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Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even while globally blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit pages on <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="m:">Meta-Wiki</a>. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/No_open_proxies" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/No open proxies">No open proxies</a> global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Global" class="extiw" title="m:Steward requests/Global">post a request for review on Meta-Wiki</a>. 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{{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}} {{EngvarB|date=February 2024}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Circassians | native_name = {{nativename|ady|Адыгэхэр}} | native_name_lang = ady | flag = Circassian flag.svg | flag_caption = [[Circassian flag|Circassian national flag]] | image = Circassian diaspora.png | image_caption = Map of the [[Circassian diaspora]] | population = {{circa|5.3&nbsp;million}} | region1 = {{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Circassians in Turkey|Turkey]] | pop1 = 2,000,000–3,000,000 | ref1 = {{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LHlwZwpA70cC&q=million+circassians+in+turkey&pg=PA130 130]}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Danver |first1=Steven L. |title=Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317464006 |page=528 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vf4TBwAAQBAJ&q=2+million+circassians+turkey |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=23 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123185224/https://books.google.com/books?id=vf4TBwAAQBAJ&q=2+million+circassians+turkey |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Zhemukhov">{{cite journal |last1=Zhemukhov |first1=Sufian |title=Circassian World Responses to the New Challenges |journal=PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 54 |date=2008 |page=2 |url=http://www.ponarseurasia.org/sites/default/files/policy-memos-pdf/pepm_054.pdf |access-date=8 May 2016 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819072215/http://www.ponarseurasia.org/sites/default/files/policy-memos-pdf/pepm_054.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | region2 = {{flagcountry|Russia}} * {{flag|Adygea}} * {{flag|Krasnodar Krai}} * {{flag|Kabardino-Balkaria}} * {{flag|Karachay-Cherkessia}} | pop2 = 751,487 | ref2 = <ref name=census2021>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Национальный состав населения |title=Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya |trans-title=National composition of the population |language=ru |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx |publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service]] |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204643/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref> | region3 = {{flagicon|Jordan}} [[Circassians in Jordan|Jordan]] | pop3 = 250,000 | ref3 = <ref name="ИзРус">{{cite web |url=http://izrus.co.il/dvuhstoronka/article/2009-04-10/4250.html |title=Израйльский сайт ИзРус |access-date=8 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030205448/http://izrus.co.il/dvuhstoronka/article/2009-04-10/4250.html |archive-date=30 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Zhemukhov"/> | region4 = {{flagicon|Syria}} [[Circassians in Syria|Syria]] | pop4 = 80,000–120,000 | ref4 = <ref name="Zhemukhov"/><ref>{{cite news |title= Syrian Circassians returning to Russia's Caucasus region |url=http://www.trtworld.com/europe/syrian-circassians-returning-to-russias-caucasus-region-7673 |access-date=8 May 2016 |agency=TRTWorld and agencies |publisher=TRTWorld |date=2015 |quote=Currently, approximately 80,000 ethnic Circassians live in Syria after their ancestors were forced out of the northern Caucasus by Russians between 1863 and 1867. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601011801/http://www.trtworld.com/europe/syrian-circassians-returning-to-russias-caucasus-region-7673 |archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+sy0038%29 |title=Syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511060007/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0038) |archive-date=11 May 2011 |website=Library of Congress}}</ref><ref name="ИД">{{cite web |url=http://www.vokrugsveta.ru/encyclopedia/index.php?title=%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F |script-title=ru:Независимые английские исследования |title=Nezavisimyye angliyskiye issledovaniya |language=ru |trans-title=Independent English Studies |access-date=8 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508055050/http://www.vokrugsveta.ru/encyclopedia/index.php?title=%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Jamestown">{{cite news |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/nca/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37779&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=24&cHash=0080bc52dc79241fd4e3a5a295d72c4c |title=Moscow Uses Circassians to Offer Assistance to Libyan Leader Qaddafi |newspaper=Jamestown |publisher=Jamestown.org |date=7 May 2011 |access-date=20 August 2013 |archive-date=10 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910131524/http://www.jamestown.org/programs/nca/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37779&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=24&cHash=0080bc52dc79241fd4e3a5a295d72c4c |url-status=live}}</ref> | region5 = {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Circassians in Egypt|Egypt]] | pop5 = 50,000{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} | ref5 = | region6 = {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Circassians in Germany|Germany]] | pop6 = 40,000 | ref6 = <ref name="Zhemukhov" /><ref name=OSH>{{cite web |last=Lopes |first=Tiago André Ferreira |title=The Offspring of the Arab Spring |url=http://www.segurancahumana.eu/data/res/30/1819.pdf |work=Strategic Outlook |publisher=Observatory for Human Security (OSH) |access-date=16 June 2013 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224201838/http://www.segurancahumana.eu/data/res/30/1819.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> | region7 = {{flagicon|Libya}} [[Circassians in Libya|Libya]] | pop7 = 35,000 | ref7 = <ref name="Jamestown"/> | region8 = {{flagicon|Iraq}} [[Circassians in Iraq|Iraq]] | pop8 = 34,000 | ref8 = <ref name="Ref_ae">{{cite web |url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/adyghe_l.htm |title=Adyghe by country |access-date=8 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021061231/http://i-cias.com/e.o/adyghe_l.htm |archive-date=21 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> | region9 = {{flagicon|United&nbsp;States}} [[Circassian Americans|United States]] | pop9 = 25,000 | ref9 = <ref name="Ref_ae"/> | region10 = {{flagicon|Saudi&nbsp;Arabia}} [[Circassians in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]] | pop10 = 23,000{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} | ref10 = | region11 = {{flagicon|Iran}} [[Circassians in Iran|Iran]] | pop11 = 5,000–50,000 | ref11 = <ref name="Circassians in Iran">{{cite news |url=https://caucasustimes.com/en/circassians-in-iran/ |title=Circassians in Iran |newspaper=Caucasus Times |date=9 February 2018 |access-date=16 August 2021 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920182911/http://caucasustimes.com/en/circassians-in-iran/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | region12 = {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Circassians in Israel|Israel]] | pop12 = 4,000–5,000 | ref12 = <ref>{{cite book |last1=Besleney |first1=Zeynel Abidin |title=The Circassian Diaspora in Turkey: A Political History |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317910046 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQIkAwAAQBAJ&q=circassians+in+israel+4%2C000&pg=PA96 |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121174750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YQIkAwAAQBAJ&q=circassians+in+israel+4%2C000&pg=PA96#v=snippet&q=circassians%20in%20israel%204%2C000&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Torstrick |first1=Rebecca L. |title=Culture and Customs of Israel |date=2004 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0313320910 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=amvQP0MzxRwC&q=circassians+in+israel+4,000|access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121174751/https://books.google.com/books?id=amvQP0MzxRwC&q=circassians+in+israel+4,000 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Louër |first1=Laurence |title=To be an Arab in Israel |date=2007 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0231140683 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4FtAAAAMAAJ&q=circassians+in+israel+5,000 |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121174907/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4FtAAAAMAAJ&q=circassians+in+israel+5,000 |url-status=live}}</ref> | region13 = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}} | pop13 = 1,257 | ref13 = <ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР |title=Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1989 goda. Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya po respublikam SSSR |trans-title=All-Union population census of 1989. National composition of the population by republic of the USSR |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=4 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106212632/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=4 |archive-date=6 January 2012 |language=ru}}</ref> | region14 = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}} | pop14 = 1,000 | ref14 = <ref>{{cite web|title=The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20&n_page=1|website=2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua|access-date=6 August 2019|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221224810/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1|url-status=live}}</ref> | region15 = {{flagcountry|Poland}} | pop15 = 1,000 | ref15 = <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.circassianworld.com/history/miscellaneous/1207-circassian-princes-poland |title=Circassian Princes in Poland: The Five Princes, by Marcin Kruszynski |website=www.circassianworld.com |access-date=29 January 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728144017/https://www.circassianworld.com/history/miscellaneous/1207-circassian-princes-poland |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.circassianworld.com/history/miscellaneous/1545-polish-circassian-relations |title=Polish-Circassian Relation in 19th Century, by Radosław Żurawski vel Grajewski |website=www.circassianworld.com |access-date=29 January 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728145114/https://www.circassianworld.com/history/miscellaneous/1545-polish-circassian-relations |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://cherkessia.net/makale_detay.php?id=3228 |title=Polonya'daki Çerkes Prensler: Beş Prens |date=26 December 2011 |website=cherkessia.net |access-date=29 January 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728141117/http://cherkessia.net/makale_detay.php?id=3228 |url-status=live}}</ref> | region16 = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}} | pop16 = 500 | ref16 = <ref name="Zhemukhov2">{{citation |url=http://www.circassianworld.com/new/general/1217-circassian-world-zhemukhov.html |title=Circassian World: Responses to the New Challenges |first=Sufian |last=Zhemukhov |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012221811/http://www.circassianworld.com/new/general/1217-circassian-world-zhemukhov.html |archive-date=12 October 2009}}</ref> | region17 = {{flagcountry|Canada}} | pop17 = 400 | ref17 = <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/russia-s-sochi-olympics-awakens-circassian-anger-1.1263009 |title=Russia's Sochi Olympics awakens Circassian anger |first=Amber |last=Hildebrandt |newspaper=[[CBC News]] |date=14 August 2012 |access-date=16 August 2021 |archive-date=22 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022155345/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/08/09/f-sochi-olympics-russia-circassians.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | region19 = {{flagcountry|Belarus}} | pop19 = 116 | ref19 = <ref>{{cite web |script-title=be:Национальный статистический комитет Республики Беларусь |title=Natsional'nyy statisticheskiy komitet Respubliki Belarus' |trans-title=National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus |url=http://belstat.gov.by/homep/ru/perepic/2009/vihod_tables/5.11-0.pdf |publisher=Statistics of Belarus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018221300/http://belstat.gov.by/homep/ru/perepic/2009/vihod_tables/5.11-0.pdf |archive-date=18 October 2013 |language=be}}</ref> | region20 = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}} | pop20 = 54 | ref20 = <ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Итоги всеобщей переписи населения Туркменистана по национальному составу в 1995 году. |title=Itogi vseobshchey perepisi naseleniya Turkmenistana po natsional'nomu sostavu v 1995 godu. |trans-title=Results of the general population census of Turkmenistan by ethnic composition in 1995. |url=http://asgabat.net/turkmenistan/itogi-vseobschei-perepisi-naselenija-turkmenistana-po-nacionalnomu-sostavu-v-1995-godu.html |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313015500/http://asgabat.net/turkmenistan/itogi-vseobschei-perepisi-naselenija-turkmenistana-po-nacionalnomu-sostavu-v-1995-godu.html |archive-date=13 March 2013 |language=ru}}</ref> | langs = [[Circassian languages]] ([[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]]), [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] | religions = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]], minority [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Circassian paganism|Khabzeism ]]<ref>[https://sreda.org/arena Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia - Sreda 2012]</ref> | related = [[Abkhazians]], [[Abazins]] }} {{Circassians}} The '''Circassians''' or '''Circassian people''', also called '''Cherkess''' or '''Adyghe''' ([[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and {{langx|kbd|Адыгэхэр|Adygekher}}) are a [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] [[ethnic group]] and [[nation]] who originated in [[Circassia]], a region and former country in the [[North Caucasus]].<ref>{{cite book |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups |date=2010 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=9780313309847 |page=12 |last1=Minahan |first1=James}}</ref> As a consequence of the [[Circassian genocide]], which was perpetrated by the [[Russian Empire]] during the [[Russo-Circassian War]] in the 19th century, most of the Circassian people were exiled from their ancestral homeland and consequently began living in what was then the [[Ottoman Empire]]—that is, modern-day [[Turkey]] and the rest of the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{cite web |title=International Circassian Association |url=http://mcha.kbsu.ru/english/m_hist_01E.htm.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035542/http://mcha.kbsu.ru/english/m_hist_01E.htm.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=26 April 2014}}</ref> In the early 1990s, the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]] estimated that there are as many as 3.7 million [[Circassian diaspora|Circassians in diaspora]] in over 50 countries.<ref name="UNPO Yearbook 1997">{{cite book |author=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yiesQNB3SAMC&pg=PA67 |title=Yearbook 1997 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Kluwer Law International]] |isbn=978-90-411-1022-0 |editor1-last=Mullen |editor1-first=Christopher A. |location=The Hague |pages=67–69 |author-link=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization |editor2-last=Ryan |editor2-first=J. Atticus}}</ref> The two [[Circassian languages]]—western [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and eastern [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]]—are natively spoken by the Circassian people.<ref name="Hewitt05">{{cite journal |last1=Hewitt |first1=George |date=2005 |title=North West Caucasian |url=https://zenodo.org/record/968232 |journal=[[Lingua (journal)|Lingua]] |volume=115 |issue=1–2 |page=17 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2003.06.003 |access-date=16 April 2017 |ref=Hewitt05 |archive-date=24 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924001534/https://zenodo.org/record/968232 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Circassian paganism|Khabzeism]] is their [[ethnic religion]], which was historically practiced in Circassia since ancient times, but [[Sunni Islam]] became the dominant religion among them around the 17th century, following a long period of [[Spread of Islam#Persia and the Caucasus|Islamization]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |date=19 October 2012 |script-title=ru:Главная страница проекта 'Арена' : Некоммерческая Исследовательская Служба СРЕДА |title=Glavnaya stranitsa proyekta 'Arena' : Nekommercheskaya Issledovatel'skaya Sluzhba SREDA |trans-title=Home page of the 'Arena' project: Non-profit Research Service ENVIRONMENT |url=http://sreda.org/arena |access-date=20 August 2013 |publisher=Sreda.org |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143249/http://sreda.org/arena |url-status=live}}</ref> Circassia has been repeatedly invaded since ancient times; its isolated terrain coupled with the strategic value external societies have placed on the region have greatly shaped the Circassian national identity as a whole.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Circassian flag]] consists of a green field charged with 12 gold stars and, in the centre, three crossed black arrows. The stars represent the 12 Circassian tribes: the [[Abzakhs|Abzakh]], the [[Besleney]], the [[Bzhedugs|Bzhedugh]], the [[Hatuqway]], the [[Kabardians]], the [[Mamkhegh]], the [[Natukhajs|Natukhaj]], the [[Shapsugs|Shapsugh]], the [[Chemirgoys|Chemirgoy]], the [[Ubykh people|Ubykh]], the [[Yegeruqway]] and the [[Zhaney]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gammer |first=Moshe |title=The Caspian Region: a Re-emerging Region |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004 |place=London |page=67}}</ref> Circassians have played major roles in areas where they settled: [[Circassians in Turkey|in Turkey]], those of Circassian origin have had massive influence, being instrumental in the [[Turkish War of Independence]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Muhittin |title=Kurtuluş Savaşında Çerkeslerin Rolü |language=tr |trans-title=The Role of Circassians in the War of Independence |year=1996 |publisher=Cem Yayınevi |isbn=9789754065824}}</ref> and among the elites of Turkey's intelligence agency.<ref>''Çerkeslerin MİT İçindeki Yeri''</ref> In [[Circassians in Jordan|Jordan]], they founded the capital city [[Amman]],{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2017|pp=608–10}}{{sfn|Hanania|2018|pp=1–2}} and continue to play a major role in the country. In [[Circassians in Syria|Syria]], they served as the volunteer guards of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] upon their entry into the country and still have high positions.<ref name="Monitor2">{{cite news |last=Tastekin |first=Fahim |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/politics/2012/11/after-clashes-syrias-circassians-nervously-plan-escape-routes.html |title=Syria's Circassians Caught in Crossfire |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226184844/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/politics/2012/11/after-clashes-syrias-circassians-nervously-plan-escape-routes.html |archive-date=26 December 2014 |work=[[Al-Monitor]] |date=21 November 2012}}</ref> In [[Circassians in Libya|Libya]], they serve in high military positions. In [[Circassians in Egypt|Egypt]], they were part of the ruling class.<ref name="Martin W. Lewis">{{cite web |last=Lewis |first=Martin W. |url=http://www.geocurrents.info/place/russia-ukraine-and-caucasus/the-circassian-mystique-and-its-historical-roots |title=The Circassian Mystique and its Historical Roots |date=31 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715013319/http://www.geocurrents.info/place/russia-ukraine-and-caucasus/the-circassian-mystique-and-its-historical-roots |archive-date=15 July 2017 |access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> The largest Circassian clan in the country also contributed to Egyptian and Arabic cultural literary, intellectual, and political life starting with the reign of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] in Egypt and continuing to the modern day: the [[Abaza family]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Afaf Lutfi |last=Sayyid-Marsot |title=Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Yunan Labib |last=Rizk |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/762/chrncls.htm |title=The making of a king |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080814035001/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/762/chrncls.htm |archive-date=14 August 2008 |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |volume=762 |date=29 September – 5 October 2005}}</ref><ref name="Goldschmidt20002">{{cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Arthur Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3J6IS8t74QC&pg=PA1 |title=Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55587-229-8 |page=1 |access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> In [[Israel]], [[Bibras Natcho]] is the [[Captain (association football)|captain]] of the [[Israel national football team|Israeli national soccer team]]. In Imperial Russia and the [[Soviet Union]], historical Circassia was divided into the republics of [[Adygea]], [[Kabardino-Balkaria]], [[Karachay-Cherkessia]], and [[Krasnodar Krai]], and southwestern parts of [[Stavropol Krai]]. Accordingly, Circassians have been designated as ''Adygeans'' in Adygea, ''Kabardians'' in Kabardino-Balkaria, ''Cherkess'' in Karachay-Cherkessia, and ''Shapsug'' in Krasnodar Krai; all four are essentially the same people. Today, approximately 800,000 Circassians remain in historical Circassia, while 4,500,000 live elsewhere.<ref name="RussiaCensus">{{cite web |script-title=ru:Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей. Приложение 2. Национальный состав населения по субъектам Российской Федерации. |title=Itogi Vserossiyskoy perepisi naseleniya 2010 goda v otnoshenii demograficheskikh i sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh kharakteristik otdel'nykh natsional'nostey. Prilozheniye 2. Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya po sub"yektam Rossiyskoy Federatsii. |trans-title=Results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census in relation to the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individual nationalities. Appendix 2. National composition of the population by constituent entities of the Russian Federation. |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/results2.html |access-date=5 August 2019 |language=ru |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209035558/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/results2.html |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Ethnonyms== ===Adyghe=== {{stack|[[File:Parsons. Circassian Warrior. 1862.jpg|thumb|Circassian warrior|211x211px]]}} The Circassians [[endonym|refer to themselves]] as ''Adyghe<ref name="Olson3">{{cite book |editor1-first=James Stuart |editor1-last=Olson |display-editors=etal |chapter=Cherkess |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC |title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] |date=1994 |page=150 |isbn=9780313274978 |quote=The Beslenei (Beslenej) are located between the upper Urup and [[Khodz River|Khozdya]] rivers, and along the Middle Laba River, in the western reaches of the North Caucasus.}}</ref>'' (also transliterated as ''Adyga, Adiga, Adige, Adığe,'' ''Adyge'', ''Adygei''). According to one view, the name derives from ''Atyghe'' ({{Langx|ady|Iатыгъэ|translit='atığə}}) meaning "high [in altitude]" to signify a mountaineer, as the Circassian people have lived in and near the mountains for thousands of years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Spencer |first=Edmund |title=Travels in the Western Caucasus, including a Tour through Imeritia, Mingrelia, Turkey, Moldavia, Galicia, Silesia, and Moravia in 1836 |location=London |publisher=H. Colburn |date=1838 |page=6}}</ref><ref name="Ref_c">{{cite book |author-link=Louis Loewe |last=Loewe |first=Louis |title=A Dictionary of the Circassian Language: in Two Parts: English-Circassian-Turkish, and Circassian-English-Turkish |location=London |publisher=Bell |date=1854 |page=5}}</ref> ===Circassian, Cherkess=== {{see also|Circassians (historical ethnonym)}} The word ''Circassian'' ({{IPAc-en|s|ər|ˈ|k|æ|s|i|ə|n|z}} {{respell|sər|KASS|ee|ənz}}) is an [[exonym]], Latinized from [[Russian language|Russian]] ''Cherkess'' ({{langx|ru|Черкес|}}; {{langx|ady|Чэркэс/Шэрджэс|}}), which is of debated origin.<ref>[[Douglas Harper]], [[Online Etymology Dictionary|Etymonline]] states: "''1550s, in reference to a people people of the northern Caucasus along the Black Sea, from Circassia, Latinized from Russian Cherkesŭ, which is of unknown origin. Their name for themselves is Adighe. Their language is non-Indo-European. The race was noted for the "fine physical formation of its members, especially its women" [Century Dictionary], who were much sought by neighboring nations as concubines, etc."''</ref><ref name="Olson3" /> The term, in Russian, was traditionally applied to all Circassians before [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] times, but it has since usually referred only to Circassians living in northern [[Karachay-Cherkessia]],<ref name="Olson3" /> a [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subject]] of [[Russia]], where they are indigenous and were about 12% of the population in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/perepis_itogi1612.htm |work=www.gks.ru |script-title=ru:Информационные материалы об окончательных итогах Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года |title=Informatsionnyye materialy ob okonchatel'nykh itogakh Vserossiyskoy perepisi naseleniya 2010 goda |trans-title=Information materials on the final results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census |access-date=5 August 2023 |language=ru |archive-date=30 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430211642/https://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/perepis_itogi1612.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги [http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.pdf Т. 4. — Табл. 1. Национальный состав населения] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906073144/http://www.perepis2002.ru/content.html?id=11|date=6 September 2018}} (скачать: [http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.xlsx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620143101/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.xlsx|date=20 June 2013}})</ref> In English, it still refers to all Circassians. The origin of the term "Circassian" is disputed. One view is that its root stems from Turkic languages, and means "head choppers" or "warrior killers", because of the Circassians' battle practices.<ref>Yamisha, Jonty. ''The Circassians: An Introduction''</ref> Other sources argue that the term comes from [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ''Jerkes'', meaning "one who blocks a path".<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Bashqawi |first=Adel |title=Circassia: Born to Be Free |date=15 September 2017 |publisher=Xlibris |isbn=978-1543447644}}</ref>{{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=back cover}} Some believe it comes from the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] name of the region, ''Siraces''. According to another view, its origin is [[Persian language|Persian]] and combines two parts, ''kar'' ("mountain") and ''kās'' ("region", in [[Pahlavi language|Pahlavi]]), meaning "mountainous region". The spelling ''Cherkess'' may be an abbreviation of Persian ''Chahār-kas'' ("four people"), denoting four tribes.{{sfn|Reza|Hirtenstein|Gholami|2021}} [[Ali ibn al-Athir]] (died c. 1232/3) and [[Ibn Khaldun]] (died 1406) used the term ''Jahārkas'', but the Persian hypothesis remains uncertain.{{sfn|Reza|Hirtenstein|Gholami|2021}} In early Russian sources, Circassians are called ''Kasogi'', but one view holds that the modern term "Cherkes" derives from ''Kerket'', the name of one of the ancient Circassian tribes.{{sfn|Reza|Hirtenstein|Gholami|2021}} In languages spoken geographically close to the Caucasus, the native people originally had other names for the Circassians (such as [[Georgian language|Georgian]]: ჯიქი, ''Jiqi''), but with Russian influence, the name has been settled as ''Cherkess''. It is the same or similar in many world languages that cite these languages. The ''Encyclopaedia Islamica'' adds: "The Cherkess: the Kabardians and the western Adyghe people share a common language, which is spoken by the north-western Caucasian people, and belongs to the family known as Abkhazian-Adyghe".{{sfn|Reza|Hirtenstein|Gholami|2021}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Mousavi-Bojnourdi |first=Kazem |author-link=Kazem Mousavi-Bojnourdi |title=[[Encyclopaedia Islamica]] |quote=This is because the Cherkess, the Kabardians and the western Adyghe people share a common language, which is spoken by the north-western Caucasian (Abkhazi) people, and belongs to the family known as Abkhazian-Adyghe}}</ref> In Medieval Oriental and European texts, the Adyghe people were known by the name Cherkess/Circassians.{{sfn|Reza|Hirtenstein|Gholami|2021}} In Persian sources, ''Charkas/Cherkes'' is used to refer to the "actual" Circassians of the northwest Caucasus, and in some occasions as a general designation for [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasians]] who live beyond [[Derbent]] (Darband).{{sfn|Manz|Haneda|1990|pages=816–819}} ===Soviet policy=== [[File:CircassianinRu.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Remaining Circassian populations in historic Circassia, 21st century]] Despite a common self-designation and a common Russian name,<ref>S. A. Arutyunov. [http://www.aheku.org/tags/%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F?d=2 "Conclusion of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the ethnonym "Circassian" and the toponym "Circassia."] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20140215004220/http://www.aheku.org/tags/%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F?d=2 |date=15 February 2014 }} 25 May 2010. {{in lang|ru}}</ref> Soviet authorities divided the nation into four different peoples and applied four designations to Circassians remaining in the historic lands of Circassia: *[[Kabardians|Kabardian]], Circassians of [[Kabardino-Balkaria]] (Circassians speaking the [[Kabardian language]],{{sfn|Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги}}<ref name="gks.ru">{{cite web |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.xlsx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620143101/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.xlsx |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2013 |date=20 June 2013 |title=1. НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ СОСТАВ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref> one of two indigenous peoples of the republic) *[[Cherkess]] ({{langx|ady| Шэрджэс}}), Circassians of [[Karachay-Cherkessia]] (Circassians speaking the [[Cherkess language|Cherkess]], i.e. Circassian, language,{{sfn|Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги}}<ref name="gks.ru"/> one of two indigenous peoples of the republic who are mostly [[Besleney]] Kabardians. The name "Cherkess" is the Russian form of "Circassian" and was used for all Circassians before Soviet times.) *[[Adyghe people|Adyghe]] or Adygeans, the indigenous population of the [[Kuban]] including [[Adygea]] and [[Krasnodar Krai]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etnosy.ru/node/55 |script-title=ru:Анчабадзе Ю.Д., Смирнова Я.С. Адыгейцы. |title=Anchabadze YU.D., Smirnova YA.S. Adygeytsy |language=ru |trans-title=Anchabadze Yu.D., Smirnova Ya.S. Adyghe |access-date=22 February 2015 |archive-date=26 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026110619/http://www.etnosy.ru/node/55 |url-status=live}}</ref> *[[Shapsug]], the indigenous historical inhabitants of Shapsugia. They live in the [[Tuapse District]] and the [[Lazarevsky City District]] (formerly the [[Shapsugsky National District]]) of [[Sochi]], both in [[Krasnodar Krai]] and in Adygea. ==History== ===Origins=== Genetically, the Adyghe have shared ancestry partially with neighboring [[peoples of the Caucasus]], with some influence from other regions.<ref name="Li2008">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Jun |first2=Devin M. |last2=Absher |first3=Hua |last3=Tang |first4=Audrey M. |last4=Southwick |first5=Amanda M. |last5=Casto |first6=Sohini |last6=Ramachandran |first7=Howard M. |last7=Cann |first8=Gregory S. |last8=Barsh |first9=Marcus |last9=Feldman |first10=Luigi L. |last10=Cavalli-Sforza |first11=Richard M. |last11=Myers |title=Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=319 |pages=1100–1104 |year=2008 |doi=10.1126/science.1153717 |pmid=18292342 |issue=5866 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1100L |s2cid=53541133}}</ref> The most prevalent [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]] [[haplotype]]s among all Circassian tribes is [[Haplogroup G2|G2]]-YY1215 (43%); others are [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]]-M198* (13%), G2-YY9632 (9%), [[Haplogroup J-M172|J2-M172*]] (7%), sharing a single common ancestor 3,000 years ago, with the largest demographic growth between 2,000 and 1,500 years ago. Prevalence of the G2-YY1215 haplogroup is larger on the Western Caucasus and decreases to the east, while G2-YY9632 has the opposite tendency. R1a-M198* is shared with [[Balkars]], [[Karachays]] and [[Kuban]] [[Cossacks]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Бакаев |first=Дмитрий |script-title=ru:Поиск генетической памяти в современном Y-хромосомном генофонде адыгейцев {{!}} Генофонд РФ |title=Poisk geneticheskoy pamyati v sovremennom Y-khromosomnom genofonde adygeytsev {{!}} Genofond RF |trans-title=Search for genetic memory in the modern Y-chromosomal gene pool of the Adyghe people {{!}} Gene pool of the Russian Federation |url=http://xn--c1acc6aafa1c.xn--p1ai/?page_id=35934 |access-date=9 May 2023 |language=ru-RU |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517013842/http://xn--c1acc6aafa1c.xn--p1ai/?page_id=35934 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Circassian language]], also known as Cherkess, is in the [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language family]]. Archaeological findings, mainly of [[Dolmens of North Caucasus|dolmens in Northwest Caucasus region]], indicate a [[megalithic]] culture in the Northwest Caucasus.<ref name="c.ssianmuseum.co.il">{{cite web |url=http://www.circassianmuseum.co.il/history.php |script-title=he:המרכז למורשת הצ'רקסית בכפר קמא |language=he |trans-title=The Circassian Heritage Center in Kfar Kama |publisher=circassianmuseum.co.il |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130107212236/http://www.circassianmuseum.co.il/history.php |archive-date=7 January 2013}}</ref> The ancestors of present-day Circassians are known as the [[Sindica|Sinti]]-[[Maeotians|Maeotian]] tribes.<ref name=":23">General İsmail Berkok, Tarihte Kafkasya,İstanbul,1958, s.135-136.</ref><ref name=":33">Turabi Saltık, Sindika Krallığı, Jineps, Ocak 2007, s.5.</ref><ref name=":42">Tamara V.Polovinkina,Çerkesya, Gönül Yaram, Ankara,2007, s.21-45.</ref> Archaeological research shows that these tribes were the indigenous people of the Caucasus.<ref name=":04">Генрих Ананенко,Сыд фэдагъа Синдикэр?,Адыгэ макъ gazetesi,07.01.1992.</ref><ref name=":12">V.Diakov-S.Kovalev,İlkçağ Tarihi, Ankara,1987, s.345-355,506-514.</ref> Some researchers have claimed there may be links between Circassians and Indo-European-speaking communities,<ref>{{cite book |last=Serbes |first=Nahit |title=Yaşayan Efsane Xabze |language=tr |trans-title=Living Legend Khabze |publisher=Phoenix Yayınları |year=2012 |isbn=9786055738884}}</ref> and some have argued that there are connections between Circassians and [[Hattic language|Hatti]], who are from ancient Anatolian peoples,<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |title=Hititlerle Çerkezler Arasında Dil Benzerliği |language=tr |trans-title=Linguistic Similarity Between Hittites and Circassians |url=http://bianet.org/bianet/kultur/27528-hititlerle-cerkezler-arasinda-dil-benzerligi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181208170317/http://bianet.org/bianet/kultur/27528-hititlerle-cerkezler-arasinda-dil-benzerligi |archive-date=8 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Çurey |first=Ali |title=Hatti-Hititler ve Çerkesler |language=tr |trans-title=Hatti-Hittites and Circassians |year=2011 |publisher=Chiviyazıları Yayınevi |isbn=9786055708399}}</ref><ref>Prof.Dr. ĞIŞ Nuh (yazan), HAPİ Cevdet Yıldız (çeviren). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130420005356/http://www.nartajans.net/site/haberler_4710_adigece_nin_temel_sorunlari.html Adigece'nin temel sorunları-1]. Адыгэ макъ,12/13 Şubat 2009</ref> but these theories are not widely accepted. According to genetic tests performed on Circassians, their closest relatives are [[Ingush people|Ingush]], [[Chechens]], [[Georgians]] and [[Abkhazians]].{{CN|date=November 2023}} ====Pseudoscientific claims==== [[Turkish nationalism|Turkish nationalist]] groups and proponents of modern-day [[Pan-Turkism]] have claimed that the Circassians are of Turkic origin, but no scientific evidence supports this claim and it has been strongly denied by ethnic Circassians,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ulusal Toplu Katalog - Tarama|url=http://www.toplukatalog.gov.tr/index.php?cwid=2&keyword=Vatan%C4%B1ndan+uzaklara+%C3%87erkesler&tokat_search_field=2&order=0|access-date=2020-11-02|website=www.toplukatalog.gov.tr|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207084749/http://www.toplukatalog.gov.tr/index.php?cwid=2&keyword=Vatan%C4%B1ndan+uzaklara+%C3%87erkesler&tokat_search_field=2&order=0|url-status=live}}</ref> impartial research,<ref name=":52">{{cite web|date=2018|title=Çerkesler Türk mü?|url=http://www.cerkesya.org/icerik/kisa-bilgiler/752-cerkesler-turk-mu|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706180512/http://www.cerkesya.org/icerik/kisa-bilgiler/752-cerkesler-turk-mu|archive-date=6 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation – Adygey|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/adygey/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002013256/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/adygey/|archive-date=2 October 2015|access-date=20 July 2020|work=Minority Rights}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation – Karachay and Cherkess|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/karachay-and-cherkess/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002033527/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/karachay-and-cherkess/|archive-date=2 October 2015|access-date=20 July 2020|publisher=Minority Rights}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation – Kabards and Balkars|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/kabards-and-balkars/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002033341/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/kabards-and-balkars/|archive-date=2 October 2015|access-date=20 July 2020|publisher=Minority Rights}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Circassian|title=Circassian|access-date=20 July 2020|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822211046/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Circassian|archive-date=22 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{cite web|date=2006|title=Çerkesler Türk değildir|url=https://www.internethaber.com/cerkesler-turk-degildir-17133h.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127134906/http://www.internethaber.com/cerkesler-turk-degildir-17133h.htm|archive-date=27 January 2019}}</ref> linguists,<ref>{{cite web|title=Circassian: A Most Difficult Language|date=29 June 2014 |url=https://forward.com/culture/200793/circassian-a-most-difficult-language/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302063312/https://forward.com/culture/200793/circassian-a-most-difficult-language/|archive-date=2 March 2016}}</ref> and historians<ref>{{cite web|title=Circassian|url=https://elalliance.org/languages/circassian/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151230221125/https://elalliance.org/languages/circassian/|archive-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> around the world. The Circassian language does not share notable similarities to the Turkish language, except for borrowed words. According to various historians, the Circassian origin of the Sind-Meot tribes refutes the claim that the Circassians are of Turkic ethnic origin.<ref name=":52"/> German racial theorists, after comparing skull shapes, declared that Europeans, North Africans, and Caucasians were of a common race, termed "Caucasian" or later "[[Caucasoid]]". Scientific racism emphasized the so-called "superior beauty" of the Circassian people, referring to them as "how God intended the human race to be",<ref>{{cite web|title=The Circassian Beauty Archive|url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/lostmuseum/searchlm.php?function=find&exhibit=star&browse=star|access-date=28 November 2009|publisher=The Lost Museum|archive-date=11 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311142800/http://chnm.gmu.edu/lostmuseum/searchlm.php?function=find&exhibit=star&browse=star|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Winthrop|first=Jordan|url=https://archive.org/details/whiteoverblackam00jord|title=White over Black|publisher=Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press|year=1968|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whiteoverblackam00jord/page/222 222–3]|url-access=registration}}</ref> leading to the 18th century stereotype of the [[Circassian beauty]]. ===Medieval period=== Feudalism began to emerge among Circassians by the 4th century. As a result of Armenian, Greek and [[Byzantine]] influence, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 3rd and 5th centuries.<ref name="autogenerated22">''The Penny Magazine''. London, Charles Knight, 1838. p. 138.</ref><ref name="Ref_ab2">Minahan, James. ''One Europe, Many Nations: a Historical Dictionary of European National Groups''. Westport, USA, Greenwood, 2000. p. 354.</ref> During that period, Circassians (known at the time as ''Kassogs'')<ref name="Jaimoukha20052">{{cite book|last=Jaimoukha|first=Amjad M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnjAlei9fe0C&pg=PA32|title=The Chechens: A Handbook|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-415-32328-4|page=32|author-link=Amjad Jaimoukha|access-date=28 June 2017}}</ref> began to accept Christianity as a national religion, but did not abandon all elements of their [[Circassian paganism|indigenous religious beliefs]]. Circassians established many states, but could not achieve political unity. From around 400, wave after wave of outsiders began to invade the lands of the [[Adyghe people]], who were also known as the ''Kasogi'' (or Kassogs) at the time. They were conquered first by the [[Bulgars]] (who originated on the Central Asian [[steppe]]s). Outsiders sometimes confused the Adyghe people with the similarly named [[Utigurs]] (a branch of the Bulgars). After the Khazar state dissolved, the Adyghe people were integrated around the end of the 1st millennium AD into the [[Kingdom of Alania]]. Between the 10th and 13th centuries [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] had influence on the Adyghe Circassian peoples. In the medieval era there was a Circassian kingdom called Zichia ({{Langx|ady|Адзыгъэй}}; {{langx|el|Ζιχία}}) or Zekchia.<ref name="CIR">Колли Л. Кафа в период владения ею банком св. Георгия (1454—1475) // Известия Таврической Ученой Архивной комиссии. № 47. Симферополь, 1912. С. 86</ref> In 1382, [[Black Sea slave trade|Circassian slaves]] took the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] throne, the [[Burji dynasty]] took over and the Mamluks became a Circassian state. The Mongols, who started invading the Caucasus in 1223, destroyed some of the Circassians and most of the Alans. The Circassians lost most of their lands during the ensuing Golden Horde attacks and had to retreat to the back of the Kuban River. In 1395 Circassians fought violent wars against [[Timur|Tamerlane]], and although they won the wars,<ref name=":723">{{cite web|date=2013|title=Prenslerın Prensı İnal Nekhu (Pşilerın Pşisi İnal İnekhu)|url=http://www.cherkessia.net/news_detail.php?id=5729|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229142405/http://www.cherkessia.net/news_detail.php?id=5729|archive-date=29 February 2020|publisher=Kağazej Jıraslen}}</ref> Tamerlane plundered Circassia.<ref name=":63">{{cite web|title=Çerkes tarihinin kronolojisi.|url=http://www.cerkes.net/tarih/cerkes-tarihinin-kronolojisi-t21135.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209085735/http://www.cerkes.net/tarih/cerkes-tarihinin-kronolojisi-t21135.html|archive-date=9 December 2013|access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> [[Inal of Circassia|Prince Inal]], who owned land in the Taman peninsula during the 1400s,<ref>Shora Nogma has 1427 (per Richmond, Northwest Caucasus, kindle@610). In a later book (Circassian Genocide kindle @47) Richmond reports the legend that Inal reunited the principalities after they were driven into the mountains by the Mongols. In a footnote (@2271) he says that Inal was a royal title among the Oguz Turks</ref> established an army and declared that his goal was to unite the Circassians<ref>Caucasian Review. Vol. 2. Munich (München), 1956. Pp.; 19; 35.</ref> under a single state. They were divided into many states at that time, but after declaring his own princedom, Inal conquered all of Circassia one by one.<ref>Cole, Jeffrey E. (2011). ''Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia''. ABC-CLIO, LLC. OCLC 939825134.</ref> Circassian nobles and princes tried to prevent Inal's rise, but Inal and his supporters defeated 30 Circassian lords.<ref name=":44">{{cite web|date=17 May 2020|title=The Legendary Circassian Prince Inal, by Vitaliy Shtybin|url=https://abkhazworld.com/aw/history/1724-the-legendary-circassian-prince-inal-by-vitaliy-shtybin|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524090358/https://abkhazworld.com/aw/history/1724-the-legendary-circassian-prince-inal-by-vitaliy-shtybin|archive-date=24 May 2020|access-date=24 July 2020|work=Vitaliy Shtybin|publisher=Abkhaz World}}</ref> After successfully uniting the Circassians, Inal still wanted to include the closely related Abkhazians. Inal, who won the war in Abkhazia, officially conquered Northern Abkhazia and the Abkhaz people recognized his rule.<ref name=":723"/><ref>Papaskʻiri, Zurab, 1950- (2010). ''Абхазия : история без фальсификации''. Izd-vo Sukhumskogo Gos. Universiteta. {{ISBN|9941016526}}. OCLC 726221839.</ref><ref name=":44"/><ref name="Klaproth, Julius Von 1835">Klaproth, Julius Von, 1783—1835. (2005). Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia performed in the years 1807 and 1808 by command of the Russian government. Elibron Classics</ref><ref>The 200-year Mingrelia-Abkhazian war and the defeat of the Principality of Mingrelia by the Abkhazians of XVII-XVIII cc.</ref> One of the stars on the [[flag of Abkhazia]] represents Inal. He divided his lands between his sons and grandchildren in 1453 and died in 1458. After that, Circassian tribal principalities were established, including [[Chemirgoys|Chemguy]], founded by Temruk; [[Besleney]], founded by Beslan; [[Kabardia]], founded by Qabard; and [[Shapsugs|Shapsug]], founded by Zanoko. === Early modern period === {{see also|Crimean Khanate#Relationship with Circassians}} [[File:Aleksey Mikhailovich Tcherkassky.PNG|thumb|upright|[[Alexey Cherkassky]] was the [[Chancellor of the Russian Empire]], descended from the sovereign rulers of [[Circassia]]]] In the 17th century, under the influence of the [[Crimean Tatars]] and of the [[Ottoman Empire]], large numbers of Circassians converted to [[Islam in Russia|Islam]] from Christianity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/geo/Rekhaniya.html |title=Rekhaniya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814073557/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_%26_Culture/geo/Rekhaniya.html |archive-date=14 August 2016 |website=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2024}} In 1708, Circassians paid tribute to the Ottoman sultan in order to prevent Tatar raids, but the sultan did not fulfill the obligation and the Tatars raided all the way to the center of Circassia, robbing everything they could.<ref name=":1022">{{cite web |script-title=ru:Путешествие господина А. де ла Мотрэ в Европу, Азию и Африку |title=Puteshestviye gospodina A. de la Motre v Yevropu, Aziyu i Afriku |language=ru |trans-title=Journey of Mr. A. de la Motraye to Europe, Asia and Africa |url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1700-1720/de_la_Motre_Abri/text1.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129205441/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1700-1720/de_la_Motre_Abri/text1.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref> For this reason, Kabardian Circassians announced that they would never pay tribute to the Crimean Khan and the Ottoman Sultan again.<ref>{{cite news |first=Amjad M. |last=Jaimoukha |year=2014 |title=Circassian: Customs & Traditions |page=7 |publisher=Centre for Circassian Studies |url=https://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/Circassian_Customs_and_Traditions.pdf |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031131/https://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/Circassian_Customs_and_Traditions.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The Ottomans sent their army of at least 20,000 men<ref name="Крит2">''Василий Каширин.'' {{cite web |script-title=ru:Ещё одна "Мать Полтавской баталии"? К юбилею Канжальской битвы 1708 года |title=Yeshcho odna "Mat' Poltavskoy batalii"? K yubileyu Kanzhal'skoy bitvy 1708 goda |trans-title=Another "Mother of the Battle of Poltava"? On the anniversary of the Battle of Kanzhal in 1708 |url=http://www.diary.ru/~Makskozak/p91937234.htm|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704093123/http://www.diary.ru/~Makskozak/p91937234.htm |archive-date=4 July 2015 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=www.diary.ru |language=ru}}</ref> to Kabardia under the leadership of the Crimean Khan Kaplan-Girey to conquer the Circassians and ordered that he collect the tribute.<ref name="autogenerated12">{{cite web |script-title=ru:Подборка статей к 300-летию Канжальской битвы |title=Podborka statey k 300-letiyu Kanzhal'skoy bitvy |language=ru |trans-title=A selection of articles for the 300th anniversary of the Battle of Kanjal |url=http://www.kabardhorse.ru/history_rus.html|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130417001833/http://www.kabardhorse.ru/history_rus.html |archive-date=17 April 2013 |access-date=20 September 2018 |website=kabardhorse.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author={{nobr|Рыжов К. В.}} |url=http://slovari.yandex.ru/~%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8.%20%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%20XV-XX/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121222060915/http://slovari.yandex.ru/~%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8.%20%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%20XV-XX/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8/|url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2012 |script-title=ru:Все монархи мира. Мусульманский Восток. XV-XX вв. |title=Vse monarkhi mira. Musul'manskiy Vostok. XV-XX vv. |language=ru |trans-title=All the Monarchs of the World. Muslim East. XV-XX centuries. |publisher=«Вече» |year=2004 |isbn=5-9533-0384-X |location=М. |page=544}}</ref> The Ottomans expected an easy victory against the Kabardinians, but the Circassians won<ref name="auto1">{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Khodarkovsky |year=1999 |title=Of Christianity, Enlightenment, and Colonialism: Russia in the North Caucasus, 1550–1800 |page=412 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |url=http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/eBooks/Articles/Russian%20Caucasus%201550-1800%20Khodarkovshy.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> because of the strategy set up by [[Jabagh Qazanoqo|Kazaniko Jabagh]] during the battle of [[Battle of Kanzhal|Kanzhal]].<ref name=":1022"/><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Описание Черкесии|title=Opisaniye Cherkesii |language=ru |trans-title=Description of Circassia |url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1720-1740/Xaverio_Glavani/text.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229094957/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1720-1740/Xaverio_Glavani/text.htm |archive-date=29 December 2007 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=www.vostlit.info}}. 1724 год.</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:"Записки" Гербера Иоганна Густава |title="Zapiski" Gerbera Ioganna Gustava |language=ru |trans-title="Notes" by Johann Gustav Gerber |url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1720-1740/Gerber_Johann_Gustav/text1.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327135600/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1720-1740/Gerber_Johann_Gustav/text1.htm |archive-date=27 March 2013 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Энгельберт Кемпфер |title=Engelʹbert Kempfer |language=ru |trans-title=Engelbert Kempfer |url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVII/1680-1700/Kaempfer_Engelbert/text1.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129204459/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVII/1680-1700/Kaempfer_Engelbert/text1.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref><ref name="Крит3">''Василий Каширин.'' {{cite web |script-title=ru:Ещё одна "Мать Полтавской баталии"? К юбилею Канжальской битвы 1708 года |title=Yeshcho odna "Mat' Poltavskoy batalii"? K yubileyu Kanzhal'skoy bitvy 1708 goda |trans-title=Another "Mother of the Battle of Poltava"? On the anniversary of the Battle of Kanzhal in 1708 |url=http://www.diary.ru/~Makskozak/p91937234.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922035344/http://www.diary.ru/~Makskozak/p91937234.htm |archive-date=22 September 2018 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=www.diary.ru |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Cw |date=15 October 2009 |title=Circassian World News Blog: Documentary: ''Kanzhal Battle'' |url=http://circassianworld.blogspot.com/2009/10/documentary-kanzhal-battle.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019130729/http://circassianworld.blogspot.com/2009/10/documentary-kanzhal-battle.html |archive-date=19 October 2010 |access-date=18 September 2020 |work=Circassian World News Blog}}</ref> The Crimean army was destroyed in one night on 17 September 1708. The Crimean Khan Kaplan-Giray barely managed to save his life,<ref name="auto1"/><ref name=":1022"/> and was humiliated, all the way to his shoes taken, leaving his brother, son, field tools, tents and personal belongings.<ref name=":1022"/> In 2013, the Institute of Russian History of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] recognized that the Battle of Kinzhal Mountain with the paramount importance in the national history of Circassians, Balkarians and Ossetians.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ru:РАН о Канжальской битве: "В отношении ее достоверности нет никаких сомнений" » |title=RAN o Kanzhal'skoy bitve: "V otnoshenii yeye dostovernosti net nikakikh somneniy" » |language=ru |trans-title=RAS on the Battle of Kanjal: "There is no doubt about its authenticity" » |url=http://www.natpressru.info/index.php?newsid=3126 |access-date=8 May 2017 |publisher=natpressru.info |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202050352/http://www.natpressru.info/index.php?newsid=3126 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Circassian Genocide=== {{Main|Circassian genocide}} {{see also|Russo-Circassian War}} In 1714, [[Peter the Great | Peter I]] established a plan to occupy the Caucasus. Although he was unable to implement this plan, he laid the political and ideological foundation for the occupation to take place. [[Catherine the Great | Catherine II]] started putting this plan into action. The Russian army was deployed on the banks of the [[Terek (river) | Terek River]].<ref name=":32">Weismann, ''Ein Blick auf die Circassianer''</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2024}} [[File:Resettlement of Circassians Into Ottoman Empire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A map of the expulsion of Circassians to the Ottoman Empire. The light-green area denotes the final borders of Circassians, who had already been pushed southwards prior to their expulsion to the Ottoman Empire. In the late 18th century, Circassians lost their northern territories, which do not appear in green on this map.]] The Russian military tried to impose authority by building a series of forts, but these forts in turn became the new targets of raids and indeed sometimes the highlanders actually captured and held the forts.{{sfn|King|2008|p=47}} Under Yermolov, the Russian military began using a strategy of disproportionate retribution for [[Raid (military)|raid]]s. Russian troops retaliated by destroying villages where resistance fighters were thought to hide, as well as employing assassinations, kidnappings, and the execution of whole families.{{sfn|King|2008|pp=47–49|ps= Quote on p48: "This, in turn, demanded...above all the stomach to carry the war to the highlanders themselves, including putting aside any scruples about destroying, forests, and any other place where raiding parties might seek refuge... Targeted assassinations, kidnappings, the killing of entire families, and the disproportionate use of force became central to Russian operations..."}} Because the resistance was relying on sympathetic villages for food, the Russian military also systematically destroyed crops and livestock and killed Circassian civilians.{{sfn|King|2008|p=74}}<ref name="Ahmed1612">{{harvnb|Ahmed|2013|p=161}}.</ref> Circassians responded by creating a tribal federation encompassing all tribes of the area.<ref name="Ahmed1612"/> In 1840 [[Karl Friedrich Neumann]] estimated the Circassian casualties at around one and a half million.<ref name="Ref_q">Neumann 1840</ref> Some sources state that hundreds of thousands of others died during the exodus.<ref name="Shenfield 1999">{{harvnb|Shenfield|1999}}</ref> Several historians use the phrase "Circassian massacres"<ref name="Ref_r">{{harvnb|Levene|2005|p=299}}</ref> for the consequences of Russian actions in the region.<ref name="Ref_s">{{harvnb|Levene|2005|p=302}}</ref><blockquote>In a series of sweeping military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864... the northwest Caucasus and the Black Sea coast were virtually emptied of Muslim villagers. Columns of the displaced were marched either to the Kuban [River] plains or toward the coast for transport to the Ottoman Empire... One after another, entire Circassian tribal groups were dispersed, resettled, or killed en masse.<ref name="King 2008: 94–96">{{harvnb|King|2008|pp=94–96}}</ref></blockquote> Circassians established an assembly called "Great Freedom Assembly" in the capital city of Shashe (Sochi) on June 25, 1861. Haji Qerandiqo Berzedj was appointed as the head of the assembly. This assembly asked for help from Europe,{{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=72}} arguing that they would be forced into exile soon. However, before the result was achieved, Russian General Kolyobakin invaded Sochi and destroyed the parliament<ref>Esadze. ''Pokorenie''. Page 352</ref> and no country opposed this.{{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=72}} In May 1864, a final battle took place between the Circassian army of 20,000 Circassian horsemen and a fully equipped Russian army of 100,000 men.<ref>Неизвестные войны России. Взятие Кбааде и завершение Кавказской войны в 1864 г.</ref> Circassian warriors attacked the Russian army and tried to break through the line, but most were shot down by Russian artillery and infantry.<ref>Minsterls, 2015</ref> The remaining fighters continued to fight as guerillas and were soon defeated. All 20,000 Circassian horsemen died in the war. The war ended officially on May 21, 1864. The place where this war took place is known today as Krasnaya Polyana.<ref name="Circassiancenter3">{{cite web |title=Tarihsel mücadele sürecinde çerkesler |language=tr |trans-title=Circassians in the historical struggle process |url=http://www.circassiancenter.com/cc-turkiye/tarih/098_tarihsel_mucadele_surecinde_cerkesler.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222140114/http://www.circassiancenter.com/cc-turkiye/tarih/098_tarihsel_mucadele_surecinde_cerkesler.htm |archive-date=22 December 2009 |access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref> "Krasnaya Polyana" means red meadow. It takes its name from the Circassian blood flowing from the hill into the river. The proposal to deport the Circassians was ratified by the Russian government, and a flood of refugee movements began as Russian troops advanced in their final campaign.{{sfn|Rosser-Owen|2007|p=16}} Circassians prepared to resist and hold their last stand against Russian military advances and troops.<ref name="Shenfield151">{{harvnb|Shenfield|1999|p=151}}.</ref> With the refusal to surrender, Circassian civilians were targeted one by one by the Russian military with thousands massacred and the Russians started to raid and burn Circassian villages,<ref name="Ahmed1612"/> destroy the fields to make it impossible to return, cut trees down and drive the people towards the Black Sea coast.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gazetesi |first=Jıneps |date=2 September 2013 |title=Velyaminov, Zass ve insan kafası biriktirme hobisi |trans-title=Velyaminov, Zass and the hobby of collecting human heads |url=https://jinepsgazetesi.com/2013/09/velyaminov-zass-ve-insan-kafasi-biriktirme-hobisi/|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013212354/https://jinepsgazetesi.com/2013/09/velyaminov-zass-ve-insan-kafasi-biriktirme-hobisi/ |archive-date=2020-10-13 |access-date=26 September 2020 |website=Jıneps Gazetesi |language=tr}}</ref> Although it is not known exactly how many people are affected, researchers have suggested that at least 75%, 90%,<ref name="Reuters2">{{cite news |date=22 May 2009 |title=145th Anniversary of the Circassian Genocide and the Sochi Olympics Issue |publisher=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS104971+22-May-2009+PRN20090522 |url-status=dead |access-date=28 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702174523/https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/22/idUS104971%2B22-May-2009%2BPRN20090522 |archive-date=2 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Ellen Barry2">{{cite news |last=Barry |first=Ellen |date=20 May 2011 |title=Georgia Says Russia Committed Genocide in 19th Century |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/21/world/europe/21georgia.html |url-status=dead |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314221518/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/21/world/europe/21georgia.html |archive-date=14 March 2017}}</ref> 94%,<ref name="Sarah A.S. Isla Rosser-Owen 1867 Page 162">{{harvnb|Rosser-Owen|2007|p=16}}: "... with one estimate showing that the indigenous population of the entire north-western Caucasus was reduced by a massive 94 per cent". Text of citation: "The estimates of Russian historian Narochnitskii, in Richmond, ch. 4, p. 5. Stephen Shenfield notes a similar rate of reduction with less than 10 per cent of the Circassians (including the Abkhazians) remaining. (Stephen Shenfield, "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?", in The Massacre in History, p. 154.)"</ref> or 95–97%{{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=132 |ps=: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."}} of the ethnic Circassian population are affected. Considering these rates, calculations including those taking into account the Russian government's own archival figures, have estimated a loss 600,000–1,500,000. [[Ivan Drozdov]], a Russian officer who witnessed the scene at Qbaada in May 1864 as the other Russians were celebrating their victory remarked:{{Blockquote|On the road, our eyes were met with a staggering image: corpses of women, children, elderly persons, torn to pieces and half-eaten by dogs; deportees emaciated by hunger and disease, almost too weak to move their legs, collapsing from exhaustion and becoming prey to dogs while still alive.||Drozdov, Ivan. "Posledniaia Bor’ba s Gortsami na Zapadnom Kavkaze". Pages 456–457.|}} The Ottoman Empire regarded the Adyghe warriors as courageous and well-experienced. It encouraged them to settle in various near-border settlements of the Ottoman Empire in order to strengthen the empire's borders. According to [[Walter Richmond]], <blockquote> Circassia was a small independent nation on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. For no reason other than ethnic hatred, over the course of hundreds of raids the Russians drove the Circassians from their homeland and deported them to the Ottoman Empire. At least 600,000 people lost their lives to massacre, starvation, and the elements while hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homeland. By 1864, three-fourths of the population was annihilated, and the Circassians had become one of the first stateless peoples in modern history.{{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=back cover}} </blockquote> As of 2020, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] was the only country to classify the events as genocide, while Russia actively denies the Circassian genocide, and classifies the events as a simple migration of "undeveloped barbaric peoples". ===Post-exile period=== As early as 1859, the Russian government had sought potential avenues for expelling the native Circassian population, and found a solution in the Ottoman Empire. Despite their numerous historical and ongoing disputes, the two empires negotiated on the impending migrations and resettlements. The Russians promised a gradual process that would see the Ottomans ultimately receive fewer than 100,000 Circassians.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Karpat |first=Kemal H. |title=Ottoman Population 1830-1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |year=1985 |location=Madison |pages=68}}</ref> The Circassians would first be moved, or coerced to move, to the Circassian Black Sea coast, from which Ottoman boats would take them to designated ports in Anatolia.<ref name=":0" /> The recently formed Ottoman ''Muhacirin Komisyonu'', or Emigrant Commission, would coordinate both the retrieval and resettlement of the Circassians throughout the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Cuthel |first=David Cameron |date=2005 |title=The Muhacirin Komisyonu: An Agent in the Transformation of Ottoman Anatolia 1860-1866 |type=PhD |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |pages=1–5}}</ref> The process of expulsion had already begun even before the end of the Russo-Circassian war; the first Circassians had begun to arrive in small numbers as early as 1859, mainly consisting of wealthier aristocrats. Even prior to the end of the Russo-Circassian War, expelled Circassians had begun to crowd the Circassian coast in far greater numbers than the Ottomans had anticipated, easily reaching tens of thousands at a time.{{sfn|Richmond|2013|pp=86–87}} Conditions on the beaches were dismal, as those waiting for Ottoman-chartered ships contended with insufficient supplies of food and shelter, occasional raids from Russian soldiers, and outbreaks of typhus and smallpox that were only exacerbated by the cramped and unsanitary conditions.{{sfn|Richmond|2013|pp=86–87}} By 1864, hundreds of thousands of Circassians had either already entered the Ottoman Empire or still languished on the Circassian coast awaiting transit, even as far greater numbers arrived following the Russo-Circassian War's conclusion.<ref name=":0" /> What was intended to be an orderly, gradual expulsion quickly eroded over the following months, as the Ottomans overcrowded boats and neglected previously enforced safety regulations. Numerous boats sank, unable to safely accommodate these larger loads, while the overcrowded conditions helped disease spread even further among both the Circassian migrants and the Ottoman crews.<ref>{{Cite book |last=King |first=Charles |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195177756.001.0001 |title=The Ghost of Freedom |date=2008-03-20 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-517775-6 |location=Oxford |pages=96 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195177756.001.0001 |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402135913/https://academic.oup.com/book/36062 |url-status=live}}</ref> Upon their arrival, the Emigrant Commission attempted to relocate most of the new arrivals as quickly as possible to alleviate the strain on Ottoman port cities, and began to settle the Circassians throughout the Ottoman Empire. The exiled Circassians were resettled in the Empire's remaining Balkan territories, in Ottoman Syria and Transjordan, and Anatolia, while a smaller number were resettled into the Empire's major cities.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Cuthel |first=David Cameron |date=2005 |title=The Muhacirin Komisyonu: An Agent in the Transformation of Ottoman Anatolia 1860-1866 |type=PhD |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |pages=165–170}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanioğlu |first=M. Şükrü |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/664584065 |title=A brief history of the late Ottoman empire |date=2010 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-14617-1 |location=Princeton |pages=78–79 |oclc=664584065 |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402125909/https://search.worldcat.org/title/664584065 |url-status=live}}</ref> In January 1922, the Soviet government created an [[Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union|autonomous oblast]] which was the predecessor of the [[Karachay-Cherkess Republic]]. The actions of the Russian military in acquiring Circassian land through expulsion and massacres<ref name="Ref_p">Shenfield, Stephen D., 1999. ''The Circassians: a forgotten genocide?''. In Levene, Mark and Penny Roberts, eds., {{clarify|date= May 2013}} ''The Massacre in History''. Oxford and New York, [[Berghahn Books]]. Series: War and Genocide; 1. 149–62.</ref> have given rise to a movement among descendants of the expelled ethnicities for international recognition of the perpetration of genocide.<ref name="UNPO 2006.">UNPO 2006.</ref> On 20 May 2011 the [[Georgian parliament]] voted in a 95 to 0 declaration that Russia had committed genocide when it engaged in massacres against Circassians in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ellen |last=Barry |title=Georgia Says Russia Committed Genocide in 19th Century |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=20 May 2011 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/21/world/europe/21georgia.html?scp=1&sq=circassians&st=cse |access-date=26 February 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202003237/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/21/world/europe/21georgia.html?scp=1&sq=circassians&st=cse |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Culture== [[File:Caucasian dancer Alexander Dzusov.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Circassian traditional sword dance]] {{see also|Circassian music|Circassian folklore}} Adyghe society prior to the Russian invasion was highly stratified. While a few tribes in the mountainous regions of Adygeya were fairly egalitarian, most were broken into strict castes. The highest was the caste of the "princes", followed by a caste of lesser nobility, and then commoners, serfs, and slaves. In the decades before Russian rule, two tribes overthrew their traditional rulers and set up democratic processes, but this social experiment was cut short by the end of Adyghe independence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-02-21 |title=Who are Circassians? |url=https://aheku.net/articles/english/general/1062 |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=Адыгэ Хэку |language=ru}}</ref> ===Language=== [[File:WIKITONGUES- Yinal speaking Adyghe and Kabardian.webm|thumb|Yinal speaking Adyghe and Kabardian.]] {{cladogram | cladogram = {{clade | label1 = Proto-Circassian | 1 = {{clade | label1 = East Circassian | 1 = {{clade | 1 = [[Kabardians|Kabardian]] | 2 = [[Besleney#Language|Besleney]] }} | label2 = West Circassian | 2 = {{clade | label1 = Kuban river | 1 = {{clade | 1 = [[Temirgoy]] | 2 = [[Abzakh dialect|Abzakh]] | 3 = [[Bzhedugh dialect|Bzhedugh]] }} | label2 = Black Sea coast | 2 = {{clade | 1 = [[Shapsug Adyghe dialect|Shapsug]] | 2 = [[Natukhai#Language|Natkhuaja]] }} }} }} }} | caption = A Circassian dialects family tree. }} [[File:Northwest_Caucasian_Family_Tree.JPG|thumb|The isolated Northwest Caucasian language family]] {{Main|Circassian language|Adyghe language|Kabardian language}} Circassians mainly speak the [[Circassian languages]], two mutually intelligible languages of the [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language family]], namely [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] (West Circassian) and [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] (East Adyghe). Adyghe is based on Temirgoy (Chemirgoy) dialect, while Kabardian is based on the dialect of the same name. Circassians also speak [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[English language|English]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] in large numbers, having been [[exile]]d by [[Russian Empire|Russia]] to lands of the Ottoman Empire, where the majority of them live today, and some to neighboring [[Persia]], to which they came primarily through mass deportations by the [[Safavids]] and [[Qajars]] or, to a lesser extent, as ''[[muhacir|muhajirs]]'' in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems |title=ČARKAS |access-date=26 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102192506/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems |archive-date=2 November 2014 }}</ref><ref>Oberling, Pierre, ''Georgians and Circassians in Iran'', The Hague, 1963; pp. 127–143</ref><ref>Engelbert Kaempfer (p. 204)</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Khanbaghi |first=Aptin |title=The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran |page=130}}</ref> Linguists divide the Northwest Caucasian languages into three branches, namely Circassian (Adyghe and Kabardian), Ubykh (consisting only of the Ubykh language, which is considered to have diverged from the Circassian languages and is now a dead language), and [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi (Abkhaz and Abaza)]]. The Ubykhs lived on the Black Sea coast, around the city of Sochi, the capital of Circassia, north of Abkhazia. Although related, Abazgi and Circassian are mutually unintelligible. Abazgi is spoken by [[Abkhazians]] and the [[Abazins]]. The Abkhazians lived on the coast between the Circassians and the Georgians, were organized as the [[Principality of Abkhazia]] and were involved with the Georgians to some degree. The Abazins or Abaza, their relatives, lived north of the mountains and were involved with Circassia proper. They extended from the mountain crest northeast onto the steppe and partially separated the Kabardians from the rest. [[Sadz]] were either northern Abkhazian or eastern Abaza, depending on the source. Walter Richmond writes that the Circassian languages in Russia are "gravely threatened." He argues that Russian policy of surrounding small Circassian communities with Slavic populations has created conditions where Circassian languages and nationality will disappear. By the 1990s, Russian had become the standard language for business in the [[Republic of Adygea]], even within communities with Circassian majority populations.{{sfn|Richmond|2013}} ===Religion=== {{see also|Adyghe Habze}} [[File:Abu Darweesh Mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[mosque]] of Abu Darwish (Adyghe descendant), one of the oldest mosques in [[Amman]] and considered as a major [[landmark]].]] Ancestors of modern Adyghe people gradually went through following various religions: [[Adyghe Habze|ancient polytheist beliefs]], Christianity, and then Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chamokova |first=Susanna Turkubievna |date=2015 |script-title=ru:Трансформация религиозных взглядов адыгов на примере основных адыгских космогонических Божеств |language=ru |title=Transformatsiya religioznykh vzglyadov adygov na primere osnovnykh adygskikh kosmogonicheskikh Bozhestv |trans-title=Transformation of the religious views of the Circassians using the example of the main Circassian cosmogonic Deities |journal=Вестник Майкопского государственного технологического университета}}</ref> It is the tradition of the early church that Christianity made its first appearance in Circassia in the first century AD via the travels and preaching of the [[Andrew the Apostle|Apostle Andrew]].<ref name="autogenerated95">''Antiquitates christianæ, or, The history of the life and death of the holy Jesus as also the lives acts and martyrdoms of his Apostles: in two parts'', by Taylor, Jeremy, 1613–1667. p. 101.</ref> Subsequently, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 4th century<ref name="autogenerated22"/> and the 6th century.<ref name="Ref_ab2"/> A small Muslim presence in Circassia has existed since the Middle Ages, but widespread Islamization occurred after 1717, when Sultan Murad IV ordered the Crimean Khans to spread Islam among the Circassians, with the Ottomans and Crimeans seeing some success in converting members of the aristocracy who would then ultimately spread the religion to their dependents.<ref name="NathoIslamization">Natho, Kadir I. ''Circassian History''. Pages 123–124</ref> Moreover, the ever increasing threat of an invasion from Russia helped expedite the already centuries long process of gradual islamization of the region.<ref name="NathoIslamization" /><ref>Shenfield, Stephen D. "The Circassians : A forgotten genocide". In Levene and Roberts, ''The Massacre in History''. Page 150.</ref> Significant Christian and pagan presence remained among some tribes such as the Shapsugs and Natukhai with Islamization pressures implemented by those loyal to the [[Caucasus Imamate]].{{sfn|Richmond|2013|p=59}} Sufi orders including the [[Qadiri]] and [[Nakshbandi]] orders gained prominence and played a role in spreading Islam.<ref name=Lyugasheva/> Today, the vast majority of Circassians are Muslim, and significantly fewer are [[Habze]], atheists<ref name=Lyugasheva/> and Christians.<ref name=Bram/> Among Christians, Catholicism, originally introduced along the coasts by Venetian and Genoese traders, today constitutes just under 1% of Kabardins,<ref name=Sreda>{{cite web |url=http://sreda.org/arena |title=Главная страница проекта "Арена" : Некоммерческая Исследовательская Служба СРЕДА |publisher=Sreda.org |access-date=20 August 2013 |date=19 October 2012 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143249/http://sreda.org/arena |url-status=live }}</ref> notably including those in [[Mozdok]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA359 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z |editor=Jamie Stokes |year=2009 |publisher=Facts on File |page=359 |isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6 |access-date=15 October 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402125904/https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA359#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and some of those [[Kursky District, Stavropol Krai|Kursky district]].<ref name="Greenwood">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC&q=north+ossetia+kabards+mozdok&pg=PA329 |title=An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires |editor=James Stuart Olson |year=1994 |publisher=Greenwood |page=329 |isbn=978-0-313-27497-8 |access-date=15 October 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402135911/https://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC&q=north+ossetia+kabards+mozdok&pg=PA329 |url-status=live }}</ref> Among Muslims, Islamic observance varies widely between those who only know a few prayers with a Muslim identity that is more "cultural" than religious, to those who regularly observe all requirements.<ref name=Lyugasheva/> Both Islam and the Habze are identified as national characteristics even by those that do not practice.<ref name=Lyugasheva/> Today, Islam is a central part of life in many Circassian diaspora communities, such as in Israel, while in the Circassian homeland Soviet rule saw an extensive process of [[secularization]], and there is wide influence of many social norms which contradict Islamic law, such as widespread norms like social alcohol consumption; in Israel, meanwhile, such non-Islamic social norms are not present.<ref name=Bram>{{cite book|author=Chen Bram|editor=S. Weil|year=1999|chapter-url=http://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/ChenBram.pdf|title=Routes and Roots: Emigration in a global perspective|chapter=CIRCASSIAN RE-IMMIGRATION TO THE CAUCASUS|pages=14–15|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227084013/http://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/ChenBram.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In the modern times, it has been reported that they identify primarily as Muslims.<ref name="ArenaAtlas">[http://sreda.org/arena Arena – Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143249/http://sreda.org/arena |date=12 June 2018 }} • sreda.org</ref><ref name="2012maps">[http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg 2012 Survey Maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320090751/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg |date=20 March 2017 }}. "Ogonek". No 34 (5243), 27 August 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2012.</ref> There have also been reports of violence and threats against those "reviving" and diffusing the original Circassian pre-Islamic faith.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/north_caucasus_insurgents_ethnographer_murder/2272112.html|title=North Caucasus Insurgency Admits Killing Circassian Ethnographer|work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|date=10 January 2011|access-date=28 June 2017|archive-date=21 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821151247/http://www.rferl.org/content/north_caucasus_insurgents_ethnographer_murder/2272112.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Valery Dzutsev. [http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37312 "High-profile Murders in Kabardino-Balkaria Underscore the Government's Inability to Control Situation in the Republic"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807160527/http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37312 |date=7 August 2016 }}. ''Eurasia Daily Monitor'', volume 8, issue 1, 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2012.</ref> The relationship between ''habze'' and Islam varies between Circassian communities; for some, there is conflict between the two, while for others, such as in Israel, they are seen as complementary philosophies.<ref name=Bram/> In 2005, a representative sample study of younger generation of Circassians aged 20–35 found that some 26% of those surveyed identified as [[Irreligion|irreligious]].<ref name=Lyugasheva>{{cite journal |first=Svetlana |last=Lyagusheva |title=Islam and the Traditional Moral Code of Adyghes |journal=Iran and the Caucasus |volume=9 |pages=29–35 |number=1 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |jstor=4030903 |year=2005 |doi=10.1163/1573384054068123 |quote="in February 1996... Respondents in the 20–35 age group... 26 percent considered themselves atheists..."}}</ref> ===Traditional social system=== [[File:USSHER(1865) p183 CIRCASSIAN DANCE.jpg|thumb|Circassian dance]] Society was organized by ''Adyghe khabze'', or Circassian custom.<ref>This section summarizes Walter Richmond, Northwest Caucasus, 2008, Chapter 2</ref> Many of these customs had equivalents throughout the mountains. The seemingly disorganized Circassians resisted the Russians. The aristocracy was called ''warq''. Some aristocratic families held the rank of ''Pshi'' or prince and the eldest member of this family was the ''Pshi-tkhamade'' who was the tribal chief. Below the warq was the large class to ''tfokotl'', roughly yeomen or freemen, who had various duties to the ''warq''. They were divided into clans of some sort. Below them were three classes approximating serfs or slaves. Of course, these Circassian social terms do not exactly match their European equivalents. Since everything was a matter of custom, much depended on time, place, circumstances and personality. The three 'democratic' tribes, Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abdzakh, managed their affairs by assemblies called ''Khase'' or larger ones called ''Zafes''. Decisions were made by general agreement and there was no formal mechanism to enforce decisions. The democratic tribes, who were perhaps the majority, lived mainly in the mountains where they were relatively protected from the Russians. They seem to have retained their aristocrats, but with diminished powers. In the remaining 'feudal' tribes power was theoretically in the hands of the ''Pshi-tkhamade'', although his power could be limited by Khases or other influential families. In addition to the vertical relations of class there were many horizontal relations between unrelated persons. There was a strong tradition of hospitality similar to the Greek ''[[xenia (Greek)|xenia]]''. Many houses would have a ''kunakskaya'' or guest room. The duty of a host extended even to ''abreks'' or outlaws. Two men might be sworn brothers or ''kunaks''. There were brotherhoods of unrelated individuals called ''tleuzh'' who provided each other mutual support. It was common for a child to be raised by an ''atalyk'' or foster father. Criminal law was mainly concerned with reconciling the two parties. ''Adyghe khabze'' is sometimes called ''[[adat]]'' when it is contrasted to the kind of [[Islamic law]] advocated by people like [[Imam Shamil]]. ===Traditional clothing=== [[File:Traditional clothing, Circassian Heritage Center.JPG|thumb|Traditional Circassian clothing]] The traditional female clothing ({{langx |ady|Бзылъфыгъэ Шъуашэр, Bzıłfıǵe Ȿuaşer}} {{IPA|ady|bzəɬfəʁa ʂʷaːʃar|}}) was very diverse and highly decorated and mainly depends on the region, class of family, occasions, and tribes. The traditional female costume is composed of a dress ({{langx |ady|Джанэр, Janer}} {{IPA|ady|d͡ʒaːnar|}}), coat ({{langx |ady|Сае, Saye}} {{IPA|ady|saːja|}}), shirt, pant ({{langx |ady|ДжэнэкӀакор, Jeneç'akuer}} {{IPA|ady|d͡ʒanat͡ʃʼaːkʷar|}}), vest ({{langx |ady|КӀэкӀ, Ç'eç'}} {{IPA|ady|t͡ʃʼat͡ʃʼ|}}), lamb leather bra ({{langx |ady|Шъохътан, Ȿuex́tan}} {{IPA|ady|ʂʷaχtaːn|}}), a variety of hats ({{langx |ady|ПэӀохэр}, Peꜧuexer}} {{IPA|ady|paʔʷaxar|}}), shoes, and belts ({{langx |ady|Бгырыпхыхэр, Bğırıpxıxer}} {{IPA|ady|bɣərəpxəxar|}}). Holiday dresses are made of expensive fabrics such as silk and velvet. The traditional colors of women's clothing rarely includes blue, green or bright-colored tones, instead mostly white, red, black and brown shades are worn. The Circassian dresses were embroidered with gold and silver threads. These embroideries were handmade and took time to complete as they were very intricate. [[File:Adygejische Tänzer.jpg|thumb|right|An Adyge woman and man in traditional clothing]] The traditional male costume ({{langx |ady|Адыгэ хъулъфыгъэ шъуашэр, Adığe X́uıłfıǵe Ȿuaşer}} {{IPA|ady|aːdəɣa χʷəɬfəʁa ʂʷaːʃar|}}) includes a coat with wide sleeves, shirt, pants, a dagger, sword, and a variety of hats and shoes. Traditionally, young men in the warriors’ times wore coat with short sleeves—in order to feel more comfortable in combat. Different colors of clothing for males were strictly used to distinguish between different social classes, for example white is usually worn by princes, red by nobles, gray, brown, and black by peasants (blue, green and the other colors were rarely worn). A compulsory item in the traditional male costume is a dagger and a sword. The traditional Adyghean sword is called ''[[shashka]]''. It is a special kind of [[sabre]]; a very sharp, single-edged, single-handed, and [[Hilt|guardless]] sword. Although the sword is used by most of Russian and Ukrainian Cossacks, the typically Adyghean form of the sabre is longer than the Cossack type, and in fact the word Shashka came from the Adyghe word "Sashkhwa" ({{langx |ady|Сашьхъуэ, Sas̨x́ue}}) which means "long knife". On the breast of the costume are long ornamental tubes or sticks, once filled with a single charge of gunpowder (called gaziri cartridges) and used to reload muskets. ===Traditional cuisine=== [[File:Old Circassian traditional house.jpg|thumb|An old country house and traditional cuisine with [[Haliva]] (Хьэлжъо, Helɀwa) and [[Mataz]] (Мэтазэ, Metaze), two of the prominent traditional Adyghe snacks.]] The Adyghe cuisine is rich with different dishes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yHeq6UZxf8 |title=Jordanian Cuisine(Bedouins, Circassians, & Palestinians)(مترجم للعربية) |publisher=YouTube |date=14 January 2012 |access-date=20 August 2013 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028205623/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yHeq6UZxf8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ref_ac">{{cite web |editor-first=Amjad |editor-last=Jaimoukha |editor-link=Amjad Jaimoukha |url=http://www.circassianworld.com/AdygheCuisine.pdf |title=Circassian Cuisine |publisher=Circassianworld.com |access-date=20 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306214324/http://www.circassianworld.com/AdygheCuisine.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2012}}</ref> In the summer, the traditional dishes consumed by the Adyghe people are mainly dairy products and vegetable dishes. In the winter and spring the traditional dishes are mainly flour and meat dishes. An example of the latter is known as ''[[ficcin]]''. [[Circassian cheese]] is considered one of the more famous types of cheeses in the [[North Caucasus]]. A popular traditional dish is chicken or turkey with sauce, seasoned with crushed garlic and red pepper. Mutton and beef are served boiled, usually with a seasoning of sour milk with crushed garlic and salt. Variants of pasta are found. A type of ravioli may be encountered, which is filled with potato or beef. On holidays the Adyghe people traditionally make ''[[haliva]]'' ({{langx|ady|хьэлжъо, Helɀua}}) (fried triangular pastries with mainly Circassian cheese or potato), from toasted millet or wheat flour in syrup, baked cakes and pies. In the Levant there is a famous Circassian dish which is called Tajen Alsharkaseiah.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ju90EXQUKY0 |title=تركى شركسية تقديم الشيف الشربينى |publisher=YouTube |date=17 November 2009 |access-date=20 August 2013 |archive-date=28 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228071557/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ju90EXQUKY0 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Traditional crafts=== The Adyghes have been famous for making carpets ({{langx|ady| пӏуаблэхэр, P'uablexer}} {{IPA|ady|pʷʼaːblaxar|}}) or mats worldwide for thousands of years.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} Making carpets was very hard work in which collecting raw materials is restricted to a specific period within the year. The raw materials were dried, and based on the intended colours, different methods of drying were applied. For example, when dried in the shade, its{{clarify|date=September 2014}} colour changed to a beautiful light gold colour. If it were dried in direct sun light then it would have a silver colour, and if they wanted to have a dark colour for the carpets, the raw materials were put in a pool of water and covered by [[Populus|poplar]] leaves ({{langx|ady| екӏэпцӏэ, Yeç'epc'e}} {{IPA|ady|jat͡ʃʼapt͡sʼa|}}). The carpets were adorned with images of birds, beloved animals (horses), and plants, and the image of the Sun was widely used. The carpets were used for different reasons due to their characteristic resistance to humidity and cold, and in retaining heat. Also, there was a tradition in Circassian homes to have two carpets hanging in the guest room, one used to hang over rifles ({{langx|ady| шхончымрэ, Şxuençımre}} {{IPA|ady|ʃxʷant͡ʃəmra|}}) and pistols ({{langx|ady| къэлаеымрэ, Qelayeımre}}), and the other used to hang over musical instruments. The carpets were used to [[prayer rug|pray upon]], and it was necessary for every Circassian girl to make three carpets before marriage. These carpets would give the grooms an impression as to the success of their brides in their homes after marriage.<ref name="Ref_ad">"Адыгэ 1оры1уатэм ухэзгъэгъозэн тхылъ", Ехъул1э Ат1ыф, Нахэхэр (129–132), гощын (1), Адыгэ ш1уш1э Хасэ, Йордания, 2009.</ref> ==Tribes== From the [[late Middle Ages]], a number of territorial- and political-based Circassian tribes or ethnic entities began to take shape. They had slightly different dialects. Dialects came to exist after Circassia was divided into tribes after the death of [[Inal of Kabardia]], who united Circassia for the last time before its short reunion during the Russo-Caucasian War. As the logistics between the tribes became harder, each tribe became slightly isolated from one another, thus the people living under the banner of each tribe developed their own dialects. In time, the dialects they speak were named after their tribes. At the end of the [[Caucasian War]] most Circassians were expelled to the Ottoman Empire, and many of the tribes were destroyed and the people evicted from their historical homeland in 1864. The twelve stars on the Circassian flag symbolize the individual tribes of the Circassians; the nine stars within the arc symbolize the nine aristocratic tribes of Adygea, and the three horizontal stars symbolize the three democratic tribes. The three democratic tribes or tribes were the Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abdzakh. They managed their affairs by assemblies while the other tribes were controlled by "princes" or ''Pshi''. The twelve tribes are the Abdzakh, Besleney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, Kabardian, Mamkhegh, Natukhai, Shapsug, Temirgoy, Ubykh, Yegeruqwai, and Zhaney.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adiga-home.net/Circassians.htm|title=Circassians|publisher=adiga-home.net|access-date=20 August 2014|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820015838/https://www.adiga-home.net/Circassians.htm|archive-date=20 August 2014}}</ref> Adyghe tribes with remnants still in [[Circassia]] are: Kabarda (the largest), the Temirgoy and Bzhedug in Adygea, and the Shapsug near Tuapse and to the north of Tuapsiysiy Rayon of Krasnodarskiy Kray. There are also a few Besleney and Natukhai villages, and an Abdzakh village. The majority tribes in [[Circassian diaspora|diaspora]] are Kabardian, Abdzakh, and Shapsug. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ | Twelve Circassian (Adyghe) tribes (sub-ethnic groups) |- !Geographical designation !Main dialect !Tribe<ref name=Brill>"Čerkesses". ''E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936''. Volume II. Leiden, 1987. p. 834. 9789004082656</ref><ref>Культура адыгов: по свидетельствам европейских авторов. Ельбрус, 1993.</ref> !Circassian name !Notes |- |rowspan="8"|[[Adyghe people|Adygeans]] (Adyghe of Adygea) |rowspan="9"|[[Adyghe language|Adyghe (Western Circassian)]] |[[Abzakh people|Abzakh]] (Abdzakh or Abadzekh<ref name=Brill/>) |''Абдзах, Abźax'' {{IPA|ady|aːbd͡zaːx|}} |Second largest Adyghe tribe in Turkey and the world, largest in Jordan, sixth largest in Russia |- |[[Bzhedug people|Bzhedug]] (Bzhedugh or Bzhedukh<ref name=Brill/>) |''Бжъэдыгъу, Bɀedıǵu'' {{IPA|ady|bʐadəʁʷ|}} |Third largest Adyghe tribe in Russia, lesser in other countries |- |[[Hatuqwai people|Hatuqwai]] (Hatukay or Khatukai<ref name=Brill/>) |''Хьэтыкъуай, Hatıꝗuay'' {{IPA|ady|ħaːtəq͡χʷaːj|}} |A warlike tribe completely expelled from the Caucasus, found almost exclusively in Turkey, US, Jordan, and Israel |- |[[Mamkhegh]] |''Мэмхэгъ, Мамхыгъ, Mamxıǵ'' {{IPA|ady|maːmxəʁ|}} |a large clan, but a small tribe |- |[[Natukhai people|Natukhai]] (Notkuadj<ref name=Brill/>) |''Натыхъуай, Netıx́uay'' {{IPA|ady|natəχʷaːj|}}, ''Наткъуадж, Netıx́uaj'' {{IPA|ady|natəχʷaːd͡ʒ|}} |Completely expelled from the Caucasus after the Caucasian War |- |[[Temirgoy people|Temirgoy]] (Chemgui or Kemgui<ref name=Brill/>) |''КIэмгуй, Ç'emguıy'' {{IPA|ady|t͡ʃʼamɡʷəj|}} |Second largest Adyghe tribe in Russia, lesser in other countries |- |[[Yegeruqwai]] (Yegerukay) |''Еджэрыкъуай, Yejerquay'' {{IPA|ady|jad͡ʒarqʷaːj|}} |Completely expelled from the Caucasus |- |[[Zhaney]] (Jane or Zhan<ref name=Brill/>) |''Жанэ, Ƶane'' {{IPA|ady|ʒaːna|}} |Not found after the Caucasian War on a tribal basis |- |[[Shapsugs]] (Adyghe of [[Krasnodar Krai]]) |[[Shapsugs|Shapsug]] (Shapsugh) |''Шэпсыгъ, Шапсыгъ, Şapsıǵ'' {{IPA|ady|ʃaːpsəʁ|}} |Third largest Adyghe tribe in Turkey and the world, largest in Israel |- |Ubykhians (Adyghe of Krasnodar Krai) |[[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] (extinct) and [[Hakuchi Adyghe]] |[[Ubykh people|Ubykh]] |''Убых, Wıbıx'' {{IPA|ady|wəbəx|}}, ''Пэху'' |Completely expelled from the Caucasus, found almost exclusively in Turkey where most speak East Adyghe, and some West Adyghe (often Hakuchi sub-dialect) as well as Abaza |- |[[Kabardians]] (Adyghe of [[Kabardino-Balkaria]]) |rowspan="2"|[[Kabardian language|Kabardian (Eastern Circassian)]]<ref name=Census>{{cite book |title=Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года (Тома официальной публикации) |chapter-url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/vol4pdf-m.html |chapter=Т. 4. Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство |trans-chapter=Ch. 4. National composition and language proficiency, citizenship |via=Официальный сайт Госкомстата России (www.gks.ru) |access-date=22 November 2013 |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |ref=Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги |trans-title=Results of the National Population Census 2010 (official publication of the volumes) |archive-date=5 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605145523/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> |[[Kabardians]] (Kabardinian, Kabardin, Kabarday, Kebertei, or Adyghe of Kabarda) |''Къэбэрдэй, Qeberdey'' {{IPA|ady|qabardaj|}}, ''Къэбэртай, Qebertay'' {{IPA|ady|qabartaːj|}} |Largest Adyghe tribe in Turkey (over 2 millions), Russia (over 500,000), and the world (3–4 million), second or third largest in Jordan and Israel |- |Circassians (Cherkess or Adyghe of [[Karachay-Cherkessia]]) |[[Besleney]]<ref name=Census/> (Beslenei<ref name=Brill/>) |''Беслъэней, Basłınıy'' {{IPA|ady|basɬənəj|}} | |} ===Other Adyghe groups=== Small tribes or large clans that are included in one of the twelve Adyghe tribes: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- !Name !Circassian name !Notes |- |[[Khatuq|Adele (Khatuq)]] (Khetuk or Adali<ref name=Brill/>) |''ХьэтIукъу, Hat'uqu'' |Not found after the [[Caucasian War]] on a tribal basis, included in the Abzakh and Hatuqwai tribes |- |[[Adamey]] (Adamei or Adamiy) |''Адэмый, Ademıy'' {{IPA|ady|aːdaməj|}} |Included in the Kabardian tribe |- |[[Guaye]] (Goaye) |''Гъоайе, Ǵuaye'' |Not found after the Caucasian War |- |[[Khegayk]] (Khegaik<ref name=Brill/>) |''Хэгъуайкъу, Xeǵueyqu'' |Not found after the Caucasian War |- |[[Chebsin]] (Čöbein<ref name=Brill/>) |''ЦIопсынэ, C'wapsıne'' |Not found after the Caucasian War |- |[[Makhosh]] (Mokhosh<ref name=Brill/>) |''Махошъ, Mexuaȿ'' {{IPA|ady|maːxʷaʂ|}} |A large clan, but not enough to be a separate tribe |} The Circassian tribes can be grouped and compared in various ways: {{Location map+|Russia Krasnodar Krai|width=450px|float=right|relief=1|thumb|caption=Approximate location of Circassian tribes, Tsutsiev's Atlas |places= {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.00|long=39.50|label='''[[Temirgoy]]'''|position=top|mark=Red pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.20|long=40.30|label='''[[Temirgoy]]'''|position=right|mark=Red pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.90|long=39.45|label='''{{small|Adamey}}'''|position=right|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.85|long=40.40|label='''{{ill|Yegeruqwai|ru|Егерукаевцы|vertical-align=sup}}'''|position=right|mark=White pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.70|long=40.60|label='''{{small|Makhosh}}'''|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.40|long=41.50|label='''[[Besleney]]'''|mark=Yellow pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.10|long=41.75|label='''[[Kabardians|Kabardian]]'''[[File:Pfeil rechts.svg|10px]]|position=bottom|mark=Gold pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.14|long=38.08|label='''[[Kabardians|Kuban&nbsp;Kabardian]]'''|position=top|mark=Gold pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.00|long=39.25|label='''[[Hatuqwai]]'''|position=left|mark=Yellow ffff00 pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.90|long=38.60|label='''[[Bzhedug]]'''|mark=Purple pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.30|long=36.80|label='''{{small|Adele}}'''|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.10|long=37.40|label=|mark=Cyan pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.12|long=36.70|label='''[[Zhaney]]'''|mark=Cyan pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=45.00|long=37.30|label='''[[Natukhai]]'''|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.80|long=37.50|label=|position=right|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.40|long=38.25|label='''[[Natukhai]]'''|position=bottom|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.62|long=38.80|label='''[[Abdzakh]]'''|mark=Orange pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.40|long=39.40|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.20|long=39.80|label='''[[Abdzakh]]'''|position=left|mark=Orange pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=43.62|long=39.70|label='''[[Ubykh people|Ubykh]]'''|position=top|mark=Black pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.80|long=37.95|label='''[[Shapsug]]'''|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.30|long=38.75|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=43.90|long=39.45|label='''[[Shapsug]]'''|position=left|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.50|long=39.50|label='''[[Mamkhegh]]'''|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.75|long=37.30|label='''{{small|Shegak}}'''|position=right|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.00|long=41.20|label=[[Abazin]]|label_size=120|background=PowderBlue|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.20|long=42.00|label={{small|Tapanta}}|background=PowderBlue|mark=Pfeil rechts.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=43.20|long=41.30|label=[[Abkhazia|Abkhaz]]|label_size=120|background=PowderBlue|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.86|long=37.37|label=Anapa-----|position=left|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.66|long=37.79|label=Novorossisk-|position=left|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.54|long=38.05|label=Gelendzhik-|position=left|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=44.12|long=39.07|label=Tuapse-----|position=left|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=43.58|long=39.73|label=Sochi-----|position=left|mark=Clear pog.svg}} {{Location map~|Russia Krasnodar Krai|lat=43.33|long=40.22|label=Gagra-----|position=left|mark=Clear pog.svg}} }} *The narrow '''Black Sea coast''' was occupied, from north to south by the [[Natukhai]], [[Shapsug]], and Ubykh. The main part of the Natukhai and Shapsug tribes were located in the north of the mountains. The Natukhai were enriched by trade since their coast was not backed by high mountains and opened onto the steppe. * The '''north slope''' was inhabited, from north to south, by the Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abdzakh. They seem to have been the most populous tribes after the Kabarda and its inland location gave then some protection from Nogai and Cossack raiding. * In the '''far west''' were three small tribes that were absorbed into the Natukhai and disappeared. These were the Adele {{ill|Адале|ru|vertical-align=sup}} on the Taman peninsula and the Shegak and Chebsin ({{ill|Хегайки|ru|vertical-align=sup}} and {{ill|Чебсин|ru|vertical-align=sup}}) near Anapa. * Along the '''Kuban''' were the Natukhai, Zhaney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, and Temirgoy. The tribes along the Kuban and Laba rivers were exposed to Nogai and Cossack raiding than those in the interior. * On the '''east''', between the Laba and Belaya, from north to south, were the Temirgoy, Yegeruqwai ({{ill|Егерукаевцы|ru|vertical-align=sup}}), Makhosh ({{ill|Махошевцы|ru|vertical-align=sup}}), and [[Besleney]]. The Besleney were a branch of the Kabardians. Along the Belaya River were the Temirgoy, the ill-documented Ademey ({{ill|Адамийцы|ru|vertical-align=sup}}) and then the [[Mamkhegh]] near the modern [[Maykop]]. *The Guaye ({{ill|Гуайе|ru|vertical-align=sup}}) are poorly documented. The Tchelugay lived west of the Makhosh. The Hakuch lived on the coast south of the Natukhai. Other groups are mentioned without much documentation. There are reports of tribes migrating from one place to another, again without much documentation. Some sketch maps show a group of [[Karachays]] on the upper Laba without any explanation. * In the '''Far east''' the Kabarda occupied about a third of the north Caucasus piedmont from mid Circassia proper eastward to the Chechen country. To their north were the Nogai nomads and to the south, deeper in the mountains, were from west to east, the Karachays, Balkars, Ossetes, Ingushes, and Chechens. The Kabardians were fairly advanced, interacted with the Russians from the sixteenth century and were much reduced by plague in the early nineteenth century. ==Circassian diaspora== {{Main|Circassian diaspora}} [[File:Çerkez sürgününün anılması 1.jpg|thumb|Circassians commemorate the banishment of the Circassians from Russia in [[Taksim Square|Taksim]], [[Istanbul]]]] The Circassian people were subjected to [[Ethnic cleansing of Circassians|ethnic cleansing]] by the Russian military during the [[Caucasian War|Caucasus War]] and mass exile to the Ottoman Empire. In the 1860s and the 1870s, the Ottoman government settled Circassians in territories of modern-day Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Kosovo, Greece, Cyprus, and North Macedonia.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=2}} Most Circassian refugees in the Balkans had fled the region during the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–78. However, Circassians have also lived outside the Caucasus region since the [[Middle Ages]]. They were particularly well represented in the Ottoman Empire and [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Egypt]]. === Turkey === {{Main|Circassians in Turkey}}[[Turkey]] has the largest Adyghe population in the world, around half of all Circassians live in Turkey, mainly in the provinces of [[Samsun Province|Samsun]] and [[Ordu Province|Ordu]] (in Northern Turkey), [[Kahramanmaraş Province|Kahramanmaraş]] (in Southern Turkey), [[Kayseri Province|Kayseri]] (in Central Turkey), [[Bandırma]], and [[Düzce Province|Düzce]] (in Northwest Turkey), along the shores of the [[Black Sea]]; the region near the city of [[Ankara]]. All citizens of Turkey are considered Turks by the government, but it is estimated that approximately two million ethnic Circassians live in Turkey. The "Circassians" in question do not always speak the languages of their ancestors, and in some cases some of them may describe themselves as "only Turkish". The reason for this loss of identity is mostly due to [[Turkification|Turkey's Government assimilation policies]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ|title=Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West|access-date=22 September 2016|archive-date=6 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806173413/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ|date=2013|page=3|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0292758940|last1=Davison|first1=Roderic H.|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey">{{cite book|title=Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey|page=167|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=2008|isbn=9780231700528|last=Sofos|first=Umut Özkırımlı|author2=Spyros A.}}</ref><ref name="Basak2">{{cite book|title=Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day|date=26 April 2012|location=Londra|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-78076-026-1|last=İnce|first=Başak}}</ref><ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC|title=Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities|access-date=7 January 2013|archive-date=13 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013030412/http://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC|url-status=live|edition=[Online-Ausg.]|page=45|location=Londra [u.a.]|publisher=Tauris|date=2006|editor-first=Hans-Lukas|editor-last=Kieser|isbn=9781845111410}}</ref> and marriages with non-Circassians. Circassians are regarded by historians to play a key role in the history of Turkey. Many of the Young Turks were of Circassian origin.<ref>Besleney, Zeynel Abidin: The Circassian Diaspora in Turkey. Political History, New York 2014, pp. 58-60.</ref><ref>Üre, Pınar. ''Circassian nationalism.''</ref> Some of the exiles and their descendants gained high positions in the Ottoman Empire. Until the end of the First World War, many Circassians actively served in the army. In the period after the First World War, Circassians came to the fore in Anatolia as a group of advanced armament and organizational abilities as a result of the struggle they fought with the Russian troops until they came to the Ottoman lands. However, the situation of the Ottoman Empire after the war caused them to be caught between the different balances of power between Istanbul and Ankara and even become a striking force. For this period, it is not possible to say that Circassians all acted together as in many other groups in Anatolia. The Turkish government removed 14 Circassian villages from Gönen and Manyas regions in December 1922, May and June 1923, without separating women and children, and drove them to different places in Anatolia from Konya to Sivas and Bitlis. This incident had a great impact on the assimilation of Circassians. After 1923, Circassians were restricted by policies such as the prohibition of Circassian language,<ref name=":73">Ayhan Aktar, "Cumhuriyet’in Đlk Yıllarında Uygulanan ‘Türklestirme’ Politikaları," in Varlık Vergisi ve 'Türklestirme' Politikaları,2nd ed. (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2000), 101.</ref><ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities2"/><ref>{{cite magazine |title="Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making |access-date= |issue=2 |pages=245–272 |magazine=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=April 2007 |volume=13 |first=Senem |last=Aslan}}</ref> changing village names, and [[Surname Law (Turkey)|surname law]]<ref name="Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority2">{{cite journal |last=Toktas |first=Sule |date=2005 |title=Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority |url=https://www.academia.edu/761586 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Historical Sociology]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=400 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x |s2cid=59138386 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503083439/https://www.academia.edu/761586/Citizenship_and_Minorities_A_Historical_Overview_of_Turkey_s_Jewish_Minority |archive-date=3 May 2020 |access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Suny2">{{cite book |title=A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire |date=23 February 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-539374-3 |editor1-last=Suny |editor1-first=Ronald Grigor |location=Oxford |editor2-last=Goçek |editor2-first=Fatma Müge |editor3-last=Naimark |editor3-first=Norman M. |editor3-link=Norman Naimark}}</ref><ref name="Basak2"/> Circassians, who had many problems in maintaining their identity comfortably, were seen as a group that inevitably had to be assimilated. Cyprus Circassians had settled in Cyprus during the Memluk period. However these were mainly members of Memluk Army and majority of them left the island during the Venetian period. Even though, Circassians have arrived to the island during the Ottoman Empire from Caucasus by ships and they settled Limasol Circassian Farm (Cerkez Ciftlik) and villages of Larnaca; Arsos (Yiğitler), Vuda, Tremetousa (Erdemli), Paralimni in October, 1864. Cypriot Circassians had joined the Turkish Cypriot Community and some of them the Greek Cypriot Community. Although they lost their original language and culture, they still view themselves as Circassian. === Syria === {{Main|Circassians in Syria}} Circassians play a major role in the history of Syria. In Syria, they settled mainly in the [[Golan Heights]]. Prior to the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967, the Adyghe people – then estimated at 30,000 in number – were the majority group in the Golan Heights region. The most prominent settlement in the Golan was the town of [[Quneitra]]. Estimates of the total number of Circassians in Syria range from 50,000 and 100,000.<ref>{{cite web |last=Peleschuk |first=Dan |date=27 March 2012 |title=Long Lost Brethren |url=http://russiaprofile.org/international/56577.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327211025/http://russiaprofile.org/international/56577.html |archive-date=27 March 2012 |access-date=20 August 2013 |publisher=Russiaprofile.org}}</ref> In 2013, as tensions between the [[Ba'athism|Baath government]] and the opposition forces escalated, Syrian Circassians said they were exploring returning to Circassia. Circassians from different parts of Syria, such as [[Damascus]], have moved back to the Golan Heights, believed to be safer. Some refugees have been reportedly killed by shelling. Circassians have lobbied the Russian and Israeli governments to help evacuate refugees from Syria; Russia has issued some visas.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 May 2013 |title=Circassians Become Targets in Syria; Activists Seek International Help |newspaper=Jamestown |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/nca/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=40093&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=24&cHash=c5547130a104af82d1179fea3bc7fafc |access-date=20 August 2013 |publisher=The Jamestown Foundation |archive-date=23 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223022940/https://jamestown.org/program/circassians-become-targets-in-syria-activists-seek-international-help-2/ |url-status=live}}</ref> === Israel === {{Main|Circassians in Israel}} In Israel, the Adyghe initially settled in three places—in [[Kfar Kama]], [[Rehaniya]], and in the region of [[Hadera]]. Due to a malaria epidemic, the Adyghe eventually abandoned the settlement near Hadera. Though Sunni Muslim, Adyghe within Israel are seen as a loyal minority who serve in the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli armed forces]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Circassians in Israel |url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/circassians-in-israel/ |publisher=My Jewish Learning |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=7 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507131203/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/circassians-in-israel/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Circassians in Israel |website=Caucasus Foundation |url=http://www.kafkas.org.tr/english/diaspora/israil.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314022637/http://www.kafkas.org.tr/english/diaspora/israil.html |archive-date=14 March 2008 |publisher=kafkas.org.tr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Israel's Ethnic Communities |url=http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs081/1101836033194/archive/1101949370460.html |publisher=archive.constantcontact.com |access-date=20 May 2012 |archive-date=5 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305100747/http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs081/1101836033194/archive/1101949370460.html |url-status=live}}</ref> === Jordan === {{Main|Circassians in Jordan}} The Circassians had a major role in the modern history of Jordan. Circassian refugees started arriving in Ottoman Transjordan after their expulsion from the Ottoman Balkans during the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]]. Between 1878 and 1904, Circassians founded (or re-established) five sites: Amman (1878), Wadi al-Sir (1880), Jerash (1884), Na'ur (1901), and al-Rusayfa (1904).{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2017|p=607}} Amman was primarily a Circassian village until [[World War I]]. Amman grew rapidly thanks to Circassian agricultural labor and trade, and mercantile investment from Damascus, Nablus, and Jerusalem, made possible by the construction of the [[Hejaz Railway]].{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2017|pp=610–13}} Over the years, various Adyghe have served in distinguished roles in the kingdom of Jordan. Adyghes have served as a prime minister ([[Sa'id al-Mufti]]), as ministers (commonly at least one minister should represent the Circassians in each cabinet), as high-ranking officers, etc., and due to their important role in the history of Jordan, Adyghe form the [[Hashemites]]' [[honour guard]] at the royal palaces. They represented Jordan in the [[Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo]] in 2010, joining other honour guards such as the [[Airborne Ceremonial Unit]].<ref>{{cite web|date=5 August 2010|title=Jordan at the Tattoo &#124; Edinburgh Military Tattoo|url=http://www.edintattoo.co.uk/news-and-press/jordan-the-tattoo|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601062834/http://www.edintattoo.co.uk/news-and-press/jordan-the-tattoo|archive-date=1 June 2013|access-date=14 August 2012|publisher=edintattoo.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Echoes from Jordan|url=http://www.echoesfromjordan.com/performing-group/circassian-honour-guard|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727053620/http://www.echoesfromjordan.com/performing-group/circassian-honour-guard|archive-date=27 July 2010|access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> === Egypt === {{Main|Circassians in Egypt}} [[File:Tumanbay II (cropped).jpg|upright|thumb|[[Tuman bay II]] (reigned 1516–1517) the last Mamluk sultan of Adyghe origins]] [[File:Aziz Pasha Abaza عزيز باشا أباظة.jpg|thumb|218x218px|[[Aziz Pasha Abaza]] of the [[House of Abaza]] in Egypt of [[Abazins|Abazin]] ancestry]] During the 13th century the Mamluks seized power in Cairo. Some 15th-century Circassian converts to Islam became [[Mamluk]]s and rose through the ranks of the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk dynasty]] to high positions, some becoming sultans in Egypt such as [[Qaitbay]], Mamluk Sultan of Egypt (1468–1496). The majority of the leaders of the [[Burji dynasty|Burji Mamluk dynasty]] in Egypt (1382–1517) had Circassian origins,<ref name="GPG">{{cite book|title=A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War|last=McGregor|first=Andrew James|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-98601-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00andr/page/15 15]|quote=By the late fourteenth century Circassians from the north Caucasus region had become the majority in the Mamluk ranks.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00andr/page/15}}</ref> while also including Abkhaz, [[Abazins|Abaza]], and Georgian peoples whom the Arab sultans had recruited to serve their kingdoms as a military force. With the rise of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] (who ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848), most senior Mamluks were killed by him in order to secure his rule and the remaining Mamluks fled to Sudan.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} Most Circassian communities in Egypt were assimilated into the local population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDd80jyLptI |title=Al-Gaddafi speech about the Circassians |publisher=Youtube.com |date=30 July 2011 |access-date=20 August 2013 |archive-date=28 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228071606/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDd80jyLptI |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2016}} several thousand Adyghe reside in Egypt; in addition to the descendants of Burji Mamluks of Adyghe origin, there are many who descend from royal Circassian consorts or Ottoman pashas of Circassian origin as well as Circassian [[muhajirun|muhajirs]] of the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} The biggest Circassian clan in Egypt is the [[Abaza family]], the country's largest aristocratic family which settled in the Nile Delta in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sayyid-Marsot |first=Afaf Lutfi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCz7N-GYKRcC&q=Abaza+Family%2C+Egypt&pg=PA123 |title=Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali |date=1984-01-12 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28968-9 |language=en |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224093442/https://books.google.com/books?id=KCz7N-GYKRcC&q=Abaza+Family%2C+Egypt&pg=PA123#v=snippet&q=Abaza%20Family%2C%20Egypt&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> It gained prominence under the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]] and maintained it in the contemporary republican period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Springborg |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8VIrEAAAQBAJ&dq=hassan+abaza+egypt&pg=PA92 |title=Family, Power, and Politics in Egypt: Sayed Bey Mare--His Clan, Clients, and Cohorts |date=2016-11-11 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-0754-7 |language=en |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=29 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229144722/https://books.google.com/books?id=8VIrEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA92&dq=hassan+abaza+egypt&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Aharoni |first=Reuven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b2t--alsT9kC&dq=abaza+family+egypt&pg=PA51 |title=The Pasha's Bedouin: Tribes and State in the Egypt of Mehemet Ali, 1805-1848 |date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-26821-4 |language=en |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227193644/https://books.google.com/books?id=b2t--alsT9kC&dq=abaza+family+egypt&pg=PA51 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=العائلة الأباظية ودورها فى الحياة البرلمانية المصرية |url=https://www.elaosboa.com/126979/ |access-date=2024-03-12 |website=الأسبوع |date=9 January 2022 |language=ar |archive-date=21 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221102718/https://www.elaosboa.com/126979/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Iraq === {{Main|Circassians in Iraq}} Adyghe came to [[Iraq]] directly from [[Circassia]]. They settled in all parts of Iraq—from north to south—but most of all in Iraq's capital [[Baghdad]]. Many Adyghe also settled in [[Kirkuk|Kerkuk]], [[Diyala Governorate|Diyala]], [[Fallujah]], and other places. Circassians have played major roles in different periods throughout Iraq's history, and made great contributions to political and military institutions in the country, to the [[Iraqi Army]] in particular. Several Iraqi prime ministers have been of Circassian descent. === Iran === {{Main|Circassians in Iran}} [[File:Circassian horsemanship during Sir Herbert Samuel's second visit to Transjordan.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Adyghe [[horsemanship]] in [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]], April 1921]] [[Iran]] has a significant Circassian population.<ref name="books.google.nl"/> It once had a very large community, but the vast majority were assimilated in the population in the course of centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mcha.kbsu.ru/english/m_hist_01E.htm.html|title=International Circassian Association|access-date=28 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035542/http://mcha.kbsu.ru/english/m_hist_01E.htm.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Pierre, Oberling ''Georgians and Circassians in Iran''</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vii6-in-islamic-iran-language-families |title=IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (6) in Islamic Iran |access-date=28 April 2014 |last1=Foundation |first1=Encyclopaedia Iranica |archive-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429045003/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vii6-in-islamic-iran-language-families |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Safavid]] (1501–1736) and [[Qajar]] (1789–1925) dynasties saw the importing and deporting of large numbers of Circassians to Persia, where many enjoyed prestige in the [[harems]] and in the élite armies (the so-called ''ghulams''), while many others settled and deployed as craftsmen, labourers, farmers and regular soldiers. Many members of the Safavid nobility and élite had Circassian ancestry and Circassian dignitaries, such as the kings [[Abbas II of Persia]] (reigned 1642–1666) and [[Suleiman I of Persia]] (reigned 1666–1694). While traces of Circassian settlements in Iran have lasted into the 20th century, many of the once large Circassian minority became assimilated into the local population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems|title=ČARKAS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102192506/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems|archive-date=2 November 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=22 February 2015}}</ref> However, significant communities of Circassians continue to live in particular cities in Iran,<ref name="books.google.nl">[https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA141 ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402135910/https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=2 April 2024 }} Facts on File, Incorporated {{ISBN|978-1438126760}} p. 141</ref> like Tabriz and Tehran, and in the northern provinces of [[Gilan]] and [[Mazandaran]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/118238/Circassian|title=Circassian|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=22 February 2015|archive-date=7 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407230314/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/118238/Circassian|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WaldmanMason2006">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC&pg=PA176|title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples|last1=Waldman|first1=Carl|last2=Mason|first2=Catherine|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4381-2918-1|volume=2|pages=175–176|chapter=Circassians|access-date=28 June 2017}}</ref> Notable places of traditional Circassian settlement in Iran include [[Gilan Province]], [[Fars Province]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems |title=ČARKAS |access-date=26 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102192506/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems |archive-date=2 November 2014 }}</ref> [[Isfahan]], and [[Tehran]] (due to contemporary migration). [[Circassians in Iran]] are the nation's second largest Caucasus-derived nation after the [[Iranian Georgians|Georgians]].<ref name="books.google.nl"/> ===Rest of Western Asia=== Significant communities live in Jordan,<ref name='LLOW'>{{cite web |url=http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/lang?id=3044 |title=Significant numbers of Adyghe speakers reside in Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Israel |publisher=Languageserver.uni-graz.at |access-date=20 August 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190448/http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/lang?id=3044 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Syria (see [[Circassians in Syria]]),<ref name='LLOW'/> and smaller communities live in [[Israel]] (in the villages of [[Kfar Kama]] and [[Rehaniya]]—see [[Circassians in Israel]]).<ref name='LLOW'/> Circassians are also present [[Circassians in Iraq|in Iraq]]. [[Baghdad]], [[Sulaymaniyah]], and [[Diyala Governorate|Diyala]] comprise the country's main cities with Circassians,<ref name=ORSAM>{{cite journal|first1=Ahmet Hüseyin Ali İsmail|last1=Katav|first2=Bilgay|last2=Duman|title=Iraqi Circassians (Chechens, Dagestanis, Adyghes)|journal=ORSAM Reports|date=November 2012|issue=134|url=http://www.orsam.org.tr/en/enUploads/Article/Files/20121116_134ingtum.pdf|access-date=15 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403142200/http://www.orsam.org.tr/en/enUploads/Article/Files/20121116_134ingtum.pdf|archive-date=3 April 2013}}</ref> though lesser numbers are spread in other regions and cities as well. ===Rest of Europe=== [[File:Clash with Cherkessians.jpg|thumb|Serbian troops clashing with Circassians during the [[Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876-1878)|Serbian-Turkish War]], 1876–1878]] Out of 1,010 Circassians living in Ukraine (473 [[Kabardians|Kabardian Adyghe]] (Kabardin),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=40&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20&n_page=3|title=All-Ukrainian Population Census 2001: The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue: Kabardinians|page=3|publisher=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|date=2003|access-date=28 June 2017|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310032252/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=40&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20&n_page=3|url-status=live}}</ref> 338 [[Adyghe people|Adygean Adyghe]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1|title=All-Ukrainian Population Census: The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue: Adygeis|page=1|publisher=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|date=2003|access-date=18 June 2017|archive-date=2 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502112459/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=0&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1|url-status=live}}</ref> and 190 [[Cherkesses|Cherkessian Adyghe]] (Cherkess)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=120&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20&n_page=7|title=All-Ukrainian Population Census 2001: The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue: Circassians|page=7|publisher=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|date=2003|access-date=28 June 2017|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224121936/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=120&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20&n_page=7|url-status=live}}</ref>—after the existing Soviet division of Circassians into three groups), only 181 (17.9%) declared fluency in the native language; 96 (9.5%) declared Ukrainian as their native language, and 697 (69%) marked "other language" as being their native language. The major Adyghe community in Ukraine is in [[Odesa]]. There is a small community of Circassians in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (where the surname "Čerkez" exists) and North Macedonia. A number of Adyghe also settled in modern Bulgaria and in [[Northern Dobruja]], which now belongs to [[Romania]] (see [[Circassians in Romania]], in 1864–1865, but most fled after those areas became separated from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. The small part of the community that settled in [[Kosovo]] (the [[Kosovo Adyghes]]) moved to the [[Republic of Adygea]] in 1998, after the reprisals of the Serbian occupation forces became heavily intensified. The majority of the community, however, remained in [[Kosovo]] where they have been well established and integrated into Kosovan society. Many members of this community can be identified as they carry the family name "Çerkezi", or "Qerkezi". This community is also well established in the Republic of [[North Macedonia]], usually mingling with the [[Albanian Muslims|Albanian Muslim]] population. Circassians can be found also in [[Albania]] but totally assimilated. The surname "Çerkezi" or "Çekrezi" is carried by this families. There are Circassians in [[Germany]] and a small number in the [[Netherlands]]. ===North America=== Numerous Circassians have also immigrated to the United States and settled in [[Upstate New York]], California, and New Jersey. There is also a small Circassian community in Canada. ==Sochi Olympics controversy== {{Main|Concerns and controversies at the 2014 Winter Olympics|Circassian nationalism}} The [[2014 Winter Olympics]] facilities in [[Sochi]] (once the Circassian capital)<ref name="autogenerated1">"Circassians: Home thoughts from abroad: Circassians mourn the past—and organise for the future", ''[[The Economist]]'', dated 26 May 2012.</ref> were built in areas that were claimed to contain [[mass grave]]s of Circassians who were killed during genocide by Russia in military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://world.time.com/2014/02/06/sochi-olympics-russia-circassians/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140206182953/http://world.time.com/2014/02/06/sochi-olympics-russia-circassians/|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 February 2014|title=Russia's Sochi Olympics Stirs Circassian Nationalism|first=Ishaan|last=Tharoor|magazine=Time|access-date=22 February 2015|date=6 February 2014}}</ref> Adyghe organizations in Russia and the Adyghe diaspora around the world requested that construction at the site stop and that the Olympic Games not be held at the site of the [[Circassian Genocide|Adyghe genocide]], to prevent desecration of Adyghe graves. According to Iyad Youghar, who headed the lobby group International Circassian Council: "We want the athletes to know that if they compete here they will be skiing on the bones of our relatives."<ref name="autogenerated1"/> The year 2014 also marked the 150th anniversary of the Circassian Genocide which angered the Circassians around the world. Many protests were held all over the world to stop the Sochi Olympics, but were not successful. ==Depictions in art== <gallery mode="packed" heights="180px"> File:Carol Popp de Szathmáry - Cerchez călare.jpg|A Circassian [[sipahi]] in the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Ottoman Army|Army]] File:Circassian prince.jpg|Circassian Prince [[Sefer Bey Zanuko]] in 1845 File:Costume Plate (Kabardinien) LACMA M.87.231.42.jpg|An Adyghe man from Kabarda tribe in regular (non-traditional) wear File:Circassian Chief.jpg|A painting from 1843 of an Adyghe warrior by [[William Allan (painter)|Sir William Allan]] File:CircassianCoastBattle.JPG|An Adyghe strike on a Russian Military Fort built over a [[Shapsug]]ian village that aimed to free the [[Circassian Coast]] from the occupiers during the [[Russian-Circassian War]], 22 March 1840 File:Sheretluko Kyzbech Tughuzique.jpg|[[Kazbech Tuguzhoko]], Circassian resistance leader File:Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky - The mountaineers leave the aul.jpg|''The mountaineers leave the [[aul]]'', [[Pyotr Gruzinsky|P. N. Gruzinsky]], 1872 File:Circassian noblewoman.jpg|A Circassian noblewoman in the 19th century </gallery> ==See also== * [[List of Circassians]] * [[Circassian genocide]] * [[Circassians in Egypt]] * [[Circassian beauties]] * [[Circassians in Israel]] * [[Idar of Kabardia]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Sources== {{sfn whitelist|CITEREFManzHaneda1990}} * {{cite web |title=Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 г. Национальный состав населения Российской Федерации |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |work=Demoscope |accessdate=4 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521170119/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |archivedate=21 May 2012 |ref={{harvid|Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги}}}} * {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Akbar |title=The Thistle and the Drone: How America's War on Terror Became a Global War on Tribal Islam |year=2013 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_YMKlVfFLkC&q=Circassian+genocide&pg=PA163 |isbn=978-0-8157-2379-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Hamed-Troyansky |first=Vladimir |title=Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2024 |location=Stanford, CA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-5036-3696-5}} * {{cite journal |last=Hamed-Troyansky |first=Vladimir |date=2017 |title=Circassian Refugees and the Making of Amman, 1878–1914 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=605–623 |doi=10.1017/S0020743817000617 |s2cid=165801425}} * {{cite journal |last1=Hanania |first1=Marwan D. |title=From Colony to Capital: Reconsidering the Socio-Economic and Political History of Amman, 1878–1928 |journal=[[Middle Eastern Studies]] |date=2018 |volume=55 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2018.1505612 |s2cid=150054384 }} * {{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |date=2005 |title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State |volume=2: The Rise of the West and Coming Genocide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PsLXeDflfMC |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-1-84511-057-4}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=ČARKAS |last=Manz |first=Beatrice |last2=Haneda |first2=Masashi |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas |volume=4 |fascicle=7 |pages=325–326 }} * {{Encyclopaedia Islamica |last1=Reza |first1=Enayotallah |last2=Hirtenstein |first2=Stephen |last3=Gholami |first3=Rahim |title=Cherkess (Circassian) |year=2021 |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_05000081}} * {{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Richmond |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |year=2013 |orig-year=1994 |location=New Brunswick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHlwZwpA70cC |isbn=978-0-8135-6069-4}} * {{cite thesis |last=Rosser-Owen |first=Sarah A. S. Isla |date=1 October 2007 |publisher=[[University of London]] |title=The First 'Circassian Exodus' to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, Based on the Accounts of Contemporary British Observers}} * {{cite book |last=Shenfield |first=Stephen D. |chapter=The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide? |pages=149–162 |editor1-last=Levene |editor1-first=Mark |editor2-last=Roberts |editor2-first=Penny |title=The Massacre in History |year=1999 |location=New York |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1-57181-935-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjPCmnzztfkC&q=Circassian+genocide&pg=PA149}} ==Further reading== * {{cite journal |last1=Djandar |first1=Mariet |title=Rituals of Birth among the Adyghes |journal=Iran and the Caucasus |date=2008 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=253–274 |doi=10.1163/157338408X406038}} * [[Amjad Jaimoukha|Jaimoukha, Amjad]], ''The Circassians: A Handbook''; New York, Palgrave, 2001; London, Routledge Curzon, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-312-23994-7}}. * Jaimoukha, Amjad, ''Circassian Culture and Folklore: Hospitality Traditions, Cuisine, Festivals & Music (Kabardian, Cherkess, Adigean, Shapsugh & Diaspora)'', Bennett and Bloom, 2010. * {{EI3|last=Jaimoukha|first=Amjad M.|title=Circassians, modern|year=2016|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/circassians-modern-COM_24624?s.num=2&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Caucasus}} * Bell, James Stanislaus, [https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator:%22Bell,%20James%20Stanislaus%22 ''Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839 '']. * [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0965156X.2012.703427 Rasizade, Alec. Book review: Let Our Fame be Great, by Oliver Bullough (London: Penguin Books, 2011, 512 pages). = ''Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe'' (London: Taylor & Francis), December 2011, volume 19, issue 3, pages 689–692.] ==External links== {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035542/http://mcha.kbsu.ru/english/m_hist_01E.htm.html International Circassian Association.] * [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Circassian Britannica&nbsp;– "Circassian".] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beRj5YmK0ps Famous Circassians.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050513065254/http://www.circassianworld.5u.com/exilemap.html Map of the diaspora.] {{Indigenous peoples of Russia}} {{European Muslims}} {{Peoples of the Caucasus}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Circassians| ]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Iran]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Iraq]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Israel]] 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