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Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the process that forms volcanoes and igneous rocks. For the 18th century geological theory, see <a href="/wiki/Plutonism" title="Plutonism">Plutonism</a>. For the landforms created by these processes, see <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcano</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article. (April 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Volcanism, vulcanism, volcanicity, or volcanic activity is the phenomenon where solids, liquids, gases, and their mixtures erupt to the surface of a solid-surface <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical body">astronomical body</a> such as a planet or a moon.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> It is caused by the presence of a heat source, usually internally generated, inside the body; the heat is generated by various processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tidal_heating" title="Tidal heating">tidal heating</a>. This heat <a href="/wiki/Partial_melting" title="Partial melting">partially melts</a> solid material in the body or turns material into gas. The mobilized material rises through the body's interior and may break through the solid surface.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Cause_of_volcanism">1 Cause of volcanism</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Heat_source">1.1 Heat source</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Melting_methods">1.2 Melting methods</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Decompression_melting">1.2.1 Decompression melting</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Flux_melting">1.2.2 Flux melting</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Formation_of_cryomagma_reservoirs">1.2.3 Formation of cryomagma reservoirs</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ascent_of_melts">1.3 Ascent of melts</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Diapirs">1.3.1 Diapirs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Dikes">1.3.2 Dikes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Standpipe_model">1.3.3 Standpipe model</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Cryovolcanic_melt_ascent">1.3.4 Cryovolcanic melt ascent</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Types_of_volcanism">2 Types of volcanism</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Silicate_volcanism">2.1 Silicate volcanism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Mud_volcanoes">2.2 Mud volcanoes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Cryovolcanism">2.3 Cryovolcanism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Sulfur">2.4 Sulfur</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Lava_types">3 Lava types</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Gentle/explosive_activity">4 Gentle/explosive activity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Causes_of_explosive_activity">4.1 Causes of explosive activity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Exsolution_of_volatiles">4.1.1 Exsolution of volatiles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Physics_of_a_volatile-driven_explosive_eruption">4.1.2 Physics of a volatile-driven explosive eruption</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-22"><a href="#Volcanic_ash_formation">4.1.2.1 Volcanic ash formation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-23"><a href="#Pyroclastic_flows">4.1.2.2 Pyroclastic flows</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Phreatic_eruption">4.1.3 Phreatic eruption</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Phreatomagmatic_eruption">4.1.4 Phreatomagmatic eruption</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Clathrate_hydrates">4.1.5 Clathrate hydrates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Water_vapor_in_a_vacuum">4.1.6 Water vapor in a vacuum</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Occurrence">5 Occurrence</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Earth">5.1 Earth</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Moon">5.2 Moon</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Venus">5.3 Venus</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Mars">5.4 Mars</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Moons_of_Jupiter">5.5 Moons of Jupiter</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Io">5.5.1 Io</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#Europa">5.5.2 Europa</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Moons_of_Saturn_and_Neptune">5.6 Moons of Saturn and Neptune</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Exoplanets">5.7 Exoplanets</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#References">7 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#External_links">8 External links</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Further_reading">8.1 Further reading</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Cause_of_volcanism">Cause of volcanism</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Cause of volcanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg/390px-Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="305" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="900"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 390px;height: 305px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg/390px-Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg.png" data-width="390" data-height="305" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg/585px-Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg/780px-Magmatism_and_volcanism_EN.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geology)" title="Cross section (geology)">Cross section</a> diagram of Earth showing some settings for volcanism on the planet</figcaption></figure> For volcanism to occur, the temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> must have risen to about half its melting point. At this point, the mantle's <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> will have dropped to about 1021 <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">Pascal-seconds</a>. When large scale melting occurs, the viscosity rapidly falls to 103 Pascal-seconds or even less, increasing the heat transport rate a million-fold.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> The occurrence of volcanism is partially due to the fact that melted material tends to be more mobile and less dense than the materials from which they were produced, which can cause it to rise to the surface.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_source">Heat source</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Heat source" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> There are multiple ways to generate the heat needed for volcanism. Volcanism on outer solar system <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a> is powered mainly by <a href="/wiki/Tidal_heating" title="Tidal heating">tidal heating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> Tidal heating caused by the deformation of a body's shape due to mutual gravitational attraction, which generates heat. Earth experiences tidal heating from the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, deforming by up to 1 metre (3 feet), but this does not make up a major portion of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_internal_heat_budget" title="Earth's internal heat budget">Earth's total heat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> During a <a href="/wiki/Planet_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Planet formation">planet's formation</a>, it would have experienced heating from <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">impacts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">planetesimals</a>, which would have dwarfed even the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">asteroid impact that caused the extinction of dinosaurs</a>. This heating could trigger <a href="/wiki/Planetary_differentiation" title="Planetary differentiation">differentiation</a>, further heating the planet. The larger a <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">body</a> is, the slower it loses heat. In larger bodies, for example Earth, this heat, known as primordial heat, still makes up much of the body's internal heat, but the Moon, which is smaller than Earth, has lost most of this heat.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> Another heat source is radiogenic heat, caused by <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactive decay</a>. The decay of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium-26" title="Aluminium-26">aluminium-26</a> would have significantly heated planetary embryos, but due to its short <a href="/wiki/Half_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Half life">half-life</a> (less than a million years), any traces of it have long since vanished. There are small traces of <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">unstable isotopes</a> in common minerals, and all the <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a>, and the Moon, experience some of this heating.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> The icy bodies of the outer solar system experience much less of this heat because they tend to not be very dense and not have much <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> material (radioactive elements concentrate in silicates).<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> On Neptune's moon <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a>, and possibly on Mars, cryogeyser activity takes place. The source of heat is external (heat from the Sun) rather than internal.<a href="#cite_note-THEMIS-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melting_methods">Melting methods</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Melting methods" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decompression_melting">Decompression melting</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Decompression melting" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Decompression_melting" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression melting">Decompression melting</a> happens when solid material from deep beneath the body rises upwards. Pressure decreases as the material rises upwards, and so does the melting point. So, a rock that is solid at a given pressure and temperature can become liquid if the pressure, and thus melting point, decreases even if the temperature stays constant.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> However, in the case of water, increasing pressure decreases melting point until a pressure of 0.208 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">GPa</a> is reached, after which the melting point increases with pressure.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flux_melting">Flux melting</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Flux melting" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Flux_melting" title="Flux melting">Flux melting</a> occurs when the melting point is lowered by the addition of volatiles, for example, water or carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-9">[9]</a> Like decompression melting, it is not caused by an increase in temperature, but rather by a decrease in melting point.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formation_of_cryomagma_reservoirs">Formation of cryomagma reservoirs</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Formation of cryomagma reservoirs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Cryovolcanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryovolcanism">Cryovolcanism</a>, instead of originating in a uniform subsurface ocean, may instead take place from discrete liquid reservoirs. The first way these can form is a plume of warm ice welling up and then sinking back down, forming a convection current. A <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model</a> developed to investigate the effects of this on <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a> found that energy from tidal heating became focused in these plumes, allowing melting to occur in these shallow depths as the plume spreads laterally (horizontally). The next is a switch from vertical to horizontal propagation of a fluid filled crack. Another mechanism is heating of ice from release of stress through lateral motion of fractures in the ice shell penetrating it from the surface, and even heating from large impacts can create such reservoirs.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ascent_of_melts">Ascent of melts</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ascent of melts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volcanosed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Volcanosed.svg/390px-Volcanosed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="288"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 390px;height: 219px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Volcanosed.svg/390px-Volcanosed.svg.png" data-width="390" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Volcanosed.svg/585px-Volcanosed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Volcanosed.svg/780px-Volcanosed.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Some features of volcanism found in Earth's crust</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diapirs">Diapirs</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diapirs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> When material of a planetary body begins to melt, the melting first occurs in small pockets in certain high energy locations, for example <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundary" title="Grain boundary">grain boundary intersections</a> and where different crystals react to form <a href="/wiki/Eutectic_system" title="Eutectic system">eutectic liquid</a>, that initially remain isolated from one another, trapped inside rock. If the <a href="/wiki/Contact_angle" title="Contact angle">contact angle</a> of the melted material allows the melt to <a href="/wiki/Wetting" title="Wetting">wet</a> crystal faces and run along <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundary" title="Grain boundary">grain boundaries</a>, the melted material will accumulate into larger quantities. On the other hand, if the angle is greater than about 60 degrees, much more melt must form before it can separate from its parental rock. Studies of rocks on Earth suggest that melt in hot rocks quickly collects into pockets and veins that are much larger than the <a href="/wiki/Crystallite" title="Crystallite">grain</a> size, in contrast to the model of rigid melt <a href="/wiki/Percolation" title="Percolation">percolation</a>. Melt, instead of uniformly flowing out of source rock, flows out through rivulets which join to create larger veins. Under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, the melt rises.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> Diapirs may also form in non-silicate bodies, playing a similar role in moving warm material towards the surface.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dikes">Dikes</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dikes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A <a href="/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">dike</a> is a vertical fluid-filled crack, from a mechanical standpoint it is a water filled crevasse turned upside down. As magma rises into the vertical crack, the low density of the magma compared to the wall rock means that the pressure falls less rapidly than in the surrounding denser rock. If the average pressure of the magma and the surrounding rock are equal, the pressure in the dike exceeds that of the enclosing rock at the top of the dike, and the pressure of the rock is greater than that of the dike at its bottom. So the magma thus pushes the crack upwards at its top, but the crack is squeezed closed at its bottom due to an elastic reaction (similar to the bulge next to a person sitting down on a springy sofa). Eventually, the tail gets so narrow it nearly pinches off, and no more new magma will rise into the crack. The crack continues to ascend as an independent pod of magma.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standpipe_model">Standpipe model</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Standpipe model" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> This model of volcanic eruption posits that magma rises through a rigid open channel, in the lithosphere and settles at the level of <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium" title="Hydrostatic equilibrium">hydrostatic equilibrium</a>. Despite how it explains observations well (which newer models cannot), such as an apparent concordance of the elevation of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> near each other, it cannot be correct and is now discredited, because the lithosphere thickness derived from it is too large for the assumption of a rigid open channel to hold.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cryovolcanic_melt_ascent">Cryovolcanic melt ascent</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cryovolcanic melt ascent" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Unlike silicate volcanism, where melt can rise by its own buoyancy until it reaches the shallow crust, in cryovolcanism, the water (cryomagmas tend to be water based) is denser than the ice above it. One way to allow cryomagma to reach the surface is to make the water buoyant, by making the water less dense, either through the presence of other compounds that reverse negative buoyancy, or with the addition of exsolved gas bubbles in the cryomagma that were previously dissolved into it (that makes the cryomagma less dense), or with the presence of a densifying agent in the ice shell. Another is to pressurise the fluid to overcome negative buoyancy and make it reach the surface. When the ice shell above a subsurface ocean thickens, it can pressurise the entire ocean (in cryovolcanism, frozen water or brine is less dense than in liquid form). When a reservoir of liquid partially freezes, the remaining liquid is pressurised in the same way.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> For a crack in the ice shell to propagate upwards, the fluid in it must have positive buoyancy or external stresses must be strong enough to break through the ice. External stresses could include those from tides or from overpressure due to freezing as explained above.<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[11]</a> There is yet another possible mechanism for ascent of cryovolcanic melts. If a fracture with water in it reaches an ocean or subsurface fluid reservoir, the water would rise to its level of hydrostatic equilibrium, at about nine-tenths of the way to the surface. Tides which induce compression and tension in the ice shell may pump the water farther up.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> A 1988 article proposed a possibility for fractures propagating upwards from the subsurface ocean of Jupiter's <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moon</a> Europa. It proposed that a fracture propagating upwards would possess a low pressure zone at its tip, allowing volatiles dissolved within the water to exsolve into gas. The elastic nature of the ice shell would likely prevent the fracture reaching the surface, and the crack would instead pinch off, enclosing the gas and liquid. The gas would increase buoyancy and could allow the crack to reach the surface.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> Even impacts can create conditions that allow for enhanced ascent of magma. An impact may remove the top few kilometres of crust, and pressure differences caused by the difference in height between the basin and the height of the surrounding terrain could allow eruption of magma which otherwise would have stayed beneath the surface. A 2011 article showed that there would be zones of enhanced magma ascent at the margins of an impact basin.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> Not all of these mechanisms, and maybe even none, operate on a given <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">body</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Types_of_volcanism">Types of volcanism</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Types of volcanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silicate_volcanism">Silicate volcanism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Silicate volcanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg/220px-Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg/220px-Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg/330px-Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg/440px-Erupsi_Gunung_Sinabung.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption> The high initial temperatures of silicate lavas mean that they emit <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light</a> before cooling.</figcaption></figure> Silicate volcanism occurs where silicate materials are erupted. Silicate lava flows, like those found on Earth, solidify at about 1000 degrees Celsius.<a href="#cite_note-:6-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mud_volcanoes">Mud volcanoes</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mud volcanoes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_(130).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG/220px-Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG/220px-Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG/330px-Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG/440px-Gryphons_at_the_central_crater_of_the_Dashgil_mud_volcano_in_Azerbaijan_%28130%29.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Eruption of mud at <a href="/wiki/Gobustan_State_Historical_and_Cultural_Reserve" title="Gobustan State Historical and Cultural Reserve">Dashgil mud volcano</a> in Gobustan, Azerbaijan</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcano</a> is formed when fluids and gases under pressure erupt to the surface, bringing mud with them. This pressure can be caused by the weight of overlying sediments over the fluid which pushes down on the fluid, preventing it from escaping, by fluid being trapped in the sediment, migrating from deeper sediment into other sediment or being made from chemical reactions in the sediment. They often erupt quietly, but sometimes they erupt flammable gases like methane.<a href="#cite_note-:5-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cryovolcanism">Cryovolcanism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cryovolcanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Cryovolcanism is the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatiles</a> into an environment below their freezing point. The processes behind it are different to silicate volcanism because the cryomagma (which is usually water-based) is normally denser than its surroundings, meaning it cannot rise by its own buoyancy.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sulfur">Sulfur</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sulfur" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Sulfur lavas have a different behaviour to silicate ones. First, sulfur has a low melting point of about 120 degrees Celsius. Also, after cooling down to about 175 degrees Celsius the lava rapidly loses viscosity, unlike silicate lavas like those found on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-:6-12">[12]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Lava_types">Lava types</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lava types" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava</a></div> When magma erupts onto a planet's surface, it is termed lava. Viscous lavas form short, stubby glass-rich flows. These usually have a wavy solidified surface texture.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> More fluid lavas have solidified surface textures that volcanologists classify into four types.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> Pillow lava forms when a trigger, often lava making contact with water, causes a lava flow to cool rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> This splinters the surface of the lava, and the magma then collects into sacks that often pile up in front of the flow, forming a structure called a pillow.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> A’a lava has a rough, spiny surface made of clasts of lava called clinkers.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Block lava is another type of lava, with less jagged fragments than in a’a lava.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Pahoehoe lava is by far the most common lava type, both on Earth and probably the other terrestrial planets. It has a smooth surface, with mounds, hollows and folds.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Gentle/explosive_activity">Gentle/explosive activity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gentle/explosive activity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg/330px-Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg/330px-Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg" data-width="330" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg/495px-Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg/660px-Kilauea_Fissure_8_cone_erupting_on_6-28-2018.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A gentle, or <a href="/wiki/Effusive_eruption" title="Effusive eruption">effusive</a>, volcanic eruption, in which liquid material (lava) gently flows from a vent, in this case in south-eastern <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawai’i island</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif/220px-Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="850"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif/220px-Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif/330px-Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif/440px-Tonga_Volcano_Eruption_2022-01-15_0320Z_to_0610Z_Himawari-8_visible.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Satellite animation of the initial ash plume and shockwave of the <a href="/wiki/2022_Hunga_Tonga%E2%80%93Hunga_Ha%CA%BBapai_eruption_and_tsunami" title="2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami">2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai eruption and tsunami.</a> The massive explosive eruption was hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.</figcaption></figure> A volcanic eruption could just be a simple outpouring of material onto the surface of a planet, but they usually involve a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases which behave in equally complex ways.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> Some types of explosive eruptions can release energy a quarter that of an equivalent mass of <a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes_of_explosive_activity">Causes of explosive activity</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Causes of explosive activity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exsolution_of_volatiles">Exsolution of volatiles</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Exsolution of volatiles" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Volcanic eruptions on Earth have been consistently observed to progress from erupting gas rich material to gas depleted material, although an eruption may alternate between erupting gas rich to gas depleted material and vice versa multiple times. This can be explained by the enrichment of magma at the top of a dike by gas which is released when the dike breaches the surface, followed by magma from lower down than did not get enriched with gas.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> The reason the dissolved gas in the magma separates from it when the magma nears the surface is due to the effects of temperature and pressure on gas <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a>. Pressure increases gas solubility, and if a liquid with dissolved gas in it depressurises, the gas will tend to exsolve (or separate) from the liquid. An example of this is what happens when a bottle of carbonated drink is quickly opened: when the seal is opened, pressure decreases and bubbles of carbon dioxide gas appear throughout the liquid.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> Fluid magmas erupt quietly. Any gas that has exsolved from the magma easily escapes even before it reaches the surface. However, in <a href="/wiki/Viscocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscocity">viscous</a> magmas, gases remain trapped in the magma even after they have exsolved, forming bubbles inside the magma. These bubbles enlarge as the magma nears the surface due to the dropping pressure, and the magma grows substantially. This fact gives volcanoes erupting such material a tendency to ‘explode’, although instead of the pressure increase associated with an explosion, pressure always decreases in a volcanic eruption.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> Generally, explosive cryovolcanism is driven by exsolution of volatiles that were previously dissolved into the cryomagma, similar to what happens in explosive silicate volcanism as seen on Earth, which is what is mainly covered below.<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physics_of_a_volatile-driven_explosive_eruption">Physics of a volatile-driven explosive eruption</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Physics of a volatile-driven explosive eruption" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Silica-rich magmas cool beneath the surface before they erupt. As they do this, bubbles exsolve from the magma. As the magma nears the surface, the bubbles and thus the magma increase in volume. The resulting pressure eventually breaks through the surface, and the release of pressure causes more gas to exsolve, doing so explosively. The gas may expand at hundreds of metres per second, expanding upward and outward. As the eruption progresses, a chain reaction causes the magma to be ejected at higher and higher speeds.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Volcanic_ash_formation">Volcanic ash formation</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Volcanic ash formation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The violently expanding gas disperses and breaks up magma, forming a <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloid</a> of gas and magma called <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a>. The cooling of the gas in the ash as it expands chills the magma fragments, often forming tiny glass shards recognisable as portions of the walls of former liquid bubbles. In more fluid magmas the bubble walls may have time to reform into spherical liquid droplets. The final state of the colloids depends strongly on the ratio of liquid to gas. Gas-poor magmas end up cooling into rocks with small cavities, becoming <a href="/wiki/Vesicular_texture" title="Vesicular texture">vesicular lava</a>. Gas-rich magmas cool to form rocks with cavities that nearly touch, with an average density less than that of water, forming <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>. Meanwhile, other material can be accelerated with the gas, becoming <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_bomb" title="Volcanic bomb">volcanic bombs</a>. These can travel with so much energy that large ones can create craters when they hit the ground.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pyroclastic_flows">Pyroclastic flows</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pyroclastic flows" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A colloid of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gas</a> and magma can form as a density current called a <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flow</a>. This occurs when erupted material falls back to the surface. The colloid is somewhat fluidised by the gas, allowing it to spread. Pyroclastic flows can often climb over obstacles, and devastate human life.<a href="#cite_note-:2-3">[3]</a> Pyroclastic flows are a common feature at explosive volcanoes on Earth. Pyroclastic flows have been found on Venus, for example at the <a href="/wiki/Dione_Regio" class="mw-redirect" title="Dione Regio">Dione Regio</a> volcanoes.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell_et_al_2017-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phreatic_eruption">Phreatic eruption</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Phreatic eruption" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A <a href="/wiki/Phreatic_eruption" title="Phreatic eruption">phreatic eruption</a> can occur when hot water under pressure is depressurised. Depressurisation reduces the boiling point of the water, so when depressurised the water suddenly boils.<a href="#cite_note-ESKP-20">[20]</a> Or it may happen when groundwater is suddenly heated, flashing to steam suddenly.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-21">[21]</a> When water turns into steam in a phreatic eruption, it expands at supersonic speeds, up to 1,700 times its original volume. This can be enough to shatter solid rock, and hurl rock fragments hundreds of metres.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phreatomagmatic_eruption">Phreatomagmatic eruption</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Phreatomagmatic eruption" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A <a href="/wiki/Phreatomagmatic_eruption" title="Phreatomagmatic eruption">phreatomagmatic eruption</a> occurs when hot magma makes contact with water, creating an explosion.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clathrate_hydrates">Clathrate hydrates</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Clathrate hydrates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png/220px-PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4820" data-file-height="3906"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 178px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png/220px-PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png" data-width="220" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png/330px-PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png/440px-PIA19059-SaturnMoon-Enceladus-OceanMethane-20150311.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Diagrammatic representation of a plume on Enceladus</figcaption></figure> One mechanism for explosive cryovolcanism is cryomagma making contact with <a href="/wiki/Clathrate_hydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Clathrate hydrates">clathrate hydrates</a>. Clathrate hydrates, if exposed to warm temperatures, readily decompose. A 1982 article pointed out the possibility that the production of pressurised gas upon destabilisation of clathrate hydrates making contact with warm rising magma could produce an explosion that breaks through the surface, resulting in explosive cryovolcanism.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_vapor_in_a_vacuum">Water vapor in a vacuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Water vapor in a vacuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> If a fracture reaches the surface of an icy body and the column of rising water is exposed to the near-vacuum of the surface of most icy bodies, it will immediately start to boil, because its vapor pressure is much more than the ambient pressure. Not only that, but any volatiles in the water will exsolve. The combination of these processes will release droplets and vapor, which can rise up the fracture, creating a plume. This is thought to be partially responsible for <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus's</a> ice plumes.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Occurrence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth">Earth</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Earth" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where <a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a> are <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">diverging</a> or <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">converging</a>, and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ring of Fire">Pacific Ring of Fire</a> has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wells_Gray-Clearwater_volcanic_field" title="Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field">Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande_rift" title="Rio Grande rift">Rio Grande rift</a> in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling <a href="/wiki/Diapir" title="Diapir">diapirs</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">core–mantle boundary</a>, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspot volcanism</a>, of which the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_hotspot" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaiian hotspot">Hawaiian hotspot</a> is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. In 1912–1952, in the Northern Hemisphere, studies show that within this time, winters were warmer due to no massive eruptions that had taken place. These studies demonstrate how these eruptions can cause changes within the Earth's atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> obscure the Sun and cool Earth's <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">volcanic winters</a> which have caused catastrophic famines.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moon">Moon</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Moon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Earth's <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as <a href="/wiki/Lunar_mare" title="Lunar mare">maria</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> (the darker patches seen on the Moon), <a href="/wiki/Rille" title="Rille">rilles</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lunar_dome" title="Lunar dome">domes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venus">Venus</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Venus" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The planet <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> has a surface that is 90% <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planet</a> may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava flows</a> are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano <a href="/wiki/Maat_Mons" title="Maat Mons">Maat Mons</a>, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ash_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash flow">ash flows</a> near the summit and on the northern flank.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars">Mars</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mars" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olympus_Mons.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Olympus_Mons.jpeg/170px-Olympus_Mons.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="356" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="692" data-file-height="1448"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 356px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Olympus_Mons.jpeg/170px-Olympus_Mons.jpeg" data-width="170" data-height="356" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Olympus_Mons.jpeg/255px-Olympus_Mons.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Olympus_Mons.jpeg/340px-Olympus_Mons.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, "Mount Olympus"), located on the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, is the tallest known mountain in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.</figcaption></figure> There are several extinct volcanoes on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include <a href="/wiki/Arsia_Mons" title="Arsia Mons">Arsia Mons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ascraeus_Mons" title="Ascraeus Mons">Ascraeus Mons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hecates_Tholus" title="Hecates Tholus">Hecates Tholus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pavonis_Mons" title="Pavonis Mons">Pavonis Mons</a>. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,<a href="#cite_note-ESAmarsvolcanoes-33">[33]</a> but the European <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.<a href="#cite_note-ESAmarsvolcanoes-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moons_of_Jupiter">Moons of Jupiter</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Moons of Jupiter" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Io">Io</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Io" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a> is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of <a href="/wiki/Tides" class="mw-redirect" title="Tides">tidal</a> interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. There are only two planets in the solar system where volcanoes can be easily seen due to their high activity, Earth and Io.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europa">Europa</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Europa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, the smallest of Jupiter's <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moon" class="mw-redirect" title="Galilean moon">Galilean moons</a>, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a> on the frigid surface. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Cryovolcanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryovolcanism">cryovolcanism</a>, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moons_of_Saturn_and_Neptune">Moons of Saturn and Neptune</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Moons of Saturn and Neptune" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 1989, the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a> spacecraft observed <a href="/wiki/Cryovolcano" title="Cryovolcano">cryovolcanoes</a> (ice volcanoes) on <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, and in 2005 the <a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini–Huygens</a> probe photographed <a href="/wiki/Enceladus_(moon)#Cryovolcanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Enceladus (moon)">fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus</a>, a moon of <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The ejecta may be composed of water, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, dust, or <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> compounds. Cassini–Huygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturnian</a> moon <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the <a href="/wiki/Kuiper_Belt_Object" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuiper Belt Object">Kuiper Belt Object</a> <a href="/wiki/50000_Quaoar" class="mw-redirect" title="50000 Quaoar">Quaoar</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exoplanets">Exoplanets</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Exoplanets" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A 2010 study of the <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">exoplanet</a> <a href="/wiki/COROT-7b" class="mw-redirect" title="COROT-7b">COROT-7b</a>, which was detected by <a href="/wiki/Transit_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit method">transit</a> in 2009, suggested that <a href="/wiki/Tidal_heating" title="Tidal heating">tidal heating</a> from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/29P/Schwassmann%E2%80%93Wachmann" title="29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann">29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Vesta" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimodal_volcanism" title="Bimodal volcanism">Bimodal volcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">Fumarole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_laws" title="Gas laws">Gas laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Ceres" title="Geology of Ceres">Geology of Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mercury" title="Geology of Mercury">Geology of Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Pluto" title="Geology of Pluto">Geology of Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">Geyser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciovolcanism" title="Glaciovolcanism">Glaciovolcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraplate_volcanism" title="Intraplate volcanism">Intraplate volcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_planet" title="Lava planet">Lava planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magma_ocean" title="Magma ocean">Magma ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magmatism" title="Magmatism">Magmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">Mantle plume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_of_volcanic_activity" title="Prediction of volcanic activity">Prediction of volcanic activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Volcanic rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Io" title="Volcanism on Io">Volcanism on Io</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Mars" title="Volcanism on Mars">Volcanism on Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_the_Moon" title="Volcanism on the Moon">Volcanism on the Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Venus" title="Volcanism on Venus">Volcanism on Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFXiaoHuangXiaoQi2023" class="citation journal cs1">Xiao, Long; Huang, Jun; Xiao, Zhiyong; Qi, Chao; Qian, Yuqi (August 14, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved October 24, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Hydrocarbon+volcano+discovered+on+Titan&rft.date=2005-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle.ns%3Fid%3Ddn7489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaggard2010" class="citation web cs1">Jaggard, Victoria (February 5, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100209014528/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100205-new-type-planet-corot-7b-io/">""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io"</a>. National Geographic web site daily news. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100205-new-type-planet-corot-7b-io/">the original</a> on February 9, 2010. Retrieved March 11, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+web+site+daily+news&rft.atitle=%22Super+Earth%22+May+Really+Be+New+Planet+Type%3A+Super-Io&rft.date=2010-02-05&rft.aulast=Jaggard&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2010%2F02%2F100205-new-type-planet-corot-7b-io%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Volcanism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Volcanism">Volcanism</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121006075657/http://www.d.umn.edu/~rmorton/ronshome/Volcanology/VolcanicGlossary.htm">"Glossary of Volcanic Terms"</a>. G. J. Hudak, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh. 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.d.umn.edu/~rmorton/ronshome/Volcanology/VolcanicGlossary.htm">the original</a> on 2012-10-06. Retrieved 2010-05-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+Volcanic+Terms&rft.pub=G.+J.+Hudak%2C+University+of+Wisconsin+Oshkosh&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.d.umn.edu%2F~rmorton%2Fronshome%2FVolcanology%2FVolcanicGlossary.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrumpler,_L._S.Lucas,_S._G.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Crumpler, L. S.; Lucas, S. G. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070321022246/http://www.nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/NMvolcanoes.pdf">"Volcanoes of New Mexico: An Abbreviated Guide For Non-Specialists"</a> (PDF). Volcanology in New Mexico. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 18: 5–15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/NMvolcanoes.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-03-21. Retrieved 2010-04-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Volcanology+in+New+Mexico.+New+Mexico+Museum+of+Natural+History+and+Science+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Volcanoes+of+New+Mexico%3A+An+Abbreviated+Guide+For+Non-Specialists&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=5-15&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Crumpler%2C+L.+S.&rft.au=Lucas%2C+S.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nmnaturalhistory.org%2Fpdf_files%2FNMvolcanoes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/8629/200015.pdf">Volcanic Diversity throughout the Solar System</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://watchers.news/2015/06/09/cosmic-solar-radiation-as-the-cause-of-earthquakes-and-volcanic-eruptions/">Cosmic-solar radiation as the cause of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/869/1/012064/pdf">Melting behaviours of the candidate materials for planetary models</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X10001966#:~:text=%E2%96%BANucleation%20of%20bubbles%20in,lead%20to%20an%20explosive%20eruption.">Explosive volcanic eruptions triggered by cosmic rays: Volcano as a bubble chamber</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00301399">Thermodynamics of gas and steam-blast eruptions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103514001699">Prerequisites for explosive cryovolcanism on dwarf planet-class Kuiper belt objects</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279752358_Phreatomagmatic_and_Related_Eruption_Styles">Phreatomagmatic and Related Eruption Styles</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&oldid=1256140688">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&oldid=1256140688</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanism&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 8 November 2024, at 12:37 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanisme" title="Vulkanisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vulkanisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismus" title="Vulkanismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Vulkanismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بركانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بركانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanizm" title="Vulkanizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vulkanizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="অগ্ন্যুৎপাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অগ্ন্যুৎপাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulkanismo" title="Bulkanismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bulkanismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Вулканизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вулканизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismus" title="Vulkanismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vulkanismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanisme" title="Vulkanisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vulkanisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismus" title="Vulkanismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vulkanismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanism" title="Vulkanism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vulkanism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Ηφαιστειότητα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηφαιστειότητα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanismo" title="Vulcanismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vulcanismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismo" title="Vulkanismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vulkanismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AE%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="آتشفشان‌خیزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آتشفشان‌خیزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanisme" title="Volcanisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Volcanisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolc%C3%A1nacht" title="Bolcánacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bolcánacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հրաբխականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հրաբխականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="ज्वालामुखीयता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ज्वालामुखीयता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanska_aktivnost" title="Vulkanska aktivnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vulkanska aktivnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanisme" title="Vulkanisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Vulkanisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanismo" title="Vulcanismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vulcanismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="געשיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="געשיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ვულკანიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვულკანიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Вулканизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Вулканизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Вулканизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вулканизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanismus" title="Vulcanismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vulcanismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismus" title="Vulkanismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Vulkanismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B3lkanisme" title="Vólkanisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Vólkanisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanizmus" title="Vulkanizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vulkanizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanisme" title="Volkanisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Volkanisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanisme" title="Vulkanisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vulkanisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="火山作用 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="火山作用" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanisme" title="Vulkanisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vulkanisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanizm" title="Vulkanizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vulkanizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="اتشفشان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اتشفشان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismus" title="Vulkanismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Vulkanismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulkanizm" title="Wulkanizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wulkanizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanism" title="Vulcanism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vulcanism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Вулканизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вулканизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Volcanism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sope%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_%C4%8Dinnos%C5%A5" title="Sopečná činnosť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sopečná činnosť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Вулканизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вулканизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanismi" title="Vulkanismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vulkanismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanism" title="Vulkanism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vulkanism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B7%D3%A3" title="Оташфишонхезӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Оташфишонхезӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanizma" title="Volkanizma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Volkanizma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Вулканізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вулканізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="火山作用 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="火山作用" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 8 November 2024, at 12:37 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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