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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="تكاثر متباين الأمشاج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تكاثر متباين الأمشاج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="অ্যানাইসোগ্যামি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যানাইসোগ্যামি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Анізагамія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Анізагамія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анизогамия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Анизогамия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogamija" title="Anizogamija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Anizogamija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisog%C3%A0mia" title="Anisogàmia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anisogàmia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogamie" title="Anizogamie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anizogamie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogami" title="Anisogami – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Anisogami" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogaamia" title="Anisogaamia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Anisogaamia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogamia" title="Heterogamia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Heterogamia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogamia" title="Anisogamia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Anisogamia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="ناجورکامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناجورکامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogamie" title="Anisogamie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anisogamie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%ED%98%95%EC%A0%91%ED%95%A9" title="이형접합 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이형접합" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogami" title="Anisogami – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Anisogami" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гетерогамия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гетерогамия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гетерогамия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гетерогамия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizog%C3%A1mia" title="Anizogámia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Anizogámia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogamiya" title="Anizogamiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Anizogamiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogamia" title="Anizogamia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Anizogamia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogamia" title="Anisogamia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Anisogamia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogamie" title="Anizogamie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Anizogamie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анизогамия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Анизогамия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogamija" title="Anizogamija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Anizogamija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogamia" title="Anisogamia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Anisogamia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogami" title="Anisogami – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anisogami" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anizogami" title="Anizogami – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Anizogami" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Анізогамія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Анізогамія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%82%E9%85%8D%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="异配生殖 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="异配生殖" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q770370#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sexual reproduction involving a large, female gamete and a small, male gamete</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anisogamy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/120px-Anisogamy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/180px-Anisogamy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/240px-Anisogamy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>Different forms of anisogamy: A) anisogamy of motile cells, B) <a href="/wiki/Oogamy" title="Oogamy">oogamy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sperm_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm cell">sperm cell</a>), C) anisogamy of non-motile cells (egg cell and spermatia).</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Anisogamy</b> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> that involves the union or fusion of two <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> that differ in size and/or form. The smaller gamete is <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">male</a>, a <i>microgamete</i> or <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm cell</a>, whereas the larger gamete is <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">female</a>, a larger <i>macrogamate</i> or typically an <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a>. Anisogamy is predominant among multicellular organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2016_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2016-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both plants and animals, gamete size difference is the fundamental difference between <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">females</a> and <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">males</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anisogamy most likely evolved from <a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">isogamy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pitnick-2008_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitnick-2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the biological definition of male and female is based on gamete size, the evolution of anisogamy is viewed as the evolutionary origin of male and female <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2021_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anisogamy is an outcome of both <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and led the sexes to different <a href="/wiki/Primary_sex_characteristic" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sex characteristic">primary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sex characteristics">secondary sex characteristics</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including sex differences in behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoff_Parker" title="Geoff Parker">Geoff Parker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robin_Baker_(biologist)" title="Robin Baker (biologist)">Robin Baker</a>, and Vic Smith were the first to provide a mathematical model for the evolution of anisogamy that was consistent with modern evolutionary theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2021_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their theory was widely accepted but there are alternative hypotheses about the evolution of anisogamy.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2016_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2016-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Anisogamy</i> (the opposite of <i><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">isogamy</a></i>) comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> negative prefix <i>a(n)-</i> (<a href="/wiki/Alpha_privative" title="Alpha privative">alpha privative</a>), the Greek adjective <i>isos</i> (meaning equal) and the Greek verb <i>gameo</i> (meaning to have sex/to reproduce), eventually meaning "non-equal reproduction" obviously referring to the enormous differences between male and female <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a> in size and abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known use of the term anisogamy was in the year 1891.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="who by and in what context? (March 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anisogamy is the form of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> that involves the union or fusion of two <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> which differ in size and/or form.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The smaller gamete is considered to be <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">male</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm cell</a>), whereas the larger gamete is regarded as <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">female</a> (typically an <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a>, if non-<a href="/wiki/Motile" class="mw-redirect" title="Motile">motile</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar-2019_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are several types of anisogamy. Both gametes may be <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellated</a> and therefore <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motile</a>. Alternatively, as in <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coniferophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferophyta">conifers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">gnetophytes</a>, neither of the gametes are flagellated. In these groups, the male gametes are non-motile cells within <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grains, and are delivered to the egg cells by means of <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tubes</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red alga</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Polysiphonia" title="Polysiphonia">Polysiphonia</a></i>, non-motile eggs are <a href="/wiki/Fertilized" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilized">fertilized</a> by non-motile sperm. </p><p>The form of anisogamy that occurs in <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Oogamy" title="Oogamy">oogamy</a>, where a large, non-motile egg (ovum) is fertilized by a small, motile sperm (<a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a>). The egg is optimized for longevity, whereas the small sperm is optimized for motility and speed. The size and resources of the egg cell allow for the production of <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a>, which attract the swimming sperm cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Dusenbery-2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dusenbery-2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sexual dimorphism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anisogamy is a core element of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a> that helps to explain phenotypic differences between sexes.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Lisle-1803_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Lisle-1803-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers estimate that over 99.99% of eukaryotes reproduce sexually.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most do so by way of male and female sexes, both of which are optimized for reproductive potential. Due to their differently sized and shaped gametes, both males and females have developed physiological and behavioral differences that optimize the individual's <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Lisle-1803_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Lisle-1803-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since most egg laying females typically must bear the offspring and have a more limited reproductive cycle, this typically makes females a <a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">limiting factor</a> in the reproductive success rate of males in a species. This process is also true for females selecting males, and assuming that males and females are selecting for different traits in partners, would result in phenotypic differences between the sexes over many generations. This hypothesis, known as the <a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's Principle</a>, is used to understand the evolutionary pressures put on males and females due to anisogamy.<sup id="cite_ref-Fritzsche-2013_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritzsche-2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this assumption has criticism, it is a generally accepted model for sexual selection within anisogamous species. The selection for different traits depending on sex within the same species is known as sex-specific selection, and accounts for the differing phenotypes found between the sexes of the same species. This sex-specific selection between sexes over time also leads to the development of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristic" title="Secondary sex characteristic">secondary sex characteristics</a>, which assist males and females in reproductive success. </p><p>In most species, both sexes choose mates based on the available phenotypes of potential mates.<sup id="cite_ref-Fritzsche-2013_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritzsche-2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These phenotypes are species-specific, resulting in varying strategies for successful sexual reproduction. For example, large males are sexually selected for in elephant seals because their large size helps the male fight off other males, but small males are sexually selected for in spiders for they can mate with the female more quickly while avoiding <a href="/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">sexual cannibalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, despite the large range of sexually selected phenotypes, most anisogamous species follow a set of predictable desirable traits and selective behaviors based on general reproductive success models. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_phenotypes">Female phenotypes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Female phenotypes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For <a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">internal fertilizers</a>, female investment is high in reproduction since they typically expend more energy throughout a single reproductive event. This can be seen as early as <a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">oogenesis</a>, for the female sacrifices gamete number for gamete size to better increase the survival chances of the potential zygote; a process more energetically demanding than <a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">spermatogenesis</a> in males.<sup id="cite_ref-Monro-2016_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monro-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oogenesis occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovary</a>, a female-specific organ that also produces hormones to prepare other female-specific organs for the changes necessary in the reproductive organs to facilitate egg delivery in external fertilizers, and zygote development in internal fertilizers. The egg cell produced is not only large, but sometimes even immobile, requiring contact with the more mobile sperm to instigate fertilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Monro-2016_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monro-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since this process is very energy-demanding and time-consuming for the female, <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a> is often integrated into the female's behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Lisle-1803_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Lisle-1803-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Females will often be very selective of the males they choose to reproduce with, for the phenotype of the male can be indicative of the male's physical health and heritable traits. Females employ mate choice to pressure males into displaying their desirable traits to females through <a href="/wiki/Courtship_display" title="Courtship display">courtship</a>, and if successful, the male gets to reproduce. This encourages males and females of specific species to invest in courtship behaviors as well as traits that can display physical health to a potential mate. This process, known as <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-De_Lisle-1803_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Lisle-1803-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> results in the development of traits to ease reproductive success rather than individual survival, such as the inflated size of a termite queen. It is also important for females to select against potential mates that may have a <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">sexually transmitted infection</a>, for the disease could not only hurt the female's reproductive ability, but also damage the resulting offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies-2012_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-2012-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although not uncommon in males, females are more associated with <a href="/wiki/Parental_care" title="Parental care">parental care</a>. Since females are on a more limited reproductive schedule than males, a female often invests more in protecting the offspring to sexual maturity than the male. Like mate choice, the level of parental care varies greatly between species, and is often dependent on the number of offspring produced per sexual encounter.<sup id="cite_ref-Fromhage-2016_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fromhage-2016-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many species, including ones from all major vertebrate groups<sup id="cite_ref-Orr-2018_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orr-2018-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> females can utilize <a href="/wiki/Female_sperm_storage" title="Female sperm storage">sperm storage</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Nakadera-2013_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakadera-2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a process by which the female can store excess sperm from a mate, and fertilize her eggs long after the reproductive event if mating opportunities drop or quality of mates decreases. By being able to save sperm from more desirable mates, the female gains more control over its own reproductive success, thus allowing for the female to be more selective of males as well as making the timing of fertilization potentially more frequent if males are scarce.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakadera-2013_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakadera-2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Male_phenotypes">Male phenotypes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Male phenotypes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For males of all species, the sperm cells they produce are optimized for ensuring <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilization</a> of the female egg. These sperm cells are created through spermatogenesis, a form of <a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">gametogenesis</a> that focuses on developing the most possible gametes per sexual encounter.<sup id="cite_ref-Monro-2016_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monro-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spermatogenesis occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">testis</a>, a male specific organ that also produces hormones that trigger the development of secondary sex characteristics. Since the male's gametes are energetically cheap and abundant in every ejaculation, a male can greatly increase his sexual success by mating far more frequently than the female.<sup id="cite_ref-Monro-2016_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monro-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sperm, unlike egg cells, are also mobile, allowing for the sperm to swim towards the egg through the female's sexual organs. <a href="/wiki/Sperm_competition" title="Sperm competition">Sperm competition</a> is also a major factor in the development of sperm cells. Only one sperm can fertilize an egg, and since females can potentially mate with more than one male before fertilization occurs, producing sperm cells that are faster, more abundant, and more viable than that produced by other males can give a male reproductive advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-Monro-2016_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monro-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since females are often the limiting factor in a species reproductive success, males are often expected by the females to search and compete for the female, known as <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">intraspecific competition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fritzsche-2013_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritzsche-2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen in organisms such as bean beetles, as the male that searches for females more frequently is often more successful at finding mates and reproducing. In species undergoing this form of selection, a fit male would be one that is fast, has more refined sensory organs, and spatial awareness.<sup id="cite_ref-Fritzsche-2013_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritzsche-2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some secondary sex characteristics are not only meant for attracting mates, but also for competing with other males for copulation opportunities. Some structures, such as antlers in deer, can provide benefits to the male's reproductive success by providing a weapon to prevent rival males from achieving reproductive success.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies-2012_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-2012-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other structures such as the large colorful tail feathers found in male peacocks, are a result of <a href="/wiki/Fisherian_runaway" title="Fisherian runaway">Fisherian runaway</a> as well as several more species specific factors. Due to females selecting for specific traits in males, over time, these traits are exaggerated to the point where they could hinder the male's survivability.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies-2012_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-2012-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, since these traits greatly benefit sexual selection, their usefulness in providing more mating opportunities overrides the possibility that the trait could lead to a shortening of its lifespan through predation or starvation. These desirable traits extend beyond physical body parts, and often extend into courtship behavior and <a href="/wiki/Nuptial_gift" title="Nuptial gift">nuptial gifts</a> as well. </p><p>Although some behaviors in males are meant to work within the parameters of female choice, some male traits work against it. Strong enough males, in some cases, can force themselves upon a female, forcing fertilization and overriding female choice.<sup id="cite_ref-Friesen-2016_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friesen-2016-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since this can often be dangerous for the female, an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a> between the sexes is often an outcome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> wrote that anisogamy had an impact on the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a>. He also argued that anisogamy had an impact on sexual behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anisogamy first became a major topic in the biological sciences when Charles Darwin wrote about <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Cliffhanger - what was the substance of what he wrote about sexual selection (July 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mathematical models seeking to account for the evolution of anisogamy were published as early as 1932, but the first model consistent with evolutionary theory was that published by <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Parker" title="Geoff Parker">Geoff Parker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robin_Baker_(biologist)" title="Robin Baker (biologist)">Robin Baker</a> and Vic Smith in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2021_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></div> <p>Although its evolution has left no fossil records,<sup id="cite_ref-Pitnick-2008_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitnick-2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is generally accepted that anisogamy evolved from <a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">isogamy</a> and that it has evolved independently in several groups of eukaryotes including protists, algae, plants and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Bachtrog-2014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachtrog-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/John_Avise" title="John Avise">John Avise</a> anisogamy probably originated around the same time sexual reproduction and <a href="/wiki/Multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellularity">multicellularity</a> occurred,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> over 1 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2014_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2014-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anisogamy first evolved in multicellular <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> species after different <a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">mating types</a> had become established.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanschen-2018_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanschen-2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The three main theories for the evolution of anisogamy are gamete competition, gamete limitation, and intracellular conflicts, but the last of these three is not well supported by current evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Lessells-2009_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessells-2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both gamete competition and gamete limitation assume that anisogamy originated through disruptive selection acting on an ancestral isogamous population with external fertilization, due to a trade-off between larger gamete number and gamete size (which in turn affects zygote survival), because the total resource one individual can invest in reproduction is assumed to be fixed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2014_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2014-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first formal, mathematical theory proposed to explain the evolution of anisogamy was based on gamete limitation:<sup id="cite_ref-Kalmus-1932_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalmus-1932-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this model assumed that natural selection would lead to gamete sizes that result in the largest population-wide number of successful fertilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalmus-1932_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalmus-1932-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If it is assumed that a certain amount of resources provided by the gametes are needed for the survival of the resulting zygote, and that there is a trade-off between the size and number of gametes, then this optimum was shown to be one where both small (male) and large (female) gametes are produced. However, these early models assume that natural selection acts mainly at the population level, something that is today known to be a very problematic assumption.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first mathematical model to explain the evolution of anisogamy via individual level selection, and one that became widely accepted was the theory of gamete or sperm competition.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here, selection happens at the individual level: those individuals that produce more (but smaller) gametes also gain a larger proportion of fertilizations simply because they produce a larger number of gametes that 'seek out' those of the larger type. However, because zygotes formed from larger gametes have better survival prospects, this process can again lead to the divergence of gametes sizes into large and small (female and male) gametes. The end result is one where it seems that the numerous, small gametes compete for the large gametes that are tasked with providing maximal resources for the offspring. </p><p>Some recent theoretical work has challenged the gamete competition theory, by showing that gamete limitation by itself can lead to the divergence of gamete sizes even under selection at the individual level.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this is possible, it has also been shown that gamete competition and gamete limitation are the ends of a continuum of selective pressures, and they can act separately or together depending on the conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These selection pressures also act in the same direction (to increase gamete numbers at the expense of size) and at the same level (individual selection). Theory also suggests that gamete limitation could only have been the dominant force of selection for the evolutionary origin of the sexes under quite limited circumstances, and the presence on average of just one competitor can makes the 'selfish' evolutionary force of gamete competition stronger than the 'cooperative' force of gamete limitation even if gamete limitation is very acute (approaching 100% of eggs remaining unfertilized).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is then a relatively sound theory base for understanding this fundamental transition from isogamy to anisogamy in the evolution of reproduction, which is predicted to be associated with the transition to multicellularity. In fact, Hanschen et al. (2018) demonstrate that anisogamy evolved from isogamous multicellular ancestors and that anisogamy would subsequently drive secondary sexual dimorphism.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanschen-2018_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanschen-2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some comparative empirical evidence for the gamete competition theories exists,<sup id="cite_ref-Lessells-2009_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessells-2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it is difficult to use this evidence to fully tease apart the competition and limitation theories because their testable predictions are similar.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2014_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2014-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been claimed that some of the organisms used in such comparative studies do not fit the theoretical assumptions well.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A valuable model system to the study of the evolution of anisogamy is the volvocine algae, which group of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">chlorophytes</a> is quite unique for its extant species exhibit a diversity of mating systems (<a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">isogamy</a> and anisogamy) in addition to its extremes in both <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">unicellularity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellularity</a> with a diversity of forms in species of intermediate ranges of sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine algae have been closely studied to understand the trajectories of such diversified reproductive systems,<sup id="cite_ref-Togashi-2012_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Togashi-2012-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> evolution of sex and mating types,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the adaptiveness and stability of anisogamy.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Togashi-2012_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Togashi-2012-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hanschen-2018_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanschen-2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of sex">Evolution of sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anisogamy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Lehtonen-2016-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lehtonen-2016_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehtonen-2016_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLehtonenKokkoParker2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lehtonen, J.; <a href="/wiki/Hanna_Kokko" title="Hanna Kokko">Kokko, Hanna</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Parker" title="Geoff Parker">Parker, Geoff A.</a> (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5031617">"What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes?"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>371</b> (1706). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0532">10.1098/rstb.2015.0532</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5031617">5031617</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27619696">27619696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=What+do+isogamous+organisms+teach+us+about+sex+and+the+two+sexes%3F&rft.volume=371&rft.issue=1706&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5031617%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27619696&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0532&rft.aulast=Lehtonen&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Kokko%2C+Hanna&rft.au=Parker%2C+Geoff+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5031617&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaviesKrebs2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Barry_Davies" title="Nicholas Barry Davies">Davies, Nicholas B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Krebs,_Baron_Krebs" title="John Krebs, Baron Krebs">Krebs, John R.</a> (2009-07-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ne9Rai2S5K4C&pg=PT189"><i>An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">175–</span>206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1402-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1402-1"><bdi>978-1-4443-1402-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328080954/https://books.google.com/books?id=ne9Rai2S5K4C&pg=PT189#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Behavioural+Ecology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009-07-17&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-1402-1&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+B.&rft.au=Krebs%2C+John+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dne9Rai2S5K4C%26pg%3DPT189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitnick-2008-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pitnick-2008_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pitnick-2008_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPitnickHoskenBirkhead2008" class="citation book cs1">Pitnick, Scott S.; Hosken, Dave J.; <a href="/wiki/Tim_Birkhead" title="Tim Birkhead">Birkhead, Tim R.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kctYNbO1fE0C&q=isogamy+in+multicellular+organisms&pg=PA44"><i>Sperm Biology: An Evolutionary Perspective</i></a>. Academic Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">43–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-091987-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-091987-4"><bdi>978-0-08-091987-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sperm+Biology%3A+An+Evolutionary+Perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-08-091987-4&rft.aulast=Pitnick&rft.aufirst=Scott+S.&rft.au=Hosken%2C+Dave+J.&rft.au=Birkhead%2C+Tim+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkctYNbO1fE0C%26q%3Disogamy%2Bin%2Bmulticellular%2Borganisms%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehtonen-2021-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lehtonen-2021_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehtonen-2021_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehtonen-2021_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLehtonen2021" class="citation journal cs1">Lehtonen, Jussi (5 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7998237">"The Legacy of Parker, Baker and Smith 1972: Gamete Competition, the Evolution of Anisogamy, and Model Robustness"</a>. <i>Cells</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 573. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fcells10030573">10.3390/cells10030573</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7998237">7998237</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33807911">33807911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cells&rft.atitle=The+Legacy+of+Parker%2C+Baker+and+Smith+1972%3A+Gamete+Competition%2C+the+Evolution+of+Anisogamy%2C+and+Model+Robustness&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=573&rft.date=2021-03-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7998237%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33807911&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fcells10030573&rft.aulast=Lehtonen&rft.aufirst=Jussi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7998237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTogashiBarteltYoshimuraTainaka2012" class="citation journal cs1">Togashi, Tatsuya; Bartelt, John L.; Yoshimura, Jin; Tainaka, Kei-ichi; Cox, Paul Alan (21 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3427103">"Evolutionary trajectories explain the diversified evolution of isogamy and anisogamy in marine green algae"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>109</b> (34): <span class="nowrap">13692–</span>13697. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PNAS..10913692T">2012PNAS..10913692T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1203495109">10.1073/pnas.1203495109</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3427103">3427103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22869736">22869736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+trajectories+explain+the+diversified+evolution+of+isogamy+and+anisogamy+in+marine+green+algae&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13692-%3C%2Fspan%3E13697&rft.date=2012-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3427103%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22869736&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1203495109&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PNAS..10913692T&rft.aulast=Togashi&rft.aufirst=Tatsuya&rft.au=Bartelt%2C+John+L.&rft.au=Yoshimura%2C+Jin&rft.au=Tainaka%2C+Kei-ichi&rft.au=Cox%2C+Paul+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3427103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeonardCordoba-Aguilar2010" class="citation book cs1">Leonard, Janet; Cordoba-Aguilar, Alex (2010-07-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wmlnDAAAQBAJ&q=anisogamy+widely+accepted&pg=PA18"><i>The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals</i></a>. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. <span class="nowrap">18–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532555-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532555-3"><bdi>978-0-19-532555-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328081118/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmlnDAAAQBAJ&q=anisogamy+widely+accepted&pg=PA18#v=snippet&q=anisogamy%20widely%20accepted&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Primary+Sexual+Characters+in+Animals&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2010-07-19&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532555-3&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft.au=Cordoba-Aguilar%2C+Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwmlnDAAAQBAJ%26q%3Danisogamy%2Bwidely%2Baccepted%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O5lnDwAAQBAJ&dq=gamete+size+difference+is+the+fundamental+difference&pg=RA1-PA7"><i>Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior</i></a>. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 2019-01-21. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813252-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813252-4"><bdi>978-0-12-813252-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328080954/https://books.google.com/books?id=O5lnDwAAQBAJ&dq=gamete+size+difference+is+the+fundamental+difference&pg=RA1-PA7#v=onepage&q=gamete%20size%20difference%20is%20the%20fundamental%20difference&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Animal+Behavior&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2019-01-21&rft.isbn=978-0-12-813252-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO5lnDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgamete%2Bsize%2Bdifference%2Bis%2Bthe%2Bfundamental%2Bdifference%26pg%3DRA1-PA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndersson2019" class="citation book cs1">Andersson, Malte (2019-12-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=83y-DwAAQBAJ&dq=anisogamy&pg=PA4"><i>Sexual Selection</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20727-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20727-8"><bdi>978-0-691-20727-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328080955/https://books.google.com/books?id=83y-DwAAQBAJ&dq=anisogamy&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q=anisogamy&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexual+Selection&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019-12-31&rft.isbn=978-0-691-20727-8&rft.aulast=Andersson&rft.aufirst=Malte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D83y-DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Danisogamy%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMajerus2003" class="citation book cs1">Majerus, M. E. N. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vDHOYPQ2mmYC&q=anisogamy+widely+accepted&pg=PA8"><i>Sex Wars: Genes, Bacteria, and Biased Sex Ratios</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">7–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00981-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00981-0"><bdi>978-0-691-00981-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328081110/https://books.google.com/books?id=vDHOYPQ2mmYC&q=anisogamy+widely+accepted&pg=PA8#v=snippet&q=anisogamy%20widely%20accepted&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+Wars%3A+Genes%2C+Bacteria%2C+and+Biased+Sex+Ratios&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00981-0&rft.aulast=Majerus&rft.aufirst=M.+E.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvDHOYPQ2mmYC%26q%3Danisogamy%2Bwidely%2Baccepted%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorkmanReader2015" class="citation book cs1">Workman, Lance; Reader, Will (2015-09-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v_KPCgAAQBAJ&dq=anisogamy+from+greek+unequal+marriage&pg=PA70"><i>Evolution and Behavior</i></a>. Routledge. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53682-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53682-6"><bdi>978-1-317-53682-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328080955/https://books.google.com/books?id=v_KPCgAAQBAJ&dq=anisogamy+from+greek+unequal+marriage&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q=anisogamy%20from%20greek%20unequal%20marriage&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+Behavior&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-09-16&rft.isbn=978-1-317-53682-6&rft.aulast=Workman&rft.aufirst=Lance&rft.au=Reader%2C+Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv_KPCgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Danisogamy%2Bfrom%2Bgreek%2Bunequal%2Bmarriage%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anisogamous">"Definition of ANISOGAMOUS"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210914002003/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anisogamous">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Definition+of+ANISOGAMOUS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fanisogamous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/anisogamy">"Anisogamy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607144223/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/anisogamy">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-06-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anisogamy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2Fanisogamy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kumar-2019-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kumar-2019_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKumarMeenaSwapnil2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kumar R, Meena M, Swapnil P (2019). "Anisogamy". In Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds.). <i>Anisogamy</i>. <i>Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior</i>. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1">10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_340-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-47829-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-47829-6"><bdi>978-3-319-47829-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anisogamy&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Animal+Cognition+and+Behavior&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1&rft.isbn=978-3-319-47829-6&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Meena%2C+M&rft.au=Swapnil%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_r4OCAAAQBAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology</i></a>. 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(1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC391862">"Search, encounter rates, and the evolution of anisogamy"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>81</b> (19): <span class="nowrap">6078–</span>6079. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984PNAS...81.6078C">1984PNAS...81.6078C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.81.19.6078">10.1073/pnas.81.19.6078</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC391862">391862</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6592603">6592603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Search%2C+encounter+rates%2C+and+the+evolution+of+anisogamy&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6078-%3C%2Fspan%3E6079&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC391862%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6592603&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.81.19.6078&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984PNAS...81.6078C&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=P.+A.&rft.au=Sethian%2C+J.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC391862&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnisogamy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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