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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">masquer</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Début</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Étymologie_et_origine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Étymologie_et_origine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Étymologie et origine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Étymologie_et_origine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparatif_avec_les_autres_castes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparatif_avec_les_autres_castes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Comparatif avec les autres castes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparatif_avec_les_autres_castes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dans_les_textes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_les_textes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dans les textes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dans_les_textes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Afficher / masquer la sous-section Dans les textes</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dans_les_textes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dans_les_textes_védiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_les_textes_védiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Dans les textes védiques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dans_les_textes_védiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dans_l'Arthashastra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_l'Arthashastra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Dans l'Arthashastra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dans_l'Arthashastra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dans_les_Lois_de_Manu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_les_Lois_de_Manu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Dans les Lois de Manu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dans_les_Lois_de_Manu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dans_le_Yājñavalkya_Smṛti_et_Kalpa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_le_Yājñavalkya_Smṛti_et_Kalpa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Dans le Yājñavalkya Smṛti et Kalpa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dans_le_Yājñavalkya_Smṛti_et_Kalpa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dans_les_upanishads_médiévaux" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_les_upanishads_médiévaux"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Dans les upanishads médiévaux</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dans_les_upanishads_médiévaux-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dans_les_textes_non-hindous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dans_les_textes_non-hindous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Dans les textes non-hindous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dans_les_textes_non-hindous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Éducation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Éducation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Éducation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Éducation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activité" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activité"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Activité</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Activité-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Afficher / masquer la sous-section Activité</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Activité-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-À_Bali,_en_Indonésie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#À_Bali,_en_Indonésie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>À Bali, en Indonésie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-À_Bali,_en_Indonésie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preuves_historiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preuves_historiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Preuves historiques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preuves_historiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commentaires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Commentaires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliographie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliographie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliographie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliographie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles_connexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles_connexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Articles connexes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles_connexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Références" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Références"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Références</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Références-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Sommaire" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table des matières" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Basculer la table des matières" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Basculer la table des matières</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Shudra</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Aller à un article dans une autre langue. Disponible en 46 langues." > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 langues</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotolo" title="Sotolo – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Sotolo" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Шудры – biélorusse" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шудры" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="biélorusse" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="শূদ্র – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শূদ্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xudres" title="Xudres – catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xudres" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C3%BAdra" title="Šúdra – tchèque" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Šúdra" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tchèque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – allemand" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="allemand" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – anglais" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Cudro" title="Ŝudro – espéranto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ŝudro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="espéranto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudr%C3%A1" title="Shudrá – espagnol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Shudrá" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espagnol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="شودرا – persan" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شودرا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0udra" title="Šudra – finnois" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Šudra" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finnois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B6%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="શૂદ્ર – goudjarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="શૂદ્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="goudjarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%94" title="שודרה – hébreu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שודרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hébreu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudra" title="Sudra – indonésien" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sudra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABdra" title="Śūdra – italien" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Śūdra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%A9" title="シュードラ – japonais" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シュードラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಶೂದ್ರ – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶೂದ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC" title="수드라 – coréen" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수드라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coréen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0udros" title="Šudros – lituanien" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šudros" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituanien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%BC" title="ശൂദ്രർ – malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശൂദ്രർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – népalais" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="népalais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – néerlandais" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0" title="ਸ਼ੂਦਰ – pendjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸ਼ੂਦਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="pendjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Audra" title="Śudra – polonais" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Śudra" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="شودر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="شودر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudra" title="Sudra – portugais" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sudra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta_Sudra" title="Casta Sudra – roumain" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Casta Sudra" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="roumain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Шудры – russe" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шудры" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83" title="शूद्रः – sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="शूद्रः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Шудра – iakoute" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Шудра" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="iakoute" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_(%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94)" title="ක්‍ෂුද්‍ර (හින්දු) – cingalais" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍ෂුද්‍ර (හින්දු)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="cingalais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – suédois" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suédois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="சூத்திரர் – tamoul" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சூத்திரர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamoul" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="శూద్రులు – télougou" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శూద్రులు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="télougou" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Шудра – tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Шудра" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Шудри – ukrainien" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Шудри" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="شودر – ourdou" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شودر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="ourdou" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudrlar" title="Shudrlar – ouzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shudrlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="ouzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%96%E9%99%80%E7%BD%97" title="首陀罗 – chinois" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="首陀罗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%96%E9%99%80%E7%BE%85" title="首陀羅 – cantonais" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="首陀羅" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q905360#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Modifier les liens interlangues" class="wbc-editpage">Modifier les liens</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Espaces de noms"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Voir le contenu de la page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Discussion:Shudra" rel="discussion" title="Discussion au sujet de cette page de contenu [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Discussion</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Modifier la variante de langue" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">français</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Affichages"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Shudra"><span>Lire</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit" title="Modifier cette page [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modifier</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit" title="Modifier le wikicode de cette page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modifier le code</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=history" title="Historique des versions de cette page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>Voir l’historique</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Outils de la page"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Outils" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Outils</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Outils</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">masquer</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="Plus d’options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Shudra"><span>Lire</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit" title="Modifier cette page [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modifier</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit" title="Modifier le wikicode de cette page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modifier le code</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=history"><span>Voir l’historique</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Général </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Pages_li%C3%A9es/Shudra" title="Liste des pages liées qui pointent sur celle-ci [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Pages liées</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Suivi_des_liens/Shudra" rel="nofollow" title="Liste des modifications récentes des pages appelées par celle-ci [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Suivi des pages liées</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:Importer_un_fichier" title="Téléverser des fichiers [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Téléverser un fichier</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&oldid=222774704" title="Adresse permanente de cette version de cette page"><span>Lien permanent</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=info" title="Davantage d’informations sur cette page"><span>Informations sur la page</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Citer&page=Shudra&id=222774704&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Informations sur la manière de citer cette page"><span>Citer cette page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FShudra"><span>Obtenir l'URL raccourcie</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FShudra"><span>Télécharger le code QR</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Imprimer / exporter </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Livre&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Shudra"><span>Créer un livre</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:DownloadAsPdf&page=Shudra&action=show-download-screen"><span>Télécharger comme PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&printable=yes" title="Version imprimable de cette page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Version imprimable</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Dans d’autres projets </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Shudra" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q905360" title="Lien vers l’élément dans le dépôt de données connecté [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Élément Wikidata</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Outils de la page"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Apparence"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Apparence</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">masquer</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre.</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="fr" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:A_ghulum,_or_bath_attendant,_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_ghulum%2C_or_bath_attendant%2C_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg/177px-A_ghulum%2C_or_bath_attendant%2C_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_ghulum%2C_or_bath_attendant%2C_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg/265px-A_ghulum%2C_or_bath_attendant%2C_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_ghulum%2C_or_bath_attendant%2C_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg/354px-A_ghulum%2C_or_bath_attendant%2C_attending_to_a_custormer_Wellcome_V0045683.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1872" data-file-height="2646" /></a><figcaption>Un ghulum (préposé aux bains) du varna <b>shudra</b> s'occupant d'un client dans une maison de bains d'inspiration moghole</figcaption></figure> <p>Les <b>Shudra</b>, <b>çûdras</b>, <b>çudras</b> ou <b>sudras</b> (en <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">sanskrit</a> : <span class="lang-sa" lang="sa">शूद्र</span>, <i><span class="lang-sa-latn" lang="sa-latn">śūdra</span></i>, « serviteur ») sont, dans le <a href="/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde">système des castes indiennes</a>, un des quatre <a href="/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde">varnas</a>. Ils exercent principalement des activités agricoles et artisanales, et se situent hiérarchiquement en dessous des trois autres varnas, qui constituent les deux fois nés (<i><a href="/wiki/Dvija" title="Dvija">dvija</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ils s'apparentent aux <a href="/wiki/Servage" title="Servage">serfs</a> européens du Moyen Âge<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>2<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Selon <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a>, les trois premières castes apparaissent dans les premiers livres du <i><a href="/wiki/Rig-V%C3%A9da" title="Rig-Véda">Rig-Véda</a></i> mais les shudra seulement dans un hymne tardif ; ils pourraient être des aborigènes intégrés dans la société sous forme de servitude<sup id="cite_ref-Dumont2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dumont2013-3"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>3<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Les enfants de <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%A2hmane" class="mw-redirect" title="Brâhmane">brâhmanes</a> sont considérés comme <i>Shudra</i> tant qu'ils n'ont pas assimilé les textes sacrés, reçu l'initiation védique, qui permet d'être <i>dvija</i>, « deux fois né »<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>4<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Selon la tradition hindoue, la qualité principale du <i>Shudra</i> est le dévouement<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>5<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Étymologie_et_origine"><span id=".C3.89tymologie_et_origine"></span>Étymologie et origine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Modifier la section : Étymologie et origine" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=1" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Étymologie et origine"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Le terme <i>shudra</i> est issu du <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">sanskrit</a> <i>shud</i> signifiant « pur ». Très employé, il peut désigner une personne ayant n'importe quelle <a href="/wiki/Jati" title="Jati">jati</a>. Vāyu-<a href="/wiki/Pur%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Purāṇa">purāṇa</a> 70.68 mentionne que Shudra est le nom d'une des dix épouses de <a href="/wiki/Atri_(Rishi)" title="Atri (Rishi)">Rishi Atri</a> et est également le nom de la fille de Bhadrāśva et Gḥṛtācī selon Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa III. 8.75. D'après Harivamsa, Shudrā est également le nom d'une des dix filles de Raudrāśva<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>6<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Les <a href="/wiki/Lois_de_Manu" title="Lois de Manu">lois de Manu</a> codifient et rigidifient le système de castes ; la notion de <a href="/wiki/Jati" title="Jati">jati</a> se superpose à celle de <a href="/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde">varna</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparatif_avec_les_autres_castes">Comparatif avec les autres castes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Modifier la section : Comparatif avec les autres castes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=2" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Comparatif avec les autres castes"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="bandeau-container metadata bandeau-section bandeau-niveau-modere"><div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"><figure class="mw-halign-center noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg/25px-2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg/38px-2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg/50px-2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div><div class="bandeau-cell" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><b>Cette section <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Citez_vos_sources" title="Wikipédia:Citez vos sources">ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources</a></b><small> (octobre 2020)</small>. <div class="mw-collapsible-content">Pour l'améliorer, ajoutez <a href="/wiki/Aide:Identifier_des_sources_fiables" title="Aide:Identifier des sources fiables">des références de qualité et vérifiables</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aide:Ins%C3%A9rer_une_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_(%C3%89diteur_visuel)" title="Aide:Insérer une référence (Éditeur visuel)">comment faire ?</a>) ou le modèle <a href="/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_n%C3%A9cessaire" title="Modèle:Référence nécessaire">{{Référence nécessaire}}</a> sur les passages nécessitant une source.</div></div> </div></div> <p>Tout comme celle des <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%A2hmane" class="mw-redirect" title="Brâhmane">brâhmanes</a>, des <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">kshatriyas</a>, et des <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">vaishyas</a>, la classe des shudras, est considérée comme « noble » (<i>ârya</i>). Les quatre doivent aussi respecter l'<a href="/wiki/Ahims%C3%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahimsâ">Ahimsâ</a> (« non-violence ») pour prouver leur noblesse « dharmique » (il s'agit là d'impératif <i>théorique</i>, d'un <a href="/wiki/%C3%82ge_d%27or" title="Âge d'or">âge d'or</a>) ; les <i>shudra</i> sont donc aussi des représentants du <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i>, du « devoir » de <a href="/wiki/Ahims%C3%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahimsâ">non-violence</a> par leur service rétribué incarnant le minimum social, mais sans avoir la volonté d'acquérir une connaissance sacrée (auquel cas, il serait comme <a href="/wiki/Vyasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a>, le compilateur des <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9da" class="mw-redirect" title="Véda">Védas</a>, un <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%A2hmane" class="mw-redirect" title="Brâhmane">brâhmane</a> né d'une mère hors-caste). Les <a href="/wiki/Dalit" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalit">Dalits</a>, Intouchables, nommés en <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">sanskrit</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Chandala" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandala">chandalas</a></i>, « mangeurs de chien », sont les hors-castes, d'une condition associant celle du <a href="/wiki/Chasse" title="Chasse">chasseur</a>, du <a href="/wiki/P%C3%AAcheur" title="Pêcheur">pêcheur</a>, du <a href="/wiki/Bourreau" title="Bourreau">bourreau</a>, du <a href="/wiki/Circoncision" title="Circoncision">circonciseur</a> et de l'<a href="/wiki/Excision" title="Excision">exciseur</a>, tout ce qui a un lien avec la <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> (selon les <a href="/wiki/Lois_de_Manu" title="Lois de Manu">Lois de Manu</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dans_les_textes">Dans les textes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Modifier la section : Dans les textes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=3" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans les textes"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dans_les_textes_védiques"><span id="Dans_les_textes_v.C3.A9diques"></span>Dans les textes védiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Modifier la section : Dans les textes védiques" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=4" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans les textes védiques"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Le terme <i>Shudra</i> apparaît dans le <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a><sup id="cite_ref-D._R._Bhandarkar19899_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D._R._Bhandarkar19899-7"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>7<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Basham198925-26_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basham198925-26-8"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>8<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, dans un verset du <a href="/w/index.php?title=Purusha_Sukta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Purusha Sukta (page inexistante)">Purusha Sukta</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusha_Sukta" class="extiw" title="en:Purusha Sukta"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais : « Purusha Sukta »">(en)</span></a> (l'un des 1028 hymnes)<sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1983_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1983-9"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>9<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>10<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Le Rigveda date probablement de 1500 avant notre ère<sup id="cite_ref-Flood199637_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood199637-11"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>11<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witzel19954_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel19954-12"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>12<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Cependant, en 1868, John Muir suggère que le verset traitant des <a href="/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde">varnas</a> a <span class="citation">« tout caractère de modernité à la fois dans sa diction et ses idées »</span><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>13<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Il est admis que le verset du <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</a> Sukta fut inséré à une date ultérieure dans le texte védique<sup id="cite_ref-Stephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014-14"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>14<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>15<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Selon Stephanie Jamison et Joel Brereton, professeur de sanskrit et d'études religieuses, <span class="citation">« il n'y a aucune preuve dans le Rigveda d'un système de castes élaboré, très subdivisé et global »</span>, et <span class="citation">« le système de varna semble être embryonnaire dans le Rigveda et, tant à l'époque que plus tard, un idéal social plutôt qu'une réalité sociale »</span>. D'après l'historien <a href="/wiki/R.S.Sharma" class="mw-redirect" title="R.S.Sharma">R.S.Sharma</a>, <span class="citation">« la société védique du Rigveda n'était organisée ni sur la base de la division sociale du travail ni sur celle des différences de richesse… [elle] était principalement organisée sur la base de la parenté, de la tribu et de la lignée »</span><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>16<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Selon Romila Thapar, la mention des Shudras et d'autres varnas dans le texte védique est à l'origine de ce phénomène, et que <span class="citation">« dans l'ordre des varnas de la société, les notions de pureté et de pollution étaient centrales et les activités étaient élaborées dans ce contexte »</span> et qu'il est <span class="citation">« formulé et ordonné, divisant la société en quatre groupes disposés de manière hiérarchique »</span><sup id="cite_ref-Thapar200463_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thapar200463-17"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>17<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Dans la mythologie hindoue, le terme <i>pusan</i> renvoie au conducteur du soleil, qui connaît les chemins, apportant ainsi la lumière, la connaissance et la vie à tout le monde<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>18<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Or, dans une <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" title="Upanishad">Upanishad</a> de l'ère védique, le pusan est associé aux shoudras<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>19<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1990p49_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1990p49-20"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>20<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, alors qu'un autre texte l'associe aux autres varnas, de <a href="/wiki/Brahmane" title="Brahmane">Brahmane</a> à <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1990p49_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1990p49-20"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>20<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Sharma écrit que, dans les textes védiques, mention n'est jamais faite de restrictions alimentaires ou liées au mariage, que ce soit entre Shudras et autres varnas ou entre Dasa et aryens (nobles). De plus, à la fin de l'Atharva Veda, <span class="citation">« Shudra n'est pas mentionné, probablement parce que son varna n'existait pas à ce stade »</span><sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1990p44_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1990p44-21"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>21<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dans_l'Arthashastra"><span id="Dans_l.27Arthashastra"></span>Dans l'Arthashastra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Modifier la section : Dans l'Arthashastra" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=5" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans l'Arthashastra"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dans l'<a href="/wiki/Arthash%C3%A2stra" title="Arthashâstra">Arthashâstra</a>, les aryens sont considérés comme libres et ne pouvant jamais être esclaves<sup id="cite_ref-R._S._Sharma1958163_(1990:177)_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R._S._Sharma1958163_(1990:177)-22"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>22<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Or, dans ce texte, les shudras sont pas considérés comme aryens. Cela ne signifie cependant pas que les shudras sont esclaves ou issus d'une caste fermée (cette dernière interprétation étant ultérieure au texte). Selon Rangarajan, les lois sur l'emploi présentées dans l'Arthashastra sont sujettes à diverses interprétations de traducteurs et commentateurs, et l'opinion admise est que <span class="citation">« l'esclavage, tel qu'il était pratiqué dans la <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%A8ce_antique" title="Grèce antique">Grèce contemporaine</a>, n'existait pas dans l'Inde de <a href="/wiki/Kautilya" title="Kautilya">Kautilya</a> »</span><sup id="cite_ref-LN_Rangarajan1992411_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LN_Rangarajan1992411-23"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>23<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Kautilya défend les droits de toute la population, y compris des Shudras, à participer aux guerres. Le politologue <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roger_Boesche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roger Boesche (page inexistante)">Roger Boesche</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Boesche" class="extiw" title="en:Roger Boesche"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais : « Roger Boesche »">(en)</span></a> estime que cela relève de l'intérêt du dirigeant <span class="citation">« d'avoir une armée populaire qui lui soit farouchement loyale, précisément parce que le peuple a été traité avec justice »</span><sup id="cite_ref-Roger_Boesche2013103-104_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roger_Boesche2013103-104-24"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>24<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dans_les_Lois_de_Manu">Dans les Lois de Manu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Modifier la section : Dans les Lois de Manu" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=6" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans les Lois de Manu"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Les <a href="/wiki/Lois_de_Manu" title="Lois de Manu">Lois de Manu</a> sont principalement consacrées aux classes des <a href="/wiki/Brahmane" title="Brahmane">Brahmanes</a> et des <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriyas</a>, énonçant un code de conduite (règle du dharma)<sup id="cite_ref-Patrick_Olivelle200516,_62-65_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patrick_Olivelle200516,_62-65-25"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>25<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Les deux autres classes, <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishyas</a> et Shudras, sont évoquées dans une courte partie : les sections 9.326 - 9.335 des lois de Manu indiquent huit règles pour les Vaishyas et deux pour les Shudras. </p><p>Dans la section 10.43 - 10.44, le texte donne une liste de tribus Kshatriya qui, par négligence des prêtres et de leurs rites, sont tombées au statut de Shudras. Ce sont : Pundrakas, Codas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas et Daradas<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>26<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>27<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dans_le_Yājñavalkya_Smṛti_et_Kalpa"><span id="Dans_le_Y.C4.81j.C3.B1avalkya_Sm.E1.B9.9Bti_et_Kalpa"></span>Dans le Yājñavalkya Smṛti et Kalpa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Modifier la section : Dans le Yājñavalkya Smṛti et Kalpa" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=7" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans le Yājñavalkya Smṛti et Kalpa"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>D'après <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laurie_L._Patton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laurie L. Patton (page inexistante)">Laurie L. Patton</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_L._Patton" class="extiw" title="en:Laurie L. Patton"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais : « Laurie L. Patton »">(en)</span></a>, professeure de religion spécialisée dans l'Inde antique, les droits des Shudras varient selon les textes antiques<sup id="cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurie_Patton200290-28"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>28<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ainsi, il y a contradiction au sujet d'un rite de passage, l'<a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">upanayana</a> : alors que la section 9.15 de l'<a href="/wiki/Atharva-V%C3%A9da" title="Atharva-Véda">Atharva-Véda</a> l'autorise aux shudras, l'Apastamba Grhysutra le leur interdit, ainsi que l'éducation religieuse (apprentissage des Védas)<sup id="cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurie_Patton200290-28"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>28<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Le <a href="/w/index.php?title=Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti (page inexistante)">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" class="extiw" title="en:Yājñavalkya Smṛti"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais : « Yājñavalkya Smṛti »">(en)</span></a>, en revanche, mentionne des étudiants shudras, et le <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> indique que les quatre varnas (et donc les shudras) peuvent entendre les védas. D'autres textes hindous vont plus loin, affirmant que les Brahmanes, Kshatriyas et Vaishyas peuvent recevoir un enseignement d'un shudra et que le <a href="/wiki/Yaj%C3%B1a" title="Yajña">Yajña</a> peut être accompli par un shudra<sup id="cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200291_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurie_Patton200291-29"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>29<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ces droits et cette mobilité sociale ont pu naître à une époque de prospérité économique, qui voit également une amélioration du droit des femmes<sup id="cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290-91_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurie_Patton200290-91-30"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>30<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dans_les_upanishads_médiévaux"><span id="Dans_les_upanishads_m.C3.A9di.C3.A9vaux"></span>Dans les upanishads médiévaux</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Modifier la section : Dans les upanishads médiévaux" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=8" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans les upanishads médiévaux"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Des <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" title="Upanishad">upanishads</a> de l'époque médiévale, tels le <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vajrasuchi_Upanishad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vajrasuchi Upanishad (page inexistante)">Vajrasuchi Upanishad</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrasuchi_Upanishad" class="extiw" title="en:Vajrasuchi Upanishad"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais : « Vajrasuchi Upanishad »">(en)</span></a>, traitent des varna et le terme <i>shudra</i> y est mentionné<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>31<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>32<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Selon Ashwani Peetush, professeur de philosophie à l'université Wilfrid Laurier, le Vajrasuchi Upanishad est un texte significatif car il affirme que tout être humain, quel que soit son milieu social, peut atteindre l'état spirituel le plus élevé de l'existence<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>33<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dans_les_textes_non-hindous">Dans les textes non-hindous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Modifier la section : Dans les textes non-hindous" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=9" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Dans les textes non-hindous"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Outre les contradictions des textes hindous, les textes non-hindous donnent une image différente des shudras : par exemple, un texte <a href="/wiki/Bouddhisme" title="Bouddhisme">bouddhiste</a> mentionne des shudras connaissant les Vedas, la <a href="/wiki/Grammaire" title="Grammaire">grammaire</a>, la <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a>, le <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A2mkhya" title="Sâmkhya">Sâmkhya</a>, le <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> et le <a href="/wiki/Astrologie_indienne" title="Astrologie indienne">lagna</a><sup id="cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurie_Patton200290-28"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>28<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Selon Johannes Bronkhorst, professeur d'indologie spécialisé dans les débuts du bouddhisme et de l'hindouisme, les anciens textes bouddhistes traitent peu de varna<sup id="cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes-34"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>34<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. A la place, ils évoquent des ménages (en <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">pali</a> : gahapati), sans distinction interne<sup id="cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes-34"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>34<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Même les brahmanes sont nommés ainsi (<i>Brāhmaṇa-gahapati</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134-35_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134-35-35"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>35<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Dans les textes bouddhistes, le terme "varna" est employé dans une perspective théorique, mais peu en rapport avec la pratique réelle<sup id="cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201135_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201135-36"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>36<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Éducation"><span id=".C3.89ducation"></span>Éducation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Modifier la section : Éducation" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=10" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Éducation"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>D'après l'historien R.S. Sharma, les <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstras</a> ne permettent pas aux shudras d'accéder à une « éducation alphabétisée ». En revanche, ils sont éduqués à d'autres métiers, comme le dressage d'<a href="/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9phant" title="Éléphant">éléphants</a>. Selon lui, la croyance selon laquelle <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> et savoir religieux se gâteraient s'ils entraient en contact explique que les textes leur refusent l'éducation védique. Si les autres varnas présentaient des degrés variables d'alphabétisations, les shoudras étaient analphabètes. <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Jyotirao_Phule" title="Mahatma Jyotirao Phule">Mahatma Jyotirao Phule</a>, intellectuel militant issu du varna shudra, attribue la détérioration de sa classe à l'analphabétisme et insiste sur l'éducation<sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1990_134_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1990_134-37"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>37<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Menuge2017_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menuge2017-38"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>38<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-JSRajput2004_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JSRajput2004-39"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>39<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-PalmerBurgess2012_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PalmerBurgess2012-40"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>40<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Il déclare : <span class="citation">« Par manque d'éducation, l'intellect s'est détérioré, par manque d'intellect, la moralité a décliné, par manque de moralité, le progrès s'est arrêté, par manque de progrès, la richesse a disparu, par manque de richesse, la Shudra a péri et tous ces chagrins sont nés de l'analphabétisme<sup id="cite_ref-PalmerBurgess2012_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PalmerBurgess2012-40"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>40<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> »</span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activité"><span id="Activit.C3.A9"></span>Activité</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Modifier la section : Activité" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=11" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Activité"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha,_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg/220px-From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg/330px-From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg/440px-From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2801" data-file-height="3473" /></a><figcaption>De gauche à droite : un Gurkha, un Brahmane et un Shudra (1868).</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionnellement, les Shudras sont <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">paysans</a> et <a href="/wiki/Artisanat" title="Artisanat">artisans</a>. Décrits comme des paysans dans les textes anciens, ils sont qualifiés de donneurs de blé et, d'après les textes, sont rémunérés « par la <a href="/wiki/Faucille" title="Faucille">faucille</a> et les épis de maïs ». Le précepte ancien, « les védas sont destructeurs de l'agriculture et l'agriculture est destructrice des védas », est présenté comme l'une des raisons pour lesquelles les Shudras n'étaient pas autorisés à apprendre les Védas. Au <abbr class="abbr" title="7ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">VII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, voyageur chinois, documente également le fait que les paysans sont shudras. De plus, un <a href="/wiki/Intouchable_(Inde)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intouchable (Inde)">paria</a> devenu agriculteur devient également shudra<sup id="cite_ref-Barrett2008_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrett2008-41"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>41<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Krishnan-Kutty1986_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krishnan-Kutty1986-42"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>42<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sisson1971_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sisson1971-43"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>43<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1990_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1990-44"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>44<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gadkari1996_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gadkari1996-45"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>45<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kumar2005_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar2005-46"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>46<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-GrewalCulture2005_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrewalCulture2005-47"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>47<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jha2004_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jha2004-48"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>48<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Pour l'auteur Marvin Davis, les Shudras n'ont pas l'obligation d'apprendre les Védas. Ils ne sont pas considérés comme deux fois nés (djiva), et, selon le système de castes, sont destinés au service (seda) des trois autres varnas<sup id="cite_ref-davis51_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis51-49"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>49<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thapar200463_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thapar200463-17"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>17<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Pourtant, le terme "djiva" est absent de la littérature antique : il ne se trouve pas dans les Vedas, ni les Upanishad, ni les Shrauta-sutras ou les Grihya-sutras<sup id="cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117-50"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>50<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ainsi, le terme <i>djiva</i> indique que cette situation des shudras date du <a href="/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Moyen Âge">Moyen Âge</a>. </p><p>Les métiers traditionnels des Shudras relèvent, selon Ghurye, de l'agriculture, de l'artisanat et du commerce<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>51<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Cependant, cette classification varie dans la recherche<sup id="cite_ref-Ghurye196963-64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghurye196963-64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"-52"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>52<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. D'après Drekmeyer, Shudras et Vaishyas partagent de nombreuses occupations et se regroupent souvent<sup id="cite_ref-Drekmeier1962p85_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drekmeier1962p85-53"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>53<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>54<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Les Shudras sont artisans selon l'Arthashastra, mais pratiquent tous les arts selon le Vishnusmriti (<abbr class="abbr" title="3ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">III</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle). En revanche, le Parasarasmriti et d'autres textes affirment que les arts et l'artisanat relèvent du domaine professionnel des quatre varnas<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>55<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>A l'inverse, d'autres sources montrent que les shudras effectuent d'autres activités, d'après le <a href="/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie">sociologue</a> Naheem Jabar. Ainsi, des textes, dont des épopées, présentent des shudras rois ou ministres<sup id="cite_ref-jabbar148_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabbar148-56"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>56<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Selon Ghurye, la notion d'hérédité dans le métier (qui contribue à fonder le système de caste) était fausse pour plusieurs régions indiennes. Selon les circonstances, les membres des quatre varnas exerçaient plusieurs types de métiers<sup id="cite_ref-Ghurye196915–16_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghurye196915–16-57"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>57<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ghurye196916–17_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghurye196916–17-58"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>58<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ghurye affirme : </p> <blockquote> <p>« Bien que, théoriquement, la positionn sociale des Shudras soit très basse, des preuves montrent que nombre d'entre eux étaient aisés. Certains réussirent à marier leurs filles dans des familles royales. Sumitra, une des trois épouses du roi Dasharatha, était Shudra. Certains parvirent même à monter sur le trône. Le célèbre <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Ier" title="Chandragupta Ier">Chandragupta</a> est traditionnellement réputé pour être Shudra. » </p> </blockquote><p style="margin:-0.7em 0 0.3em 6em">— G. C. Ghurye, <cite><i>Caste et race en Inde</i><sup id="cite_ref-Ghurye196963_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghurye196963-59"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>59<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="À_Bali,_en_Indonésie"><span id=".C3.80_Bali.2C_en_Indon.C3.A9sie"></span>À Bali, en Indonésie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Modifier la section : À Bali, en Indonésie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=12" title="Modifier le code source de la section : À Bali, en Indonésie"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parmi les communautés hindoues de <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, en <a href="/wiki/Indon%C3%A9sie" title="Indonésie">Indonésie</a>, les shudras (appelés localement soedras), sont souvent prêtres de temple (bien que les prêtres de temple puissent appartenir à tout varna). Dans la plupart des régions, ce sont les Shudra qui font des offrandes aux dieux au nom des fidèles hindous, chantent des prières, récitent les meweda (Vedas) et fixent le déroulement des fêtes des temples balinais<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>60<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preuves_historiques">Preuves historiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Modifier la section : Preuves historiques" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=13" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Preuves historiques"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Des chercheurs, en quête de preuves historiques de l'existence de varna et <a href="/wiki/Jati" title="Jati">jati</a> dans l'Inde <a href="/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Moyen Âge">médiévale</a>, en ont trouvé difficilement et de contradictoires<sup id="cite_ref-Talbot200150–51_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talbot200150–51-61"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>61<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Orr200030–31_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orr200030–31-62"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>62<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>L'Andhra Pradesh, qui date du Moyen Âge, mentionne rarement les varnas. Ainsi, Cynthia Talbot, professeure d'Histoire et d'études asiatiques, questionne l'importance des varnas dans la vie quotidienne dans l'époque. Jusqu'au <abbr class="abbr" title="13ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, la mention de jati est encore plus rare. Deux rares registres de donateurs de temples provenant de familles de guerriers du <abbr class="abbr" title="14ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XIV</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle prétendent être des Shudras. L'un déclare que les Shudras sont les plus courageux, l'autre affirme que les Shudras sont les plus purs<sup id="cite_ref-Talbot200150–51_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talbot200150–51-61"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>61<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Richard Eaton, professeur d'Histoire, écrit : <span class="citation">« N'importe qui peut être guerrier, sans distinction d'origines sociales, et les jati ne formaient pas l'identité des personnes. Les occupations étaient fluides. »</span> Entre le <abbr class="abbr" title="11ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XI</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> et le <abbr class="abbr" title="14ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XIV</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, dans la population hindoue Kakatiya de la région du Deccan, les preuves montrent, selon Eaton, que les Shudras appartenaient à la noblesse, et beaucoup <span class="citation">« de père et de fils avaient des professions différentes, ce qui suggère que le statut social était gagné, et non pas hérité »</span><sup id="cite_ref-Eaton200815-16_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton200815-16-63"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>63<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>D'après Johannes Bronkhorst, aucune des inscriptions d'<a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> ne mentionne les shudras (ni les kshatryas et vaishya) : seuls sont évoqués Brahmanes et <a href="/wiki/Shramana" title="Shramana">Shramanas</a><sup id="cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36-64"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>64<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Au Moyen Âge, plusieurs membres du mouvement populaire <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">bhakti</a> (poètes-saints, chefs religieux…) étaient shudras, comme <a href="/wiki/Toukaram" title="Toukaram">Toukaram</a> et <a href="/wiki/Namdev" title="Namdev">Namdev</a><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>65<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Novetzke201354-55_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novetzke201354-55-66"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>66<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Les compositions de Namdev étaient reconnues non seulement dans la communauté hindoue du <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, mais aussi dans la communauté sikh. Les gourous sikhs de la région du Pendjab inclurent ces compositions dans leur compilation des écritures sikh<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>67<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>68<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commentaires">Commentaires</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Modifier la section : Commentaires" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=14" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Commentaires"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:Women_of_all_nations;_a_record_of_their_characteristics,_habits,_manners,_customs_and_influence_(1908)_(14596144980).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg/220px-Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg/330px-Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg/440px-Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mari%C3%A9e" title="Mariée">Mariée</a> et <a href="/wiki/Mari%C3%A9_(mariage)" title="Marié (mariage)">marié</a> shudras (<a href="/wiki/Photographie" title="Photographie">photographie</a> de 1908)<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>69<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>D'après <a href="/wiki/Bhimrao_Ramji_Ambedkar" title="Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar">Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar</a>, réformateur social, les varnas étaient originellement trois : brahmane, kshatrya et vaishya. Les shudras étaient des kshatryas à qui les brahmanes refusaient l'Upanayana, rituel d'initiation<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>70<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Cette affirmation est critiquée par l'historien Sharma, selon qui elle ne se fonde que sur des traductions et sur la croyance, alors répandue parmi les membres éduqués des basses castes, que les shudras ont des origines plus nobles<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>71<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> déclare que les varnas existent, dans des proportions différentes, dans toutes les sociétés humaines. Selon lui, ce système s'est transformé en quelque chose de différent de ce qui était initialement prévu<sup id="cite_ref-Aurobindo1996740-747_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aurobindo1996740-747-72"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>72<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Les principes de l’hindouisme védique du nord de l'Inde ont moins d'influence dans le sud, où seuls existent les varnas de Brahmane et Shudra. Certains non-brahmanes se nommaient Sat Shudra (shudra propre), par opposition aux non-brahmanes des autres communautés<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>73<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliographie">Bibliographie</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Modifier la section : Bibliographie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=15" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Bibliographie"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="ouvrage" id="Frédéric1987"><span class="ouvrage" id="Louis_Frédéric1987"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric" title="Louis Frédéric">Louis Frédéric</a>, <cite class="italique">Dictionnaire de la civilisation indienne</cite>, Robert Laffont, <time>1987</time>, 1276 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/2-221-01258-5" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/2-221-01258-5"><span class="nowrap">2-221-01258-5</span></a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+de+la+civilisation+indienne&rft.pub=Robert+Laffont&rft.aulast=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft.date=1987&rft.tpages=1276&rft.isbn=2-221-01258-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></li> <li>Guy Deleury, <i>Le Modèle indou</i>, Éditions Kailash, Paris, Pondichéry, 1993</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a>, <i>Homo hierarchicus. Le Système des castes et ses implications</i>. Gallimard (coll. TEL), Paris, 1966</li> <li>Robert Deliège, <i>Les Castes en Inde aujourd'hui</i>, Éditions PUF, 2004</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Articles_connexes">Articles connexes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Modifier la section : Articles connexes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=16" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Articles connexes"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindouisme" title="Hindouisme">Hindouisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde">Castes en Inde</a> (Varna) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmane" title="Brahmane">Brahmane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pouroush%C3%A2rthas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pouroushârthas (page inexistante)">Pouroushârthas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jati" title="Jati">Jati</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intouchable_(dalit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intouchable (dalit)">intouchable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chand%C3%A2la" title="Chandâla">Chandâla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a>, anthropologue français qui a porté une reflexion profonde sur le système de caste en Inde.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Jyotirao_Phule" title="Mahatma Jyotirao Phule">Mahatma Jyotirao Phule</a>, shudra engagé contre le système de castes, ayant comparé, dans son ouvrage <i>Slavery</i> (1873), la situation des shudras à celle des Noirs Américains.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Références"><span id="R.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Références</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Modifier la section : Références" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=17" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Références"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé <span class="plainlinks">« <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra?oldid=984477694">Shudra</a> » <small>(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra?action=history">voir la liste des auteurs</a>)</small></span>.</li></ul> <div class="references-small decimal" style=""><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jaffrelot2002"><span class="ouvrage" id="Christophe_Jaffrelot2002">Christophe <span class="nom_auteur">Jaffrelot</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Inde : l'avènement politique de la caste</cite> », <i>Critique internationale</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 17, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4,‎ <time>2002</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 131 à 144 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1290-7839">1290-7839</a></span> et <span class="plainlinks noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1777-554X">1777-554X</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3917/crii.017.0131">10.3917/crii.017.0131</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917/crii.017.0131">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2020-10-30" data-sort-value="2020-10-30">30 octobre 2020</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Inde+%3A+l%27av%C3%A8nement+politique+de+la+caste&rft.jtitle=Critique+internationale&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Jaffrelot&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=131+%C3%A0+144&rft.issn=1290-7839&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fcrii.017.0131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><i>The A to Z of Hinduism</i> par B.M. Sullivan publié par Vision Books, pages 212 et 213, <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/8170945216" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/8170945216"><span class="nowrap">8170945216</span></a>)</small>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dumont2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Dumont2013_3-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Dumont2013"><span class="ouvrage" id="Louis_Dumont2013">Louis Dumont, <cite class="italique">Homo hierarchicus : Essai sur le système des castes</cite>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimard" title="Éditions Gallimard">Editions Gallimard</a>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2013-12-02" data-sort-value="2013-12-02">2 décembre 2013</time>, 490 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-2-07-206743-3" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-2-07-206743-3"><span class="nowrap">978-2-07-206743-3</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HHZDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 169<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Homo+hierarchicus&rft.pub=Editions+Gallimard&rft.stitle=Essai+sur+le+syst%C3%A8me+des+castes&rft.aulast=Dumont&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft.date=2013-12-02&rft.pages=169&rft.tpages=490&rft.isbn=978-2-07-206743-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Madeleine Biardeau, <i>L'hindouisme, anthropologie d'une civilisation</i>, Flammarion</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><i>La légende immémoriale du Dieu Shiva, Le Shiva-purâna</i>, traduit du sanskrit et annoté par Tara Michaël, éditions Gallimard, connaissance de l'Orient <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-2-07-072008-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-2-07-072008-8"><span class="nowrap">978-2-07-072008-8</span></a>)</small></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="2008">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/shudra#purana"><cite style="font-style:normal;">Shudra, Sudra, Śūdra, Śūdrā: 23 definitions</cite></a> », sur <span class="italique">www.wisdomlib.org</span>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2008-06-01" data-sort-value="2008-06-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> juin 2008</time></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-D._R._Bhandarkar19899-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-D._R._Bhandarkar19899_7-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#D._R._Bhandarkar1989">D. R. Bhandarkar 1989</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 9. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Basham198925-26-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Basham198925-26_8-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Basham1989">Basham 1989</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 25-26. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma1983-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1983_9-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharma1983"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1983"><a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">Ram Sharan <span class="nom_auteur">Sharma</span></a>, <cite class="italique">Material culture and social formations in ancient India</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>, <time>1983</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GN_ZAAAAMAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 51<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Material+culture+and+social+formations+in+ancient+India&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Ram+Sharan&rft.date=1983&rft.pages=51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Flood1996"><span class="ouvrage" id="Gavin_D._Flood1996"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gavin_Flood&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gavin Flood (page inexistante)">Gavin D. <span class="nom_auteur">Flood</span></a>, <cite class="italique">An Introduction to Hinduism</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <time>1996</time>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/36">36-37</a> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo">lire en ligne</a> <span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Inscription nécessaire pour accéder au document"><img alt="Inscription nécessaire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/14px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/18px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin+D.&rft.date=1996&rft.tpages=%5Bhttps%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontohi0000floo%2Fpage%2F36+36-37%5D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood199637-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Flood199637_11-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Flood1996">Flood 1996</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 37. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel19954-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Witzel19954_12-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Witzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 4. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Muir1868"><span class="ouvrage" id="John_Muir1868">John <span class="nom_auteur">Muir</span>, <cite class="italique">Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India : Their Religion and Institutions, Volume 1</cite>, Londres, Trubner and Co, <time>1868</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="deuxième">2<sup>e</sup></abbr> <abbr class="abbr" title="édition">éd.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5ooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 12<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Original+Sanskrit+Texts+on+the+Origin+and+History+of+the+People+of+India+%3A+Their+Religion+and+Institutions%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=Londres&rft.pub=Trubner+and+Co&rft.edition=2&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=John&rft.date=1868&rft.pages=12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Stephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014_14-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Stephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014">Stephanie Jamison et Joel Brereton 2014</a>. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="WinternitzSrinivasa_Sarma1996"><span class="ouvrage" id="Moriz_WinternitzV._Srinivasa_Sarma1996"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moriz_Winternitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moriz Winternitz (page inexistante)">Moriz Winternitz</a> et V. Srinivasa Sarma, <cite class="italique">A History of Indian Literature</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass, <time>1996</time>, 59–60 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0264-3" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0264-3"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0264-3</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA59">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Literature&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.aulast=Winternitz&rft.aufirst=Moriz&rft.au=V.+Srinivasa+Sarma&rft.date=1996&rft.tpages=59%E2%80%9360&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0264-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan <span class="nom_auteur">Sharma</span>, <cite class="italique">Śūdras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600</cite>, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, <time>1990</time>, 384 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC&pg=PA10">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 10<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Ram+Sharan&rft.date=1990&rft.pages=10&rft.tpages=384&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thapar200463-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Thapar200463_17-0">a</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar200463_17-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Thapar2004">Thapar 2004</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 63. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Olivelle1998"><span class="ouvrage" id="Patrick_Olivelle1998"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patrick_Olivelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patrick Olivelle (page inexistante)">Patrick Olivelle</a>, <cite class="italique">The Early Upanishads : Annotated Text and Translation</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <time>1998</time>, 483, 636 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-19-535242-9" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-19-535242-9"><span class="nowrap">978-0-19-535242-9</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Upanishads&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.stitle=Annotated+Text+and+Translation&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.date=1998&rft.tpages=483%2C+636&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535242-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Olivelle1998"><span class="ouvrage" id="Patrick_Olivelle1998"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patrick_Olivelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patrick Olivelle (page inexistante)">Patrick Olivelle</a>, <cite class="italique">The Early Upanishads : Annotated Text and Translation</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <time>1998</time>, 704 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-19-535242-9" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-19-535242-9"><span class="nowrap">978-0-19-535242-9</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 49<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Upanishads&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.stitle=Annotated+Text+and+Translation&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.date=1998&rft.pages=49&rft.tpages=704&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535242-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma1990p49-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1990p49_20-0">a</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1990p49_20-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharan_Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan Sharma, <cite class="italique">Śūdras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600, Third Revised Edition</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass, <time>1990</time>, 49–50 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600%2C+Third+Revised+Edition&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.au=Ram+Sharan+Sharma&rft.date=1990&rft.tpages=49%E2%80%9350&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma1990p44-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1990p44_21-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharan_Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan Sharma, <cite class="italique">Śūdras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600, Third Revised Edition</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass, <time>1990</time>, 44–45 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600%2C+Third+Revised+Edition&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.au=Ram+Sharan+Sharma&rft.date=1990&rft.tpages=44%E2%80%9345&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-R._S._Sharma1958163_(1990:177)-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-R._S._Sharma1958163_(1990:177)_22-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#R._S._Sharma1958">R. S. Sharma 1958</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 163 (1990:177). </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LN_Rangarajan1992411-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-LN_Rangarajan1992411_23-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#LN_Rangarajan1992">LN Rangarajan 1992</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 411. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roger_Boesche2013103-104-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Roger_Boesche2013103-104_24-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Roger_Boesche2013">Roger Boesche 2013</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 103-104. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patrick_Olivelle200516,_62-65-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Patrick_Olivelle200516,_62-65_25-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Patrick_Olivelle2005">Patrick Olivelle 2005</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 16, 62-65. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="DeshpandeHook1979"><span class="ouvrage" id="Madhav_DeshpandePeter_Edwin_Hook1979">Madhav <span class="nom_auteur">Deshpande</span> et Peter Edwin <span class="nom_auteur">Hook</span>, <cite class="italique">Aryan and Non-Aryan in India</cite>, University of Michigan, <time>1979</time>, 315 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/0-89148-014-5" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/0-89148-014-5"><span class="nowrap">0-89148-014-5</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpz6CpO4XhwC&q=Cinas%2C+Kir%C4%81tas+and+Daradas">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 8<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryan+and+Non-Aryan+in+India&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.aulast=Deshpande&rft.aufirst=Madhav&rft.au=Hook%2C+Peter+Edwin&rft.date=1979&rft.pages=8&rft.tpages=315&rft.isbn=0-89148-014-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Baldwin1871"><span class="ouvrage" id="John_Denison_Baldwin1871">John Denison <span class="nom_auteur">Baldwin</span>, <cite class="italique">Pre-Historic Nations</cite>, Sagwan Press, <time>1871</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/1-340-09608-0" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/1-340-09608-0"><span class="nowrap">1-340-09608-0</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oz5HAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA290&q=shudras+Cinas%2C+Kir%C4%81tas+and+Daradas">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 290<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-Historic+Nations&rft.pub=Sagwan+Press&rft.aulast=Baldwin&rft.aufirst=John+Denison&rft.date=1871&rft.pages=290&rft.isbn=1-340-09608-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurie_Patton200290-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290_28-1">b</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290_28-2">c</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Laurie_Patton2002">Laurie Patton 2002</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 90. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurie_Patton200291-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200291_29-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Laurie_Patton2002">Laurie Patton 2002</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 91. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurie_Patton200290-91-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Laurie_Patton200290-91_30-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Laurie_Patton2002">Laurie Patton 2002</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 90-91. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Mariola Offredi (1997), The banyan tree: essays on early literature in new Indo-Aryan languages, Volume 2, Manohar Publishers, <small>(<a href="/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/fr/title/46731068">46731068</a></span>)</small>, <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/9788173042775" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/9788173042775"><span class="nowrap">9788173042775</span></a>)</small>, page 442</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">M.V. Nadkarni (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf">Review Articles: Perspectives on Dalit Problems and Solutions</a><span class="ouvrage" id="2018"><span class="noarchive">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf"><cite style="font-style:normal; color:var(--color-link-red, #d73333);">http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf</cite></a> »<sup class="plainlinks">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf">Archive.org</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/?url=http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf">Wikiwix</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf">Archive.is</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?hl=fr&q=cache:http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf">Google</a> • <a href="/wiki/Projet:Correction_des_liens_externes#J'ai_trouvé_un_lien_mort,_que_faire_?" title="Projet:Correction des liens externes">Que faire ?</a>)</sup></span>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2018-05" data-sort-value="2018-05">mai 2018</time></span>, Journal of Social and Economic Development, Vol. 7, No. 1, page 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Ashwani Peetush (2011), Justice and Religion: Hinduism, in Encyclopedia of Global Justice, Springer Netherlands, <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-1402091599" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-1402091599"><span class="nowrap">978-1402091599</span></a>)</small>, pages 596–600</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_34-0">a</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_34-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Johannes_Bronkhorst_2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 34 with footnotes. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134-35-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201134-35_35-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Johannes_Bronkhorst_2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 34-35. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201135-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201135_36-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Johannes_Bronkhorst_2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 35. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma1990_134-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1990_134_37-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharan_Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan Sharma, <cite class="italique">Śūdras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., <time>1990</time>, 134 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC&pg=PA134">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.au=Ram+Sharan+Sharma&rft.date=1990&rft.tpages=134&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« Thus the dharmashastras sought to establish a divorce between literate education, which was confined to the members of the twice born varnas, and technical training which lay in the sphere of the shudras. It was also stated that Vedic study impedes pursuit of pursuit of agriculture and vice versa. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Menuge2017-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Menuge2017_38-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="L._Menuge2017"><span class="ouvrage" id="Angus_J._L._Menuge2017">Angus J. L. Menuge, <cite class="italique">Religious Liberty and the Law : Theistic and Non-Theistic Perspectives</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-07-20" data-sort-value="2017-07-20">20 juillet 2017</time>, 272– <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-1-351-98266-5" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-1-351-98266-5"><span class="nowrap">978-1-351-98266-5</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NMItDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT272">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Liberty+and+the+Law&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.stitle=Theistic+and+Non-Theistic+Perspectives&rft.aulast=L.+Menuge&rft.aufirst=Angus+J.&rft.date=2017-07-20&rft.tpages=272%E2%80%93&rft.isbn=978-1-351-98266-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JSRajput2004-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-JSRajput2004_39-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="RajputCouncil_of_Educational_Research_and_Training_(India)2004"><span class="ouvrage" id="J._S._RajputNational_Council_of_Educational_Research_and_Training_(India)2004">J. S. Rajput et National Council of Educational Research and Training (India), <cite class="italique">Encyclopaedia of Indian Education : A-K</cite>, NCERT, <time>2004</time>, 1908 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-7450-303-9" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-7450-303-9"><span class="nowrap">978-81-7450-303-9</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGYOAQAAMAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 22<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Indian+Education+%3A+A-K&rft.pub=NCERT&rft.aulast=Rajput&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft.au=National+Council+of+Educational+Research+and+Training+%28India%29&rft.date=2004&rft.pages=22&rft.tpages=1908&rft.isbn=978-81-7450-303-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« Although varying degrees of literacy were present among the first three castes, there was absolute illiteracy among Shudras. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PalmerBurgess2012-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-PalmerBurgess2012_40-0">a</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerBurgess2012_40-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="PalmerBurgess2012"><span class="ouvrage" id="Michael_D._PalmerStanley_M._Burgess2012">Michael D. Palmer et Stanley M. Burgess, <cite class="italique">The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice</cite>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2012-03-12" data-sort-value="2012-03-12">12 mars 2012</time>, 210 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-1-4443-5537-6" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-1-4443-5537-6"><span class="nowrap">978-1-4443-5537-6</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=miXfxNiFghcC&pg=PT210">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wiley-Blackwell+Companion+to+Religion+and+Social+Justice&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft.au=Stanley+M.+Burgess&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft.tpages=210&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5537-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« His emphasis on the education of the Shudras is well explained in his own words: For want of education intellect deteriorated, For want of intellect morality decayed, For want of morality progress stopped, For want of progress wealth vanished, For want of wealth Shudra perished and all these sorrows sprang from illiteracy. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barrett2008-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Barrett2008_41-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Barrett2008"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ronald_L._Barrett2008"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Ronald L. Barrett, <cite class="italique" lang="en">Aghor medicine : pollution, death, and healing in Northern India</cite>, Berkeley, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2008-03-04" data-sort-value="2008-03-04">4 mars 2008</time>, 68– <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-520-25218-9" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-520-25218-9"><span class="nowrap">978-0-520-25218-9</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnIlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aghor+medicine&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.stitle=pollution%2C+death%2C+and+healing+in+Northern+India&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft.date=2008-03-04&rft.tpages=68%E2%80%93&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25218-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« Among the most vocal of these supporters was Dr. Shastri, a professor of Ayurvedic medicine at a well-known university, who associated the Caraka Samhita use of shudra for lesser conditions with the shudra (peasant) castes, linking both » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krishnan-Kutty1986-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Krishnan-Kutty1986_42-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Krishnan-Kutty1986"><span class="ouvrage" id="G._Krishnan-Kutty1986">G. Krishnan-Kutty, <cite class="italique">Peasantry in India</cite>, Abhinav Publications, <time>1986</time>, 47– <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-7017-215-4" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-7017-215-4"><span class="nowrap">978-81-7017-215-4</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8lOrdSYJiLwC&pg=PA47">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peasantry+in+India&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.aulast=Krishnan-Kutty&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.date=1986&rft.tpages=47%E2%80%93&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-215-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« The ancient texts designate the sudra as a peasant. The distinction between the all-India category of varna and the local and omnipresent category of jati is well brought out by M. N. Srinivas in his famous book <i>The Remembered Village</i>, ... » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sisson1971-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Sisson1971_43-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sisson1971"><span class="ouvrage" id="Richard_Sisson1971">Richard Sisson, <cite class="italique">The Congress Party in Rajasthan : Political Integration and Institution-building in an Indian State</cite>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <time>1971</time>, 33– <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-520-01808-2" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-520-01808-2"><span class="nowrap">978-0-520-01808-2</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YNn0L9BmCQcC&pg=PA33">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congress+Party+in+Rajasthan+%3A+Political+Integration+and+Institution-building+in+an+Indian+State&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.aulast=Sisson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.date=1971&rft.tpages=33%E2%80%93&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01808-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« The Shudra included peasants and artisans » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma1990-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1990_44-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharan_Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan Sharma, <cite class="italique">Sudras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., <time>1990</time>, 102– <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC&pg=PA102">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sudras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.au=Ram+Sharan+Sharma&rft.date=1990&rft.tpages=102%E2%80%93&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« The mass of Shudra population seems to be employed in agricultural operations. [according to the Majjhima Nikaya] the Shudra [lives on] on the use of sickle and the carriage of crops on the pole held over his shoulder. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gadkari1996-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Gadkari1996_45-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Gadkari1996"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jayant_Gadkari1996">Jayant Gadkari, <cite class="italique">Society and Religion : From Rugveda to Puranas</cite>, Popular Prakashan, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1996-10" data-sort-value="1996-10">octobre 1996</time>, 76– <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-7154-743-2" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-7154-743-2"><span class="nowrap">978-81-7154-743-2</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zst_7qaatp8C&pg=PA76">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+Religion&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.stitle=From+Rugveda+to+Puranas&rft.aulast=Gadkari&rft.aufirst=Jayant&rft.date=1996-10&rft.tpages=76%E2%80%93&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-743-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« an extract from Pali work Majjima Nikaya tell us ... shudras [live] by the sickle and ears of corn. A large number of Shudras appear to be agricultural laborers. Shudras were not entitled to learn Vedas and a precept says 'Vedas are destroyer of agriculture and agiculture is destroyer of vedas. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kumar2005-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Kumar2005_46-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Kumar2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sangeet_Kumar2005">Sangeet Kumar, <cite class="italique">Changing role of the caste system : a critique</cite>, Rawat Publications, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2005-01-01" data-sort-value="2005-01-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> janvier 2005</time>, 318 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-7033-881-9" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-7033-881-9"><span class="nowrap">978-81-7033-881-9</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guhtAAAAMAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 144<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+role+of+the+caste+system&rft.pub=Rawat+Publications&rft.stitle=a+critique&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Sangeet&rft.date=2005-01-01&rft.pages=144&rft.tpages=318&rft.isbn=978-81-7033-881-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« In same texts, the pure Shudras were described as giver of grain (annada) and householder (grhastha). The reason was that the actual work of cultivation was generally done by peasants belonging to the Shudras caste. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GrewalCulture2005-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GrewalCulture2005_47-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Grewalof_History_of_Indian_Science,_Philosophy,_and_Culture2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="J._S._GrewalProject_of_History_of_Indian_Science,_Philosophy,_and_Culture2005"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> J. S. Grewal et Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture, <cite class="italique" lang="en">The State and Society in Medieval India</cite>, New Delhi, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <time>2005</time>, 544 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-19-566720-2" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-19-566720-2"><span class="nowrap">978-0-19-566720-2</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cgluAAAAMAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 156<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+and+Society+in+Medieval+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.aulast=Grewal&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft.au=Project+of+History+of+Indian+Science%2C+Philosophy%2C+and+Culture&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=156&rft.tpages=544&rft.isbn=978-0-19-566720-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« At its beginning or a little before the millennium, the Manusmriti considers the pursuit of agriculture blameworthy because the 'wooden [plough] with the iron point injures the earth and the [beings] living in the earth'. Thus, by an appeal to the doctrine of ahimsa, so much promoted by Buddhism and Jainism, the plough became unclean, and the peasant who worked the plough earned opprobrium that has stuck till our own times. R. S. Sharma shows how in the legal texts peasants came generally to be regarded not as Vaishyas as earlier, but as Shudras. This is confirmed in the seventh century by Xuan Zhuang (Hsuan Tsang) who found that in India peasants were held to be Shudras. Such varna ranking of most peasant castes (now usually given the designation of 'Other Backward Castes') is thus more than 1300 years old, and was in place by the early medieval times. If certain older communities were thus reduced in status, it is possible that other communities, previously held to be outside the pale of the varna system, were absorbed as Shudra castes once they took to agriculture. We have such an example in the Kaivartas. » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jha2004-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Jha2004_48-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Narayan_Jha2004"><span class="ouvrage" id="Dwijendra_Narayan_Jha2004">Dwijendra Narayan Jha, <cite class="italique">Early India : A Concise History</cite>, Manohar Publishers & Distributors, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2004-01-01" data-sort-value="2004-01-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> janvier 2004</time>, 269 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-7304-587-5" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-7304-587-5"><span class="nowrap">978-81-7304-587-5</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HUpuAAAAMAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 196<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India&rft.pub=Manohar+Publishers+%26+Distributors&rft.stitle=A+Concise+History&rft.au=Dwijendra+Narayan+Jha&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.pages=196&rft.tpages=269&rft.isbn=978-81-7304-587-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span><blockquote> <p>« For the shudras now took their position as cultivators and the origin of the modern peasant castes of kurmis in Bihar and kunbis in Maharashtra may be traced back to the early medieval period » </p> </blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis51-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-davis51_49-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Davis1983"><span class="ouvrage" id="Marvin_Davis1983">Marvin <span class="nom_auteur">Davis</span>, <cite class="italique">Rank and Rivalry : The Politics of Inequality in Rural West Bengal</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <time>1983</time>, 239 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-521-28880-4" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-521-28880-4"><span class="nowrap">978-0-521-28880-4</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kw4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 51<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rank+and+Rivalry&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.stitle=The+Politics+of+Inequality+in+Rural+West+Bengal&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft.date=1983&rft.pages=51&rft.tpages=239&rft.isbn=978-0-521-28880-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span>; Thapar 2004 page 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_50-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Olivelle2012"><span class="ouvrage" id="Patric_Olivelle2012">Patric Olivelle, <cite class="italique">Aux abords de la clairière : études indiennes et comparées en l'honneur de Charles Malamoud</cite>, Turnhout, Brepols, Belgium, <abbr class="abbr" title="collection">coll.</abbr> « Volume 7 of Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Sciences Religieuses: Série Histoire et prosopographie », <time>2012</time>, 117–132 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-2-503-54472-4" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-2-503-54472-4"><span class="nowrap">978-2-503-54472-4</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9UIMwEACAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aux+abords+de+la+clairi%C3%A8re+%3A+%C3%A9tudes+indiennes+et+compar%C3%A9es+en+l%27honneur+de+Charles+Malamoud&rft.place=Turnhout&rft.pub=Brepols%2C+Belgium&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patric&rft.date=2012&rft.tpages=117%E2%80%93132&rft.isbn=978-2-503-54472-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ingold1994"><span class="ouvrage" id="Tim_Ingold1994">Tim <span class="nom_auteur">Ingold</span>, <cite class="italique">Companion encyclopedia of anthropology</cite>, London New York, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, <time>1994</time>, 1127 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-415-28604-6" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-415-28604-6"><span class="nowrap">978-0-415-28604-6</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKzSc02tbaMC&printsec=frontcover">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 1026<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+encyclopedia+of+anthropology&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Ingold&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.date=1994&rft.pages=1026&rft.tpages=1127&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28604-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghurye196963-64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghurye196963-64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"_52-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ghurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 63-64, 102 Quote: "treat both the Vaishyas and the Shudras as almost indistinguishable. The occupations prescribed by Parashara, who is par excellence the mentor of the age, for both of them are the same, viz. agriculture, trade and crafts". </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drekmeier1962p85-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Drekmeier1962p85_53-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Drekmeier1962"><span class="ouvrage" id="Charles_Drekmeier1962">Charles Drekmeier, <cite class="italique">Kingship and Community in Early India</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, <time>1962</time>, 85–86 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-8047-0114-3" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-8047-0114-3"><span class="nowrap">978-0-8047-0114-3</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmurAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingship+and+Community+in+Early+India&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.aulast=Drekmeier&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.date=1962&rft.tpages=85%E2%80%9386&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0114-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-54">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharan_Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan Sharma, <cite class="italique">Śūdras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass, <time>1990</time>, 263–269, 342–345 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.au=Ram+Sharan+Sharma&rft.date=1990&rft.tpages=263%E2%80%93269%2C+342%E2%80%93345&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-55">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Kramrisch1994"><span class="ouvrage" id="Stella_Kramrisch1994">Stella Kramrisch, <cite class="italique">Exploring India'S Sacred Art</cite>, Motilal Banarsidass, <time>1994</time>, 60–61 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-1208-6" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-1208-6"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-1208-6</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPeWwFz9MkC&pg=PA60">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+India%27S+Sacred+Art&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.aulast=Kramrisch&rft.aufirst=Stella&rft.date=1994&rft.tpages=60%E2%80%9361&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1208-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jabbar148-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-jabbar148_56-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jabbar2009"><span class="ouvrage" id="Naheem_Jabbar2009">Naheem Jabbar, <cite class="italique">Historiography and Writing Postcolonial India</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, <time>2009</time>, 148–149 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-1-134-01040-0" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-1-134-01040-0"><span class="nowrap">978-1-134-01040-0</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0wt6AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA148">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historiography+and+Writing+Postcolonial+India&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Jabbar&rft.aufirst=Naheem&rft.date=2009&rft.tpages=148%E2%80%93149&rft.isbn=978-1-134-01040-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghurye196915–16-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghurye196915–16_57-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ghurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 15–16. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghurye196916–17-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghurye196916–17_58-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ghurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 16–17. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghurye196963-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghurye196963_59-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ghurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 63. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jane Belo (1953), Bali: Temple Festival, Monograph 22, American Ethnological Society, University of Washington Press, pages 4-5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talbot200150–51-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Talbot200150–51_61-0">a</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-Talbot200150–51_61-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Talbot2001">Talbot 2001</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 50–51. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Orr200030–31-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Orr200030–31_62-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Orr2000">Orr 2000</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 30–31. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton200815-16-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Eaton200815-16_63-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Eaton2008">Eaton 2008</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 15-16. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Johannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36_64-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Johannes_Bronkhorst_2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 32, 36. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-65">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Richard M. Eaton (2005), <i>A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives</i>, Cambridge University Press, <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0521716277" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0521716277"><span class="nowrap">978-0521716277</span></a>)</small>, pages 129-130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Novetzke201354-55-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Novetzke201354-55_66-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Novetzke2013">Novetzke 2013</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 54-55. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-67">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Singh2003"><span class="ouvrage" id="Pashaura_Singh2003">Pashaura Singh, <cite class="italique">The Bhagats of the Guru Granth Sahib : Sikh Self-definition and the Bhagat Bani</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <time>2003</time>, 11–15, 105–107, 119–120 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-19-566269-6" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-19-566269-6"><span class="nowrap">978-0-19-566269-6</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fMrXAAAAMAAJ">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bhagats+of+the+Guru+Granth+Sahib&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.stitle=Sikh+Self-definition+and+the+Bhagat+Bani&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Pashaura&rft.date=2003&rft.tpages=11%E2%80%9315%2C+105%E2%80%93107%2C+119%E2%80%93120&rft.isbn=978-0-19-566269-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-68">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Brown2002"><span class="ouvrage" id="Kerry_Brown2002">Kerry Brown, <cite class="italique">Sikh Art and Literature</cite>, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, <time>2002</time>, 264 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-1-134-63136-0" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-1-134-63136-0"><span class="nowrap">978-1-134-63136-0</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ddgO-DldmSwC">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 114<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sikh+Art+and+Literature&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Kerry&rft.date=2002&rft.pages=114&rft.tpages=264&rft.isbn=978-1-134-63136-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-69">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Joyce1908"><span class="ouvrage" id="Thomas_Athol_Joyce1908"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Athol_Joyce" title="Thomas Athol Joyce">Thomas Athol <span class="nom_auteur">Joyce</span></a>, <cite class="italique">Women of all nations, a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs and influence</cite>, <time>1908</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womenofallnation00joyc">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+of+all+nations%2C+a+record+of+their+characteristics%2C+habits%2C+manners%2C+customs+and+influence&rft.aulast=Joyce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Athol&rft.date=1908&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-70">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ambedkar1970"><span class="ouvrage" id="B.R._Ambedkar1970">B.R. <span class="nom_auteur">Ambedkar</span>, <cite class="italique">Who were the Shudras</cite>, Bombay, Thackers, <time>1970</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<span class="noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://164.100.47.134/plibrary/ebooks/Jagjivan%20Ram/(sno%207)jagjivan%20ram%201.pdf">lire en ligne</a> <small class="cachelinks">[<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140819103958/http://164.100.47.134/plibrary/ebooks/Jagjivan%20Ram/(sno%207)jagjivan%20ram%201.pdf">archive du <time class="nowrap" datetime="2014-08-19" data-sort-value="2014-08-19">19 août 2014</time></a>]</small></span>)</small>, xiv<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+were+the+Shudras&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pub=Thackers&rft.aulast=Ambedkar&rft.aufirst=B.R.&rft.date=1970&rft.pages=xiv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-71">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Sharma1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ram_Sharan_Sharma1990">Ram Sharan <span class="nom_auteur">Sharma</span>, <cite class="italique">Śūdras in Ancient India : A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600</cite>, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, <time>1990</time>, 384 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-81-208-0706-8"><span class="nowrap">978-81-208-0706-8</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC&pg=PA5">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 5<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Ram+Sharan&rft.date=1990&rft.pages=5&rft.tpages=384&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aurobindo1996740-747-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Aurobindo1996740-747_72-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="#Aurobindo1996">Aurobindo (1996)</a>, p. 740-747</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-73">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Vaitheespara2011"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ravi_Vaitheespara2011">Ravi <span class="nom_auteur">Vaitheespara</span>, <cite class="italique">Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India</cite>, Primus Books, <time>2011</time>, 386 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-93-80607-21-4" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-93-80607-21-4"><span class="nowrap">978-93-80607-21-4</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OcEM2IsnA1AC&pg=PA96">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, « Forging a Tamil Caste: Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950) and the discourse of caste in colonial Tamilnadu », <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 96<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ritual%2C+Caste%2C+and+Religion+in+Colonial+South+India&rft.atitle=Forging+a+Tamil+Caste%3A+Maraimalai+Adigal+%281876-1950%29+and+the+discourse+of+caste+in+colonial+Tamilnadu&rft.pub=Primus+Books&rft.aulast=Vaitheespara&rft.aufirst=Ravi&rft.date=2011&rft.pages=96&rft.tpages=386&rft.isbn=978-93-80607-21-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AShudra"></span></span></span></span> </li> </ol></div> </div> <div class="navbox-container" style="clear:both;"> <table class="navbox collapsible noprint collapsed" style=""> <tbody><tr><th class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#FFDE90;"><div style="float:left; width:6em; text-align:left"><div class="noprint plainlinks nowrap tnavbar" style="padding:0; font-size:xx-small; color:var(--color-emphasized, #000000);"><a href="/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:Palette_Hindouisme" title="Modèle:Palette Hindouisme"><abbr class="abbr" title="Voir ce modèle.">v</abbr></a> · <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mod%C3%A8le:Palette_Hindouisme&action=edit"><abbr class="abbr" title="Modifier ce modèle. Merci de prévisualiser avant de sauvegarder.">m</abbr></a></div></div><div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Hindouisme" title="Hindouisme">Hindouisme</a></div></th> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;"><a href="/wiki/Deva_(divinit%C3%A9)" title="Deva (divinité)">Divinités</a></th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trim%C5%ABrti" title="Trimūrti">Trimūrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81" title="Brahmā">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnou" title="Vishnou">Vishnou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dev%C3%AE" title="Devî">Devî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(divinit%C3%A9)" title="Deva (divinité)">Deva (divinité)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarasvati_(d%C3%A9esse)" title="Sarasvati (déesse)">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti_(hindouisme)" title="Shakti (hindouisme)">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dourga" title="Dourga">Dourga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh" title="Ganesh">Ganesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A2rttikeya" title="Kârttikeya">Kârttikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyappan" title="Ayyappan">Ayyappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virabhadra" title="Virabhadra">Virabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhairava" title="Bhairava">Bhairava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81ma" title="Rāma">Rāma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanum%C4%81n" title="Hanumān">Hanumān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajapati" title="Prajapati">Prajapati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_(dieu)" title="Agni (dieu)">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyaus_Pitar" title="Dyaus Pitar">Dyaus Pitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi" title="Bhūmi">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A2you" title="Vâyou">Vâyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsara" title="Apsara">Apsara</a></li></ul> </div></td> <td class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:7px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:Hinduism_symbol.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hinduism_symbol.png/100px-Hinduism_symbol.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hinduism_symbol.png/150px-Hinduism_symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hinduism_symbol.png/200px-Hinduism_symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="278" /></a></span></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;"><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_indienne" title="Philosophie indienne">Philosophies</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;"><table class="navbox-subgroup" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Concepts</th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakra" title="Chakra">Chakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om%CC%90" title="Om̐">Om̐</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82tman" title="Âtman">Âtman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(sanskrit)" title="Maya (sanskrit)">L'illusion: Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purushartha" title="Purushartha">Purushartha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama_(concept)" title="Kama (concept)">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Écoles</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astika_et_nastika" title="Astika et nastika">Astika et nastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A2mkhya" title="Sâmkhya">Sâmkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C3%A2ya" title="Nyâya">Nyâya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" title="Mimamsa">Mîmâmsâ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9danta" title="Védanta">Védanta</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adva%C3%AFta_v%C3%A9danta" title="Advaïta védanta">Advaïta védanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishisht%C3%A2dvaita" title="Vishishtâdvaita">Vishishtâdvaita</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2rv%C3%A2ka" title="Chârvâka">Chârvâka</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;"><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Texte_de_l%27hindouisme" title="Catégorie:Texte de l'hindouisme">Textes</a></th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;"><table class="navbox-subgroup" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Classification</th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shruti" title="Shruti">Shruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smriti" title="Smriti">Smriti</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Védiques</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veda" title="Veda">Veda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rig-V%C3%A9da" title="Rig-Véda">Rig-Véda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajur-V%C3%A9da" title="Yajur-Véda">Yajur-Véda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sama-V%C3%A9da" title="Sama-Véda">Sama-Véda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharva-V%C3%A9da" title="Atharva-Véda">Atharva-Véda</a></li></ul></li> <li>Divisions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishad" title="Upanishad">Upanishad</a></li></ul></li> <li>Upavedas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhanurveda" title="Dhanurveda">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A2tya-sh%C3%A2stra" title="Nâtya-shâstra">Nâtya-shâstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu shastra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9danga" title="Védanga">Védanga</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandas" title="Chandas">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyakarana" title="Vyakarana">Vyakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(V%C3%A9da)" title="Kalpa (Véda)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrologie_indienne" title="Astrologie indienne">Jyotisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishad" title="Upanishad">Upanishad</a></li> <li>Rig védique <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yajur védique <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sama védique <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C4%81ndogya_Upani%E1%B9%A3ad" title="Chāndogya Upaniṣad">Chāndogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li></ul></li> <li>Atharva védique <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Autres</th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthash%C3%A2stra" title="Arthashâstra">Arthashâstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad-Gita" title="Bhagavad-Gita">Bhagavad-Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lois_de_Manu" title="Lois de Manu">Lois de Manu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itih%C3%A2sa" title="Itihâsa">Itihâsa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Purana" title="Purana">Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasishtha" title="Yoga Vasishtha">Yoga Vasishtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantrisme" title="Tantrisme">Tantrisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga-s%C3%BBtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoga-sûtra">Yoga-sûtra</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Pratiques</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;"><table class="navbox-subgroup" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Rituels</th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puja" title="Puja">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(sanskrit)" title="Tapas (sanskrit)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na" title="Dhyāna">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaj%C3%B1a" title="Yajña">Yajña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(rituel)" title="Homa (rituel)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirthadana" title="Tirthadana">Tirthadana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naivedya" title="Naivedya">Naivedya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandir" title="Mandir">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Vigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Rites de passage</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simantonnayana" title="Simantonnayana">Simantonnayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarman" title="Jatakarman">Jatakarman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namakarana" title="Namakarana">Namakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidyarambha" title="Vidyarambha">Vidyarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedarambha" title="Vedarambha">Vedarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartana" title="Samavartana">Samavartana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaha" title="Vivaha">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyeshti" title="Antyeshti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Castes sacrées</th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castes_en_Inde" title="Castes en Inde">Varna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmane" title="Brahmane">Brahmane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashram" title="Ashram">Ashram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81naprastha" title="Vānaprastha">Vānaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanny%C3%A2sa" title="Sannyâsa">Sannyâsa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Festivals</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navratri" title="Navratri">Navratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dussehra" title="Dussehra">Dussehra</a> (Dasara)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divali" title="Divali">Divali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahashivaratri" title="Mahashivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra" title="Ratha Yatra">Ratha Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baisakhi" title="Baisakhi">Baisakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janmashtami" title="Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_bandhan" title="Raksha bandhan">Raksha bandhan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> </tr> <tr> <th class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFDE90;">Articles liés</th> <td class="navbox-list" style="text-align:left;"><div class="liste-horizontale"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythologie_hindoue" title="Mythologie hindoue">Mythologie hindoue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendrier_hindou" title="Calendrier hindou">Calendrier hindou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconographie_hindoue" title="Iconographie hindoue">Iconographie hindoue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalisme_hindou" title="Nationalisme hindou">Nationalisme hindou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8lerinage#Pèlerinages_hindous" title="Pèlerinage">Lieux de pèlerinages hindous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liste_des_lieux_saints#Hindouisme" class="mw-redirect" title="Liste des lieux saints">Lieux saints en Inde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindouisme#Controverses" title="Hindouisme">Critiques de l'hindouisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_des_femmes_dans_l%27hindouisme" title="Place des femmes dans l'hindouisme">Place des femmes dans l'hindouisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chand%C3%A2la" title="Chandâla">Chandâla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tarisme_hindou" title="Végétarisme hindou">Végétarisme hindou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vache_sacr%C3%A9e" title="Vache sacrée">Vache sacrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossaire_de_l%27hindouisme" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossaire de l'hindouisme">Glossaire</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <ul id="bandeau-portail" class="bandeau-portail"><li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Monde_indien" title="Portail du monde indien"><img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Indian_world_contour.svg/25px-Indian_world_contour.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Indian_world_contour.svg/37px-Indian_world_contour.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Indian_world_contour.svg/50px-Indian_world_contour.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="290" /></a></span></span> <span class="bandeau-portail-texte"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Monde_indien" title="Portail:Monde indien">Portail du monde indien</a></span> </span></li> <li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Hindouisme" title="Portail de l’hindouisme"><img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Aum.svg/29px-Aum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Aum.svg/43px-Aum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Aum.svg/58px-Aum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="242" data-file-height="201" /></a></span></span> <span class="bandeau-portail-texte"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Hindouisme" title="Portail:Hindouisme">Portail de l’hindouisme</a></span> </span></li> </ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" 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