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70 Years After Brown v. Board, Dolls Research Still Sheds Light on Black Children’s Well-being - Child Trends – ChildTrends
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srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=640&q=75 640w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=750&q=75 750w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=828&q=75 828w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=1080&q=75 1080w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=1200&q=75 1200w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=1920&q=75 1920w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=2048&q=75 2048w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=3840&q=75 3840w" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F10%2FSandersR2021-2-1.jpg&w=3840&q=75"/></div><a href="/staff/mavis-sanders" class="sc-f6e799c7-4 gAFMke">Mavis Sanders</a></li><li class="sc-f6e799c7-3 cYVpws"><div class="sc-f6e799c7-6 NHRdD"><img alt="Dominique N. Martinez headshot" loading="lazy" decoding="async" data-nimg="fill" style="position:absolute;height:100%;width:100%;left:0;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;object-fit:cover;color:transparent;background-size:cover;background-position:50% 50%;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-image:url("data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' %3E%3Cfilter id='b' color-interpolation-filters='sRGB'%3E%3CfeGaussianBlur stdDeviation='20'/%3E%3CfeColorMatrix values='1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 100 -1' result='s'/%3E%3CfeFlood x='0' y='0' width='100%25' height='100%25'/%3E%3CfeComposite operator='out' in='s'/%3E%3CfeComposite in2='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3CfeGaussianBlur stdDeviation='20'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Cimage width='100%25' height='100%25' x='0' y='0' preserveAspectRatio='xMidYMid slice' style='filter: url(%23b);' href='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'/%3E%3C/svg%3E")" sizes="100vw" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=640&q=75 640w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=750&q=75 750w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=828&q=75 828w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=1080&q=75 1080w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=1200&q=75 1200w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=1920&q=75 1920w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=2048&q=75 2048w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=3840&q=75 3840w" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F12%2FConvening-Headshot_DNM-scaled.jpg&w=3840&q=75"/></div><a href="/staff/dominique-martinez" class="sc-f6e799c7-4 gAFMke">Dominique N. Martinez</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sc-28764044-0 fffWkA"><p>Critical to the Supreme Court unanimously ruling school segregation unconstitutional was a <a href="https://www.history.com/news/brown-v-board-of-education-doll-experiment">famous study with dolls</a>. Among the evidence cited<a name="_ftnref1" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> in the landmark 1954 <em>Brown v. Board of Education</em> decision was research by psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark that investigated <a href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/Clark%20&%20Clark%20Emotional%20Factors%20in%20Racial%20Identification.pdf">racial identity development and racial preferences in Black children</a>, primarily ages 3 to 7. While the researchers used several methods (including coloring and line drawing experiments) in their studies <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713394">dating back to 1939</a>, the <a href="https://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2010/images/05/13/doll.study.1947.pdf">dolls study</a> is perhaps best known. In this study, children were presented with four dolls that differed in skin and hair color and given prompts designed to reveal:<a name="_ftn1" href="#_ftnref1"></a></p> <ul> <li>Racial preferences (“Give me the doll that you like best.”)</li> <li>Knowledge of racial differences (“Give me the doll that looks like a Negro child.”)</li> <li>Awareness of racial self-identification (“Give me the doll that looks like you.”)</li> </ul> <p>Black children’s responses varied by age, geographic location (South vs. North), and <a href="https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Clark/Skin-color/#ref2">skin color</a>, but there was also a general finding: These children had a well-established awareness of “racial differences” as defined by skin color, and a majority preferred the White doll and rejected the Black doll.</p> <p>The authors interpreted these findings as one result of institutionalized racism that engendered feelings of inferiority and inadequacy in young Black children, which seemed to “become integrated into the very structure” of their developing personalities (<a href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/Clark%20&%20Clark%20Emotional%20Factors%20in%20Racial%20Identification.pdf">Clark & Clark, 1950</a>, p. 350).</p> <p><strong>The <em>Brown</em> decision illustrates the realized and unrealized potential of social science research to advance Black child well-being</strong>. For example, the Court agreed that school segregation was detrimental to Black students and a violation of their rights to equal protection under the 14th Amendment.</p> </div><div class="sc-28764044-3 bmPOcp"></div></div><div class="sc-28764044-5 eeDvLZ"><div class="sc-28764044-2 jwOAci"></div><div class="sc-28764044-0 fffWkA"><p>However, what received less attention—despite being of arguably equal importance for promoting positive child development and well-being—were findings about the Black children who did<em> not </em>reject the Black doll. Most of these children attended racially segregated schools in the South (Arkansas) rather than racially mixed schools in the North (Massachusetts). A thorough understanding of factors that shielded these children from the insidious effects of racism on their identity development could have informed desegregation plans and methods, ensuring the preservation of sources of support, resilience, and protection for Black students (e.g., culturally affirming learning environments and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-black-teachers-lost-when-civil-rights-won-in-brown-v-board-229687">Black educators who served as role models and mentors</a>.)<a name="_ftnref2" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a></p> <p><strong>Seven decades after <em>Brown</em>, </strong><a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/07/14/1111060299/school-segregation-report"><strong>U.S. public schools remain highly segregated</strong></a><strong> by race and </strong><a href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/black-to-the-future/past-is-prologue/"><strong>Black students and families</strong></a><strong> continue to strive for equal educational opportunities</strong>. In the intervening years, researchers have conducted several variations of the dolls study. While most of these studies generated concerning findings similar to those reported in the Clarks’ studies,<a name="_ftnref3" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> they have also provided a more complex depiction of how institutional racism affects young children’s preferences and beliefs, as well as potential strategies to disrupt its negative effects.</p> <p>Some studies have suggested that:</p> <ul> <li><a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1966-05365-001">White children have deeper and more emphatic in-group preferences</a> than Black children (1966) but both <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1971-03987-001">Black and White children can exhibit in-group preferences</a> (1970).</li> <li><a href="https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb02584.x">Middle-income Black children show greater out-group preferences</a> than their Black peers with lower incomes (1969).</li> <li><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/00957984950211003?casa_token=XjqAQUhUdvoAAAAA:q2dWf-Et6_AjQQl1bLOOr2-ElaYgJPwHwuX2xv6pHpEZ3QDgztXYwKfmpSIKuwXbBB8zY1Cx23BGkQ">Age affects racial preferences among Black children</a>, with older children showing either greater in-group preference or no racial preference (1995).</li> <li>Black <a href="https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb02584.x">boys exhibit higher rates of out-group preferences than Black girls</a> under some conditions (1969) <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26529244">but not others</a> (2017).</li> <li><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00957984880142004">Anti-Black preferences are at least temporarily malleable among young children</a> (1988) through interventions such as exposure to heroic Black figures in moral stories, although such stories may <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0095798409333621">reinforce in-group preferences for White children</a> (2009).</li> </ul> <p><strong>Despite ongoing </strong><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00957984880142006"><strong>debates about the methods and interpretations of individual doll studies</strong></a><strong>, these studies collectively highlight key areas for further research on risks and protections for Black children and youth, including diversity in the K-12 curriculum and teacher workforce</strong>. To fully realize the potential of this research to contribute to equality and justice for all children, policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and the individuals and communities most impacted by injustice must work in tandem. While not simple or easy, such collaboration is essential to achieve the yet unfulfilled promise of the <em>Brown v. Board</em> decision.</p> <hr> </div><div class="sc-28764044-3 bkTVIV"><div class="sc-e51b2e82-0 htzcXy"><div class="sc-e51b2e82-1 bQLxXn"><h3 class="sc-e51b2e82-3 hDsxAa">Related Research</h3><div class="sc-e51b2e82-2 iDyANr"><ul class="sc-e51b2e82-5 dvHXoH"><li class="sc-e51b2e82-6 jawUlN"><a href="https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/100-year-research-black-families" class="sc-e51b2e82-7 dwzCNJ"><span class="sc-e51b2e82-9 jJmlRi"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M10.971 1.1382C12.5798 -0.459295 15.012 -0.36592 16.7524 1.35983C17.5525 2.14934 18.0021 3.22713 18 4.3512C18.0016 5.47441 17.553 6.55142 16.7546 7.34145L13.1771 10.8886C12.0713 11.9855 10.9092 12.539 9.81003 12.539C8.91228 12.539 8.05503 12.17 7.30353 11.4252C7.02097 11.1447 6.90955 10.7347 7.01123 10.3497C7.11291 9.96475 7.41225 9.66327 7.79648 9.55884C8.18072 9.45442 8.59147 9.56291 8.87403 9.84345C9.2014 10.1686 9.96865 10.928 11.6044 9.30683L15.1819 5.75858C15.5599 5.38283 15.7691 4.88333 15.7691 4.3512C15.7691 3.81908 15.5599 3.31958 15.1819 2.9427C14.4675 2.2362 13.3751 1.89308 12.5427 2.72108L11.4064 3.8472C11.1238 4.12775 10.7131 4.23624 10.3289 4.13181C9.94462 4.02739 9.64529 3.72591 9.54361 3.34094C9.44193 2.95597 9.55335 2.546 9.8359 2.26545L10.971 1.1382ZM5.68015 15.1849L6.5914 14.2793C7.02986 13.8471 7.73503 13.8502 8.16978 14.2861C8.37843 14.4954 8.49513 14.7792 8.49407 15.0747C8.49302 15.3703 8.37429 15.6533 8.16415 15.8611L7.25178 16.7667C6.4249 17.5891 5.33703 17.9997 4.24915 17.9997C3.12459 18.002 2.04494 17.5586 1.24653 16.7667C0.446435 15.9777 -0.00276371 14.9001 2.81333e-05 13.7765C-0.00289061 12.6528 0.446328 11.5751 1.24653 10.7862L4.59903 7.4607C6.68365 5.39183 9.07765 5.09483 10.6954 6.70133C10.9951 6.97843 11.1197 7.39707 11.0201 7.79294C10.9206 8.18881 10.6128 8.49875 10.2177 8.60112C9.82252 8.70349 9.40301 8.58195 9.12378 8.2842C8.1709 7.3392 6.86365 8.35395 6.16953 9.04358L2.81703 12.368C2.44108 12.7402 2.22957 13.2474 2.22957 13.7765C2.22957 14.3055 2.44108 14.8127 2.81703 15.1849C3.6113 15.9667 4.88588 15.9667 5.68015 15.1849Z" fill="#F26721"></path></svg></span><span class="sc-e51b2e82-8 iraLja">A 100-Year Review of Research on Black Families</span> </a></li><li class="sc-e51b2e82-6 jawUlN"><a href="https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/building-protective-communities-for-black-children-and-families" class="sc-e51b2e82-7 dwzCNJ"><span class="sc-e51b2e82-9 jJmlRi"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M10.971 1.1382C12.5798 -0.459295 15.012 -0.36592 16.7524 1.35983C17.5525 2.14934 18.0021 3.22713 18 4.3512C18.0016 5.47441 17.553 6.55142 16.7546 7.34145L13.1771 10.8886C12.0713 11.9855 10.9092 12.539 9.81003 12.539C8.91228 12.539 8.05503 12.17 7.30353 11.4252C7.02097 11.1447 6.90955 10.7347 7.01123 10.3497C7.11291 9.96475 7.41225 9.66327 7.79648 9.55884C8.18072 9.45442 8.59147 9.56291 8.87403 9.84345C9.2014 10.1686 9.96865 10.928 11.6044 9.30683L15.1819 5.75858C15.5599 5.38283 15.7691 4.88333 15.7691 4.3512C15.7691 3.81908 15.5599 3.31958 15.1819 2.9427C14.4675 2.2362 13.3751 1.89308 12.5427 2.72108L11.4064 3.8472C11.1238 4.12775 10.7131 4.23624 10.3289 4.13181C9.94462 4.02739 9.64529 3.72591 9.54361 3.34094C9.44193 2.95597 9.55335 2.546 9.8359 2.26545L10.971 1.1382ZM5.68015 15.1849L6.5914 14.2793C7.02986 13.8471 7.73503 13.8502 8.16978 14.2861C8.37843 14.4954 8.49513 14.7792 8.49407 15.0747C8.49302 15.3703 8.37429 15.6533 8.16415 15.8611L7.25178 16.7667C6.4249 17.5891 5.33703 17.9997 4.24915 17.9997C3.12459 18.002 2.04494 17.5586 1.24653 16.7667C0.446435 15.9777 -0.00276371 14.9001 2.81333e-05 13.7765C-0.00289061 12.6528 0.446328 11.5751 1.24653 10.7862L4.59903 7.4607C6.68365 5.39183 9.07765 5.09483 10.6954 6.70133C10.9951 6.97843 11.1197 7.39707 11.0201 7.79294C10.9206 8.18881 10.6128 8.49875 10.2177 8.60112C9.82252 8.70349 9.40301 8.58195 9.12378 8.2842C8.1709 7.3392 6.86365 8.35395 6.16953 9.04358L2.81703 12.368C2.44108 12.7402 2.22957 13.2474 2.22957 13.7765C2.22957 14.3055 2.44108 14.8127 2.81703 15.1849C3.6113 15.9667 4.88588 15.9667 5.68015 15.1849Z" fill="#F26721"></path></svg></span><span class="sc-e51b2e82-8 iraLja">Building Protective Communities for Black Children and Families</span> </a></li><li class="sc-e51b2e82-6 jawUlN"><a href="https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/black-children-youth-benefit-research-protective-community-resources" class="sc-e51b2e82-7 dwzCNJ"><span class="sc-e51b2e82-9 jJmlRi"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M10.971 1.1382C12.5798 -0.459295 15.012 -0.36592 16.7524 1.35983C17.5525 2.14934 18.0021 3.22713 18 4.3512C18.0016 5.47441 17.553 6.55142 16.7546 7.34145L13.1771 10.8886C12.0713 11.9855 10.9092 12.539 9.81003 12.539C8.91228 12.539 8.05503 12.17 7.30353 11.4252C7.02097 11.1447 6.90955 10.7347 7.01123 10.3497C7.11291 9.96475 7.41225 9.66327 7.79648 9.55884C8.18072 9.45442 8.59147 9.56291 8.87403 9.84345C9.2014 10.1686 9.96865 10.928 11.6044 9.30683L15.1819 5.75858C15.5599 5.38283 15.7691 4.88333 15.7691 4.3512C15.7691 3.81908 15.5599 3.31958 15.1819 2.9427C14.4675 2.2362 13.3751 1.89308 12.5427 2.72108L11.4064 3.8472C11.1238 4.12775 10.7131 4.23624 10.3289 4.13181C9.94462 4.02739 9.64529 3.72591 9.54361 3.34094C9.44193 2.95597 9.55335 2.546 9.8359 2.26545L10.971 1.1382ZM5.68015 15.1849L6.5914 14.2793C7.02986 13.8471 7.73503 13.8502 8.16978 14.2861C8.37843 14.4954 8.49513 14.7792 8.49407 15.0747C8.49302 15.3703 8.37429 15.6533 8.16415 15.8611L7.25178 16.7667C6.4249 17.5891 5.33703 17.9997 4.24915 17.9997C3.12459 18.002 2.04494 17.5586 1.24653 16.7667C0.446435 15.9777 -0.00276371 14.9001 2.81333e-05 13.7765C-0.00289061 12.6528 0.446328 11.5751 1.24653 10.7862L4.59903 7.4607C6.68365 5.39183 9.07765 5.09483 10.6954 6.70133C10.9951 6.97843 11.1197 7.39707 11.0201 7.79294C10.9206 8.18881 10.6128 8.49875 10.2177 8.60112C9.82252 8.70349 9.40301 8.58195 9.12378 8.2842C8.1709 7.3392 6.86365 8.35395 6.16953 9.04358L2.81703 12.368C2.44108 12.7402 2.22957 13.2474 2.22957 13.7765C2.22957 14.3055 2.44108 14.8127 2.81703 15.1849C3.6113 15.9667 4.88588 15.9667 5.68015 15.1849Z" fill="#F26721"></path></svg></span><span class="sc-e51b2e82-8 iraLja">Black Children and Youth Can Benefit From Focused Research on Protective Community Resources</span> </a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div><div class="sc-a641e77f-3 cJnaLZ"><div class="sc-a641e77f-4 bylpBI"><div class="sc-a641e77f-1 doiQwt"><div class="sc-a641e77f-0 eFSjNf"><p>This blog is part of Child Trends’ <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/publications/an-applied-research-agenda-on-black-children-and-families-to-advance-practices-and-policies-that-promote-their-well-being">applied research agenda</a> that seeks to better understand systemic racism’s effects and provide evidence-based solutions to help Black children and families thrive. This research <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/publications/priorities-for-child-trends-applied-research-agenda-on-black-children-and-families">agenda has two priorities</a>: Black family cultural assets and protective community resources. To learn more about our work, visit our <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/research-topic/black-children-families">web page</a> and register for our <a href="https://childtrends.us16.list-manage.com/subscribe?u=2dcd6a778a067d2b0f01fd186&id=01120e5c6e">newsletter on Black children and families</a>.</p> </div></div></div></div><div class="sc-28764044-5 eeDvLZ"><div class="sc-28764044-2 jwOAci"></div><div class="sc-28764044-0 fffWkA"><hr> <h3>Footnotes</h3> <p><a name="_ftn1" href="#_ftnref1">[1]</a> Footnote 11 included the following references: Cited in footnote 11:</p> <p>K.B. Clark, Effect of Prejudice and Discrimination on Personality Development (Mid-century White House Conference on Children and Youth, 1950);</p> <p>Witmer and Kotinsky, Personality in the Making (1952), c. VI;</p> <p>Deutscher and Chein, The Psychological Effects of Enforced Segregation A Survey of Social Science Opinion, 26 J.Psychol. 259 (1948);</p> <p>Chein, What are the Psychological Effects of Segregation Under Conditions of Equal Facilities?, 3 Int.J.Opinion and Attitude Res. 229 (1949);</p> <p>Brameld, Educational Costs, in Discrimination and National Welfare (MacIver, ed., 1949), 44-48; Frazier, The Negro in the United States (1949), 674-681. <em>And see generally</em> Myrdal, An American Dilemma (1944).</p> <p><a name="_ftn2" href="#_ftnref2">[2]</a> See, for example: Anderson, J. D. (1988). <em>The education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935</em>. Univ of North Carolina Press; Walker, V. S. (1996). <em>Their highest potential: An African American school community in the segregated South</em>. Univ of North Carolina Press; Milner, H. R., & Howard, T. C. (2004). Black Teachers, Black Students, Black Communities, and Brown: Perspectives and Insights from Experts. <em>The Journal of Negro Education</em>, <em>73</em>(3), 285–297; and Lyons, J. E., & Joanne Chesley. (2004). Fifty Years after Brown: The Benefits and Tradeoffs for African American Educators and Students. <em>The Journal of Negro Education</em>, <em>73</em>(3), 298–313.</p> <p><a name="_ftn3" href="#_ftnref3">[3]</a> See, for example: Gopaul-Mc.Nicol, S.-a. (1988). Racial identification and racial preference of Black preschool children in New York and Trinidad. <em>Journal of Black Psychology, 14</em>(2), 65–68. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/00957984880142005">https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984880142005</a>; and Sturdivant, T.D. (2021). Racial Awareness and the Politics in Play: Preschoolers and Racially Diverse Dolls in a US Classroom. <em>IJEC</em> <strong>53</strong>, 139–157. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-021-00289-5">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-021-00289-5</a></p> </div><div class="sc-28764044-3 bmPOcp"></div></div><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_container__MWSyU"><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_imageWrapper__b_rBb"><img alt="a teacher answers students' questions" loading="lazy" decoding="async" data-nimg="fill" style="position:absolute;height:100%;width:100%;left:0;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;object-fit:cover;color:transparent;background-size:cover;background-position:50% 50%;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-image:url("data:image/svg+xml;charset=utf-8,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' %3E%3Cfilter id='b' color-interpolation-filters='sRGB'%3E%3CfeGaussianBlur stdDeviation='20'/%3E%3CfeColorMatrix values='1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 100 -1' result='s'/%3E%3CfeFlood x='0' y='0' width='100%25' height='100%25'/%3E%3CfeComposite operator='out' in='s'/%3E%3CfeComposite in2='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3CfeGaussianBlur stdDeviation='20'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Cimage width='100%25' height='100%25' x='0' y='0' preserveAspectRatio='xMidYMid slice' style='filter: url(%23b);' href='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'/%3E%3C/svg%3E")" sizes="100vw" srcSet="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=640&q=75 640w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=750&q=75 750w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=828&q=75 828w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=1080&q=75 1080w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=1200&q=75 1200w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=1920&q=75 1920w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=2048&q=75 2048w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=3840&q=75 3840w" src="/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.childtrends.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1980%2F04%2Famme1.jpg&w=3840&q=75"/><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_triangle1__b05C3"></div><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_triangle2__3lEiF"></div><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_triangle3__B5VQB"></div><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_triangle4__jSHPk"></div></div><div class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_contentWrapper__0K6mG"><h2 class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_title__3IEDb">WANT MORE INFORMATION ON CHILD TRENDS' RESEARCH?</h2><p class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_detail__7RBC5">Sign up now</p><form class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_form__JimAk"><input class="SimpleNewsletterSignup_honeypot__pZ9al" type="text" id="zip" name="zip"/><div class="sc-df6df29d-0 kDoFNA SimpleNewsletterSignup_input__EArNg"><div class="sc-df6df29d-2 iEwxvq"><label for="input_1">Email</label></div><input type="text" id="input_1" name="input_1" class="sc-df6df29d-1 dKaNAZ" value=""/></div><button class="sc-1c1470d5-0 gxfeNd" type="submit"><div class="sc-1c1470d5-1 iqBfnp"><span class="sc-1c1470d5-3 kvaTqt">Subscribe</span><span class="sc-1c1470d5-2 jkqPtb" style="transform:none"><svg width="8" height="11" viewBox="0 0 8 11" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="M1 10L6.15151 5.5L1 1" stroke="#F26721" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"></path></svg></span></div></button></form></div></div><div class="sc-a641e77f-3 cJnaLZ"><div class="sc-a641e77f-4 bylpBI"><div class="sc-a641e77f-1 enRRTk"><div class="sc-a641e77f-2 keuqaO"><h3>Suggested citation</h3></div><div class="sc-a641e77f-0 eFSfld"><p>Sanders, M., & Martinez, D.N. 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Among the evidence cited\u003ca href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e in the landmark 1954 \u003cem\u003eBrown v. Board of Education\u003c/em\u003e decision was research by psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark that investigated \u003ca href=\"https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/Clark%20\u0026amp;%20Clark%20Emotional%20Factors%20in%20Racial%20Identification.pdf\"\u003eracial identity development and racial preferences in Black children\u003c/a\u003e, primarily ages 3 to 7. While the researchers used several methods (including coloring and line drawing experiments) in their studies \u003ca href=\"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713394\"\u003edating back to 1939\u003c/a\u003e, the \u003ca href=\"https://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2010/images/05/13/doll.study.1947.pdf\"\u003edolls study\u003c/a\u003e is perhaps best known. In this study, children were presented with four dolls that differed in skin and hair color and given prompts designed to reveal:\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRacial preferences (“Give me the doll that you like best.”)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKnowledge of racial differences (“Give me the doll that looks like a Negro child.”)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAwareness of racial self-identification (“Give me the doll that looks like you.”)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlack children’s responses varied by age, geographic location (South vs. North), and \u003ca href=\"https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Clark/Skin-color/#ref2\"\u003eskin color\u003c/a\u003e, but there was also a general finding: These children had a well-established awareness of “racial differences” as defined by skin color, and a majority preferred the White doll and rejected the Black doll.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors interpreted these findings as one result of institutionalized racism that engendered feelings of inferiority and inadequacy in young Black children, which seemed to “become integrated into the very structure” of their developing personalities (\u003ca href=\"https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/Clark%20\u0026amp;%20Clark%20Emotional%20Factors%20in%20Racial%20Identification.pdf\"\u003eClark \u0026amp; Clark, 1950\u003c/a\u003e, p. 350).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eBrown\u003c/em\u003e decision illustrates the realized and unrealized potential of social science research to advance Black child well-being\u003c/strong\u003e. For example, the Court agreed that school segregation was detrimental to Black students and a violation of their rights to equal protection under the 14th Amendment.\u003c/p\u003e\n","quoteData":{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup","text":null,"author":null},"sidebarWysiwyg":null,"sidebarPlacement":["none"],"sidebarStyle":["default"],"sidebarTitle":null,"sidebarLinks":null},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleWysiwygLayout","fieldGroupName":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleWysiwygLayout","html":"\u003cp\u003eHowever, what received less attention—despite being of arguably equal importance for promoting positive child development and well-being—were findings about the Black children who did\u003cem\u003e not \u003c/em\u003ereject the Black doll. Most of these children attended racially segregated schools in the South (Arkansas) rather than racially mixed schools in the North (Massachusetts). A thorough understanding of factors that shielded these children from the insidious effects of racism on their identity development could have informed desegregation plans and methods, ensuring the preservation of sources of support, resilience, and protection for Black students (e.g., culturally affirming learning environments and \u003ca href=\"https://theconversation.com/how-black-teachers-lost-when-civil-rights-won-in-brown-v-board-229687\"\u003eBlack educators who served as role models and mentors\u003c/a\u003e.)\u003ca href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeven decades after \u003cem\u003eBrown\u003c/em\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/2022/07/14/1111060299/school-segregation-report\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eU.S. public schools remain highly segregated\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e by race and \u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/black-to-the-future/past-is-prologue/\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlack students and families\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e continue to strive for equal educational opportunities\u003c/strong\u003e. In the intervening years, researchers have conducted several variations of the dolls study. While most of these studies generated concerning findings similar to those reported in the Clarks’ studies,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e they have also provided a more complex depiction of how institutional racism affects young children’s preferences and beliefs, as well as potential strategies to disrupt its negative effects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome studies have suggested that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1966-05365-001\"\u003eWhite children have deeper and more emphatic in-group preferences\u003c/a\u003e than Black children (1966) but both \u003ca href=\"https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1971-03987-001\"\u003eBlack and White children can exhibit in-group preferences\u003c/a\u003e (1970).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb02584.x\"\u003eMiddle-income Black children show greater out-group preferences\u003c/a\u003e than their Black peers with lower incomes (1969).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/00957984950211003?casa_token=XjqAQUhUdvoAAAAA:q2dWf-Et6_AjQQl1bLOOr2-ElaYgJPwHwuX2xv6pHpEZ3QDgztXYwKfmpSIKuwXbBB8zY1Cx23BGkQ\"\u003eAge affects racial preferences among Black children\u003c/a\u003e, with older children showing either greater in-group preference or no racial preference (1995).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlack \u003ca href=\"https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb02584.x\"\u003eboys exhibit higher rates of out-group preferences than Black girls\u003c/a\u003e under some conditions (1969) \u003ca href=\"https://www.jstor.org/stable/26529244\"\u003ebut not others\u003c/a\u003e (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00957984880142004\"\u003eAnti-Black preferences are at least temporarily malleable among young children\u003c/a\u003e (1988) through interventions such as exposure to heroic Black figures in moral stories, although such stories may \u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0095798409333621\"\u003ereinforce in-group preferences for White children\u003c/a\u003e (2009).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDespite ongoing \u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00957984880142006\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edebates about the methods and interpretations of individual doll studies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, these studies collectively highlight key areas for further research on risks and protections for Black children and youth, including diversity in the K-12 curriculum and teacher workforce\u003c/strong\u003e. To fully realize the potential of this research to contribute to equality and justice for all children, policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and the individuals and communities most impacted by injustice must work in tandem. While not simple or easy, such collaboration is essential to achieve the yet unfulfilled promise of the \u003cem\u003eBrown v. Board\u003c/em\u003e decision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003chr /\u003e\n","quoteData":{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup","text":null,"author":null},"sidebarWysiwyg":null,"sidebarPlacement":["right"],"sidebarStyle":["default"],"sidebarTitle":"Related Research","sidebarLinks":[{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarLinks","linkType":["internal"],"link":{"__typename":"AcfLink","title":"A 100-Year Review of Research on Black Families","url":"https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/100-year-research-black-families"},"file":null},{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarLinks","linkType":["internal"],"link":{"__typename":"AcfLink","title":"Building Protective Communities for Black Children and Families","url":"https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/building-protective-communities-for-black-children-and-families"},"file":null},{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarLinks","linkType":["internal"],"link":{"__typename":"AcfLink","title":"Black Children and Youth Can Benefit From Focused Research on Protective Community Resources","url":"https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/black-children-youth-benefit-research-protective-community-resources"},"file":null}]},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleFeaturedTextboxLayout","fieldGroupName":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleFeaturedTextboxLayout","primaryColor":"#ebf5fa","bodyTextColor":"#272727","secondaryColor":null,"bodyText":"\u003cp\u003eThis blog is part of Child Trends’ \u003ca href=\"https://www.childtrends.org/publications/an-applied-research-agenda-on-black-children-and-families-to-advance-practices-and-policies-that-promote-their-well-being\"\u003eapplied research agenda\u003c/a\u003e that seeks to better understand systemic racism’s effects and provide evidence-based solutions to help Black children and families thrive. This research \u003ca href=\"https://www.childtrends.org/publications/priorities-for-child-trends-applied-research-agenda-on-black-children-and-families\"\u003eagenda has two priorities\u003c/a\u003e: Black family cultural assets and protective community resources. To learn more about our work, visit our \u003ca href=\"https://www.childtrends.org/research-topic/black-children-families\"\u003eweb page\u003c/a\u003e and register for our \u003ca href=\"https://childtrends.us16.list-manage.com/subscribe?u=2dcd6a778a067d2b0f01fd186\u0026amp;id=01120e5c6e\"\u003enewsletter on Black children and families\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n","headerTextColor":"#272727","headerText":null,"boxStyle":["plain"],"Tag":["h3"]},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleWysiwygLayout","fieldGroupName":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleWysiwygLayout","html":"\u003chr /\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFootnotes\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e Footnote 11 included the following references: Cited in footnote 11:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eK.B. Clark, Effect of Prejudice and Discrimination on Personality Development (Mid-century White House Conference on Children and Youth, 1950);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWitmer and Kotinsky, Personality in the Making (1952), c. VI;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeutscher and Chein, The Psychological Effects of Enforced Segregation A Survey of Social Science Opinion, 26 J.Psychol. 259 (1948);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChein, What are the Psychological Effects of Segregation Under Conditions of Equal Facilities?, 3 Int.J.Opinion and Attitude Res. 229 (1949);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBrameld, Educational Costs, in Discrimination and National Welfare (MacIver, ed., 1949), 44-48; Frazier, The Negro in the United States (1949), 674-681. \u003cem\u003eAnd see generally\u003c/em\u003e Myrdal, An American Dilemma (1944).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref2\" name=\"_ftn2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e See, for example: Anderson, J. D. (1988). \u003cem\u003eThe education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935\u003c/em\u003e. Univ of North Carolina Press; Walker, V. S. (1996). \u003cem\u003eTheir highest potential: An African American school community in the segregated South\u003c/em\u003e. Univ of North Carolina Press; Milner, H. R., \u0026amp; Howard, T. C. (2004). Black Teachers, Black Students, Black Communities, and Brown: Perspectives and Insights from Experts. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Negro Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e73\u003c/em\u003e(3), 285–297; and Lyons, J. E., \u0026amp; Joanne Chesley. (2004). Fifty Years after Brown: The Benefits and Tradeoffs for African American Educators and Students. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Negro Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e73\u003c/em\u003e(3), 298–313.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref3\" name=\"_ftn3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e See, for example: Gopaul-Mc.Nicol, S.-a. (1988). Racial identification and racial preference of Black preschool children in New York and Trinidad. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Black Psychology, 14\u003c/em\u003e(2), 65–68. \u003ca href=\"https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/00957984880142005\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/00957984880142005\u003c/a\u003e; and Sturdivant, T.D. (2021). Racial Awareness and the Politics in Play: Preschoolers and Racially Diverse Dolls in a US Classroom. \u003cem\u003eIJEC\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e53\u003c/strong\u003e, 139–157. \u003ca href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-021-00289-5\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-021-00289-5\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n","quoteData":{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup","text":null,"author":null},"sidebarWysiwyg":null,"sidebarPlacement":["none"],"sidebarStyle":["default"],"sidebarTitle":null,"sidebarLinks":null},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2NewsletterSignupLayout","fieldGroupName":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2NewsletterSignupLayout","newsletterFormId":["10"],"title":"WANT MORE INFORMATION ON CHILD TRENDS' RESEARCH?","newsletterDetail":"Sign up now","successMessage":"Thanks, you’re signed up!","image":{"__typename":"AcfMediaItemConnectionEdge","node":{"__typename":"MediaItem","alt":"a teacher answers students' questions","blurDataUrl":"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","sourceUrl":"https://cms.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/1980/04/amme1.jpg"}}},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleFeaturedTextboxLayout","fieldGroupName":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleFeaturedTextboxLayout","primaryColor":"#ECECEC","bodyTextColor":"#272727","secondaryColor":null,"bodyText":"\u003cp\u003eSanders, M., \u0026amp; Martinez, D.N. (2024). 70 years after Brown v. Board, dolls research still sheds light on Black children’s well-being. Child Trends. DOI: 10.56417/392c9005t\u003c/p\u003e\n","headerTextColor":"#272727","headerText":"Suggested citation","boxStyle":["plain"],"Tag":["h3"]}]}},"language":{"__typename":"Language","code":"EN","name":"English"},"translations":[],"simplePublicationDetails":{"__typename":"SimplePublicationDetails","detail":null,"fileAttachment":null,"pubLinkText":null,"pubUrl":null}},"enAboutMenu":{"__typename":"RootQueryToMenuConnection","nodes":[{"__typename":"Menu","name":"About Us"}]},"enAboutNavItems":{"__typename":"RootQueryToMenuItemConnection","nodes":[{"__typename":"MenuItem","title":"Our People","url":"/our-people/leadership"},{"__typename":"MenuItem","title":"Our Projects","url":"https://www.childtrends.org/projects"},{"__typename":"MenuItem","title":"Diversity and Inclusion","url":"/about-us/diversity-and-inclusion"},{"__typename":"MenuItem","title":"Government Contract 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Among the evidence cited\u003ca href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e in the landmark 1954 \u003cem\u003eBrown v. Board of Education\u003c/em\u003e decision was research by psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark that investigated \u003ca href=\"https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/Clark%20\u0026amp;%20Clark%20Emotional%20Factors%20in%20Racial%20Identification.pdf\"\u003eracial identity development and racial preferences in Black children\u003c/a\u003e, primarily ages 3 to 7. While the researchers used several methods (including coloring and line drawing experiments) in their studies \u003ca href=\"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713394\"\u003edating back to 1939\u003c/a\u003e, the \u003ca href=\"https://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2010/images/05/13/doll.study.1947.pdf\"\u003edolls study\u003c/a\u003e is perhaps best known. In this study, children were presented with four dolls that differed in skin and hair color and given prompts designed to reveal:\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRacial preferences (“Give me the doll that you like best.”)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKnowledge of racial differences (“Give me the doll that looks like a Negro child.”)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAwareness of racial self-identification (“Give me the doll that looks like you.”)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlack children’s responses varied by age, geographic location (South vs. North), and \u003ca href=\"https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Clark/Skin-color/#ref2\"\u003eskin color\u003c/a\u003e, but there was also a general finding: These children had a well-established awareness of “racial differences” as defined by skin color, and a majority preferred the White doll and rejected the Black doll.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors interpreted these findings as one result of institutionalized racism that engendered feelings of inferiority and inadequacy in young Black children, which seemed to “become integrated into the very structure” of their developing personalities (\u003ca href=\"https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/Clark%20\u0026amp;%20Clark%20Emotional%20Factors%20in%20Racial%20Identification.pdf\"\u003eClark \u0026amp; Clark, 1950\u003c/a\u003e, p. 350).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eBrown\u003c/em\u003e decision illustrates the realized and unrealized potential of social science research to advance Black child well-being\u003c/strong\u003e. For example, the Court agreed that school segregation was detrimental to Black students and a violation of their rights to equal protection under the 14th Amendment.\u003c/p\u003e\n","moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup":{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup","quote":null,"author":null},"moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarWysiwyg":null,"moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygPositionOfSideModule":["none"],"style":["default"],"moduleWysiwygSidebarTitle":null,"moduleWysiwygSidebarLinks":null},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleWysiwygLayout","moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygWysiwyg":"\u003cp\u003eHowever, what received less attention—despite being of arguably equal importance for promoting positive child development and well-being—were findings about the Black children who did\u003cem\u003e not \u003c/em\u003ereject the Black doll. Most of these children attended racially segregated schools in the South (Arkansas) rather than racially mixed schools in the North (Massachusetts). A thorough understanding of factors that shielded these children from the insidious effects of racism on their identity development could have informed desegregation plans and methods, ensuring the preservation of sources of support, resilience, and protection for Black students (e.g., culturally affirming learning environments and \u003ca href=\"https://theconversation.com/how-black-teachers-lost-when-civil-rights-won-in-brown-v-board-229687\"\u003eBlack educators who served as role models and mentors\u003c/a\u003e.)\u003ca href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeven decades after \u003cem\u003eBrown\u003c/em\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/2022/07/14/1111060299/school-segregation-report\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eU.S. public schools remain highly segregated\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e by race and \u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/black-to-the-future/past-is-prologue/\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlack students and families\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e continue to strive for equal educational opportunities\u003c/strong\u003e. In the intervening years, researchers have conducted several variations of the dolls study. While most of these studies generated concerning findings similar to those reported in the Clarks’ studies,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e they have also provided a more complex depiction of how institutional racism affects young children’s preferences and beliefs, as well as potential strategies to disrupt its negative effects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome studies have suggested that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1966-05365-001\"\u003eWhite children have deeper and more emphatic in-group preferences\u003c/a\u003e than Black children (1966) but both \u003ca href=\"https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1971-03987-001\"\u003eBlack and White children can exhibit in-group preferences\u003c/a\u003e (1970).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb02584.x\"\u003eMiddle-income Black children show greater out-group preferences\u003c/a\u003e than their Black peers with lower incomes (1969).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/00957984950211003?casa_token=XjqAQUhUdvoAAAAA:q2dWf-Et6_AjQQl1bLOOr2-ElaYgJPwHwuX2xv6pHpEZ3QDgztXYwKfmpSIKuwXbBB8zY1Cx23BGkQ\"\u003eAge affects racial preferences among Black children\u003c/a\u003e, with older children showing either greater in-group preference or no racial preference (1995).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlack \u003ca href=\"https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb02584.x\"\u003eboys exhibit higher rates of out-group preferences than Black girls\u003c/a\u003e under some conditions (1969) \u003ca href=\"https://www.jstor.org/stable/26529244\"\u003ebut not others\u003c/a\u003e (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00957984880142004\"\u003eAnti-Black preferences are at least temporarily malleable among young children\u003c/a\u003e (1988) through interventions such as exposure to heroic Black figures in moral stories, although such stories may \u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0095798409333621\"\u003ereinforce in-group preferences for White children\u003c/a\u003e (2009).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDespite ongoing \u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00957984880142006\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edebates about the methods and interpretations of individual doll studies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, these studies collectively highlight key areas for further research on risks and protections for Black children and youth, including diversity in the K-12 curriculum and teacher workforce\u003c/strong\u003e. To fully realize the potential of this research to contribute to equality and justice for all children, policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and the individuals and communities most impacted by injustice must work in tandem. While not simple or easy, such collaboration is essential to achieve the yet unfulfilled promise of the \u003cem\u003eBrown v. Board\u003c/em\u003e decision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003chr /\u003e\n","moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup":{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup","quote":null,"author":null},"moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarWysiwyg":null,"moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygPositionOfSideModule":["right"],"style":["default"],"moduleWysiwygSidebarTitle":"Related Research","moduleWysiwygSidebarLinks":[{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarLinks","linkType":["internal"],"link":{"__typename":"AcfLink","title":"A 100-Year Review of Research on Black Families","url":"https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/100-year-research-black-families"},"file":null},{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarLinks","linkType":["internal"],"link":{"__typename":"AcfLink","title":"Building Protective Communities for Black Children and Families","url":"https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/building-protective-communities-for-black-children-and-families"},"file":null},{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarLinks","linkType":["internal"],"link":{"__typename":"AcfLink","title":"Black Children and Youth Can Benefit From Focused Research on Protective Community Resources","url":"https://cms.childtrends.org/publications/black-children-youth-benefit-research-protective-community-resources"},"file":null}]},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleFeaturedTextboxLayout","moduleFeaturedTextboxBackgroundColor":"#ebf5fa","moduleFeaturedTextboxBodyTextColor":"#272727","moduleFeaturedTextboxHeaderBackgroundColor":null,"moduleFeaturedTextboxContent":"\u003cp\u003eThis blog is part of Child Trends’ \u003ca href=\"https://www.childtrends.org/publications/an-applied-research-agenda-on-black-children-and-families-to-advance-practices-and-policies-that-promote-their-well-being\"\u003eapplied research agenda\u003c/a\u003e that seeks to better understand systemic racism’s effects and provide evidence-based solutions to help Black children and families thrive. This research \u003ca href=\"https://www.childtrends.org/publications/priorities-for-child-trends-applied-research-agenda-on-black-children-and-families\"\u003eagenda has two priorities\u003c/a\u003e: Black family cultural assets and protective community resources. To learn more about our work, visit our \u003ca href=\"https://www.childtrends.org/research-topic/black-children-families\"\u003eweb page\u003c/a\u003e and register for our \u003ca href=\"https://childtrends.us16.list-manage.com/subscribe?u=2dcd6a778a067d2b0f01fd186\u0026amp;id=01120e5c6e\"\u003enewsletter on Black children and families\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n","moduleFeaturedTextboxHeaderTextColor":"#272727","moduleFeaturedTextboxHeadline":null,"moduleFeaturedTextboxStyle":["plain"],"moduleFeaturedTextboxTag":["h3"]},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleWysiwygLayout","moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygWysiwyg":"\u003chr /\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFootnotes\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e Footnote 11 included the following references: Cited in footnote 11:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eK.B. Clark, Effect of Prejudice and Discrimination on Personality Development (Mid-century White House Conference on Children and Youth, 1950);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWitmer and Kotinsky, Personality in the Making (1952), c. VI;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeutscher and Chein, The Psychological Effects of Enforced Segregation A Survey of Social Science Opinion, 26 J.Psychol. 259 (1948);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChein, What are the Psychological Effects of Segregation Under Conditions of Equal Facilities?, 3 Int.J.Opinion and Attitude Res. 229 (1949);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBrameld, Educational Costs, in Discrimination and National Welfare (MacIver, ed., 1949), 44-48; Frazier, The Negro in the United States (1949), 674-681. \u003cem\u003eAnd see generally\u003c/em\u003e Myrdal, An American Dilemma (1944).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref2\" name=\"_ftn2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e See, for example: Anderson, J. D. (1988). \u003cem\u003eThe education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935\u003c/em\u003e. Univ of North Carolina Press; Walker, V. S. (1996). \u003cem\u003eTheir highest potential: An African American school community in the segregated South\u003c/em\u003e. Univ of North Carolina Press; Milner, H. R., \u0026amp; Howard, T. C. (2004). Black Teachers, Black Students, Black Communities, and Brown: Perspectives and Insights from Experts. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Negro Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e73\u003c/em\u003e(3), 285–297; and Lyons, J. E., \u0026amp; Joanne Chesley. (2004). Fifty Years after Brown: The Benefits and Tradeoffs for African American Educators and Students. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Negro Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e73\u003c/em\u003e(3), 298–313.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref3\" name=\"_ftn3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e See, for example: Gopaul-Mc.Nicol, S.-a. (1988). Racial identification and racial preference of Black preschool children in New York and Trinidad. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Black Psychology, 14\u003c/em\u003e(2), 65–68. \u003ca href=\"https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/00957984880142005\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/00957984880142005\u003c/a\u003e; and Sturdivant, T.D. (2021). Racial Awareness and the Politics in Play: Preschoolers and Racially Diverse Dolls in a US Classroom. \u003cem\u003eIJEC\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e53\u003c/strong\u003e, 139–157. \u003ca href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-021-00289-5\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-021-00289-5\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n","moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup":{"__typename":"ModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygModuleWysiwygQuoteGroup","quote":null,"author":null},"moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygSidebarWysiwyg":null,"moduleWysiwygModuleWysiwygPositionOfSideModule":["none"],"style":["default"],"moduleWysiwygSidebarTitle":null,"moduleWysiwygSidebarLinks":null},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2NewsletterSignupLayout","moduleNewsletterFormId":["10"],"moduleNewsletterHeading":"WANT MORE INFORMATION ON CHILD TRENDS' RESEARCH?","moduleNewsletterSubheading":"Sign up now","moduleNewsletterSuccessMessage":"Thanks, you’re signed up!","moduleNewsletterImage":{"__typename":"AcfMediaItemConnectionEdge","node":{"__typename":"MediaItem","altText":"a teacher answers students' questions","blurDataUrl":"/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQEBLAEsAAD//gA7Q1JFQVRPUjogZ2QtanBlZyB2MS4wICh1c2luZyBJSkcgSlBFRyB2ODApLCBxdWFsaXR5ID0gMjAK/9sAQwAoHB4jHhkoIyEjLSsoMDxkQTw3Nzx7WF1JZJGAmZaPgIyKoLTmw6Cq2q2KjMj/y9ru9f///5vB////+v/m/f/4/9sAQwErLS08NTx2QUF2+KWMpfj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4+Pj4/8AAEQgABAAIAwEiAAIRAQMRAf/EAB8AAAEFAQEBAQEBAAAAAAAAAAABAgMEBQYHCAkKC//EALUQAAIBAwMCBAMFBQQEAAABfQECAwAEEQUSITFBBhNRYQcicRQygZGhCCNCscEVUtHwJDNicoIJChYXGBkaJSYnKCkqNDU2Nzg5OkNERUZHSElKU1RVVldYWVpjZGVmZ2hpanN0dXZ3eHl6g4SFhoeIiYqSk5SVlpeYmZqio6Slpqeoqaqys7S1tre4ubrCw8TFxsfIycrS09TV1tfY2drh4uPk5ebn6Onq8fLz9PX29/j5+v/EAB8BAAMBAQEBAQEBAQEAAAAAAAABAgMEBQYHCAkKC//EALURAAIBAgQEAwQHBQQEAAECdwABAgMRBAUhMQYSQVEHYXETIjKBCBRCkaGxwQkjM1LwFWJy0QoWJDThJfEXGBkaJicoKSo1Njc4OTpDREVGR0hJSlNUVVZXWFlaY2RlZmdoaWpzdHV2d3h5eoKDhIWGh4iJipKTlJWWl5iZmqKjpKWmp6ipqrKztLW2t7i5usLDxMXGx8jJytLT1NXW19jZ2uLj5OXm5+jp6vLz9PX29/j5+v/aAAwDAQACEQMRAD8Aeig3Ajx8oXIooopMZ//Z","sourceUrl":"https://cms.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/1980/04/amme1.jpg"}}},{"__typename":"PageBuilderPageBuilder2ModuleFeaturedTextboxLayout","moduleFeaturedTextboxBackgroundColor":"#ECECEC","moduleFeaturedTextboxBodyTextColor":"#272727","moduleFeaturedTextboxHeaderBackgroundColor":null,"moduleFeaturedTextboxContent":"\u003cp\u003eSanders, M., \u0026amp; Martinez, D.N. (2024). 70 years after Brown v. Board, dolls research still sheds light on Black children’s well-being. Child Trends. DOI: 10.56417/392c9005t\u003c/p\u003e\n","moduleFeaturedTextboxHeaderTextColor":"#272727","moduleFeaturedTextboxHeadline":"Suggested citation","moduleFeaturedTextboxStyle":["plain"],"moduleFeaturedTextboxTag":["h3"]}]}}}}}},"__N_SSG":true},"page":"/[...wordpressNode]","query":{"wordpressNode":["publications","70-years-brown-v-board-dolls-research-black-childrens"]},"buildId":"AruZGbCodzeOmBzuKP-6D","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"gsp":true,"locale":"en","locales":["en","es"],"defaultLocale":"en","domainLocales":[{"domain":"www.childtrends.org","defaultLocale":"en"},{"domain":"es.childtrends.org","defaultLocale":"es"}],"scriptLoader":[]}</script></body></html>