"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Success of liquid–liquid extraction is measured through separation factors and decontamination factors. The best way to understand the success of an extraction column is through the liquid–liquid equilibrium (LLE) data set. The data set can then be converted into a curve to determine the steady state partitioning behavior of the solute between the two phases. The y-axis is the concentration of solute in the extract (solvent) phase, and the x-axis is the concentration of the solute in the raffinate phase. From here, one can determine steps for optimization of the process.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>&#32;in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Batch_wise_single_stage_extractions">Batch wise single stage extractions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Batch wise single stage extractions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is commonly used on the small scale in chemical labs. It is normal to use a <a href="/wiki/Separating_funnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Separating funnel">separating funnel</a>. Processes include DLLME and direct organic extraction.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> After equilibration, the extract phase containing the desired solute is separated out for further processing.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dispersive_liquid–liquid_microextraction_(DLLME)"><span id="Dispersive_liquid.E2.80.93liquid_microextraction_.28DLLME.29"></span>Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A process used to extract small amounts of organic compounds from water samples.<sup id="cite_ref-RezaeeAssadi2006_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RezaeeAssadi2006-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This process is done by injecting small amounts of an appropriate extraction solvent (C<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>4</sub>) and a disperser solvent (acetone) into the aqueous solution. The resulting solution is then <a href="/wiki/Centrifuge" title="Centrifuge">centrifuged</a> to separate the organic and aqueous layers. This process is useful in extraction organic compounds such as organochloride and organophsophorus pesticides, as well as substituted benzene compounds from water samples.<sup id="cite_ref-RezaeeAssadi2006_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RezaeeAssadi2006-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct_organic_extraction">Direct organic extraction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Direct organic extraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By mixing partially organic soluble samples in organic solvent (toluene, benzene, xylene), the organic soluble compounds will dissolve into the solvent and can be separated using a <a href="/wiki/Separatory_funnel" title="Separatory funnel">separatory funnel</a>. This process is valuable in the extraction of proteins and specifically phosphoprotein and phosphopeptide phosphatases.<sup id="cite_ref-Shacter1984_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shacter1984-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example of this application is extracting <a href="/wiki/Anisole" title="Anisole">anisole</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> and 5% <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> using <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">ether</a>, then the anisole will enter the organic phase. The two phases would then be separated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> The acetic acid can then be scrubbed (removed) from the organic phase by shaking the organic extract with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonate</a>. The acetic acid reacts with the sodium bicarbonate to form <a href="/wiki/Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, and water. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> can also be extracted from coffee beans and tea leaves using a direct organic extraction. The beans or leaves can be soaked in ethyl acetate which favorably dissolves the caffeine, leaving a majority of the coffee or tea flavor remaining in the initial sample.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multistage_countercurrent_continuous_processes">Multistage countercurrent continuous processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Multistage countercurrent continuous processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coflore_ACX.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Coflore_ACX.png/220px-Coflore_ACX.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Coflore_ACX.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption>Coflore continuous countercurrent extractor.</figcaption></figure> <p>These are commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Private_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Private industry">industry</a> for the processing of <a href="/wiki/Metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metals">metals</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Lanthanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanides">lanthanides</a>; because the separation factors between the lanthanides are so small many extraction stages are needed.<sup id="cite_ref-Binnemans2007_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binnemans2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the multistage processes, the aqueous <a href="/wiki/Raffinate" title="Raffinate">raffinate</a> from one extraction unit is fed to the next unit as the aqueous feed, while the organic phase is moved in the opposite direction. Hence, in this way, even if the separation between two metals in each stage is small, the overall system can have a higher decontamination factor. </p><p>Multistage <a href="/wiki/Countercurrent_exchange" title="Countercurrent exchange">countercurrent</a> arrays have been used for the separation of lanthanides. For the design of a good process, the distribution ratio should be not too high (&gt;100) or too low (&lt;0.1) in the extraction portion of the process. It is often the case that the process will have a section for scrubbing unwanted metals from the organic phase, and finally a <a href="/wiki/Stripping_(chemistry)" title="Stripping (chemistry)">stripping</a> section to obtain the metal back from the organic phase. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mixer–settlers"><span id="Mixer.E2.80.93settlers"></span>Mixer–settlers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Mixer–settlers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Battery of <a href="/wiki/Mixer-settler" title="Mixer-settler">mixer-settlers</a> counter currently interconnected. Each mixer-settler unit provides a single stage of extraction. A mixer settler consists of a first stage that mixes the phases together followed by a quiescent settling stage that allows the phases to separate by gravity. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg/220px-Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg/330px-Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg/440px-Continuous_separation_of_oil%26_water_mixture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Continuous separation of oil&amp; water mixture </figcaption></figure> <p>A novel settling device, Sudhin BioSettler, can separate an oil-water emulsion continuously at a much faster rate than simple gravity settlers. In this photo, an oil-water emulsion, stirred by an impeller in an external reservoir and pumped continuously into the two bottom side ports of BioSettler, is separated very quickly into a clear organic (mineral oil) layer exiting via the top of BioSettler and an aqueous (coloured with a red food dye) layer being pumped out continuously from the bottom of BioSettler. </p><p>In the multistage countercurrent process, multiple mixer settlers are installed with mixing and settling chambers located at alternating ends for each stage (since the outlet of the settling sections feed the inlets of the adjacent stage's mixing sections). Mixer-settlers are used when a process requires longer residence times and when the solutions are easily separated by gravity. They require a large facility footprint, but do not require much headspace, and need limited remote maintenance capability for occasional replacement of mixing motors. (Colven, 1956; Davidson, 1957)<sup id="cite_ref-test_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixer-settler-schema.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mixer-settler-schema.jpg/220px-Mixer-settler-schema.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mixer-settler-schema.jpg/330px-Mixer-settler-schema.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mixer-settler-schema.jpg/440px-Mixer-settler-schema.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>4 stage battery of mixer-settlers for counter-current extraction.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Centrifugal_extractors">Centrifugal extractors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Centrifugal extractors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_extractor" title="Centrifugal extractor">Centrifugal extractors</a> mix and separate in one unit. Two liquids will be intensively mixed between the spinning rotor and the stationary housing at speeds up to 6000 RPM. This develops great surfaces for an ideal mass transfer from the aqueous phase into the organic phase. At 200–2000 g, both phases will be separated again. Centrifugal extractors minimize the solvent in the process, optimize the product load in the solvent and extract the aqueous phase completely. Counter current and cross current extractions are easily established.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extraction_without_chemical_change">Extraction without chemical change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Extraction without chemical change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some solutes such as <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a> can be extracted from one phase to another without the need for a chemical reaction (see <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(chemistry)" title="Absorption (chemistry)">absorption</a>). This is the simplest type of solvent extraction. When a solvent is extracted, two immiscible liquids are shaken together. The more polar solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. Some solutes that do not at first sight appear to undergo a reaction during the extraction process do not have distribution ratio that is independent of concentration. A classic example is the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxylic acids">carboxylic acids</a> (<b>HA</b>) into nonpolar media such as <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>. Here, it is often the case that the carboxylic acid will form a dimer in the organic layer so the distribution ratio will change as a function of the acid concentration (measured in either phase). </p><p>For this case, the extraction constant <i>k</i> is described by <i>k</i> = [<b>HA</b><sub>organic</sub>]<sup>2</sup>/[<b>HA</b><sub>aqueous</sub>] </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solvation_mechanism">Solvation mechanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Solvation mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Using solvent extraction it is possible to extract <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> and many rare earth elements from acid solutions in a selective way by using the right choice of organic extracting solvent and diluent. One solvent used for this purpose is the <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphate</a> <a href="/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate" title="Tributyl phosphate">tributyl phosphate</a> (TBP). The <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> process that is commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a> uses a mixture of tri-n-butyl phosphate and an <a href="/wiki/Chemically_inert" title="Chemically inert">inert</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>), the uranium(VI) are extracted from strong <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> and are back-extracted (stripped) using weak nitric acid. An organic soluble uranium <a href="/wiki/Complex_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex (chemistry)">complex</a> [UO<sub>2</sub>(TBP)<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>] is formed, then the organic layer bearing the uranium is brought into contact with a <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">dilute</a> nitric acid solution; the equilibrium is shifted away from the organic soluble uranium complex and towards the free TBP and <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_nitrate" title="Uranyl nitrate">uranyl nitrate</a> in dilute nitric acid. The plutonium(IV) forms a similar complex to the uranium(VI), but it is possible to strip the plutonium in more than one way; a <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reducing agent</a> that converts the plutonium to the trivalent <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> can be added. This oxidation state does not form a stable complex with TBP and <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> unless the nitrate concentration is very high (circa 10&#160;mol/L nitrate is required in the aqueous phase). Another method is to simply use dilute nitric acid as a stripping agent for the plutonium. This PUREX chemistry is a classic example of a <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">solvation</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Extraction" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Extraction">extraction</a>. In this case, D<sub>U</sub> = k [TBP]<sup>2</sup>[NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>]<sup>2</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ion_exchange_mechanism">Ion exchange mechanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Ion exchange mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another extraction mechanism is known as the <a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion exchange</a> mechanism. Here, when an ion is transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase, another <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> is transferred in the other direction to maintain the charge balance. This additional ion is often a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ion" title="Hydrogen ion">hydrogen ion</a>; for ion exchange mechanisms, the distribution ratio is often a function of <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>. An example of an ion exchange extraction would be the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Terpyridine" title="Terpyridine">terpyridine</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> in <i>tert</i>-<a href="/wiki/Butyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyl">butyl</a> <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>. In this case </p> <dl><dd><i>D</i><sub>Am</sub> = <i>k</i> [terpyridine]<sup>1</sup>[carboxylic acid]<sup>3</sup>[H<sup>+</sup>]<sup>−3</sup></dd></dl> <p>Another example is the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> by a di<a href="/wiki/Alkyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkyl">alkyl</a> phosphinic acid (R<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>2</sub>H) into a nonpolar <a href="/wiki/Diluent" title="Diluent">diluent</a> such as an <a href="/wiki/Alkane" title="Alkane">alkane</a>. A non-<a href="/wiki/Polar_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar molecule">polar</a> diluent favours the formation of uncharged non-polar <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> complexes. </p><p>Some extraction systems are able to extract metals by both the solvation and ion exchange mechanisms; an example of such a system is the americium (and <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanide</a>) extraction from <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> by a combination of 6,6'-<i>bis</i>-(5,6-di<a href="/wiki/Pentyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentyl">pentyl</a>-1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)-<a href="/wiki/2,2%27-bipyridine" class="mw-redirect" title="2,2&#39;-bipyridine">2,2'-bipyridine</a> and 2-bromo<a href="/wiki/Hexanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexanoic acid">hexanoic acid</a> in <i>tert</i>-<a href="/wiki/Butyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyl">butyl</a> <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>. At both high- and low-nitric acid concentrations, the metal distribution ratio is higher than it is for an intermediate nitric acid concentration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ion_pair_extraction">Ion pair extraction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Ion pair extraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is possible by careful choice of counterion to extract a metal. For instance, if the <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> concentration is high, it is possible to extract <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Anionic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anionic">anionic</a> nitrate complex if the mixture contains a <a href="/wiki/Lipophilic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipophilic">lipophilic</a> <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary ammonium salt">quaternary ammonium salt</a>. </p><p>An example that is more likely to be encountered by the <i> 'average' </i> chemist is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Phase_transfer_catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase transfer catalyst">phase transfer catalyst</a>. This is a charged species that transfers another <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> to the organic phase. The ion reacts and then forms another ion, which is then transferred back to the aqueous phase. </p><p>For instance, the 31.1 <a href="/wiki/Kilojoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule">kJ</a> <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mol</a><sup>−1</sup> is required to transfer an <a href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">acetate</a> anion into nitrobenzene,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> while the energy required to transfer a chloride anion from an aqueous phase to nitrobenzene is 43.8 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Hence, if the aqueous phase in a reaction is a solution of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a> while the organic phase is a nitrobenzene solution of <a href="/wiki/Benzyl_chloride" title="Benzyl chloride">benzyl chloride</a>, then, when a phase transfer catalyst, the acetate anions can be transferred from the aqueous layer where they react with the <a href="/wiki/Benzyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzyl">benzyl</a> <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> to form benzyl acetate and a chloride anion. The chloride anion is then transferred to the aqueous phase. The transfer energies of the anions contribute to that given out by the reaction. </p><p>A 43.8 to 31.1 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup> = 12.7 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup> of additional energy is given out by the reaction when compared with energy if the reaction had been done in <a href="/wiki/Nitrobenzene" title="Nitrobenzene">nitrobenzene</a> using one <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_weight" title="Equivalent weight">equivalent weight</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Tetraalkylammonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraalkylammonium">tetraalkylammonium</a> acetate.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Types_of_aqueous_two-phase_extractions">Types of aqueous two-phase extractions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Types of aqueous two-phase extractions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Polymer–polymer systems. In a Polymer–polymer system, both phases are generated by a dissolved polymer. The heavy phase will generally be a <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a>, and the light phase is generally <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol" title="Polyethylene glycol">Polyethylene glycol</a> (PEG). Traditionally, the polysaccharide used is <a href="/wiki/Dextran" title="Dextran">dextran</a>. However, dextran is relatively expensive, and research has been exploring using less expensive polysaccharides to generate the heavy phase. If the target compound being separated is a protein or enzyme, it is possible to incorporate a ligand to the target into one of the polymer phases. This improves the target's affinity to that phase, and improves its ability to partition from one phase into the other. This, as well as the absence of solvents or other denaturing agents, makes polymer–polymer extractions an attractive option for purifying proteins. The two phases of a polymer–polymer system often have very similar densities, and very low surface tension between them. Because of this, demixing a polymer–polymer system is often much more difficult than demixing a solvent extraction. Methods to improve the demixing include <a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">centrifugation</a>, and application of an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>. </p><p>Polymer–salt systems. Aqueous two-phase systems can also be generated by generating the heavy phase with a concentrated salt solution. The polymer phase used is generally still PEG. Generally, a <a href="/wiki/Kosmotropic" title="Kosmotropic">kosmotropic</a> salt, such as Na<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> is used, however PEG–NaCl systems have been documented when the salt concentration is high enough. Since polymer–salt systems demix readily they are easier to use. However, at high salt concentrations, proteins generally either denature, or precipitate from solution. Thus, polymer–salt systems are not as useful for purifying proteins. </p><p>Ionic liquids systems. <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic liquids">Ionic liquids</a> are ionic compounds with low melting points. While they are not technically aqueous, recent research has experimented with using them in an extraction that does not use organic solvents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DNA_purification">DNA purification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: DNA purification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_extraction" title="DNA extraction">DNA extraction</a></div> <p>The ability to purify DNA from a sample is important for many modern biotechnology processes. However, samples often contain nucleases that degrade the target DNA before it can be purified. It has been shown that DNA fragments will partition into the light phase of a polymer–salt separation system. If ligands known to bind and deactivate nucleases are incorporated into the polymer phase, the nucleases will then partition into the heavy phase and be deactivated. Thus, this polymer–salt system is a useful tool for purifying DNA from a sample while simultaneously protecting it from nucleases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Food_industry">Food industry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Food industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The PEG–NaCl system has been shown to be effective at partitioning small molecules, such as peptides and nucleic acids. These compounds are often flavorants or odorants. The system could then be used by the food industry to isolate or eliminate particular flavors. <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> extraction used to be done using liquid–liquid extraction, specifically direct and indirect liquid–liquid extraction (Swiss Water Method), but has since moved towards super-critical CO<sub>2</sub> as it is cheaper and can be done on a commercial scale.<sup id="cite_ref-PekerSrinivasan1992_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PekerSrinivasan1992-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-decaf_101_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-decaf_101-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Analytical_chemistry">Analytical chemistry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Analytical chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Often there are chemical species present or necessary at one stage of sample processing that will interfere with the analysis. For example, some air monitoring is performed by drawing air through a small glass tube filled with sorbent particles that have been coated with a chemical to stabilize or derivatize the analyte of interest. The coating may be of such a concentration or characteristics that it would damage the instrumentation or interfere with the analysis. If the sample can be extracted from the sorbent using a nonpolar solvent (such as toluene or carbon disulfide), and the coating is polar (such as HBr or phosphoric acid) the dissolved coating will partition into the aqueous phase. Clearly the reverse is true as well, using polar extraction solvent and a nonpolar solvent to partition a nonpolar interferent. A small aliquot of the organic phase (or in the latter case, polar phase) can then be injected into the instrument for analysis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Purification_of_amines">Purification of amines</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Purification of amines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">Amines</a> (analogously to ammonia) have a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom that can form a relatively weak bond to a hydrogen atom. It is therefore the case that under acidic conditions amines are typically protonated, carrying a positive charge and under basic conditions they are typically deprotonated and neutral. Amines of sufficiently low molecular weight are rather polar and can form hydrogen bonds with water and therefore will readily dissolve in aqueous solutions. Deprotonated amines on the other hand, are neutral and have <i>greasy</i>, nonpolar organic substituents, and therefore have a higher affinity for nonpolar inorganic solvents. As such purification steps can be carried out where an aqueous solution of an amine is neutralized with a base such as sodium hydroxide, then shaken in a <a href="/wiki/Separatory_funnel" title="Separatory funnel">separatory funnel</a> with a nonpolar solvent that is immiscible with water. The organic phase is then drained off. Subsequent processing can recover the amine by techniques such as recrystallization, evaporation or distillation; subsequent extraction back to a polar phase can be performed by adding HCl and shaking again in a separatory funnel (at which point the ammonium ion could be recovered by adding an insoluble counterion), or in either phase, reactions could be performed as part of a chemical synthesis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction">Temperature swing solvent extraction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Temperature swing solvent extraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Desalination#Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction" title="Desalination">Desalination §&#160;Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction</a></div> <p>Temperature swing solvent extraction is an experimental technique for the desalination of drinking water. It has been used to remove up to 98.5% of the salt content in water, and is able to process hypersaline brines that cannot be desalinated using reverse osmosis.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kinetics_of_extraction">Kinetics of extraction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Kinetics of extraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It is important to investigate the rate at which the solute is transferred between the two phases, in some cases by an alteration of the contact time it is possible to alter the selectivity of the extraction. For instance, the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> can be very slow because the rate of ligand exchange at these metal centers is much lower than the rates for <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> complexes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aqueous_complexing_agents">Aqueous complexing agents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Aqueous complexing agents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Special:EditPage/Liquid–liquid extraction">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>If a complexing agent is present in the aqueous phase then it can lower the distribution ratio. For instance, in the case of iodine being distributed between water and an inert organic solvent such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">carbon tetrachloride</a> then the presence of <a href="/wiki/Iodide" title="Iodide">iodide</a> in the aqueous phase can alter the extraction chemistry: instead of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">I</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f54ca8e1e94e7c4869e5ea09c40a4e1505cc9373" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.62ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}}"></span> being a constant it becomes </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">I</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f54ca8e1e94e7c4869e5ea09c40a4e1505cc9373" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.62ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}}"></span> = <i>k</i>[I<sub>2</sub> (organic)]/[I<sub>2</sub> (aq)][I<sup>−</sup> (aq)]</dd></dl> <p>This is because the <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> reacts with the <a href="/wiki/Iodide" title="Iodide">iodide</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Triiodide" title="Triiodide">I<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></a>. The I<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> anion is an example of a <a href="/wiki/Polyhalide" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyhalide">polyhalide</a> <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anion</a> that is quite common. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrial_process_design">Industrial process design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Industrial process design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a typical scenario, an industrial process will use an extraction step in which solutes are transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase; this is often followed by a scrubbing stage in which unwanted solutes are removed from the organic phase, then a stripping stage in which the wanted solutes are removed from the organic phase. The organic phase may then be treated to make it ready for use again.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>After use, the organic phase may be subjected to a cleaning step to remove any degradation products; for instance, in PUREX plants, the used organic phase is washed with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> solution to remove any dibutyl hydrogen phosphate or butyl dihydrogen phosphate that might be present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquid-liquid_equilibrium_calculations">Liquid-liquid equilibrium calculations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Liquid-liquid equilibrium calculations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to calculate the phase equilibrium, it is necessary to use a thermodynamic model such as NRTL, UNIQUAC, etc. The corresponding parameters of these models can be obtained from literature (e.g. Dechema Chemistry Data Series, <a href="/wiki/Dortmund_Data_Bank" title="Dortmund Data Bank">Dortmund Data Bank</a>, etc.) or by a correlation process of experimental data.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Separation02.ogv/220px--Separation02.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="28" data-mwtitle="Separation02.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Separation02.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/86/Separation02.ogv/Separation02.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/86/Separation02.ogv/Separation02.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Separation02.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora&quot;" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Phase separation during a laboratory scale liquid-liquid extraction. The upper organic ether solution of <a href="/wiki/MTBE" class="mw-redirect" title="MTBE">MTBE</a> is being extracted with the lower alkaline <a href="/wiki/Aqueous" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueous">aqueous</a> sodium bicarbonate solution to remove <a href="/wiki/Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">benzoic acid</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Benzoate" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzoate">benzoate</a> anion, leaving a non-acidic organic, <a href="/wiki/Benzil" title="Benzil">benzil</a>, (yellow in color) in the organic phase.</figcaption></figure> <p>While solvent extraction is often done on a small scale by synthetic lab chemists using a <a href="/wiki/Separatory_funnel" title="Separatory funnel">separatory funnel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Craig_apparatus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Craig apparatus (page does not exist)">Craig apparatus</a> or membrane-based techniques,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> it is normally done on the industrial scale using machines that bring the two liquid phases into contact with each other. Such machines include <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_contactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Centrifugal contactor">centrifugal contactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thin_Layer_Extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin Layer Extraction">Thin Layer Extraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spray_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Spray column">spray columns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulsed_columns" title="Pulsed columns">pulsed columns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mixer-settler" title="Mixer-settler">mixer-settlers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraction_of_metals">Extraction of metals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Extraction of metals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extraction methods for a range of metals include:<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cobalt">Cobalt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Cobalt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extraction of cobalt from <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> using <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alamine_336&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Alamine 336 (page does not exist)">Alamine 336</a> (tri-octyl/decyl amine) in <i><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">meta</a></i>-<a href="/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">xylene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Cobalt can be extracted also using <a href="/wiki/Dialkylphosphinic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialkylphosphinic acid">Ionquest 290 or Cyanex 272 {<i>bis</i>-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid}</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copper">Copper</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: Copper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copper can be extracted using hydroxy<a href="/wiki/Oxime" title="Oxime">oximes</a> as extractants, a recent paper describes an extractant that has a good selectivity for copper over <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neodymium">Neodymium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Neodymium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rare earth element Neodymium is extracted by di(2-ethyl-hexyl)phosphoric acid into <a href="/wiki/Hexane" title="Hexane">hexane</a> by an ion exchange mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nickel">Nickel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Nickel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nickel can be extracted using di(2-ethyl-hexyl)phosphoric acid and <a href="/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate" title="Tributyl phosphate">tributyl phosphate</a> in a hydrocarbon diluent (Shellsol).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palladium_and_platinum">Palladium and platinum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Palladium and platinum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dialkyl sulfides, tributyl phosphate and alkyl amines have been used for extracting palladium and platinum.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polonium">Polonium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Polonium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a> is produced in reactors from natural <a href="/wiki/Bismuth-209" title="Bismuth-209"><sup>209</sup>Bi</a>, bombarded with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, creating <sup>210</sup>Bi, which then decays to <sup>210</sup>Po via beta-minus decay. The final purification is done pyrochemically followed by liquid-liquid extraction vs sodium hydroxide at 500&#160;&#176;C.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zinc_and_cadmium">Zinc and cadmium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: Zinc and cadmium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zinc and cadmium are both extracted by an ion exchange process, the <a href="/wiki/TPEN" title="TPEN"><i>N,N,N′,N′</i>-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine</a> (TPEN) acts as a masking agent for the zinc and an extractant for the cadmium.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the modified Zincex process, zinc is separated from most divalent ions by solvent extraction. D2EHPA (Di (2) ethyl hexyl phosphoric acid) is used for this. A zinc ion replaces the proton from two D2EHPA molecules. To strip the zinc from the D2EHPA, <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> is used, at a concentration of above 170g/L (typically 240-265g/L). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithium">Lithium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Lithium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lithium extraction is more popular due to the high demand of <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion batteries</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate" title="Tributyl phosphate">TBP (Tri-butyl phosphate)</a> and <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">FeCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub></span> are mostly used to extract lithium from brine (with high Li/Mg ratio).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Alternatively, Cyanex 272 was also used to extract lithium. The mechanism of lithium extraction was found differently from other metals, such as cobalt, due to the weak coordinating bonding between lithium ions and extractants.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fragrance_extraction" title="Fragrance extraction">Fragrance extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dortmund_Data_Bank" title="Dortmund Data Bank">Dortmund Data Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-random_two-liquid_model" title="Non-random two-liquid model">Non-random two-liquid model</a> - (NRTL model) LL Phase Equilibrium Calculation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNIQUAC" title="UNIQUAC">UNIQUAC</a> - LL Phase Equilibrium Calculation</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFToumaCoblynFreibergKowall2024" class="citation journal cs1">Touma, J. 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Karger, 2014, "Separation and Purification: Single-stage versus multistage processes" and "Separation and Purification: Separations Based on Equilibrium", Encyclopædia Britannica, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/108875/separation-and-purification/80486/Single-stage-versus-multistage-processes#toc80487">[1]</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/108875/separation-and-purification/80483/Separations-based-on-equilibria">[2]</a>, accessed 12 May 2014.</li> <li>Gunt Hamburg, 2014, "Thermal Process Engineering: liquid–liquid extraction and solid-liquid extraction", see <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gunt.de/download/extraction_english.pdf">[3]</a>, accessed 12 May 2014.</li> <li>G.W. Stevens, T.C., Lo, &amp; M. H. I. Baird, 2007, "Extraction, liquid–liquid", in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0471238961.120917211215.a01.pub2">10.1002/0471238961.120917211215.a01.pub2</a>, accessed 12 May 2014.</li> <li>Colin Poole &amp; Michael Cooke, 2000, "Extraction", in Encyclopedia of Separation Science, 10 Vols., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-226770-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-226770-3">978-0-12-226770-3</a>, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://store.elsevier.com/product.jsp?isbn=9780122267703&amp;gdftrk=gdfV26763_a_7c349_a_7c883_a_7c9780122267703&amp;mckv=dvgJdFEm_dc&amp;pcrid=50347813032&amp;gclid=COrKzo65pr4CFW4R7AodjhQA5Q">[4]</a>, accessed 12 May 2014.</li> <li>Sikdar, Cole, et al. Aqueous Two-Phase Extractions in Bioseparations: An Assessment. Biotechnology 9:254. 1991</li> <li>Szlag, Giuliano. A Low-Cost Aqueous Two Phase System for Enzyme Extraction. Biotechnology Techniques 2:4:277. 1988</li> <li>Dreyer, Kragl. Ionic Liquids for Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction and Stabilization of Enzymes. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 99:6:1416. 2008</li> <li>Boland. Aqueous Two-Phase Systems: Methods and Protocols. Pg 259-269</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100702074135/http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/chemsep/extraction/">https://web.archive.org/web/20100702074135/http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/chemsep/extraction/</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10045/51725">Topological Analysis of the Gibbs Energy Function (Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium Correlation Data). Including a Thermodynamic Review and a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for Surfaces/Tie-lines/Hessian matrix analysis</a> - University of Alicante (Reyes-Labarta et al. 2015-18)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Separation_processes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse 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id="Separation_processes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation processes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorption" title="Sorption">Absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_extraction" title="Acid–base extraction">Acid–base extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">Adsorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-flow_filtration" title="Cross-flow filtration">Cross-flow filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_separation" title="Cyclonic separation">Cyclonic separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decantation" title="Decantation">Decantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialysis_(chemistry)" title="Dialysis (chemistry)">Dialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_air_flotation" title="Dissolved air flotation">Dissolved air flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drying" title="Drying">Drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochromatography" title="Electrochromatography">Electrochromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrofiltration" title="Electrofiltration">Electrofiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">Flocculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_separation" title="Gravity separation">Gravity separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(chemistry)" title="Leaching (chemistry)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liquid–liquid extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroextraction" title="Electroextraction">Electroextraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfiltration" title="Microfiltration">Microfiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">Osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">Recrystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment)" title="Sedimentation (water treatment)">Sedimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-phase_extraction" title="Solid-phase extraction">Solid-phase extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrafiltration" title="Ultrafiltration">Ultrafiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ChemSepProcDiagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Separation process schematic"><img alt="Separation process schematic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/ChemSepProcDiagram.svg/81px-ChemSepProcDiagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="81" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/ChemSepProcDiagram.svg/122px-ChemSepProcDiagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/ChemSepProcDiagram.svg/162px-ChemSepProcDiagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/API_oil%E2%80%93water_separator" title="API oil–water separator">API oil–water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_filter" title="Belt filter">Belt filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifuge" title="Centrifuge">Centrifuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_filter" title="Depth filter">Depth filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">Evaporator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_press" title="Filter press">Filter press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractionating_column" title="Fractionating column">Fractionating column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">Leachate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixer-settler" title="Mixer-settler">Mixer-settler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_skimmer" title="Protein skimmer">Protein skimmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_sand_filter" title="Rapid sand filter">Rapid sand filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_vacuum-drum_filter" title="Rotary vacuum-drum filter">Rotary vacuum-drum filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrubber" title="Scrubber">Scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_cone" title="Spinning cone">Spinning cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still" title="Still">Still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublimation apparatus">Sublimation apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_ceramic_filter" title="Vacuum ceramic filter">Vacuum ceramic filter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiphase<br /> systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_two-phase_system" title="Aqueous two-phase system">Aqueous two-phase system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azeotrope" title="Azeotrope">Azeotrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutectic_system" title="Eutectic system">Eutectic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">Unit operation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chemical_equilibria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_equilibria" title="Template:Chemical equilibria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chemical_equilibria" title="Template talk:Chemical equilibria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical_equilibria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical equilibria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chemical_equilibria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">Chemical equilibria</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_stability" title="Chemical stability">Chemical stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">Chelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">Dynamic equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrium stage">Equilibrium stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">Free energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmholtz_free_energy" title="Helmholtz free energy">Helmholtz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chatelier%27s_principle" title="Le Chatelier&#39;s principle">Le Chatelier's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_separation" title="Phase separation">Phase separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversible_reaction" title="Reversible reaction">Reversible reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">Models</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_constant" title="Equilibrium constant">Equilibrium constant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Determination_of_equilibrium_constants" title="Determination of equilibrium constants">determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">Phase diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predominance_diagram" title="Predominance diagram">Predominance diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_rule" title="Phase rule">Phase rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaction_quotient" title="Reaction quotient">Reaction quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_activity" title="Thermodynamic activity">Thermodynamic activity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffer_solution" title="Buffer solution">Buffer solution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_unfolding" title="Equilibrium unfolding">Equilibrium unfolding</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liquid–liquid extraction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific equilibria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant" title="Acid dissociation constant">Acid dissociation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hammett_acidity_function" title="Hammett acidity function">Hammett acidity function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_constant" title="Binding constant">Binding constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_selectivity" title="Binding selectivity">Binding selectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stability_constants_of_complexes" title="Stability constants of complexes">Coordination complexes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrocyclic_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocyclic effect">Macrocyclic effect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociation_constant" title="Dissociation constant">Dissociation constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis_constant" title="Hydrolysis constant">Hydrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_autoionization" title="Molecular autoionization">Self-ionization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-ionization_of_water" title="Self-ionization of water">of water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_equilibrium" title="Partition equilibrium">Partition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_coefficient" title="Partition coefficient">Distribution coefficient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solubility_equilibrium" title="Solubility equilibrium">Solubility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-ion_effect" title="Common-ion effect">Common-ion effect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium" title="Vapor–liquid equilibrium">Vapor–liquid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry%27s_law" title="Henry&#39;s law">Henry's law</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐f69cdc8f6‐nt2gf Cached time: 20241122141406 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.824 seconds Real time usage: 1.010 seconds Preprocessor 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