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id="toc-Dialect_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialect_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Dialect geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialect_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligibility_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligibility_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Intelligibility testing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligibility_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Terminology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Initials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Finals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Tones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constituent_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constituent_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Constituent order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constituent_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nominals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Nominals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_sentence_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_sentence_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Major sentence types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_sentence_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Verb phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociolinguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociolinguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Sociolinguistics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociolinguistics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sociolinguistics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sociolinguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bilingualism_and_code-switching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bilingualism_and_code-switching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Bilingualism and code-switching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bilingualism_and_code-switching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Language policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mainland_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Mainland China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Taiwan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Singapore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" > 18 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لهجات صينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لهجات صينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="چین دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چین دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variedades_de_chino" title="Variedades de chino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Variedades de chino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="گونه‌های چینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گونه‌های چینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinois_parl%C3%A9" title="Chinois parlé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chinois parlé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBng-koet_Ng%C3%AE-ngi%C3%A8n" title="Chûng-koet Ngî-ngièn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chûng-koet Ngî-ngièn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98_%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8" title="중국어의 방언 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국어의 방언" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varietas_bahasa_Tionghoa" title="Varietas bahasa Tionghoa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Varietas bahasa Tionghoa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ჩინური დიალექტები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინური დიალექტები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Cina_lisan" title="Bahasa Cina lisan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Cina lisan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjineesk_spriaken" title="Sjineesk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sjineesk spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалекты китайского языка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Диалекты китайского языка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Varieties of Chinese" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varijante_kineskog_jezika" title="Varijante kineskog jezika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Varijante kineskog jezika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siniittiset_kielet" title="Siniittiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Siniittiset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Діалекти китайської мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Діалекти китайської мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="中國方言 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中國方言" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="汉语方言 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the varieties of Han Chinese people, see <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese_subgroups" title="Han Chinese subgroups">Han Chinese subgroups</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Spoken Chinese" redirects here. For other languages spoken in China, see <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: salmon;">Chinese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Sinitic</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li>Chinese</li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="hlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">She</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/zhx" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:zhx">zhx</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code>79-AAA</code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sini1245">sini1245</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/300px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="454" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/450px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/600px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="620" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Primary branches of Chinese according to the <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987Map_A2-4">[3]</a> The Mandarin area extends into <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> (not shown).</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:汉语">汉语</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E" class="extiw" title="wikt:漢語">漢語</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hànyǔ</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> language</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hànyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[ㄏㄢˋ ㄩˇ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hannyeu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Han4-yu3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hàn-yǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hàn-yǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[xân.ỳ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">hoe3 nyiu2</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Romanization#Hakka" title="Guangdong Romanization">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hon Ngi</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">hon yúh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">hon3 jyu5</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Romanization" title="Guangdong Romanization">Canton Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">hon3 yü5</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hàn-gí, Hàn-gú</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> <a href="/wiki/Foochow_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Foochow Romanized">BUC</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Háng-ngṳ̄</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> There are hundreds of local <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> varieties<a href="#cite_note-8">[b]</a> forming a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan language family</a>, many of which are not <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a>. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast part of mainland China. The varieties are typically classified into several groups: <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a>, though some varieties remain unclassified. These groups are neither <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> nor individual languages defined by mutual intelligibility, but reflect common phonological developments from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>. Chinese varieties have the greatest differences in their <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, and to a lesser extent in <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. All have phonemic <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>, with the most complex patterns in the coastal area from <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> to eastern <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and grammar based on literature in the <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">modern written vernacular</a>. It is one of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">official languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and one of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore" title="Languages of Singapore">four official languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. It has become a <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric language</a>, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms. It is also one of the <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">six official languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in a compact area along the lower <a href="/wiki/Wei_River" title="Wei River">Wei River</a> and middle <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>. Use of this language expanded eastwards across the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a> into <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, and then southwards into the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> valley and the hills of south China. Chinese eventually replaced many of the languages previously dominant in these areas, and forms of the language spoken in different regions began to diverge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183-9">[7]</a> During periods of political unity there was a tendency for states to promote the use of a <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard language</a> across the territory they controlled, in order to facilitate communication between people from different regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183,_185-10">[8]</a> The first evidence of dialectal variation is found in the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> (771–476 BC). Although the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> royal domain was no longer politically powerful, its speech still represented a model for communication across China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183-9">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fangyan_(book)" title="Fangyan (book)">Fangyan</a> (early 1st century AD) is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988185-11">[9]</a> Commentaries from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a> (25–220 AD) provide significant evidence of local differences in pronunciation. The <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionary</a> published in 601, noted wide variations in pronunciation between regions, and was created with the goal of defining a standard system of pronunciation for reading the classics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987116–117-12">[10]</a> This standard is known as <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, and is believed to be a <a href="/wiki/Diasystem" title="Diasystem">diasystem</a>, based on a compromise between the reading traditions of the northern and southern capitals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25-13">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a> provided few barriers to migration, which resulted in relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area. Contrastingly, the mountains and rivers of southern China contain all six of the other major Chinese dialect groups, with each in turn featuring great internal diversity, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183–190-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198722-15">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_Chinese">Standard Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Standard Chinese">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></div> Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">common language based on Mandarin varieties</a>, known as Guānhuà (官話/官话 'officer speech'). While never formally defined, knowledge of this language was essential for a career in the imperial bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988136-16">[14]</a> In the early years of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> was replaced as the written standard by <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a>, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s, a standard national language with pronunciation based on the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing dialect</a> was adopted, but with vocabulary drawn from a range of Mandarin varieties, and grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey19873–15-17">[15]</a> Standard Chinese is the official spoken language of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> and Taiwan, and is one of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore" title="Languages of Singapore">official languages</a> of Singapore.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992309–312-18">[16]</a> It has become a <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric language</a>, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992313–318-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199946–49-20">[18]</a> Standard Chinese is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese, and its use is now dominant in public life on the mainland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988247-21">[19]</a> Outside of China and Taiwan, the only varieties of Chinese commonly taught in university courses are Standard Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988187-22">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_Romance">Comparison with Romance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Comparison with Romance">edit</a>]</div> Local varieties from different areas of China are often mutually unintelligible, differing at least as much as different <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> and perhaps even as much as <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19881-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan20062-24">[22]</a> As with the Romance languages descended from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>, the ancestral language was spread by imperial expansion over <a href="/wiki/Substrate_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate language">substrate languages</a> 2000 years ago, by the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> empires in China, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in Europe. <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> remained the standard for scholarly and administrative writing in Western Europe for centuries, influencing local varieties much like <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> did in China. In both cases, local forms of speech diverged from both the literary standard and each other, producing <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continua" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect continua">dialect continua</a> with mutually unintelligible varieties separated by long distances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988187-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey19877-25">[23]</a> However, a major difference between China and Western Europe is the historical reestablishment of political unity in 6th century China by the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, a unity that has persisted with relatively brief interludes until the present day. Meanwhile, Europe remained politically decentralized, and developed numerous independent states. Vernacular writing using the Latin alphabet supplanted Latin itself, and states eventually developed their own <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard languages</a>. In China, Literary Chinese was predominantly used in formal writing until the early 20th century. Written Chinese, read with different local pronunciations, continued to serve as a source of vocabulary for the local varieties. The new standard <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a>, the counterpart of spoken Standard Chinese, is similarly used as a literary form by speakers of all varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19882–3-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198716–18-27">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div> Dialectologist <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-28">[26]</a> These varieties form a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, although there are also some sharp boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-29">[27]</a> However, the rate of change in mutual intelligibility varies immensely depending on region. For example, the varieties of Mandarin spoken in all three northeastern Chinese provinces are mutually intelligible, but in the province of Fujian, where Min varieties predominate, the speech of neighbouring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988188-30">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialect_groups">Dialect groups</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dialect groups">edit</a>]</div> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#946565; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 3182.0515953774px; border-left-color:#9b987f"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#9b987f"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#9b987f"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 1987.7609902728px; border-left-color:#a5ae87"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#a5ae87"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#a5ae87"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 410.83968437177px; border-left-color:#eeb36a"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#eeb36a"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#eeb36a"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 202.51256191925px; border-left-color:#fbd98d"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#fbd98d"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#fbd98d"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 117.83254560581px; border-left-color:#96642c"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#96642c"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#96642c"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 59.991083666714px; border-left-color:#bf6e7b"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#bf6e7b"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#bf6e7b"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 19.076020221857px; border-left-color:#c8c8a8"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#c8c8a8"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#c8c8a8"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:98.109051744333px 19.354946805086px 0 0; border-top-color:#b1bab6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#b1bab6"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:83.407843361317px 55.164587062843px 0 0; border-top-color:#ac8761"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ac8761"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> Proportions of first-language speakers<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiongZhang20123,_125-31">[29]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> (65.7%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> (6.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> (6.1%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> (5.6%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> (5.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> (3.9%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> (3.5%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a> (3.0%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a> (0.3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a>, others (0.6%)</div> </div> </div></div> Classifications of Chinese varieties in the late 19th century and early 20th century were based on impressionistic criteria. They often followed river systems, which were historically the main routes of migration and communication in southern China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201036–41-32">[30]</a> The first scientific classifications, based primarily on the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials, were produced by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Li_(linguist)" title="Wang Li (linguist)">Wang Li</a> in 1936 and <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a> in 1937, with minor modifications by other linguists since.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53-33">[31]</a> The conventionally accepted set of seven dialect groups first appeared in the second edition (1980) of <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Jiahua" title="Yuan Jiahua">Yuan Jiahua</a>'s dialectology handbook:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988181-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201053–55,_61,_215-35">[33]</a> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></dt> <dd>This is the group spoken in northern and southwestern China and has by far the most speakers. This group includes the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, called Putonghua or Guoyu in Chinese, and often also translated as "Mandarin" or simply "Chinese". In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> is a Mandarin variety written in the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></dt> <dd>These varieties are spoken in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> and the southern parts of <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>. The group comprises hundreds of distinct spoken forms, many of which are not mutually intelligible. The <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou dialect</a> is usually taken as representative, because <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> features several atypical innovations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200690-36">[34]</a> Wu varieties are distinguished by their retention of voiced or murmured <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruent</a> initials (<a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988199–200-37">[35]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></dt> <dd>These varieties are spoken in <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> and neighbouring areas. The <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang dialect</a> is taken as representative. In the past, Gan was viewed as closely related to <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> because of the way Middle Chinese voiced initials became voiceless aspirated initials as in Hakka, and were hence called by the umbrella term "Hakka–Gan dialects".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201046,_49–50-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006148-39">[37]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></dt> <dd>The Xiang varieties are spoken in <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>. The <a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New Xiang</a> varieties, represented by the <a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha dialect</a>, have been significantly influenced by Southwest Mandarin, whereas <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a> varieties, represented by the <a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng dialect</a>, retain features such as voiced initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988207–209-40">[38]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></dt> <dd>These varieties originated in the mountainous terrain of Fujian and eastern <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, and form the only branch of Chinese that cannot be directly derived from Middle Chinese. It is also the most diverse, with many of the varieties used in neighbouring counties—and, in the mountains of western Fujian, even in adjacent villages—being mutually unintelligible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988188-30">[28]</a> Early classifications divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups, but a survey in the early 1960s found that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233-42">[40]</a> Varieties from the coastal region around <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a> have spread to Southeast Asia, where they are known as <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> (named from a dialectical pronunciation of "Fujian"), and Taiwan, where they are known as <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988232–233-43">[41]</a> Other offshoots of Min are found in <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Peninsula" title="Leizhou Peninsula">Leizhou Peninsula</a>, with smaller communities throughout southern China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233-42">[40]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></dt> <dd>The <a href="/wiki/Hakka_people" title="Hakka people">Hakka</a> (literally "guest families") are a group of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> living in the hills of northeastern Guangdong, southwestern Fujian and many other parts of southern China, as well as Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia such as Singapore, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian dialect</a> is the prestige form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988224-44">[42]</a> Most Hakka varieties retain the full complement of nasal endings, -m -n -ŋ and stop endings -p -t -k, though there is a tendency for Middle Chinese velar codas -ŋ and -k to yield dental codas -n and -t after front vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988217-45">[43]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></dt> <dd>These varieties are spoken in Guangdong, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, and have been carried by immigrants to Southeast Asia and many other parts of the world. The <a href="/wiki/Prestige_variety" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige variety">prestige variety</a> and by far most commonly spoken variety is <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>, from the city of <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (historically called "Canton"), which is also the native language of the majority in Hong Kong and Macau.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988215-46">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishanese</a>, from the coastal area of <a href="/wiki/Jiangmen" title="Jiangmen">Jiangmen</a> southwest of Guangzhou, was historically the most common Yue variety among overseas communities in the West until the late 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198798-47">[45]</a> Not all Yue varieties are mutually intelligible. Most Yue varieties retain the full complement of Middle Chinese word-final consonants (/p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/) and have rich inventories of tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988217-45">[43]</a></dd></dl> The <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a> (1987) follows a classification of <a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li Rong</a>, distinguishing three further groups:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201055–56-49">[47]</a> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></dt> <dd>These varieties, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> and adjacent areas, were formerly included in Mandarin. They are distinguished by their retention of the Middle Chinese <a href="/wiki/Entering_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Entering tone">entering tone</a> category.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200660–61-50">[48]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a></dt> <dd>The Hui dialects, spoken in southern <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>, share different features with Wu, Gan and Mandarin, making them difficult to classify. Earlier scholars had assigned to them one or other of these groups, or to a group of their own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006222–223-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201043–44,_48,_69,_75–76-52">[50]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></dt> <dd>These varieties are descended from the speech of the earliest Chinese migrants to <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, predating the later influx of Yue and Southwest Mandarin speakers. Some linguists treat them as a mixture of Yue and Xiang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006235-53">[51]</a></dd></dl> Some varieties remain unclassified, including the <a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou dialect</a> (northwestern <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a> (southern Hainan), <a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a> (northwestern <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a> (southern Hunan), <a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a> (northern Guangdong), and the forms of Chinese spoken by the <a href="/wiki/She_people" title="She people">She people</a> (<a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">She Chinese</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201072–73-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiongZhang2012161,_188,_189,_195-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008a9-56">[54]</a> She Chinese, Xiangnan Tuhua, Shaozhou Tuhua and unclassified varieties of southwest Jiangxi appear to be related to Hakka.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakanishi2010-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2019438–443-58">[56]</a> Most of the vocabulary of the <a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> appears to be related to Chinese words, though many are clearly loans from the last few centuries. Some scholars have suggested that it represents a very early branching from Chinese, while others argue that it is a more distantly related <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan language">Sino-Tibetan language</a> overlaid with two millennia of loans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987290–291-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_75-60">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005-61">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialect_geography">Dialect geography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dialect geography">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/280px-Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/420px-Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/560px-Map_of_northern_features_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Map of the spread of 16 features identified by Norman as characteristic of northern dialects. Areas with all these features are shown in darkest blue; those with none in darkest red. The central dialects lie in between.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_76-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMaps_4,_52,_66,_73-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008bMaps_5,_52,_79,_109,_134,_138-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008cMaps_3,_28,_38,_41,_76-66">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three zones: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang) and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183-67">[65]</a> He argued that the dialects of the Southern zone are derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central zone was a transitional area of dialects that were originally of southern type, but overlain with centuries of Northern influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_76-63">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Chappell" title="Hilary Chappell">Hilary Chappell</a> proposed a refined model, dividing Norman's Northern zone into Northern and Southwestern areas, and his Southern zone into Southeastern (Min) and Far Southern (Yue and Hakka) areas, with Pinghua transitional between Southwestern and Far Southern areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappell2015b45–51-68">[66]</a> The long history of migration of peoples and interaction between speakers of different dialects makes it difficult to apply the <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> to Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200376-69">[67]</a> Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave models</a>. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Lower Yangtze Mandarin</a> area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108-70">[68]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Dialect_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect boundaries">dialect boundaries</a>, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-29">[27]</a> Several east-west isoglosses run along the Huai and Yangtze Rivers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata1995211–212-71">[69]</a> A north-south barrier is formed by the <a href="/wiki/Tianmu_Mountain" title="Tianmu Mountain">Tianmu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wuyi_Mountains" title="Wuyi Mountains">Wuyi Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata1995215–216,_218-72">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligibility_testing">Intelligibility testing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Intelligibility testing">edit</a>]</div> Most assessments of mutual intelligibility of varieties of Chinese in the literature are impressionistic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009713–714-73">[71]</a> Functional intelligibility testing is time-consuming in any language family, and usually not done when more than 10 varieties are to be compared.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009712-74">[72]</a> However, one 2009 study aimed to measure intelligibility between 15 Chinese provinces. In each province, 15 university students were recruited as speakers and 15 older rural inhabitants recruited as listeners. The listeners were then tested on their comprehension of isolated words and of particular words in the context of sentences spoken by speakers from all 15 of the provinces surveyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009715–717-75">[73]</a> The results demonstrated significant levels of unintelligibility between areas, even within the Mandarin group. In a few cases, listeners understood fewer than 70% of words spoken by speakers from the same province, indicating significant differences between urban and rural varieties. As expected from the wide use of <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, speakers from Beijing were understood more than speakers from elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009718–722-76">[74]</a> The scores supported a primary division between northern groups (Mandarin and Jin) and all others, with Min as an identifiable branch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009721–722-77">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> Because speakers share a <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">standard written form</a>, and have a common cultural heritage with long periods of political unity, the varieties are popularly perceived among native speakers as variants of a single Chinese language,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19881–2-78">[76]</a> and this is also the official position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang201414-79">[77]</a> Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use dialect for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status), with regional groupings like Mandarin and Wu called dialect groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-28">[26]</a> Other linguists choose to refer to the major groups as languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013-80">[78]</a> However, each of these groups contains mutually unintelligible varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-28">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> assign language codes to each of the top-level groups listed above except Min and Pinghua, whose subdivisions are assigned five and two codes respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2024-81">[79]</a> Some linguists refer to the local varieties as languages, numbering in the hundreds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappell2015a8-82">[80]</a> The Chinese term fāngyán <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:方言">方言</a>, literally 'place speech', was the title of the <a href="/wiki/Fangyan_(book)" title="Fangyan (book)">first work of Chinese dialectology</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, and has had a range of meanings in the millennia since.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913–6-83">[81]</a> It is used for any regional subdivision of Chinese, from the speech of a village to major branches such as Mandarin and Wu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska20102-84">[82]</a> Linguists writing in Chinese often qualify the term to distinguish different levels of classification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201063-85">[83]</a> All these terms have customarily been translated into English as dialect, a practice that has been criticized as confusing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457-86">[84]</a> The neologisms regionalect and topolect have been proposed as alternative renderings of fāngyán.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[c]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_syllable_tree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chinese_syllable_tree.svg/220px-Chinese_syllable_tree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chinese_syllable_tree.svg/330px-Chinese_syllable_tree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chinese_syllable_tree.svg/440px-Chinese_syllable_tree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Traditional Chinese syllable structure</figcaption></figure> The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, traditionally analysed as consisting of an initial <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a>, a final and a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988138–139-89">[86]</a> In general, southern varieties have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988212–213-90">[87]</a> Some varieties, such as Cantonese, Hokkien and <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, include <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic nasal">syllabic nasals</a> as independent syllables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987101-91">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initials">Initials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Initials">edit</a>]</div> In the 42 varieties surveyed in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Dictionary_of_Modern_Chinese_Dialects" title="Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects">Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects</a>, the number of initials (including a zero initial) ranges from 15 in some southern dialects to a high of 35 in <a href="/wiki/Chongming_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chongming dialect">Chongming dialect</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Chongming_Island" title="Chongming Island">Chongming Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska2010186–188-92">[89]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Initials of selected varieties<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200669,_90,_127-93">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988139,_236-94">[91]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="8" style="padding: 0px"> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> (<a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a>) </th> <th rowspan="8" style="padding: 0px"> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a>) </th> <th rowspan="8" style="padding: 0px"> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> </th> <th scope="row">voiceless aspirated </th> <td>pʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td> </td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tɕʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td> </td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tɕʰ</td> <td>tʂʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">voiceless unaspirated </th> <td>p</td> <td>t</td> <td>ts</td> <td>k</td> <td> </td> <td>p</td> <td>t</td> <td>ts</td> <td>tɕ</td> <td>k</td> <td> </td> <td>p</td> <td>t</td> <td>ts</td> <td>tɕ</td> <td>tʂ</td> <td>k</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">voiced </th> <td colspan="5"> </td> <td>b</td> <td>d</td> <td></td> <td>dʑ</td> <td>ɡ</td> <td> </td> <td colspan="7"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <th scope="row">voiceless </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>s</td> <td>x</td> <td> </td> <td>f</td> <td></td> <td>s</td> <td>ɕ</td> <td></td> <td>h </td> <td>f</td> <td></td> <td>s</td> <td>ɕ</td> <td>ʂ</td> <td>x</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">voiced </th> <td colspan="5"> </td> <td>v</td> <td></td> <td>z</td> <td>ʑ</td> <td></td> <td>ɦ </td> <td colspan="4"> </td> <td rowspan="2">ɻ/ʐ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">Sonorants</a> </th> <td></td> <td>l</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>∅ </td> <td></td> <td>l</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>∅ </td> <td></td> <td>l</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>∅ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasals</a> </th> <td>m</td> <td>n</td> <td></td> <td>ŋ</td> <td> </td> <td>m</td> <td>n</td> <td></td> <td>ɲ</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td> </td> <td>m</td> <td>n</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/280px-Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/420px-Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/560px-Map_of_the_degree_of_palatalization_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Map of the extent of the palatal merger in the core Chinese-speaking area<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_66-95">[92]</a></figcaption></figure> The initial system of the <a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou dialect</a> of northern Fujian is a minimal example.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006127-96">[93]</a> With the exception of /ŋ/, which is often merged with the zero initial, the initials of this dialect are present in all Chinese varieties, although several varieties do not distinguish /n/ from /l/. However, most varieties have additional initials, due to a combination of innovations and retention of distinctions from Middle Chinese: <ul><li>Most non-Min varieties have a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">labiodental fricative</a> /f/, which developed from Middle Chinese <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_stop" title="Bilabial stop">bilabial stops</a> in certain environments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211,_233-97">[94]</a></li> <li>The voiced initials of Middle Chinese are retained in Wu dialects such as Suzhou and <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai dialect">Shanghai</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a> dialects and a few Gan dialects, but have merged with voiceless initials elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988199–200,_207-98">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200691,_108–109,_152-99">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> varieties have an unrelated series of voiced initials resulting from devoicing of nasal initials in syllables without nasal finals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236-100">[97]</a></li> <li>The Middle Chinese <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> initials are retained in many Mandarin dialects, including Beijing but not southwestern and southeastern Mandarin varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193-101">[98]</a></li> <li>In many northern and central varieties there is <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a> of dental affricates, <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velars</a> (as in Suzhou), or both. In many places, including Beijing, palatalized dental affricates and palatalized velars have merged to form a new palatal series.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182,_193,_200,_205-102">[99]</a></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerycaption">Maps of the distributions of various initial consonants in the core Chinese-speaking area</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="voiced obstruent initials[100]"><img alt="voiced obstruent initials[100]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/151px-Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/226px-Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/301px-Map_of_distribution_of_voiced_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">voiced obstruent initials<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_40-103">[100]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="retroflex initials[101]"><img alt="retroflex initials[101]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/151px-Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/226px-Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/301px-Map_of_distribution_of_retroflex_initials_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">retroflex initials<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_45-104">[101]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="velar nasal initial (ŋ)[102]"><img alt="velar nasal initial (ŋ)[102]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/151px-Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/226px-Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/301px-Map_of_distribution_of_the_velar_nasal_initial_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">velar nasal initial (ŋ)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_43-105">[102]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="retained m- where Beijing has w-[103]"><img alt="retained m- where Beijing has w-[103]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/151px-Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/226px-Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/301px-Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E9%97%AE_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">retained m- where Beijing has w-<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_52-106">[103]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="retained n- where Beijing has r-[104]"><img alt="retained n- where Beijing has r-[104]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/151px-Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/226px-Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/301px-Map_of_distribution_of_nasal_initial_in_%E7%86%B1_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">retained n- where Beijing has r-<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_73-107">[104]</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finals">Finals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Finals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/280px-Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/420px-Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/560px-Map_of_distribution_of_stop_codas_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Map of the distribution of stop codas in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_124-108">[105]</a></figcaption></figure> Chinese finals may be analysed as an optional medial <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">glide</a>, a main vowel and an optional coda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198828,_141-109">[106]</a> Conservative vowel systems, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Gan_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Gan dialects">Gan dialects</a>, have high vowels /i/, /u/ and /y/, which also function as medials, mid vowels /e/ and /o/, and a low /a/-like vowel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006150–151-110">[107]</a> In other dialects, including Mandarin dialects, /o/ has merged with /a/, leaving a single mid vowel with a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988141,_198-111">[108]</a> Many dialects, particularly in northern and central China, have apical or retroflex vowels, which are <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic fricative">syllabic fricatives</a> derived from high vowels following sibilant initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988194-112">[109]</a> In many <a href="/wiki/Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu dialects">Wu dialects</a>, vowels and final glides have <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongized</a>, producing a rich inventory of vowels in open syllables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988200–201-113">[110]</a> Reduction of medials is common in <a href="/wiki/Yue_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yue dialects">Yue dialects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988216–217-114">[111]</a> The Middle Chinese codas, consisting of glides /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/, are best preserved in southern dialects, particularly Yue dialects such as Cantonese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988217-45">[43]</a> In some Min dialects, nasals and stops following open vowels have shifted to nasalization and glottal stops respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-115">[112]</a> In Jin, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Lower Yangtze Mandarin</a> and Wu dialects, the stops have merged as a final <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>, while in most northern varieties they have disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193,_201–202-116">[113]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin dialects">Mandarin dialects</a> final /m/ has merged with /n/, while some central dialects have a single nasal coda, in some cases realized as a <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasalization</a> of the vowel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193,_201-117">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tones">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/280px-Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/420px-Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/560px-Map_of_number_of_tone_categories_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Map of the variation in the number of tone categories in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_1-118">[115]</a></figcaption></figure> All varieties of Chinese, <a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">like neighbouring languages</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area</a>, have phonemic <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>. Each syllable may be pronounced with between three and seven distinct pitch contours, denoting different morphemes. For example, the Beijing dialect distinguishes mā (妈/媽 'mother'), má (麻 'hemp'), mǎ (马/馬 'horse) and mà (骂/罵 'to scold'). The number of tonal contrasts varies between dialects, with Northern dialects tending to have fewer distinctions than Southern ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19889-119">[116]</a> Many dialects have <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>, in which the pitch contour of a syllable is affected by the tones of adjacent syllables in a compound word or phrase.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988147,_202,_239-120">[117]</a> This process is so extensive in Shanghainese that the tone system is reduced to a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> system much like <a href="/wiki/Modern_Japanese" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Japanese">modern Japanese</a>. The tonal categories of modern varieties can be related by considering their derivation from the <a href="/wiki/Four_tones_of_Middle_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Four tones of Middle Chinese">four tones of Middle Chinese</a>, though cognate tonal categories in different dialects are often realized as quite different pitch contours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854-121">[118]</a> Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. The traditional names of the tonal categories are 'level'/'even' (平 píng), 'rising' (上 shǎng) and 'departing'/'going' (去 qù). Syllables ending in a <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonant</a> /p/, /t/ or /k/ (<a href="/wiki/Checked_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Checked syllable">checked syllables</a>) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, 'entering' (入 rù), corresponding to syllables ending in nasals /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–36-122">[119]</a> The tones of Middle Chinese, as well as similar systems in neighbouring languages, experienced a <a href="/wiki/Tone_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Tone split">tone split</a> conditioned by syllabic onsets. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as "upper" (阴/陰 yīn) and "lower" (阳/陽 yáng).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853–54-123">[120]</a> When voicing was lost in all dialects except in the Wu and Old Xiang groups, this distinction became phonemic, yielding eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853-124">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Standard_Cantonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Cantonese">Cantonese</a> maintains these eight tonal categories and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988217–218-125">[122]</a> (The latter distinction has disappeared again in many varieties.) However, most Chinese varieties have reduced the number of tonal distinctions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854-121">[118]</a> For example, in Mandarin, the tones resulting from the split of Middle Chinese rising and departing tones merged, leaving four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were distributed amongst the four remaining tones in a manner that is only partially predictable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988194–195-126">[123]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Tonal categories and <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">pitch contours</a> in colloquial layers </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="3"> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="13">Middle Chinese tone and initial </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="3">level </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="3">rising </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="3">departing </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="4">entering </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">vl.</th> <th scope="col">n.</th> <th scope="col">vd. </th> <th scope="col">vl.</th> <th scope="col">n.</th> <th scope="col">vd. </th> <th scope="col">vl.</th> <th scope="col">n.</th> <th scope="col">vd. </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2">vl.</th> <th scope="col">n.</th> <th scope="col">vd. </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Jin<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988195–196,_272-127">[124]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Taiyuan </th> <td colspan="3">1 ˩ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˥˧ </td> <td colspan="4">5 ˥ </td> <td colspan="3">7 ˨˩ </td> <td>8 ˥˦ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="4">Mandarin<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988195–196,_272-127">[124]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Xi'an </th> <td>1 ˧˩ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˦ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˦˨ </td> <td colspan="4">5 ˥ </td> <td colspan="3">1 </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Beijing </th> <td>1 ˥ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˧˥ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˨˩˦ </td> <td colspan="4">5 ˥˩ </td> <td colspan="2">1,2,3,5</td> <td>5</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Chengdu </th> <td>1 ˦ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˧˩ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˥˧ </td> <td colspan="4">5 ˩˧ </td> <td colspan="4">2 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Yangzhou </th> <td>1 ˨˩ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˧˥ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˧˩ </td> <td colspan="4">5 ˥ </td> <td colspan="4">7 ˦ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="2">Xiang<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006108,_116–117-128">[125]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Changsha </th> <td>1 ˧ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˩˧ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˦˩ </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 ˥ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˨˩ </td> <td colspan="4">7 ˨˦ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Shuangfeng </th> <td>1 ˦ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˧ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˨˩ </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 ˧˥ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˧ </td> <td colspan="4">2, 5 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Gan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006162–163-129">[126]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Nanchang </th> <td>1 ˦˨ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˦ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˨˩˧ </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 ˦˥ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˨˩ </td> <td colspan="2">7 ˥ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3">Wu<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988202-130">[127]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Suzhou </th> <td>1 ˦ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˦ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˦˩ </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 ˥˩˧ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˧˩ </td> <td colspan="2">7 ˦ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˨˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Shanghai </th> <td>1 ˦˨ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˦ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˧˥ </td> <td>2 </td> <td>3 </td> <td colspan="2">2 </td> <td colspan="2">7 ˥ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˨˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Wenzhou </th> <td>1 ˦ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˧˩ </td> <td>3 ˦˥ </td> <td colspan="2">4 ˨˦ </td> <td>5 ˦˨ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˩ </td> <td colspan="2">7 ˨˧ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˩˨ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Min<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988238–239-131">[128]</a> </th> <th>Xiamen </th> <td>1 ˥ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˦ </td> <td colspan="2">3 ˥˩ </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 ˩ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˧ </td> <td colspan="2">7 ˧˨ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˥ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Hakka<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988225–226-132">[129]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Meixian </th> <td>1 ˦ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˩˨ </td> <td>3 ˧˩ </td> <td>1,3 </td> <td>1 </td> <td colspan="3">5 ˦˨ </td> <td colspan="2">7 ˨˩ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˦ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Yue<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006198-133">[130]</a> </th> <th scope="row">Guangzhou </th> <td>1 ˥˧,˥ </td> <td colspan="2">2 ˨˩ </td> <td>3 ˧˥ </td> <td colspan="2">4 ˨˧<a href="#cite_note-135">[d]</a> </td> <td>5 ˧ </td> <td colspan="2">6 ˨ </td> <td>7a ˥</td> <td>7b ˧ </td> <td colspan="2">8 ˨ </td></tr></tbody></table> In Wu, voiced obstruents were retained, and the tone split never became phonemic: the higher-pitched allophones occur with initial voiceless consonants, and the lower-pitched allophones occur with initial voiced consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988202-130">[127]</a> (Traditional Chinese classification nonetheless counts these as different tones.) Most Wu dialects retain the tone categories of Middle Chinese, but in Shanghainese several of these have merged. Many Chinese varieties exhibit <a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>, in which the realization of a tone varies depending on the context of the syllable. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> a third tone changes to a second tone when followed by another third tone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988146–147-136">[132]</a> Particularly complex sandhi patterns are found in Wu dialects and coastal Min dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988202,_239-137">[133]</a> In Shanghainese, the tone of all syllables in a word is determined by the tone of the first, so that Shanghainese has word rather than syllable tone. In northern varieties, many particles or suffixes are weakly stressed or atonic syllables. These are much rarer in southern varieties. Such syllables have a reduced pitch range that is determined by the preceding syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988148–149,_195-138">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> Most <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> in Chinese varieties are monosyllables descended from <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> words, and have cognates in all varieties: <table class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Colloquial pronunciations of cognate morphemes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeijing_University1989-139">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-tone-numbers-140">[e]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" rowspan="2">Word </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Taiyuan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiyuan dialect">Taiyuan</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Chengdu_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengdu dialect">Chengdu</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Yangzhou</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhou</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Xiamen_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiamen dialect">Xiamen</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a> 'person'</td> <td>zəŋ1</td> <td>ʐẽ2</td> <td>ʐən2</td> <td>zən2</td> <td>lən2</td> <td>ʐən2</td> <td>ɲiɛn2</td> <td>ɲin5</td> <td>ɲin2</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-person-142">[f]</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-person-142">[f]</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-person-142">[f]</a></td> <td>ɲin2</td> <td>jɐn2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:男">男</a> 'man'</td> <td>næ̃1</td> <td>næ̃2</td> <td>nan2</td> <td>nan2</td> <td>liæ̃2</td> <td>lan2</td> <td>læ̃2</td> <td>lan5</td> <td>nø2</td> <td>nø2</td> <td>naŋ2</td> <td>lam2</td> <td>nam2</td> <td>nam2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A5%B3" class="extiw" title="wikt:女">女</a> 'woman'</td> <td>ny3</td> <td>mi3</td> <td>ny3</td> <td>ɲy3</td> <td>ly3</td> <td>ɲy3</td> <td>ɲy3</td> <td>ɲy3</td> <td>ɲy6</td> <td>ɲy4</td> <td>ny3</td> <td>lu3</td> <td>ŋ3</td> <td>nøy4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AD%9A" class="extiw" title="wikt:魚">魚</a> 'fish'</td> <td>y1</td> <td>y2</td> <td>y2</td> <td>y2</td> <td>y2</td> <td>y2</td> <td>y2</td> <td>ɲiɛ5</td> <td>ŋ2</td> <td>ŋøy2</td> <td>ŋy2</td> <td>hi2</td> <td>ŋ2</td> <td>jy2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9B%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:蛇">蛇</a> 'snake'</td> <td>sɤ1</td> <td>ʂɤ2</td> <td>ʂɤ2</td> <td>se2</td> <td>ɕɪ2</td> <td>sa2</td> <td>ɣio2</td> <td>sa5</td> <td>zo2</td> <td>zei2</td> <td>sie2</td> <td>tsua2</td> <td>sa2</td> <td>ʃɛ2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%82%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:肉">肉</a> 'meat'</td> <td>zuəʔ7</td> <td>ʐou5</td> <td>ʐou5</td> <td>zəu2</td> <td>ləʔ7</td> <td>ʐəu7</td> <td>ɲu5</td> <td>ɲiuk8</td> <td>ɲioʔ8</td> <td>ɲiəu8</td> <td>nyʔ8</td> <td>hɪk8</td> <td>ɲiuk7</td> <td>juk8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8" class="extiw" title="wikt:骨">骨</a> 'bone'</td> <td>kuəʔ7</td> <td>ku1</td> <td>ku3</td> <td>ku2</td> <td>kuəʔ7</td> <td>ku7</td> <td>kəu2</td> <td>kut7</td> <td>kuɤʔ7</td> <td>ky7</td> <td>kauʔ7</td> <td>kut7</td> <td>kut7</td> <td>kuɐt7a </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9C%BC" class="extiw" title="wikt:眼">眼</a> 'eye'</td> <td>nie3</td> <td>ɲiã3</td> <td>iɛn3</td> <td>iɛn3</td> <td>iæ̃3</td> <td>ŋan3</td> <td>ŋæ̃3</td> <td>ŋan3</td> <td>ŋɛ6</td> <td>ŋa4</td> <td>ŋiaŋ3</td> <td>gɪŋ3</td> <td>ɲian3</td> <td>ŋan4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%B3" class="extiw" title="wikt:耳">耳</a> 'ear'</td> <td>ɚ3</td> <td>ɚ3</td> <td>ɚ3</td> <td>ɚ3</td> <td>a3</td> <td>ɤ3</td> <td>e3</td> <td>ə3</td> <td>ɲi6</td> <td>ŋ4</td> <td>ŋei5</td> <td>hi6</td> <td>ɲi3</td> <td>ji4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BC%BB" class="extiw" title="wikt:鼻">鼻</a> 'nose'</td> <td>pieʔ8</td> <td>pi2</td> <td>pi2</td> <td>pi2</td> <td>pieʔ7</td> <td>pi2</td> <td>bi6</td> <td>pʰit8</td> <td>bɤʔ8</td> <td>bei6</td> <td>pei6</td> <td>pʰi6</td> <td>pʰi5</td> <td>pei6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a> "sun", 'day'</td> <td>zəʔ7</td> <td>ɚ1</td> <td>ʐʅ5</td> <td>zɿ2</td> <td>ləʔ7</td> <td>ɲʅ7</td> <td>i2</td> <td>ɲit8</td> <td>ɲɪʔ8</td> <td>ɲiai8</td> <td>niʔ8</td> <td>lit8</td> <td>ɲit7</td> <td>jat8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%88" class="extiw" title="wikt:月">月</a> "moon", 'month'</td> <td>yəʔ7</td> <td>ye1</td> <td>ye5</td> <td>ye2</td> <td>yəʔ7</td> <td>ye7</td> <td>ya5</td> <td>ɲyɔt8</td> <td>ŋɤʔ8</td> <td>ɲy8</td> <td>ŋuɔʔ8</td> <td>geʔ8</td> <td>ɲiat8</td> <td>jyt8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:年">年</a> 'year'</td> <td>nie1</td> <td>ɲiæ̃2</td> <td>niɛn2</td> <td>ɲiɛn2</td> <td>liẽ2</td> <td>ɲiẽ2</td> <td>ɲɪ̃2</td> <td>ɲiɛn5</td> <td>ɲiɪ2</td> <td>ɲi2</td> <td>nieŋ2</td> <td>nĩ2</td> <td>ɲian2</td> <td>nin2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:山">山</a> 'mountain'</td> <td>sæ̃1</td> <td>sæ̃1</td> <td>ʂan1</td> <td>san1</td> <td>sæ̃1</td> <td>san1</td> <td>sæ̃1</td> <td>san1</td> <td>sɛ1</td> <td>sa1</td> <td>saŋ1</td> <td>suã1</td> <td>san1</td> <td>ʃan1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:水">水</a> 'water'</td> <td>suei3</td> <td>fei3</td> <td>ʂuei3</td> <td>suei3</td> <td>suəi3</td> <td>ɕyei3</td> <td>ɕy3</td> <td>sui3</td> <td>sɥ3</td> <td>sɿ3</td> <td>tsy3</td> <td>tsui3</td> <td>sui3</td> <td>ʃøy3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:紅">紅</a> 'red'</td> <td>xuŋ1</td> <td>xuoŋ2</td> <td>xuŋ2</td> <td>xoŋ2</td> <td>xoŋ2</td> <td>xən2</td> <td>ɣən2</td> <td>fuŋ5</td> <td>ɦoŋ2</td> <td>ɦoŋ2</td> <td>øyŋ2</td> <td>aŋ2</td> <td>fuŋ2</td> <td>huŋ2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B6%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:綠">綠</a> 'green'</td> <td>luəʔ7</td> <td>lou1</td> <td>ly5</td> <td>nu2</td> <td>lɔʔ7</td> <td>lou7</td> <td>ləu2</td> <td>liuk8</td> <td>loʔ7</td> <td>lo8</td> <td>luɔʔ8</td> <td>lɪk8</td> <td>liuk8</td> <td>luk8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BB%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:黃">黃</a> 'yellow'</td> <td>xuɒ̃1</td> <td>xuaŋ2</td> <td>xuaŋ2</td> <td>xuaŋ2</td> <td>xuɑŋ2</td> <td>uan2</td> <td>ɒŋ2</td> <td>uɔŋ5</td> <td>ɦuɒŋ2</td> <td>ɦuɔ2</td> <td>uɔŋ2</td> <td>hɔŋ2</td> <td>vɔŋ2</td> <td>wɔŋ2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:白">白</a> 'white'</td> <td>piəʔ7</td> <td>pei2</td> <td>pai2</td> <td>pe2</td> <td>pɔʔ7</td> <td>pɤ7</td> <td>pia2</td> <td>pʰak7</td> <td>bɒʔ8</td> <td>ba8</td> <td>paʔ8</td> <td>peʔ8</td> <td>pʰak8</td> <td>pak8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:黑">黑</a> 'black'</td> <td>xəʔ7</td> <td>xei1</td> <td>xei1</td> <td>xe2</td> <td>xəʔ7</td> <td>xa7</td> <td>ɕia2</td> <td>hɛt8</td> <td>hɤʔ7</td> <td>xe7</td> <td>xaiʔ7</td> <td>hɪk7</td> <td>hɛt7</td> <td>hɐk7a </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A" class="extiw" title="wikt:上">上</a> 'above'</td> <td>sɒ̃5</td> <td>ʂaŋ5</td> <td>ʂaŋ5</td> <td>saŋ5</td> <td>sɑŋ5</td> <td>san6</td> <td>ɣiaŋ6</td> <td>sɔŋ6</td> <td>zɒŋ6</td> <td>ji6</td> <td>suɔŋ6</td> <td>tsiũ6</td> <td>sɔŋ5</td> <td>ʃœŋ6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:下">下</a> 'below'</td> <td>ɕia5</td> <td>xa5</td> <td>ɕia5</td> <td>ɕia5</td> <td>xɑ5</td> <td>xa6</td> <td>ɣo6</td> <td>ha6</td> <td>ɦo6</td> <td>ɦo4</td> <td>a6</td> <td>e6</td> <td>ha2</td> <td>ha6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a> 'middle'</td> <td>tsuŋ1</td> <td>pfəŋ1</td> <td>tʂuŋ1</td> <td>tsoŋ1</td> <td>tsoŋ1</td> <td>tʂən1</td> <td>tan1</td> <td>tsuŋ1</td> <td>tsoŋ1</td> <td>tɕyoŋ1</td> <td>touŋ1</td> <td>taŋ1</td> <td>tuŋ1</td> <td>tʃuŋ1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a> 'big'</td> <td>ta5</td> <td>tuo5</td> <td>ta5</td> <td>ta5</td> <td>tai5</td> <td>tai6</td> <td>du6</td> <td>tʰɔ6</td> <td>dəu6</td> <td>dəu6</td> <td>tuai6</td> <td>tua6</td> <td>tʰai5</td> <td>tai6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:小">小</a> 'small'</td> <td>ɕiau3</td> <td>ɕiau3</td> <td>ɕiau3</td> <td>ɕiau3</td> <td>ɕiɔ3</td> <td>ɕiau3</td> <td>ɕiɤ3</td> <td>ɕiɛu3</td> <td>siæ3</td> <td>sai3</td> <td>sieu3</td> <td>sio3</td> <td>siau3</td> <td>ʃiu3 </td></tr></tbody></table> Southern varieties also include distinctive <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrata</a> of vocabulary of non-Chinese origin. Some of these words may have come from <a href="/wiki/Tai%E2%80%93Kadai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai–Kadai languages">Tai–Kadai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198817–19,_213–214,_219,_231–232-143">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> Chinese varieties generally lack <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morphology">inflectional morphology</a> and instead express grammatical categories using analytic means such as <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016606–607-144">[138]</a> There are major differences between northern and southern varieties, but often some northern areas share features found in the south, and vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017114-145">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constituent_order">Constituent order</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Constituent order">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/280px-Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/420px-Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg/560px-Map_of_animal_gender_markers_in_Chinese_dialects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Map of the variation in the placement of animal gender markers in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008cMap_76-146">[140]</a></figcaption></figure> The usual unmarked word order in Chinese varieties is <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a>, with other orders used for emphasis or contrast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017130-147">[141]</a> Modifiers usually precede the word they modify, so that adjectives precede nouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016606-148">[142]</a> Instances in which the modifier follows the head are mainly found in the south, and are attributed to substrate influences from languages formerly dominant in the area, especially <a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto19931-149">[143]</a> <ul><li>Adverbs generally precede verbs, but in some southern varieties certain kinds of adverb follow the verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto19931–2-150">[144]</a></li> <li>In the north, animal gender markers are prefixed to the noun, as in Beijing mǔjī (母鸡/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%8D%E9%9B%9E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:母雞">母雞</a>) 'hen' and gōngjī (公鸡/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E9%9B%9E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:公雞">公雞</a>) 'rooster', but most southern varieties use the reverse order, while others use different orders for different words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto19932–4-151">[145]</a></li> <li>Compounds consisting of an attributive following a noun are less common, but some are found in the south as well as a few northern areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto19934–5-152">[146]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nominals">Nominals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nominals">edit</a>]</div> Nouns in Chinese varieties are generally not marked for number.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017114-145">[139]</a> As in languages of the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area</a>, Chinese varieties require an intervening <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">classifier</a> when a noun is preceded by a <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> or numeral.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016607–608-153">[147]</a> The inventory of classifiers tends to be larger in the south than in the north, where some varieties use only the general classifier cognate with ge 个/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%80%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:個">個</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017115-154">[148]</a> First- and second-person pronouns are cognate across all varieties. For third-person pronouns, Jin, Mandarin, and Xiang varieties have cognate forms, but other varieties generally use forms that originally had a velar or glottal initial:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182,_214-155">[149]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Personal pronouns<a href="#cite_note-tone-numbers-140">[e]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeijing_University1989-139">[135]</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988196-156">[150]</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988208-157">[151]</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988205-158">[152]</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988203-159">[153]</a> </th> <th scope="colgroup" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988234-160">[154]</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988227-161">[155]</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988220-162">[156]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Taiyuan </th> <th scope="col">Xi'an </th> <th scope="col">Beijing </th> <th scope="col">Chengdu </th> <th scope="col">Yangzhou </th> <th scope="col">Changsha </th> <th scope="col">Shuangfeng </th> <th scope="col">Nanchang </th> <th scope="col">Suzhou </th> <th scope="col">Wenzhou </th> <th scope="col">Fuzhou </th> <th scope="col">Xiamen </th> <th scope="col">Meixian </th> <th scope="col">Guangzhou </th></tr> <tr> <td>'I'</td> <td>ɣɤ3</td> <td>ŋə3</td> <td>uo3</td> <td>ŋo3</td> <td>o3</td> <td>ŋo3</td> <td>aŋ3</td> <td>ŋɔ3</td> <td>ŋəu6</td> <td>ŋ4</td> <td>ŋuai3</td> <td>gua3</td> <td>ŋai2</td> <td>ŋo4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you'</td> <td>ni3</td> <td>ni3</td> <td>ni3</td> <td>ni3</td> <td>liɪ3</td> <td>n3, ɲi3</td> <td>n3</td> <td>li3, n3</td> <td>ne6</td> <td>ɲi4</td> <td>ny3</td> <td>li3</td> <td>ɲi2, n2</td> <td>nei4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>'he/she'</td> <td>tʰa1</td> <td>tʰa1</td> <td>tʰa1</td> <td>tʰa1</td> <td>tʰa1</td> <td>tʰa1</td> <td>tʰo1</td> <td>tɕʰiɛ3</td> <td>li1</td> <td>gi2</td> <td>i1</td> <td>i1</td> <td>ki2</td> <td>kʰøy4 </td></tr></tbody></table> Plural personal pronouns may be marked with a suffix, noun or phrase in different varieties. The suffix men 们/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%80%91#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:們">們</a> is common in the north, but several different suffixes are use elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017115-154">[148]</a> In some varieties, especially in the Wu area, different suffixes are used for first, second and third person pronouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017116-163">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Case</a> is not marked, except in varieties in the <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Gansu_sprachbund" title="Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund">Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017116-163">[157]</a> The forms of demonstratives vary greatly, with few cognates between different areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017117-164">[158]</a> A two-way distinction between proximal and distal is most common, but some varieties have a single neutral demonstrative, while others distinguish three or more on the basis of distance, visibility or other properties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen201581-165">[159]</a> An extreme example is found in a variety spoken in <a href="/wiki/Yongxin_County" title="Yongxin County">Yongxin County</a>, Jiangxi, where five grades of distance are distinguished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2015106-166">[160]</a> Attributive constructions typically have the form NP/VP + <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="attributive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ATTR</abbr> + NP, where the last noun phrase is the head and the attributive marker is usually a cognate of de <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%84#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:的">的</a> in the north or a classifier in the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017150-167">[161]</a> The latter pattern is also common in the languages of Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016623-168">[162]</a> A few varieties in the Jiang–Huai, Wu, southern Min and Yue areas feature the old southern pattern of a zero attributive marker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017150-167">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">Nominalization</a> of verb phrases or predicates is achieved by following them with a marker, usually the same as the attributive marker, though some varieties use a different marker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto1993227–232-169">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_sentence_types">Major sentence types</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Major sentence types">edit</a>]</div> All varieties have transitive and intransitive verbs. Instead of adjectives, Chinese varieties use <a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">stative verbs</a>, which can function as predicates but differ from intransitive verbs in being modifiable by degree adverbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017121-170">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ditransitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditransitive">Ditransitive</a> sentences vary, with northern varieties placing the indirect object before the direct object and southern varieties using the reverse order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto1993111-171">[165]</a> All varieties have <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copular</a> sentences of the form NP1 + <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr> + NP2, though the copula varies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199323-172">[166]</a> Most Yue and Hakka varieties use a form cognate with xì <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BF%82#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:係">係</a> 'to connect'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988223-173">[167]</a> All other varieties use a form cognate with shì <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a>, which was a <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> in Classical Chinese but began to be used as a copula from the Han period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017131-174">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988125-175">[169]</a> All varieties form <a href="/wiki/Existential_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential sentence">existential sentences</a> with a verb cognate with yǒu <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:有">有</a>, which can also be used as a transitive verb indicating possession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199331-176">[170]</a> Most varieties use a locative verb cognate to zài <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%A8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:在">在</a>, but Min, Wu and Yue varieties use several different forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199332–33-177">[171]</a> All varieties allow sentences of the form NP + VP1 + <abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="comparative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COMP</abbr> + VP2, with a verbal complement VP2 containing a stative verb describing the manner or extent of the main verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017153–154-178">[172]</a> In northern varieties, the marker is a cognate of de <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BE%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:得">得</a>, but many southern varieties distinguish between manner and extent complements using different markers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto1993173–178-179">[173]</a> Standard Chinese does not allow an object to co-occur with a verbal complement, but other varieties permit an object between the marker and the complement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto1993173–174-180">[174]</a> A characteristic feature of Chinese varieties is in situ questions:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016608-181">[175]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wh-question" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-question">Open questions</a> are formed by replacing the desired information with an <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative word</a>, though the words vary between different areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017135–136-182">[176]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">Yes–no questions</a> are formed by appending a particle to the sentence.</li></ul> This particle is a cognate of ma 吗/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%97%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:嗎">嗎</a> in the north, but varies between other varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199349-183">[177]</a> Other question forms are also common: <ul><li>Most varieties have neutral questions employing the form V + <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr> + V, repeating the same verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199342-184">[178]</a> When the verb takes an object, some northwestern Mandarin varieties tend to place it after the first occurrence of the verb, while other Mandarin varieties and most southern varieties place it after the second occurrence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199344–47-185">[179]</a></li> <li>Most varieties form <a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunctive question">disjunctive questions</a> by placing a conjunction between the alternatives, though some also use particles to mark the disjuncts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017136–137-186">[180]</a> Standard Chinese is unusual in allowing a form with no conjunction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199349-183">[177]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_phrases">Verb phrases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Verb phrases">edit</a>]</div> A sentence is negated by placing a marker before the verb. <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> had two families of negation markers starting with *p- and *m-, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198897–98-187">[181]</a> Northern and Central varieties tend to use a word from the first family, cognate with Beijing bù <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:不">不</a>, as the ordinary negator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182-62">[60]</a> A word from the second family is used as an existential negator 'have not', as in Beijing méi <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:沒">沒</a> and Shanghai m2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988196,_200,_204-188">[182]</a> In Mandarin varieties this word is also used for 'not yet', whereas in Wu and other groups a different form is typically used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988196–197,_203–204-189">[183]</a> In Southern varieties, negators tend to come from the second family. The ordinary negators in these varieties are all derived from a <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic nasal">syllabic nasal</a> *m̩, though it has a level tone in Hakka and Yue and a rising tone in Min. Existential negators derive from a proto-form *mau, though again the tonal category varies between groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988213-190">[184]</a> Chinese varieties generally indicate the roles of nouns with respect to verbs using <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a> derived from <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">grammaticalized</a> verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016607-191">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198892-192">[186]</a> Varieties differ in the set of prepositions used, with northern varieties tending to use a substantially larger inventory, including disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2001341–343-193">[187]</a> In northern varieties, the preposition bǎ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8A%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:把">把</a> may be used to move the object before the verb (the "disposal" construction).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017141–142-194">[188]</a> Similar structures using several different prepositions are used in the south, but tend to be avoided in more colloquial speech.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto1993143,_146-195">[189]</a> Comparative constructions are expressed with a prepositional phrase before the stative verb in most northern and central varieties, as well as Northern Min and Hakka, while other southern varieties retain the older form in which the prepositional phrase follows the stative verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017147–148-196">[190]</a> The preposition is usually bǐ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:比">比</a> in the north, with other forms used elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto1993159-197">[191]</a> Chinese varieties tend to indicate <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> using markers following the main verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017124-198">[192]</a> The markers, usually derived from verbs, vary widely in both their forms and their degree of grammaticalization, from independent verbs, through complements to bound suffixes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017124-198">[192]</a> Southern varieties tend to have richer aspect systems making more distinctions than northern ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue-Hashimoto199369-199">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sociolinguistics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bilingualism_and_code-switching">Bilingualism and code-switching</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bilingualism and code-switching">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output 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.ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible">This section has multiple issues. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Special:EditPage/Varieties of Chinese">improve it</a> or discuss these issues on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Talk:Varieties of Chinese">talk page</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>) <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Special:EditPage/Varieties of Chinese">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion with: Info on Taiwan, e.g. for Hakka-Mandarin and Hokkien-Mandarin. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (December 2018)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In southern China (not including Hong Kong and Macau), where the difference between Standard Chinese and local dialects is particularly pronounced, well-educated Chinese are generally fluent in Standard Chinese, and most people have at least a good passive knowledge of it, in addition to being native speakers of the local dialect. The choice of dialect varies based on the social situation. Standard Chinese is usually considered more formal and is required when speaking to a person who does not understand the local dialect. The local dialect (be it non-Standard Chinese or non-Mandarin altogether) is generally considered more intimate and is used among close family members and friends and in everyday conversation within the local area. Chinese speakers will frequently <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code switch</a> between Standard Chinese and the local dialect. Parents will generally speak to their children in the local variety, and the relationship between dialect and Mandarin appears to be mostly stable, even a <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>. Local dialects are valued as symbols of regional cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199957-200">[194]</a> People generally are tied to the hometown and therefore the hometown dialect, instead of a broad linguistic classification. For example, a person from Wuxi may claim that he speaks Wuxi dialect, even though it is similar to Shanghainese (another Wu dialect). Likewise, a person from Xiaogan may claim that he speaks Xiaogan dialect. Linguistically, Xiaogan dialect is a dialect of Mandarin, but the pronunciation and diction are quite different from spoken Standard Chinese. Knowing the local dialect is of considerable social benefit, and most Chinese who permanently move to a new area will attempt to pick up the local dialect. Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of <a href="/wiki/Language_immersion" title="Language immersion">immersion</a> and recognizing <a href="/wiki/Sound_shifts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound shifts">sound shifts</a>. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">fluent</a> in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect. Due to the variety in Chinese speech, Mandarin speakers from each area of China are very often prone to fuse or "translate" words from their local language into their Mandarin conversations. In addition, each area of China has its recognizable accents while speaking Mandarin. Generally, the nationalized standard form of Mandarin pronunciation is only heard on news and radio broadcasts. Even in the streets of Beijing, the flavor of Mandarin varies in pronunciation from the Mandarin heard on the media. In Taiwan, as most people at least understand, if not speak, Taiwanese Hokkien, Taiwanese Mandarin has acquired many loanwords from Hokkien. Some of these are directly implanted into Mandarin, as in the case of "蚵仔煎," "oyster omelet," which most Taiwanese people would call by its Hokkien name (ô-á-tsian) rather than its Mandarin one (é-zǐ-jiān). In other cases, Mandarin creates new words to imitate Hokkien ones, as in the case of "哇靠," ("damn") from the Hokkien "goák-hàu," but pronounced in Mandarin as "wā-kào." While most Taiwanese people understand Hokkien, far fewer understand or speak Hakka, and Taiwanese Mandarin therefore contains fewer Hakka loanwords. Formerly, there was a misconception among linguists that language in Taiwan was primarily tied to ethnicity (i.e., Minnan people speak Hokkien, Hakka people speak Hakka, and Indigenous people speak the language corresponding to their tribe). Researchers later realized that, although it is true that most Minnan people speak Hokkien, most Hakka people also speak Hokkien and many of them do not speak Hakka. Hokkien remains the most prestigious language other than Mandarin and English in Taiwan. Although Hokkien, Hakka, and Taiwan's many Indigenous languages have now been elevated to the status of national languages, it is notable that there is a clear de facto gradient of valuation of these languages. For instance, on the Taipei metro when nearing the next station, a passenger will hear these languages in the following order: Mandarin, English, Hokkien, Hakka, sometimes followed by Japanese and Korean. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_policy">Language policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Language policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg/220px-Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg/330px-Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg/440px-Standard_Chinese_promotion_school.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>A school in Guangdong with writing "Please speak Standard Chinese. Please write <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified Chinese">standard characters</a>" on the wall.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mainland_China">Mainland China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mainland China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Special:EditPage/Varieties of Chinese">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (November 2008) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Within mainland China, there has been a persistent <a href="/wiki/Promotion_of_Putonghua" class="mw-redirect" title="Promotion of Putonghua">Promotion of Putonghua</a> drive; for instance, the education system is entirely Mandarin-medium from the second year onward. However, usage of local dialect is tolerated and socially preferred in many informal situations. In Hong Kong, <a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">written Cantonese</a> is not used in formal documents, and within the PRC a character set closer to Mandarin tends to be used. At the national level, differences in dialect generally do not correspond to political divisions or categories, and this has for the most part prevented dialect from becoming the basis of <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>. Historically, many of the people who promoted <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a> were from southern China and did not natively speak Mandarin, and even leaders from northern China rarely spoke with the standard accent. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> often emphasized his origins in <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> in speaking, rendering much of what he said incomprehensible to many Chinese.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> were also from <a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">southern China</a>, and this is reflected in their conventional English names reflecting Cantonese pronunciations for their given names, and differing from their <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a> spellings <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Jiǎng Jièshí</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sūn Yìxiān</a>. One consequence of this is that China does not have a well-developed tradition of spoken political rhetoric, and most Chinese political works are intended primarily as written works rather than spoken works. Another factor that limits the political implications of dialect is that it is very common within an <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kin" title="Chinese kin">extended family</a> for different people to know and use different dialects. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Taiwan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Taiwan" title="Languages of Taiwan">Languages of Taiwan</a></div> Before 1945, most of the population of Taiwan were <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>, some of whom spoke Japanese, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>, with a minority of <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese aborigines">Taiwanese aborigines</a>, who spoke <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200712–13-201">[195]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Party_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan">retreated to the island</a> after losing the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> in 1949, they brought a substantial influx of speakers of Northern Chinese (and other dialects from across China), and viewed the use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200715-202">[196]</a> Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200715-202">[196]</a> From the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200716–17-203">[197]</a> Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200717-204">[198]</a> They also aggravated social divisions, as Mandarin speakers found it difficult to find jobs in private companies but were favored for government positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200717-204">[198]</a> From the 1990s, Taiwanese languages (<a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese Hakka</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a>) were offered in elementary and middle schools, first in <a href="/wiki/Yilan_County,_Taiwan" title="Yilan County, Taiwan">Yilan county</a>, then in other areas governed by elected <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party" title="Democratic Progressive Party">Democratic Progressive Party</a> (DPP) politicians, and finally throughout the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsieh200720–21-205">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Singapore">Singapore</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Singapore">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore" title="Languages of Singapore">Languages of Singapore</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion with: How did dialect speakers react to Mandarinization?. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (December 2018)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In 1966, the Singaporean government implemented a policy of <a href="/wiki/Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a> education, where Singaporean students learn both English and their designated native language, which was Mandarin for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Singaporeans" title="Chinese Singaporeans">Chinese Singaporeans</a> (even though <a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singaporean Hokkien</a> had previously been their <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>). The Goh Report, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by <a href="/wiki/Goh_Keng_Swee" title="Goh Keng Swee">Goh Keng Swee</a>, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_competence" title="Linguistic competence">competency</a> in two languages.<a href="#cite_note-206">[200]</a> It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a>, Cantonese, and Hakka.<a href="#cite_note-207">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[202]</a> Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among the Chinese population, and to discourage use of other Chinese varieties. Launched in 1979 by then <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Singapore" title="Prime Minister of Singapore">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a>,<a href="#cite_note-209">[203]</a> the campaign aimed to simplify the language environment for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Singaporeans" title="Chinese Singaporeans">Chinese Singaporeans</a>, improve communication between them, and create a Mandarin-speaking environment conducive to the successful implementation of the bilingual education program. The initial goal of the campaign was for all young Chinese to stop speaking dialects in five years, and to establish Mandarin as the language of choice in public places within 10 years.<a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[205]</a> According to the government, for the bilingual policy to be effective, Mandarin should be spoken at home and should serve as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> among Chinese Singaporeans.<a href="#cite_note-212">[206]</a> They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect group.<a href="#cite_note-213">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Atlas_of_Chinese_Dialects" title="Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects">Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_of_the_Varieties_of_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Protection of the Varieties of Chinese">Protection of the Varieties of Chinese</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843-2">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Also known as the <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a>, from Late Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/S%C4%ABnae" class="extiw" title="wikt:Sīnae">Sīnae</a>, "the Chinese". In 1982, <a href="/wiki/Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Paul K. Benedict</a> proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising <a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a> and Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005107-5">[4]</a> The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005122-6">[5]</a> but the term "Sinitic" is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913-7">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">John DeFrancis</a> proposed the neologism regionalect to serve as a translation for fāngyán when referring to mutually unintelligible divisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457-86">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Victor_Mair" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Mair">Victor Mair</a> coined the term topolect as a translation for all uses of fāngyán.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19917-87">[85]</a> The latter term appears in <a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Some words of literary origin with voiced initials shifted to category 6.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988218-134">[131]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-tone-numbers-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tone-numbers_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tone-numbers_140-1">b</a> The tone numbers of <a href="#Tones">§ Tones</a> are used to facilitate comparison between dialects. </li> <li id="cite_note-person-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-person_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-person_142-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-person_142-2">c</a> The colloquial layers of southern Wu and coastal Min varieties use cognates of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%84%82#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:儂">儂</a> for 'person'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008bMap_39-141">[136]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 211–214. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987Map_A2-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987Map_A2_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWurmLiBaumannLee1987">Wurm et al. (1987)</a>, Map A2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005107-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005107_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2005">Wang (2005)</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005122-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005122_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2005">Wang (2005)</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair19913_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988183_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988183_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183,_185-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988183,_185_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 183, 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988185-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988185_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987116–117-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1987116–117_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, pp. 116–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198824–25_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 24–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183–190-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988183–190_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 183–190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198722-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey198722_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988136-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988136_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey19873–15-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey19873–15_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, pp. 3–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992309–312-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1992309–312_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1992">Bradley (1992)</a>, pp. 309–312. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992313–318-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1992313–318_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1992">Bradley (1992)</a>, pp. 313–318. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199946–49-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199946–49_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, pp. 46–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988247-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988247_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988187-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988187_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988187_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19881-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19881_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan20062-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan20062_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey19877-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey19877_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19882–3-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19882–3_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198716–18-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey198716–18_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, pp. 16–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_28-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 189–190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988188-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988188_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988188_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiongZhang20123,_125-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiongZhang20123,_125_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFXiongZhang2012">Xiong & Zhang (2012)</a>, pp. 3, 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201036–41-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201036–41_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 36–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 41–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988181-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988181_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201053–55,_61,_215-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201053–55,_61,_215_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 53–55, 61, 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200690-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan200690_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988199–200-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988199–200_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 199–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201046,_49–50-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201046,_49–50_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 46, 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006148-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006148_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988207–209-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988207–209_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 207–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233_42-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988232–233-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988232–233_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 232–233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988224-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988224_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988217-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988217_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988217_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988217_45-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988215-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988215_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198798-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey198798_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWurmLiBaumannLee1987_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWurmLiBaumannLee1987">Wurm et al. (1987)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201055–56-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201055–56_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200660–61-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan200660–61_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 60–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006222–223-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006222–223_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 222–223. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201043–44,_48,_69,_75–76-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201043–44,_48,_69,_75–76_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 43–44, 48, 69, 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006235-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006235_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201072–73-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201072–73_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 72–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiongZhang2012161,_188,_189,_195-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiongZhang2012161,_188,_189,_195_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFXiongZhang2012">Xiong & Zhang (2012)</a>, pp. 161, 188, 189, 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008a9-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008a9_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENakanishi2010-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakanishi2010_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNakanishi2010">Nakanishi (2010)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2019438–443-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2019438–443_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2019">Coblin (2019)</a>, p. 438–443. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987290–291-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1987290–291_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, pp. 290–291. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_75-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_75_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, pp. 73, 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2005">Wang (2005)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182_62-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_76-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_76_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200373,_76_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, pp. 73, 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMaps_4,_52,_66,_73-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMaps_4,_52,_66,_73_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Maps 4, 52, 66, 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008bMaps_5,_52,_79,_109,_134,_138-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008bMaps_5,_52,_79,_109,_134,_138_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008b">Cao (2008b)</a>, Maps 5, 52, 79, 109, 134, 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008cMaps_3,_28,_38,_41,_76-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008cMaps_3,_28,_38,_41,_76_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008c">Cao (2008c)</a>, Maps 3, 28, 38, 41, 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 182–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappell2015b45–51-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappell2015b45–51_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChappell2015b">Chappell (2015b)</a>, pp. 45–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200376-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200376_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIwata2010">Iwata (2010)</a>, pp. 102–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata1995211–212-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIwata1995211–212_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIwata1995">Iwata (1995)</a>, pp. 211–212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata1995215–216,_218-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIwata1995215–216,_218_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIwata1995">Iwata (1995)</a>, pp. 215–216, 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009713–714-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009713–714_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTangvan_Heuven2009">Tang & van Heuven (2009)</a>, pp. 713–714. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009712-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009712_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTangvan_Heuven2009">Tang & van Heuven (2009)</a>, p. 712. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009715–717-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009715–717_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTangvan_Heuven2009">Tang & van Heuven (2009)</a>, pp. 715–717. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009718–722-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009718–722_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTangvan_Heuven2009">Tang & van Heuven (2009)</a>, pp. 718–722. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009721–722-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangvan_Heuven2009721–722_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTangvan_Heuven2009">Tang & van Heuven (2009)</a>, pp. 721–722. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19881–2-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19881–2_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang201414-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang201414_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiang2014">Liang (2014)</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair2013_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair2013">Mair (2013)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2024-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2024_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEberhardSimonsFennig2024">Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2024)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappell2015a8-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappell2015a8_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChappell2015a">Chappell (2015a)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913–6-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair19913–6_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>, pp. 3–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska20102-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska20102_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201063-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201063_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198457_86-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1984">DeFrancis (1984)</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19917-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair19917_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988138–139-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988138–139_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 138–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988212–213-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988212–213_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 212–213. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey1987101-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey1987101_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska2010186–188-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska2010186–188_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, pp. 186–188. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200669,_90,_127-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan200669,_90,_127_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 69, 90, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988139,_236-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988139,_236_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 139, 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_66-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_66_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006127-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006127_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211,_233-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988211,_233_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 211, 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988199–200,_207-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988199–200,_207_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 199–200, 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan200691,_108–109,_152-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan200691,_108–109,_152_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 91, 108–109, 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 235–236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988193_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182,_193,_200,_205-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182,_193,_200,_205_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 182, 193, 200, 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_40-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_40_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_45-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_45_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_43-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_43_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_52-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_52_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_73-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_73_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_124-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_124_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198828,_141-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198828,_141_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 28, 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006150–151-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006150–151_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 150–151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988141,_198-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988141,_198_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 141, 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988194-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988194_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988200–201-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988200–201_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 200–201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988216–217-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988216–217_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 216–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193,_201–202-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988193,_201–202_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 193, 201–202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193,_201-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988193,_201_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 193, 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_1-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008aMap_1_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008a">Cao (2008a)</a>, Map 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19889-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19889_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988147,_202,_239-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988147,_202,_239_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 147, 202, 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198854_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198854_121-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–36-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198834–36_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 34–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853–54-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198853–54_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 53–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198853-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198853_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988217–218-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988217–218_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 217–218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988194–195-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988194–195_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 194–195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988195–196,_272-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988195–196,_272_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988195–196,_272_127-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 195–196, 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006108,_116–117-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006108,_116–117_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 108, 116–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006162–163-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006162–163_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, pp. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988202-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988202_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988202_130-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988238–239-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988238–239_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 238–239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988225–226-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988225–226_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 225–226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006198-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006198_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988218-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988218_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988146–147-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988146–147_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 146–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988202,_239-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988202,_239_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 202, 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988148–149,_195-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988148–149,_195_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 148–149, 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeijing_University1989-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeijing_University1989_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeijing_University1989_139-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeijing_University1989">Beijing University (1989)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao2008bMap_39-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao2008bMap_39_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCao2008b">Cao (2008b)</a>, Map 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198817–19,_213–214,_219,_231–232-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198817–19,_213–214,_219,_231–232_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 17–19, 213–214, 219, 231–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016606–607-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappellLi2016606–607_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChappellLi2016">Chappell & Li (2016)</a>, pp. 606–607. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYue2017114-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYue2017114_145-0">a</a> <a 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Walter de Gruyter. pp. 235–265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-016350-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-016350-6"><bdi>978-3-11-016350-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Singapore%27s+Speak+Mandarin+Campaign%3A+Language+ideological+debates+and+the+imagining+of+the+nation&rft.btitle=Language+Ideological+Debates&rft.pages=235-265&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-11-016350-6&rft.aulast=Bokhorst-Heng&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWee2006" class="citation journal cs1">Wee, Lionel (2006). "The semiotics of language ideologies in Singapore". Journal of Sociolinguistics. 10 (3): 344–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1360-6441.2006.00331.x">10.1111/j.1360-6441.2006.00331.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Sociolinguistics&rft.atitle=The+semiotics+of+language+ideologies+in+Singapore&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=344-361&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1360-6441.2006.00331.x&rft.aulast=Wee&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeijing_University1989" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Beijing University (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://starlingdb.org/Texts/Students/%21Varia/Hanyu%20Fangyin%20Zihui%20%281989%29.pdf">Hànyǔ fāngyīn zìhuì <bdi lang="zh">汉语方音字汇</bdi></a> [Dictionary of Dialect Pronunciations of Chinese Characters] (PDF) (in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: Wenzi gaige chubanshe, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-80029-000-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-80029-000-8"><bdi>978-7-80029-000-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+f%C4%81ngy%C4%ABn+z%C3%AChu%C3%AC+%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%97%E6%B1%87&rft.place=Beijing&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wenzi+gaige+chubanshe&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-7-80029-000-8&rft.au=Beijing+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstarlingdb.org%2FTexts%2FStudents%2F%2521Varia%2FHanyu%2520Fangyin%2520Zihui%2520%25281989%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Bradley_(linguist)" title="David Bradley (linguist)">Bradley, David</a> (1992), "Chinese as a Pluricentric Language", in Clyne, Michael G. (ed.), Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 305–324, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012855-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012855-0"><bdi>978-3-11-012855-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+as+a+Pluricentric+Language&rft.btitle=Pluricentric+Languages%3A+Differing+Norms+in+Different+Nations&rft.pages=305-324&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012855-0&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCao2008a" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhiyun" title="Cao Zhiyun">Cao, Zhiyun</a>, ed. (2008a), <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Atlas_of_Chinese_Dialects" title="Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects">Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí <bdi lang="zh">汉语方言地图集</bdi></a> [Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects] (in Chinese), vol. 1 (Phonetics), Beijing: Commercial Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05774-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05774-5"><bdi>978-7-100-05774-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+f%C4%81ngy%C3%A1n+d%C3%ACt%C3%BA+j%C3%AD+%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E9%9B%86&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Commercial+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-7-100-05774-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCao2008b" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">———, ed. (2008b), Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí <bdi lang="zh">汉语方言地图集</bdi> [Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects] (in Chinese), vol. 2 (Lexicon), Beijing: Commercial Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05784-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05784-4"><bdi>978-7-100-05784-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+f%C4%81ngy%C3%A1n+d%C3%ACt%C3%BA+j%C3%AD+%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E9%9B%86&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Commercial+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-7-100-05784-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCao2008c" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">———, ed. (2008c), Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí <bdi lang="zh">汉语方言地图集</bdi> [Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects] (in Chinese), vol. 3 (Grammar), Beijing: Commercial Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05785-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-100-05785-1"><bdi>978-7-100-05785-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+f%C4%81ngy%C3%A1n+d%C3%ACt%C3%BA+j%C3%AD+%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E9%9B%86&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Commercial+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-7-100-05785-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappell2015a" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Chappell" title="Hilary Chappell">Chappell, Hilary M.</a> (2015a), "Introduction: Ways of tackling diversity in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.), Diversity in Sinitic Languages, Oxford University Press, pp. 3–12, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872379-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872379-0"><bdi>978-0-19-872379-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Ways+of+tackling+diversity+in+Sinitic+languages&rft.btitle=Diversity+in+Sinitic+Languages&rft.pages=3-12&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872379-0&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Hilary+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappell2015b" class="citation cs2">——— (2015b), "Linguistic areas in China for differential object marking, passive, and comparative constructions", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.), Diversity in Sinitic Languages, Oxford University Press, pp. 13–52, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872379-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872379-0"><bdi>978-0-19-872379-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linguistic+areas+in+China+for+differential+object+marking%2C+passive%2C+and+comparative+constructions&rft.btitle=Diversity+in+Sinitic+Languages&rft.pages=13-52&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872379-0&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappellLi2016" class="citation cs2">———; Li, Lan (2016), "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages", in Chan, Sin-wai (ed.), The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language, Routledge, pp. 606–628, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-53970-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-53970-8"><bdi>978-0-415-53970-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mandarin+and+other+Sinitic+languages&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+the+Chinese+Language&rft.pages=606-628&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-415-53970-8&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft.au=Li%2C+Lan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen1999" class="citation cs2">Chen, Ping (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernchinesehis00chen">Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics</a>, New York: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64572-0"><bdi>978-0-521-64572-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Chinese%3A+History+and+sociolinguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64572-0&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Ping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernchinesehis00chen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2015" class="citation cs2">Chen, Yujie (2015), "The semantic differentiation of demonstratives in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+de+linguistique+%E2%80%93+Asie+orientale&rft.atitle=Linguistic+geography+of+Chinese+dialects%3A+Project+on+Han+dialects+%28PHD%29&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-227&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fclao.1995.1475&rft.aulast=Iwata&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIwata2010" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">——— (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Dialectologia/article/download/242105/324717">"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues"</a>, Dialectologia, Special issue I: 97–121.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialectologia&rft.atitle=Chinese+Geolinguistics%3A+History%2C+Current+Trend+and+Theoretical+Issues&rft.volume=Special+issue+I&rft.pages=97-121&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Iwata&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.raco.cat%2Findex.php%2FDialectologia%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F242105%2F324717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurpaska2010" class="citation cs2">Kurpaska, Maria (2010), Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects", <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2" 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Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf">"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? 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Djamouri, Redouane; Chappell, Hilary; Wiebusch, Thekla (eds.), Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, pp. 735–754, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-03-7678-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-03-7678-4"><bdi>978-986-03-7678-4</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 April 2018, retrieved 15 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Classification+of+Sinitic+Languages%3A+What+Is+%27Chinese%27%3F&rft.btitle=Breaking+Down+the+Barriers%3A+Interdisciplinary+Studies+in+Chinese+Linguistics+and+Beyond&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=735-754&rft.pub=Institute+of+Linguistics%2C+Academia+Sinica&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-986-03-7678-4&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2FFiles%2FLL%2FDocments%2FMonographs%2FBreaking%2520Down%2520the%2520Barriers%2FISCLB-35-Mair%2520130419.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakanishi2010" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nakanishi, Hiroki (2010), "Lùn Shēhuà de guīshǔ" <bdi lang="zh">论畬话的归属</bdi> [On the genetic affiliation of Shehua], <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Chinese_Linguistics" title="Journal of Chinese Linguistics">Journal of Chinese Linguistics</a> (in Chinese), 24: 247–267, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23825447">23825447</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=L%C3%B9n+Sh%C4%93hu%C3%A0+de+gu%C4%ABsh%C7%94+%E8%AE%BA%E7%95%AC%E8%AF%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%92%E5%B1%9E&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=247-267&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23825447%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nakanishi&rft.aufirst=Hiroki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), Chinese, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2003" class="citation cs2">——— (2003), "The Chinese dialects: phonology", in <a href="/wiki/Graham_Thurgood" title="Graham Thurgood">Thurgood, Graham</a>; 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(2009), "Mutual intelligibility of Chinese dialects experimentally tested", Lingua, 119 (5): 709–732, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lingua.2008.10.001">10.1016/j.lingua.2008.10.001</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F14919">1887/14919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingua&rft.atitle=Mutual+intelligibility+of+Chinese+dialects+experimentally+tested&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=709-732&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F14919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.lingua.2008.10.001&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Chaoju&rft.au=van+Heuven%2C+Vincent+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2005" class="citation cs2">Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language", Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 34 (1): 101–127, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fclao.2005.1728">10.3406/clao.2005.1728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+de+Linguistique+Asie+Orientale&rft.atitle=On+the+genetic+position+of+the+Bai+language&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=101-127&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fclao.2005.1728&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Feng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWurmLiBaumannLee1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Wurm" title="Stephen Wurm">Wurm, Stephen Adolphe</a>; <a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li, Rong</a>; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987), <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-359-085-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-359-085-3"><bdi>978-962-359-085-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Atlas+of+China&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-962-359-085-3&rft.aulast=Wurm&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Adolphe&rft.au=Li%2C+Rong&rft.au=Baumann%2C+Theo&rft.au=Lee%2C+Mei+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiongZhang2012" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xiong, Zhenghui; Zhang, Zhenxing, eds. (2012), <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí: Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn <bdi lang="zh">中国语言地图集:汉语方言卷</bdi></a> [Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects] (in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: The Commercial Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-10-007054-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-10-007054-6"><bdi>978-7-10-007054-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zh%C5%8Dnggu%C3%B3+y%C7%94y%C3%A1n+d%C3%ACt%C3%BA+j%C3%AD%3A+H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+f%C4%81ngy%C3%A1n+ju%C7%8En+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E9%9B%86%3A%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%8D%B7&rft.place=Beijing&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+Commercial+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-7-10-007054-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYan2006" class="citation cs2">Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), Introduction to Chinese Dialectology, LINCOM Europa, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6"><bdi>978-3-89586-629-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Chinese+Dialectology&rft.pub=LINCOM+Europa&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-89586-629-6&rft.aulast=Yan&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Mian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYue-Hashimoto1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Oi-kan_Yue" title="Anne Oi-kan Yue">Yue-Hashimoto, Anne</a> (1993), Comparative Chinese Dialectal Grammar: Handbook for Investigators, Paris: École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-910216-00-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-910216-00-9"><bdi>978-2-910216-00-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Chinese+Dialectal+Grammar%3A+Handbook+for+Investigators&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=%C3%89cole+des+hautes+%C3%A9tudes+en+sciences+sociales%2C+Centre+de+recherches+linguistiques+sur+l%27Asie+orientale&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-2-910216-00-9&rft.aulast=Yue-Hashimoto&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYue2017" class="citation cs2">Yue, Anne O. (2017), "The Sinitic languages: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan Languages (2nd ed.), Routledge, pp. 114–163, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-78332-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-78332-4"><bdi>978-1-138-78332-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sinitic+languages%3A+grammar&rft.btitle=The+Sino-Tibetan+Languages&rft.pages=114-163&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-138-78332-4&rft.aulast=Yue&rft.aufirst=Anne+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Ao, Benjamin (1991), "Comparative reconstruction of proto-Chinese revisited", Language Sciences, 13 (3/4): 335–379, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0388-0001%2891%2990022-S">10.1016/0388-0001(91)90022-S</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Sciences&rft.atitle=Comparative+reconstruction+of+proto-Chinese+revisited&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=335-379&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0388-0001%2891%2990022-S&rft.aulast=Ao&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Baron, Stephen P. (1983), "Chain shifts in Chinese historical phonology: problems of motivation and functionality", Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 12 (1): 43–63, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fclao.1983.1125">10.3406/clao.1983.1125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+de+Linguistique+Asie+Orientale&rft.atitle=Chain+shifts+in+Chinese+historical+phonology%3A+problems+of+motivation+and+functionality&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-63&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fclao.1983.1125&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=Stephen+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Ben Hamed, Mahé (2005), "Neighbour-nets portray the Chinese dialect continuum and the linguistic legacy of China's demic history", Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272 (1567): 1015–1022, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2004.3015">10.1098/rspb.2004.3015</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30047639">30047639</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1599877">1599877</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16024359">16024359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Neighbour-nets+portray+the+Chinese+dialect+continuum+and+the+linguistic+legacy+of+China%27s+demic+history&rft.volume=272&rft.issue=1567&rft.pages=1015-1022&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1599877%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16024359&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30047639%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2004.3015&rft.aulast=Ben+Hamed&rft.aufirst=Mah%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">———; Wang, Feng (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9369570">"Stuck in the forest: Trees, networks and Chinese dialects"</a>, Diachronica, 23 (1): 29–60, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fdia.23.1.04ham">10.1075/dia.23.1.04ham</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diachronica&rft.atitle=Stuck+in+the+forest%3A+Trees%2C+networks+and+Chinese+dialects&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-60&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fdia.23.1.04ham&rft.aulast=Ben+Hamed&rft.aufirst=Mah%C3%A9&rft.au=Wang%2C+Feng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9369570&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Branner, David Prager (2000), Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka, Trends in Linguistics series, vol. 123, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015831-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015831-1"><bdi>978-3-11-015831-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+in+Comparative+Chinese+Dialectology+%E2%80%93+the+Classification+of+Miin+and+Hakka&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Trends+in+Linguistics+series&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-11-015831-1&rft.aulast=Branner&rft.aufirst=David+Prager&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Chappell, Hilary (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crlao.ehess.fr/docannexe/file/1722/brief_history_of_chinese_dialects.pdf">"Synchrony and diachrony of Sinitic languages: A brief history of Chinese dialects"</a> (PDF), in Chappell, Hilary (ed.), Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–28, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829977-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829977-6"><bdi>978-0-19-829977-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Synchrony+and+diachrony+of+Sinitic+languages%3A+A+brief+history+of+Chinese+dialects&rft.btitle=Sinitic+grammar%3A+synchronic+and+diachronic+perspectives&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=3-28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829977-6&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrlao.ehess.fr%2Fdocannexe%2Ffile%2F1722%2Fbrief_history_of_chinese_dialects.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">———; Li, Ming; Peyraube, Alain (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00149611/document">"Chinese linguistics and typology: the state of the art"</a>, Linguistic Typology, 11 (1): 187–211, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2FLINGTY.2007.014">10.1515/LINGTY.2007.014</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123103670">123103670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Typology&rft.atitle=Chinese+linguistics+and+typology%3A+the+state+of+the+art&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=187-211&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2FLINGTY.2007.014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123103670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft.au=Li%2C+Ming&rft.au=Peyraube%2C+Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-00149611%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Escure, Geneviève (1997), Creole and Dialect Continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC), John Benjamins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5240-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5240-1"><bdi>978-90-272-5240-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creole+and+Dialect+Continua%3A+standard+acquisition+processes+in+Belize+and+China+%28PRC%29&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-272-5240-1&rft.aulast=Escure&rft.aufirst=Genevi%C3%A8ve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Francis, Norbert (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/003228">"Language and dialect in China"</a>, Chinese Language and Discourse, 7 (1): 136–149, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fcld.7.1.05fra">10.1075/cld.7.1.05fra</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Language+and+Discourse&rft.atitle=Language+and+dialect+in+China&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=136-149&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fcld.7.1.05fra&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F003228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Groves, Julie M. (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp179_cantonese.pdf">"Language or Dialect – or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese"</a> (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 179: 1–103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Language+or+Dialect+%E2%80%93+or+Topolect%3F+A+Comparison+of+the+Attitudes+of+Hong+Kongers+and+Mainland+Chinese+towards+the+Status+of+Cantonese&rft.volume=179&rft.pages=1-103&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=Julie+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp179_cantonese.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Handel, Zev (2015), "The Classification of Chinese: Sinitic (The Chinese Language Family)", in Wang, William S. Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford University Press, pp. 34–44, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985633-6"><bdi>978-0-19-985633-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Classification+of+Chinese%3A+Sinitic+%28The+Chinese+Language+Family%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.pages=34-44&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-985633-6&rft.aulast=Handel&rft.aufirst=Zev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Hannas, William C. (1997), Asia's Orthographic Dilemma, University of Hawaiʻi Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1892-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1892-0"><bdi>978-0-8248-1892-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%27s+Orthographic+Dilemma&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1892-0&rft.aulast=Hannas&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Norman, Jerry (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 271, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4785-8"><bdi>978-90-272-4785-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Dialectal+Chinese&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Rime+Tables%3A+Linguistic+Philosophy+and+Historical-Comparative+Phonology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.series=Studies+in+the+Theory+and+History+of+Linguistic+Science%2C+Series+IV%3A+Current+Issues+in+Linguistic+Theory&rft.pages=233-254&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4785-8&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (1998), "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 26 (2): 281–302, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756757">23756757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+distinguishing+Hakka+and+non-Hakka+dialects&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=281-302&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23756757%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Simmons, Richard VanNess (1999), Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu, John Benjamins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8433-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8433-4"><bdi>978-90-272-8433-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Dialect+Classification%3A+A+comparative+approach+to+Harngjou%2C+Old+Jintarn%2C+and+Common+Northern+Wu&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-272-8433-4&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=Richard+VanNess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">———, ed. (2022), Studies in Colloquial Chinese and Its History : Dialect and Text, Hong Kong University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-8754-09-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-988-8754-09-0"><bdi>978-988-8754-09-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Colloquial+Chinese+and+Its+History+%3A+Dialect+and+Text&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-988-8754-09-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Tam, Gina Anne (2020), Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108776400">10.1017/9781108776400</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-77640-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-77640-0"><bdi>978-1-108-77640-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialect+and+Nationalism+in+China%2C+1860%E2%80%931960&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108776400&rft.isbn=978-1-108-77640-0&rft.aulast=Tam&rft.aufirst=Gina+Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatano1966" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hatano Tarō (波多野太郎) (1966), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6EozAAAAIAAJ"><bdi lang="ja">中国方志所錄方言滙編</bdi></a> [Compilation of Chinese dialects in local chronicles] (in Japanese), Yokohama shiritsu daigaku kiyō, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50634504">50634504</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%96%B9%E5%BF%97%E6%89%80%E9%8C%84%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E6%BB%99%E7%B7%A8&rft.pub=Yokohama+shiritsu+daigaku+kiy%C5%8D&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50634504&rft.aulast=Hatano&rft.aufirst=Tar%C5%8D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6EozAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chen Xiaojin (陈晓锦) Gan Yu'en (甘于恩) (2010), <bdi lang="zh">东南亚华人社区汉语方言概要</bdi> [Summary of Local Chinese Dialects in Southeast Asian Overseas Communities] (in Chinese), Guangzhou: World Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-510-08769-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-510-08769-1"><bdi>978-7-510-08769-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%9C%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E7%A4%BE%E5%8C%BA%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81&rft.place=Guangzhou&rft.pub=World+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-7-510-08769-1&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Xiaojin&rft.au=Gan%2C+Yu%27en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Chinese&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script">Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Zìhuì <bdi lang="zh">汉語方音字汇</bdi> [Dictionary of Chinese dialect pronunciations], Beijing University, 1962.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+F%C4%81ngy%C4%ABn+Z%C3%AChu%C3%AC+%E6%B1%89%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%B9%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%97%E6%B1%87&rft.pub=Beijing+University&rft.date=1962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051018151521/http://www.lang.cityu.edu.hk/chinese/doc.html">DOC (Dialects of China or Dictionary on Computer) files</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 18 October 2005), compiled by William Wang and Chin-Chuan Cheng (archived from the originals at City University of Hong Kong)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150627111238/http://www.dylwhs.talktalk.net/download/doc.htm">HTML version</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 27 June 2015) compiled by Dylan W.H. Sung</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\china\doc">Chinese Dialects</a>: search interface to the DOC database, at StarLing</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script">Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Cíhuì <bdi lang="zh">汉語方音词汇</bdi> [Chinese dialect vocabularies], Beijing University, 1964.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0ny%C7%94+F%C4%81ngy%C4%ABn+C%C3%ADhu%C3%AC+%E6%B1%89%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%B9%E9%9F%B3%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87&rft.pub=Beijing+University&rft.date=1964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>CLDF dataset (Version v4.0). Zenodo. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.3534942">10.5281/zenodo.3534942</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script">Institute of Linguistics, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Social Sciences">Chinese Academy of Social Sciences</a> (1981), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chtr.org.tw/0/0t.pdf">Fāngyán diàochá zìbiǎo <bdi lang="zh">方言调查字表</bdi></a> [Dialect survey character table] (PDF) (revised ed.), Beijing: Commercial Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=F%C4%81ngy%C3%A1n+di%C3%A0och%C3%A1+z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eo+%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%B0%83%E6%9F%A5%E5%AD%97%E8%A1%A8&rft.place=Beijing&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Commercial+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.au=Institute+of+Linguistics%2C+Chinese+Academy+of+Social+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chtr.org.tw%2F0%2F0t.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chinesedialectgeography.jp/">Chinese Dialect Geography</a> – linguistic maps and commentaries from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Iwata, Ray, ed. (2009), Interpretive maps of Chinese dialects, Tokyo: Hakuteisha Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpretive+maps+of+Chinese+dialects&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pub=Hakuteisha+Press&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dylansung.tripod.com/chinese/index.html">Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects</a>, by Dylan W.H. Sung (Phonology and Official Romanization Schemes)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Template talk:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sino-Tibetan_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toto_language" title="Toto language">Toto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages"><img alt="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/200px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/300px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/400px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2792" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam_language" title="Nam language">Nam</a>?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo- Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro%E2%80%93Garo_languages" title="Boro–Garo languages">Boro–Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_language" title="Gong language">Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai–Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naic_languages" title="Naic languages">Naic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(India)" title="Koro language (India)">Koro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin%E2%80%93Naga_languages" title="Kuki-Chin–Naga languages">Kuki-Chin–Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rung_languages" title="Rung languages">Rung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_language" title="Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_language" title="Template talk:Chinese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_China" title="Template:Languages of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_China" title="Template talk:Languages of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_China" title="Autonomous regions of China">ARs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">SARs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">HK</a>/MC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_English" title="Hong Kong English">English</a>HK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia">Mongolian</a>NM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_Portuguese" title="Macanese Portuguese">Portuguese</a>MC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a>XZ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>XJ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a>GX</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_prefectures_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous prefectures of China">Prefecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_people#Language" title="Yi people">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nüa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_counties_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous counties of China">Counties</a>/<a href="/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia#Autonomous_banner" title="Banners of Inner Mongolia">Banners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">numerous</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sino-Tibetan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo- Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maang_language" title="Maang language">Maang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manga_language_(China)" title="Manga language (China)">Manga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_language_(China)" title="Mango language (China)">Mango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maza_language" title="Maza language">Maza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mondzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muangphe_language" title="Muangphe language">Muangphe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiandao_dialect" title="Xiandao dialect">Xiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pela_language" title="Pela language">Pela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chashan_language" title="Chashan language">Chashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhao_Vo_language" title="Lhao Vo language">Lhao Vo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Loloish_languages" title="Southern Loloish languages">Hanoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akeu_language" title="Akeu language">Akeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amu_language" title="Amu language">Amu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angluo_language" title="Angluo language">Angluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asuo_language" title="Asuo language">Asuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baihong_language" title="Baihong language">Baihong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisu_language" title="Bisu language">Bisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budu_language_(China)" title="Budu language (China)">Budu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukong_language" title="Bukong language">Bukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosao_language" title="Cosao language">Cosao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duoni_language" title="Duoni language">Duoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duota_language" title="Duota language">Duota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enu_language" title="Enu language">Enu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habei_language" title="Habei language">Habei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honi_language" title="Honi language">Honi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jino_language" title="Jino language">Jino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabi_language" title="Khabi language">Kabie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaduo_language" title="Kaduo language">Kaduo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lami_language" title="Lami language">Lami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomian_language" title="Laomian language">Laomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laopin_language" title="Laopin language">Laopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpi_language" title="Mpi language">Mpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muda_language" title="Muda language">Muda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuobi_language" title="Nuobi language">Nuobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuomei_language" title="Nuomei language">Nuomei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phana%CA%BC_language" title="Phanaʼ language">Phana’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyo_language" title="Piyo language">Piyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qidi_language" title="Qidi language">Qidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadu_language" title="Sadu language">Sadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangkong_language" title="Sangkong language">Sangkong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suobi_language" title="Suobi language">Suobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsukong_language" title="Tsukong language">Tsukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woni_language" title="Woni language">Woni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiche_language" title="Yiche language">Yiche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lisoish_languages" title="Lisoish languages">Lisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eka_language" title="Eka language">Eka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlersu_language" title="Hlersu language">Hlersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kua-nsi_language" title="Kua-nsi language">Kua-nsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuamasi_language" title="Kuamasi language">Kuamasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laizisi_language" title="Laizisi language">Laizisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalo_language" title="Lalo language">Lalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamu_language" title="Lamu language">Lamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavu_language" title="Lavu language">Lavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawu_language" title="Lawu language">Lawu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limi_language" title="Limi language">Limi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipo_language" title="Lipo language">Lipo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolopo_language" title="Lolopo language">Lolopo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangdi_language" title="Mangdi language">Mangdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha_language" title="Micha language">Micha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mili_language" title="Mili language">Mili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonaga_language" title="Sonaga language">Sonaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholo_language" title="Tholo language">Toloza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhang_language" title="Xuzhang language">Xuzhang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangliu_language" title="Yangliu language">Yangliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zibusi_language" title="Zibusi language">Zibusi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nisoish_languages" title="Nisoish languages">Nisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alingpo_language" title="Alingpo language">Alingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Alugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluo_language" title="Aluo language">Aluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axi_language" title="Axi language">Axi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azha_language" title="Azha language">Azha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azhe_language" title="Azhe language">Azhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Bokha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepo_language" title="Gepo language">Gepo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khlula_language" title="Khlula language">Khlula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lope_language" title="Lope language">Lope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moji_language" title="Moji language">Moji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Muji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzi_language" title="Muzi language">Muzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasu_language" title="Nasu language">Nasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisu_language" title="Nisu language">Nisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phowa_language" title="Phowa language">Phowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Phukha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phuma language">Phuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phuza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samei_language" title="Samei language">Samei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sani_language" title="Sani language">Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thopho_language" title="Thopho language">Thopho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zokhuo_language" title="Zokhuo language">Zokhuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gokhy_language" title="Gokhy language">Gokhy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katso_language" title="Katso language">Katso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucong_language" title="Kucong language">Kucong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahu_language" title="Lahu language">Lahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruo_language" title="Naruo language">Naruo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusu_language" title="Nusu language">Nusu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samu_language" title="Samu language">Samu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanie_language" title="Sanie language">Sanie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zauzou_language" title="Zauzou language">Zauzou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choyo_language" title="Choyo language">Choyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_language" title="Ersu language">Ersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiqiong_language" title="Guiqiong language">Guiqiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horpa_language" title="Horpa language">Horpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhug_language" title="Japhug language">Japhug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khroskyabs_language" title="Khroskyabs language">Khroskyabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laze_language" title="Laze language">Laze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizu_language" title="Lizu language">Lizu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na_language" title="Na language">Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muya_language" title="Muya language">Muya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumi_language" title="Pumi language">Pumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Qiang_language" title="Northern Qiang language">Northern Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qiang_language" title="Southern Qiang language">Southern Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shixing_language" title="Shixing language">Shixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situ_language" title="Situ language">Situ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshobdun_language" title="Tshobdun language">Tshobdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbu_language" title="Zbu language">Zbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhaba_language" title="Zhaba language">Zhaba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amdo_Tibetan" title="Amdo Tibetan">Amdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibetan" title="Central Tibetan">Central Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choni_language" title="Choni language">Choni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_language_(China)" title="Dao language (China)">Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongwang_Tibetan_language" title="Dongwang Tibetan language">Dongwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugchu_language" title="Drugchu language">Drugchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groma_language" title="Groma language">Groma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gserpa_language" title="Gserpa language">Gserpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalong_Tibetan_language" title="Khalong Tibetan language">Khalong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khams_Tibetan" title="Khams Tibetan">Khams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tseku_language" title="Tseku language">Tseku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongu_Tibetan_language" title="Zhongu Tibetan language">Zhongu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zitsadegu_language" title="Zitsadegu language">Zitsadegu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derung_language" title="Derung language">Derung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpo_language" title="Jingpo language">Jingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nung_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Nung language (Sino-Tibetan)">Nung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxianghua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bit_language" title="Bit language">Bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolyu_language" title="Bolyu language">Bolyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugan_language" title="Bugan language">Bugan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumang_language" title="Bumang language">Bumang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_language" title="Hu language">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuan_language" title="Kuan language">Kuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A3ng_language" title="Mảng language">Mang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_Met_language" title="Man Met language">Man Met</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muak_language" title="Muak language">Muak Sa-aak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_language" title="U language">U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va_language" title="Va language">Va</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa_language" title="Wa language">Wa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmong-Mien_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong-Mien languages">Hmong-Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Hmao_language" title="A-Hmao language">A-Hmao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bu-Nao_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bu-Nao languages">Bu-Nao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gejia_language" title="Gejia language">Gejia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiyang_Miao_language" title="Guiyang Miao language">Guiyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hm_Nai_language" title="Hm Nai language">Hm Nai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huishui_Miao_language" title="Huishui Miao language">Huishui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiong_Nai_language" title="Kiong Nai language">Kiong Nai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luobohe_Miao_language" title="Luobohe Miao language">Luobohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashan_Miao_language" title="Mashan Miao language">Mashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa-Hng_language" title="Pa-Hng language">Pa-Hng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa_Na_language" title="Pa Na language">Pa Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingtang_Miao_language" title="Pingtang Miao language">Pingtang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xong_language" title="Xong language">Qo Xiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raojia_language" title="Raojia language">Raojia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_language" title="She language">She</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gha-Mu_language" title="Gha-Mu language">Small Flowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xixiu_Miao_language" title="Xixiu Miao language">Xixiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younuo_language" title="Younuo language">Younuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Mienic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biao_Min_language" title="Biao Min language">Biao Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzao_Min_language" title="Dzao Min language">Dzao Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_language" title="Iu Mien language">Iu Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Mun_language" title="Kim Mun language">Kim Mun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonan_language" title="Bonan language">Bonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buryat_language" title="Buryat language">Buryat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagur_language" title="Dagur language">Daur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yugur_language" title="Eastern Yugur language">Eastern Yugur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangjia_language" title="Kangjia language">Kangjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamnigan_Mongol" title="Khamnigan Mongol">Khamnigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monguor_language" title="Monguor language">Monguor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_language" title="Oirat language">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_Mongolian" title="Ordos Mongolian">Ordos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_language" title="Santa language">Santa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torgut_Oirat" title="Torgut Oirat">Torgut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhuang_language" title="Dai Zhuang language">Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Zhuang_language" title="Min Zhuang language">Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Ningming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nong_Zhuang_language" title="Nong Zhuang language">Nong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_language" title="Tai Dón language">Tai Dón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Hongjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nüa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhuang_language" title="Yang Zhuang language">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yei_Zhuang_language" title="Yei Zhuang language">Yei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Cham_language" title="Ai-Cham language">Ai-Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biao_language" title="Biao language">Biao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyang_language" title="Buyang language">Buyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Miao_language" title="Cao Miao language">Cao Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadong_language" title="Chadong language">Chadong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cun_language" title="Cun language">Cun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelao_languages" title="Gelao languages">Gelao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlai_languages" title="Hlai languages">Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakkia_language" title="Lakkia language">Lakkja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak_language" title="Mak language">Mak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maonan_language" title="Maonan language">Maonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulam_language" title="Mulam language">Mulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuoxi_language" title="Nuoxi language">Naxi Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be_languages" title="Be languages">Ong Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paha_language" title="Paha language">Paha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Then_language" title="Then language">Then</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanai_language" title="Nanai language">Nanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oroqen_language" title="Oroqen language">Oroqen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xibe_language" title="Xibe language">Xibe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%84ynu_language" title="Äynu language">Äynu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyu_Kyrgyz_language" title="Fuyu Kyrgyz language">Fuyu Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Turki_language" title="Ili Turki language">Ili Turki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lop_dialect" title="Lop dialect">Lop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_language" title="Salar language">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yugur_language" title="Western Yugur language">Western Yugur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarikoli_language" title="Sarikoli language">Sarikoli</a> (Indo-European)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> (Austronesian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> (Austronesian)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_in_China" title="Esperanto in China">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvan_language" title="Tuvan language">Tuvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> (Kinh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Varieties of Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Ji-Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiao-Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Zhongyuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lan-Yin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teoswa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Puxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shaojiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Auish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Ping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Creole/Mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E_language" title="E language">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezhou_language" title="Hezhou language">Hezhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linglinghua" title="Linglinghua">Lingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_Patois" title="Macanese Patois">Macanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maojia_dialect" title="Maojia dialect">Maojia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoqmon%C4%8Daq_language" title="Qoqmončaq language">Qoqmončaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanqiao_language" title="Sanqiao language">Sanqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangwang_language" title="Tangwang language">Tangwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wutun_language" title="Wutun language">Wutun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jie_language" title="Jie language">Jie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_language" title="Khitan language">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yue_language" title="Old Yue language">Old Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_language" title="Tangut language">Tangut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuoba_language" title="Tuoba language">Tuoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun_language" title="Tuyuhun language">Tuyuhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei#Language" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang-Zhung_language" title="Zhang-Zhung language">Zhangzhung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese Sign</a> <ul><li>Northern (Beijing) Sign</li> <li>Southern (Shanghai) Sign <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Sign_Language" title="Hong Kong Sign Language">Hong Kong Sign</a>HK/MC</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Sign_Language" title="Tibetan Sign Language">Tibetan Sign</a>XZ</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li>GX = Guangxi</li> <li>HK = Hong Kong</li> <li>MC = Macau</li> <li>NM = Inner Mongolia</li> <li>XJ = Xinjiang</li> <li>XZ = Tibet</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Varieties_of_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_varieties" title="Template:Language varieties"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_varieties" title="Template talk:Language varieties"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_varieties" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language varieties"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Varieties_of_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">Varieties</a> of languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_dialects" title="Albanian dialects">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects" title="Aragonese dialects">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_dialects" title="Armenian dialects">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_dialects" title="Aromanian dialects">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_dialects" title="Azerbaijani dialects">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_dialects" title="Basque dialects">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_dialects" title="Bengali dialects">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_dialects" title="Bulgarian dialects">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_dialects" title="Catalan dialects">Catalan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch dialects">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_French" title="Varieties of French">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_dialects" title="Georgian dialects">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Modern_Greek" title="Varieties of Modern Greek">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Central Indo-Aryan languages">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Macedonian" title="Dialects of Macedonian">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language#Dialects" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_dialects" title="Norwegian dialects">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_dialects" title="Pashto dialects">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_dialects_and_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian dialects and varieties">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_dialects" title="Portuguese dialects">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_dialects_and_languages" title="Punjabi dialects and languages">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language#Dialects" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_dialects" title="Romanian dialects">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_dialects" 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