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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Voice onset time</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading navbox-title"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voice onset time</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> + <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> 0 <a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> − <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>, <b>voice onset time</b> (<b>VOT</b>) is a feature of the production of <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a>. It is defined as the length of time that passes between the release of a stop consonant and the onset of <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voicing</a>, the vibration of the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal folds">vocal folds</a>, or, according to other authors, periodicity. Some authors allow negative values to mark voicing that begins during the period of articulatory closure for the consonant and continues in the release, for those unaspirated voiced stops in which there is no voicing present at the instant of articulatory closure. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vot.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Vot.svg/220px-Vot.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Vot.svg/330px-Vot.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Vot.svg/440px-Vot.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>A graphical representation of the VOT of voiced, tenuis, and aspirated stops</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>The concept of voice onset time can be traced back as far as the 19th century, when Adjarian (1899: 119)<sup id="cite_ref-Adjarian_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adjarian-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> studied the Armenian stops, and characterized them by "the relation that exists between two moments: the one when the consonant bursts when the air is released out of the mouth, or explosion, and the one when the larynx starts vibrating". However, the concept became "popular" only in the 1960s, in a context described by Lin & Wang (2011: 514):<sup id="cite_ref-LinWang_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LinWang-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "At that time, there was an ongoing debate about which phonetic attribute would allow voiced and voiceless stops to be effectively distinguished. For instance, voicing, aspiration, and articulatory force were some of the attributes being studied regularly. In English, "voicing" can successfully separate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ/</span> from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p,<span class="wrap"> </span>t,<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span> when stops are at word-medial positions, but this is not always true for word-initial stops. Strictly speaking, word-initial voiced stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ/</span> are only partially voiced, and sometimes are even voiceless." The concept of VOT finally acquired its name in the famous study of Lisker & Abramson (1964).<sup id="cite_ref-Lisker_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lisker-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analytic_problems">Analytic problems</h2></div> <p>A number of problems arose in defining VOT in some languages, and there is a call for reconsidering whether this speech synthesis parameter should be used to replace articulatory or aerodynamic model parameters <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="the suggestion is made that the problematic parameter itself (i.e. VOT) should replace other parameters; what is the rationale of that? is this really what was meant by the writer? (July 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which do not have these problems, and which have a stronger explanatory significance.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in the discussion below, any explication of VOT variations will invariably lead back to such aerodynamic and articulatory concepts, and there is no reason presented why VOT adds to an analysis, other than that, as an acoustic parameter, it may sometimes be easier to measure than an aerodynamic parameter (pressure or airflow) or an articulatory parameter (closure interval or the duration, extent and timing of a vocal fold abductory gesture). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg/220px-Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg/330px-Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg/440px-Voice_Onset_Timing_differences_for_English_Tie_and_Die.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption>Voice Onset Timing <a href="/wiki/Spectrograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectrograms">spectrograms</a> for English "die" and "tie". The voiceless gap between release and voicing is highlighted in red. Here the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> has a VOT of 95 ms., and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> has one of 25 ms.</figcaption></figure> <p>Three major <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> types of stops can be analyzed in terms of their voice onset time. </p> <ul><li>Simple unaspirated <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>, sometimes called "<a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a>" stops, have a voice onset time at or near zero, meaning that the voicing of a following <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> (such as a vowel) begins at or near to when the stop is released. (An offset of 15 <a href="/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond">ms</a> or less on <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> and 30 ms or less on <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> is inaudible, and counts as tenuis.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">Aspirated</a> stops followed by a sonorant have a voice onset time greater than this amount, called a <b>positive VOT</b>. The length of the VOT in such cases is a practical measure of aspiration: The longer the VOT, the stronger the aspiration. In <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, for example, which is strongly aspirated, the aspiration (and therefore the VOT) lasts twice as long as it does in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>: 160ms vs. 80ms for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span>, and 45ms for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span>. Some languages have weaker aspiration than English. For velar stops, tenuis <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> typically has a VOT of 20-30 ms, weakly aspirated [k] of some 50-60 ms, moderately aspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> averages 80–90 ms, and anything much over 100 ms would be considered strong aspiration. (Another phonation, <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a>, is commonly called <i>voiced aspiration</i>; in order for the VOT measure to apply to it, VOT needs to be understood as the onset of modal voicing. Of course, an aspirated consonant will not always be followed by a voiced sound, in which case VOT cannot be used to measure it.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> stops have a voice onset time noticeably less than zero, a "negative VOT", meaning the vocal cords start vibrating before the stop is released. With a "fully voiced stop", the VOT coincides with the onset of the stop; with a "partially voiced stop", such as English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ]</span> in initial position, voicing begins sometime during the closure (occlusion) of the consonant.</li></ul> <p>Because neither aspiration nor voicing is absolute, with intermediate degrees of both, the relative terms <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis and lenis</a> are often used to describe a binary opposition between a series of consonants with higher (more positive) VOT, defined as <i>fortis</i>, and a second series with lower (more negative) VOT, defined as <i>lenis</i>. Of course, being relative, what fortis and lenis mean in one language will not in general correspond to what they mean in another. </p><p>Voicing contrast applies to all types of consonants, but aspiration is generally only a feature of stops and affricates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transcription">Transcription</h2></div> <p>Aspiration may be transcribed <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ʰ</span>⟩</span>, long (strong) aspiration <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌ʰʰ</span>⟩</span>. Voicing is most commonly indicated by the choice of consonant letter. For one way of transcribing <a href="/wiki/Pre-voicing" title="Pre-voicing">pre-voicing</a> and other timing variants, see <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_IPA#Diacritics" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensions to the IPA">extensions to the IPA#Diacritics</a>. Other systems include that of Laver (1994),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who distinguishes fully devoiced <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">b̥a</span>⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ab̥</span>⟩</span> from initial partial devoicing of the onset of a syllable by <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˳ba</span>⟩</span> and from final partial devoicing of the coda of a syllable by <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ab˳</span>⟩</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_in_languages">Examples in languages</h2></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Relative VOT distinctions in various languages<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th rowspan="2">Voice Onset Time</th> <th colspan="10">Examples </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></th> <th>S. Japanese, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Fortis_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortis (phonetics)">fortis</a>)</td> <td><i>Strong <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspiration</a></i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">↑</td> <td><i>Moderate aspiration</i></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><i>Mild aspiration</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a></i></td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">↓</td> <td><i>Partially voiced</i></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Lenis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenis">lenis</a>)</td> <td><i>Fully <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Yes </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li>Taehong Cho and Peter Ladefoged, "Variations and universals in VOT: Evidence from 18 languages". <i>Journal of Phonetics</i> vol. 27. 207-229. 1999.</li> <li>Angelika Braun, "VOT im 19. Jahrhundert oder "Die Wiederkehr des Gleichen"". <i>Phonetica</i> vol. 40. 323-327. 1983.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Adjarian-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Adjarian_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57626142/f121.image">ADJARIAN, H., Les explosives de l'ancien arménien étudiées dans les dialectes modernes, La Parole. Revue internationale de Rhinologie, Otologie, Laryngologie et Phonétique expérimentale, 119-127 (1899)</a> "<i>... la relation qui existe entre deux moments : celui où la consonne éclate par l'effet de l'expulsion de l'air hors de la bouche, ou explosion, et celui où le larynx entre en vibration.</i>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LinWang-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LinWang_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">LIN, C. & WANG, H., Automatic estimation of voice onset time for word-initial stops by applying random forest to onset detection, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 514-525 (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lisker-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lisker_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haskins.yale.edu/Reprints/HL0053.pdf">LISKER, L. and ABRAMSON, A.S., A cross-language study of voicing in initial stops: acoustical measurements, Word Vol. 20, 384-422 (1964).</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ROTHENBERG, M. "Voice Onset Time vs. Articulatory Modeling for Stop Consonants", The Jan Gauffin Memorial Symposium, October 16, 2008. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm. <i>(To be published in the proceedings)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Principles of Phonetics</i>, p. 340</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linglish.net/2009/01/03/buy-a-pie-for-the-spy/">Buy a pie for the spy</a> A description of the mechanism of voiced, tenuis (voiceless unaspirated), and (voiceless) aspirated stops in relation to voice onset time</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Voice_onset_time&oldid=808927926">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Voice_onset_time&oldid=808927926</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phonetics" title="Category:Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_voice" title="Category:Human voice">Human voice</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_July_2017" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2017">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 6 November 2017, at 02:24<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright"><span class="nowraplinks">This version of the page has been <a href="/wiki/Help:Page_history" title="Help:Page history">revised</a>. 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