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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timber_keeps_(9th–12th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timber_keeps_(9th–12th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Timber keeps (9th–12th centuries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timber_keeps_(9th–12th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_stone_keeps_(10th–12th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_stone_keeps_(10th–12th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Early stone keeps (10th–12th centuries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_stone_keeps_(10th–12th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-medieval_keeps_(late_12th–14th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-medieval_keeps_(late_12th–14th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mid-medieval keeps (late 12th–14th centuries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-medieval_keeps_(late_12th–14th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_medieval_keeps_(14th–16th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_medieval_keeps_(14th–16th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Late medieval keeps (14th–16th centuries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_medieval_keeps_(14th–16th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_use_and_destruction_of_keeps_(17th–21st_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_use_and_destruction_of_keeps_(17th–21st_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Later use and destruction of keeps (17th–21st centuries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_use_and_destruction_of_keeps_(17th–21st_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Keep</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="برج حماية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="برج حماية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_de_l%27homenache" title="Torre de l'homenache – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Torre de l'homenache" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Данжон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Данжон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Данжон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Данжон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Донжон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Донжон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour-meur" title="Tour-meur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tour-meur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_mestra" title="Torre mestra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Torre mestra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorthwr" title="Gorthwr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gorthwr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep" title="Keep – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Keep" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_del_homenaje" title="Torre del homenaje – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Torre del homenaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%C4%9Dejturo" title="Loĝejturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Loĝejturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorre_nagusi" title="Dorre nagusi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Dorre nagusi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC%DA%A9_%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="برجک دفاعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برجک دفاعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daingean" title="Daingean – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Daingean" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_da_homenaxe" title="Torre da homenaxe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Torre da homenaxe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%84%B1" title="아성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep" title="Keep – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Keep" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AA%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Դոնժոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դոնժոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brani%C4%8D-kula" title="Branič-kula – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Branič-kula" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turm-lojeyo" title="Turm-lojeyo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Turm-lojeyo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menara_benteng" title="Menara benteng – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Menara benteng" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongione" title="Dongione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dongione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%93%D7%9C_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%96_(%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8)" title="מגדל עוז (ביצור) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מגדל עוז (ביצור)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangio" title="Dangio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Dangio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%C5%BEonas" title="Donžonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Donžonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96regtorony" title="Öregtorony – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Öregtorony" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menara_benteng" title="Menara benteng – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Menara benteng" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%97_(%E5%9F%8E)" title="キープ (城) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キープ (城)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgt%C3%A5rn" title="Borgtårn – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Borgtårn" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%C5%BCon" title="Donżon – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Donżon" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_de_menagem" title="Torre de menagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Torre de menagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Донжон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Донжон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjon" title="Donjon – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Donjon" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalno-obrambni_grad" title="Bivalno-obrambni grad – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bivalno-obrambni grad" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Донжон кула – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Донжон кула" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%C5%BEon" title="Donžon – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Donžon" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rntorn" title="Kärntorn – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärntorn" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="หอกลาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หอกลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fkule" title="Başkule – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Başkule" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Донжон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" 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id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Fortified tower built in the Middle Ages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Keep_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Keep (disambiguation)">Keep (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Donjon" and "Castle keep" redirect here. For other uses of Donjon, see <a href="/wiki/Donjon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Donjon (disambiguation)">Donjon (disambiguation)</a>. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/Castle_Keep" title="Castle Keep">Castle Keep</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rochester_zamek_fc11_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rochester_zamek_fc11_%28cropped%29.jpg/310px-Rochester_zamek_fc11_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rochester_zamek_fc11_%28cropped%29.jpg/465px-Rochester_zamek_fc11_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rochester_zamek_fc11_%28cropped%29.jpg/620px-Rochester_zamek_fc11_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3107" data-file-height="2437" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Norman_architecture" title="Norman architecture">Norman</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1126</span>) keep of <a href="/wiki/Rochester_Castle" title="Rochester Castle">Rochester Castle</a>, England (rear). The shorter rectangular tower attached to the keep is its <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/forebuilding" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:forebuilding">forebuilding</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">curtain wall</a> is in the foreground.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>keep</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">fortified tower</a> built within <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> by European <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>. Scholars have debated the scope of the word <i>keep</i>, but usually consider it to refer to large towers in castles that were fortified residences, used as a refuge of last resort should the rest of the castle fall to an adversary. The first keeps were made of timber and formed a key part of the <a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">motte-and-bailey castles</a> that emerged in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">Anjou</a> during the 10th century; the design spread to England, Portugal,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> south Italy and Sicily. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of England in 1066, use spread into Wales during the second half of the 11th century and into Ireland in the 1170s. The Anglo-Normans and French rulers began to build stone keeps during the 10th and 11th centuries, including Norman keeps, with a square or rectangular design, and circular <a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">shell keeps</a>. Stone keeps carried considerable political as well as military importance and could take a decade or more to build. </p><p>During the 12th century, new designs began to be introduced – in France, <a href="/wiki/Quatrefoil" title="Quatrefoil">quatrefoil</a>-shaped keeps were introduced, while in England <a href="/wiki/Polygon" title="Polygon">polygonal</a> towers were built. By the end of the century, French and English keep designs began to diverge: <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II of France</a> built a sequence of circular keeps as part of his bid to stamp his royal authority on his new territories, while in England castles were built without keeps. In Spain, keeps were increasingly incorporated into both Christian and Islamic castles, although in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> tall fighting towers called <i><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">bergfriede</a></i> were preferred to keeps in the western fashion. In the second half of the 14th century, there was a resurgence in the building of keeps. In France, the keep at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes" title="Château de Vincennes">Vincennes</a> near Paris began a fashion for tall, heavily <a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">machicolated</a> designs, a trend adopted in Spain most prominently through the <a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a> school of Spanish castle design. Meanwhile, tower keeps in England became popular amongst the most wealthy nobles: these large keeps, each uniquely designed, formed part of the grandest castles built during the period. </p><p>In the 15th century, the protective function of keeps was compromised by improved <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>. For example, in 1464 during the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, the keep of <a href="/wiki/Bamburgh_Castle" title="Bamburgh Castle">Bamburgh Castle</a> on the Northumberland coast, previously considered to be impregnable, was defeated with <a href="/wiki/Bombard_(weapon)" title="Bombard (weapon)">bombards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 16th century, keeps were slowly falling out of fashion as fortifications and residences. Many were destroyed in civil wars between the 17th and 18th centuries or incorporated into gardens as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Folly" title="Folly">follies</a>. During the 19th century, keeps became fashionable once again, and in England and France, a number were restored or redesigned by Gothic architects. Despite further damage to many French and Spanish keeps during the wars of the 20th century, keeps now form an important part of the tourist and heritage industry in Europe. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_historiography">Etymology and historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etampes_Donjon_-_enhanced.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Etampes_Donjon_-_enhanced.png/250px-Etampes_Donjon_-_enhanced.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="413" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Etampes_Donjon_-_enhanced.png 1.5x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>A 19th-century reconstruction drawing of the keep at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_d%27%C3%89tampes" title="Château d'Étampes">Château d'Étampes</a> in France</figcaption></figure><p> Since the 16th century, the English word <i>keep</i> has commonly referred to large towers in castles.<sup id="cite_ref-DixonP9_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DixonP9-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word originates from around 1375 to 1376, coming from the Middle English term <i>kype</i>, meaning basket or cask, and was a term applied to the <a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">shell keep</a> at <a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%AEnes" title="Guînes">Guînes</a>, said to resemble a barrel.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term came to be used for other shell keeps by the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-DixonP9_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DixonP9-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 17th century, the word keep lost its original reference to baskets or casks and was popularly assumed to have come from the Middle English word <i>keep</i>, meaning to hold or to protect.<sup id="cite_ref-DixonP9_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DixonP9-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early on, the use of the word <i>keep</i> became associated with the idea of a tower in a castle that would serve both as a fortified, high-status private residence and a refuge of last resort.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue was complicated by the building of fortified <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> towers in Italy called <i>tenazza</i> that were used as defences of last resort and were also named after the Italian for <i>to hold</i> or <i>to keep</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-DixonP9_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DixonP9-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 19th century, Victorian historians incorrectly concluded that the etymology of the words "keep" and <i>tenazza</i> were linked and that all keeps had fulfilled this military function.<sup id="cite_ref-DixonP9_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DixonP9-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of this evolution in meaning, the use of the term <i>keep</i> in historical analysis today can be problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-KingPP190_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KingPP190-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary medieval writers used various terms for the buildings we would today call keeps. In Latin, they are variously described as <i>turris</i>, <i>turris castri</i> or <i>magna turris</i> – a <i>tower</i>, a <i>castle tower</i>, or a <i>great tower</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-KingPP190_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KingPP190-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 12th-century French came to term them a <b><a href="/wiki/Dungeon#Etymology" title="Dungeon">donjon</a></b>, from the Latin <i>dominarium</i> "lordship", linking the keep and feudal authority.<sup id="cite_ref-Liddiard2005P47_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liddiard2005P47-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, medieval Spanish writers called the buildings <i><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/torre_del_homenaje" class="extiw" title="es:torre del homenaje">torre del homenaje</a></i>, or "tower of <a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">homage</a>". In England, <i>donjon</i> turned into <i>dungeon</i>, which initially referred to a keep, rather than to a place of imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the term remains in common academic use, some academics prefer to use the term <i>donjon</i>, and most modern historians warn against using the term "keep" simplistically.<sup id="cite_ref-KingDixonPP190_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KingDixonPP190-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fortifications that we would today call keeps did not necessarily form part of a unified medieval style, nor were they all used in a similar fashion during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-KingDixonPP190_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KingDixonPP190-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timber_keeps_(9th–12th_centuries)"><span id="Timber_keeps_.289th.E2.80.9312th_centuries.29"></span>Timber keeps (9th–12th centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Timber keeps (9th–12th centuries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest keeps were built as part of <a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">motte-and-bailey castles</a> from the 10th century onwards – a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence places the first such castle, built at <a href="/wiki/Les_Rues-des-Vignes" title="Les Rues-des-Vignes">Vincy</a>, in 979.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These castles were initially built by the more powerful lords of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">Anjou</a> in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular <a href="/wiki/Fulk_III,_Count_of_Anjou" title="Fulk III, Count of Anjou">Fulk III</a> and his son, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_II,_Count_of_Anjou" title="Geoffrey II, Count of Anjou">Geoffrey II</a>, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> then introduced this form of castle into England when he invaded in 1066, and the design spread through south Wales as the Normans expanded up the valleys during the subsequent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Donjon_chateau_a_motte_saint_sylvain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Donjon_chateau_a_motte_saint_sylvain.jpg/250px-Donjon_chateau_a_motte_saint_sylvain.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Donjon_chateau_a_motte_saint_sylvain.jpg/500px-Donjon_chateau_a_motte_saint_sylvain.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed keep at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Sylvain-d%27Anjou" title="Saint-Sylvain-d'Anjou">Saint-Sylvain-d'Anjou</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maine-et-Loire" title="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In a motte-and-bailey design, a castle would include a mound called a motte, usually artificially constructed by piling up turf and soil, and a bailey, a lower walled enclosure. A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Some protective walls around a keep would be large enough to have a wall-walk around them, and the outer walls of the motte and the wall-walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones, allowing it to carry more weight – this was called a <i>garillum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander keep.<sup id="cite_ref-DeVries,_p.209_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeVries,_p.209-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many wooden keeps were designed with a <i>bretasche</i>, a square structure that overhung from the upper floors of the building, enabling better defences and a more sturdy structural design.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These wooden keeps could be protected by <a href="/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">skins and hides</a> to prevent them from being easily set alight during a siege.<sup id="cite_ref-DeVries,_p.209_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeVries,_p.209-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One contemporary account of these keeps comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130, who described how the nobles of the <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> region would build "a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide. Inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge, which, rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends, reches to the top of the mound."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Durham_Castle" title="Durham Castle">Durham Castle</a>, contemporaries described how the keep arose from the "tumulus of rising earth" with a keep reaching "into thin air, strong within and without", a "stalwart house...glittering with beauty in every part".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as having defensive value, keeps and mottes sent a powerful political message to the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wooden keeps could be quite extensive in size and, as Robert Higham and Philip Barker have noted, it was possible to build "...very tall and massive structures."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example of what these keeps may have comprised, the early 12th-century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of <a href="/wiki/Ardres" title="Ardres">Ardres</a>, where the "...first storey was on the surface of the ground, where were cellars and granaries, and great boxes, tuns, casks, and other domestic utensils. In the storey above were the dwelling and common living-rooms of the residents in which were the larders, the rooms of the bakers and butlers, and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept...In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms...In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, tall, free-standing, wooden (later stone), fighting towers called <i><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfriede</a></i> were commonly built by the 11th century, either as part of motte-and-bailey designs or, as part of <i>Hohenburgen</i> castles, with characteristic inner and outer courts.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Bergfriede</i>, which take their name from the German for a <a href="/wiki/Bell_tower" title="Bell tower">belfry</a>, had similarities to keeps, but are usually distinguished from them on account of <i>Bergfriede</i> having a smaller area or footprint, usually being non-residential and being typically integrated into the outer defences of a castle, rather than being a safe refuge of last resort.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_stone_keeps_(10th–12th_centuries)"><span id="Early_stone_keeps_.2810th.E2.80.9312th_centuries.29"></span>Early stone keeps (10th–12th centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early stone keeps (10th–12th centuries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:508px;max-width:508px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Colchester_castle_800.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Colchester_castle_800.jpg/250px-Colchester_castle_800.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Colchester_castle_800.jpg/375px-Colchester_castle_800.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Colchester_castle_800.jpg/500px-Colchester_castle_800.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="598" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Norman keep at <a href="/wiki/Colchester_Castle" title="Colchester Castle">Colchester Castle</a> in Essex, built in a <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a> style on the foundations of a Roman temple</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Colchester_Castle_Keep.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Colchester_Castle_Keep.jpg/250px-Colchester_Castle_Keep.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Colchester_Castle_Keep.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="323" data-file-height="365" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>During the 10th century, a small number of stone keeps began to be built in France, such at the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Langeais" title="Château de Langeais">Château de Langeais</a>: in the 11th century, their numbers increased as the style spread through Normandy across the rest of France and into England, South Italy and Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some existing motte-and-bailey castles were converted to stone, with the keep usually amongst the first parts to be upgraded, while in other cases new keeps were built from scratch in stone.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These stone keeps were introduced into Ireland during the 1170s following the Norman occupation of the east of the country, where they were particularly popular amongst the new Anglo-Norman lords.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two broad types of design emerged across France and England during the period: four-sided stone keeps, known as Norman keeps or great keeps in English – a <i>donjon carré</i> or <i>donjon roman</i> in French – and circular <a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">shell keeps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reasons for the transition from timber to stone keeps are unclear, and the process was slow and uneven, taking many years to take effect across the various regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown1962P36_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown1962P36-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally it was believed that stone keeps had been adopted because of the cruder nature of wooden buildings, the limited lifespan of wooden fortifications and their vulnerability to fire, but recent archaeological studies have shown that many wooden castles were as robust and as sophisticated as their stone equivalents.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some wooden keeps were not converted into stone for many years and were instead expanded in wood, such as at <a href="/wiki/Hen_Domen" title="Hen Domen">Hen Domen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, stone became increasingly popular as a building material for keeps for both military and symbolic reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stone keep construction required skilled craftsmen. Unlike timber and earthworks, which could be built using <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">unfree labour</a> or serfs, these craftsmen had to be paid and stone keeps were therefore expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-Pounds1994P20_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pounds1994P20-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were also relatively slow to erect, due to the limitations of the <a href="/wiki/Lime_mortar" title="Lime mortar">lime mortar</a> used during the period – a keep's walls could usually be raised by a maximum of only 12 feet (3.6 metres) a year; the keep at <a href="/wiki/Scarborough_Castle" title="Scarborough Castle">Scarborough</a> was not atypical in taking ten years to build.<sup id="cite_ref-Pounds1994P20_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pounds1994P20-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of such keeps remained relatively low: in England, for example, although several early stone keeps had been built after the conquest, there were only somewhere between ten and fifteen in existence by 1100, and only around a hundred had been built by 1216.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg/190px-Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg/285px-Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg/380px-Goodrich_Castle_keep1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg/190px-Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg/285px-Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg/380px-Goodrich_keep_plan_alternative.jpg 2x" data-file-width="607" data-file-height="477" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Norman keep (r) and prison (l) at <a href="/wiki/Goodrich_Castle" title="Goodrich Castle">Goodrich Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Herefordshire" title="Herefordshire">Herefordshire</a>, England, built to a square design in the early 12th century</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Norman keeps had four sides, with the corners reinforced by <a href="/wiki/Pilaster" title="Pilaster">pilaster</a> <a href="/wiki/Buttress" title="Buttress">buttresses</a>; some keeps, particularly in Normandy and France, had a <i>barlongue</i> design, being rectangular in plan with their length twice their width, while others, particularly in England, formed a square.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These keeps could be up to four storeys high, with the entrance placed on the first storey to prevent the door from being easily broken down; early French keeps had external stairs in wood, whilst later castles in both France and England built them in stone.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases the entrance stairs were protected by additional walls and a door, producing a forebuilding.<sup id="cite_ref-King_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strength of the Norman design typically came from the thickness of the keep's walls: usually made of <a href="/wiki/Rag-stone" title="Rag-stone">rag-stone</a>, these could be up to 24 feet (7.3 metres) thick, immensely strong, and producing a steady temperature inside the building throughout summer and winter.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger keeps were subdivided by an internal wall while the smaller versions had a single, slightly cramped chamber on each floor.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Usually only the first floor would be <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaulted</a> in stone, with the higher storeys supported with timbers.<sup id="cite_ref-King_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There has been extensive academic discussion of the extent to which Norman keeps were designed with a military or political function in mind, particularly in England. Earlier analyses of Norman keeps focused on their military design, and historians such as R. Brown Cathcart King proposed that square keeps were adopted because of their military superiority over timber keeps. Most of these Norman keeps were certainly extremely physically robust, even though the characteristic pilaster buttresses added little real architectural strength to the design.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the weaknesses inherent to their design were irrelevant during the early part of their history. The corners of square keeps were theoretically vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Siege_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege engines">siege engines</a> and galleried <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">mining</a>, but before the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchet</a> at the end of the 12th century, early artillery stood little practical chance of damaging the keeps, and galleried mining was rarely practised.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the corners of a square keep created dead space that defenders could not fire at, but missile fire in castle sieges was less important until the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a> in the middle of the 12th century, when <a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">arrowslits</a> began to be introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:428px;max-width:428px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RestormelCastle.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/RestormelCastle.JPG/250px-RestormelCastle.JPG" decoding="async" width="210" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/RestormelCastle.JPG/330px-RestormelCastle.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/RestormelCastle.JPG/500px-RestormelCastle.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Restormel_Castle" title="Restormel Castle">Restormel Castle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">shell keep</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, England, converted to stone in the late 12th century</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg/250px-Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg/330px-Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg/500px-Restormel_Castle_keep_plan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="679" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Nonetheless, many stone Norman keeps made considerable compromises to military utility.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Norwich_Castle" title="Norwich Castle">Norwich Castle</a>, for example, included elaborate <a href="/wiki/Blind_arcade" title="Blind arcade">blind arcading</a> on the outside of the building and appears to have had an entrance route designed for public ceremony, rather than for defence.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interior of the keep at <a href="/wiki/Hedingham_Castle" title="Hedingham Castle">Hedingham</a> could certainly have hosted impressive ceremonies and events, but contained numerous flaws from a military perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important early English and Welsh keeps such as the <a href="/wiki/White_Tower_(Tower_of_London)" title="White Tower (Tower of London)">White Tower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colchester_Castle" title="Colchester Castle">Colchester</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chepstow_Castle" title="Chepstow Castle">Chepstow</a> were all built in a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> style, often reusing Roman materials and sites, and were almost certainly intended to impress and generate a political effect amongst local people.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political value of these keep designs, and the social prestige they lent to their builders, may help explain why they continued to be built in England into the late 12th century, beyond the point when military theory would have suggested that alternative designs were adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second early stone design, emerging from the 12th century onwards, was the <a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">shell keep</a>, a <i>donjon annulaire</i> in French, which involved replacing the wooden keep on a motte, or the palisade on a <a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">ringwork</a>, with a circular stone wall.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shell keeps were sometimes further protected by an additional low protective wall, called a <a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">chemise</a>, around their base. Buildings could then be built around the inside of the shell, producing a small inner courtyard at the centre.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown1962P42_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown1962P42-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The style was particularly popular in south-east England and across Normandy, although less so elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Restormel_Castle" title="Restormel Castle">Restormel Castle</a> is a classic example of this development, as is the later <a href="/wiki/Launceston_Castle" title="Launceston Castle">Launceston Castle</a>; prominent Normandy and Low Country equivalents include <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Gisors" title="Château de Gisors">Gisors</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Burcht_van_Leiden" title="Burcht van Leiden">Burcht van Leiden</a> – these castles were amongst the most powerful fortifications of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the circular design held military advantages over one with square corners, as noted above these really mattered from only the end of the 12th century onwards; the major reason for adopting a shell keep design, in the 12th century at least, was the circular design of the original earthworks exploited to support the keep; indeed, some designs were less than circular in order to accommodate irregular mottes, such as that found at <a href="/wiki/Windsor_Castle" title="Windsor Castle">Windsor Castle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hulme,_p.222_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hulme,_p.222-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-medieval_keeps_(late_12th–14th_centuries)"><span id="Mid-medieval_keeps_.28late_12th.E2.80.9314th_centuries.29"></span>Mid-medieval keeps (late 12th–14th centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mid-medieval keeps (late 12th–14th centuries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Etampestour1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Etampestour1.jpg/250px-Etampestour1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Etampestour1.jpg/330px-Etampestour1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Etampestour1.jpg/500px-Etampestour1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png/250px-Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png/330px-Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png/340px-Chateau_D%27Etampes_keep_plan.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="376" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Keep at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_d%27%C3%89tampes" title="Château d'Étampes">Château d'Étampes</a> in France, a curved design begun in 1120</div></div></div></div></div> <p>During the second half of the 12th century, a range of new keep designs began to appear across France and England, breaking the previous unity of the regional designs. The use of keeps in castles spread through Iberia, but some new castles never incorporated keeps in their designs. One traditional explanation for these developments emphasises the military utility of the new approaches, arguing, for example, that the curved surfaces of the new keeps helped to deflect attacks, or that they drew on lessons learnt during the Crusades from Islamic practices in the Levant.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent historical analysis, however, has emphasised the political and social drivers that underlay these mid-medieval changes in keep design.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through most of the 12th century, France was divided between the Capetian kings, ruling from the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a>, and kings of England, who controlled Normandy and much of the west of France. Within the Capetian territories, early experimentation in new keep designs began at <a href="/wiki/Donjon_de_Houdan" title="Donjon de Houdan">Houdan</a> in 1120, where a circular keep was built with four round turrets; internally, however, the structure remained conventionally square.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few years later, <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_d%27%C3%89tampes" title="Château d'Étampes">Château d'Étampes</a> adopted a <a href="/wiki/Quatrefoil" title="Quatrefoil">quatrefoil</a> design.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These designs, however, remained isolated experiments. </p><p>In the 1190s, however, the struggle for power in France began to swing in favour of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II</a>, culminating in the Capetian capture of Normandy in 1204. Philip II started to construct completely circular keeps, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rouen_Castle#Tour_Jeanne_d'Arc" title="Rouen Castle">Tour Jeanne d'Arc</a>, with most built in his newly acquired territories.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of Philip's new keeps was begun at the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a> in 1190 and at least another twenty followed, all built to a consistent standard and cost.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The architectural idea of circular keeps may have come from <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, where circular towers in castles formed a local tradition, and probably carried some military advantages, but Philip's intention in building these new keeps in a fresh style was clearly political, an attempt to demonstrate his new power and authority over his extended territories.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As historian Philippe Durand suggests, these keeps provided military security and were a physical representation of the <i>renouveau capétien</i>, or Capetian renewal.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg/250px-Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg/330px-Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg/500px-Trim_Castle_Gesamt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2138" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Keep at <a href="/wiki/Trim_Castle" title="Trim Castle">Trim Castle</a> in Ireland, an angular design built in the late 12th century</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trim_keep_plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Trim_keep_plan.png/250px-Trim_keep_plan.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Trim_keep_plan.png/330px-Trim_keep_plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Trim_keep_plan.png/500px-Trim_keep_plan.png 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="513" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Keep design in England began to change only towards the end of the 12th century, later than in France.<sup id="cite_ref-King1991P77_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King1991P77-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wooden keeps on mottes ceased to be built across most of England by the 1150s, although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the 12th century, England and Ireland saw a handful of innovative angular or polygonal keeps built, including the keep at <a href="/wiki/Orford_Castle" title="Orford Castle">Orford Castle</a>, with three rectangular, clasping towers built out from the high, circular central tower; the cross-shaped keep of <a href="/wiki/Trim_Castle" title="Trim Castle">Trim Castle</a> and the famous polygonal design at <a href="/wiki/Conisborough_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Conisborough Castle">Conisborough</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these new designs, square keeps remained popular across much of England and, as late as the 1170s, square Norman great keeps were being built at <a href="/wiki/The_Castle,_Newcastle" title="The Castle, Newcastle">Newcastle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circular keep designs similar to those in France really became popular in Britain in the Welsh Marches and Scotland for only a short period during the early 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As with the new keeps constructed in France, these Anglo-Norman designs were informed both by military thinking and by political drivers. The keep at Orford has been particularly extensively analysed in this regard, and although traditional explanations suggested that its unusual plan was the result of an experimental military design, more recent analysis concludes that the design was instead probably driven by political symbolism and the need for Henry to dominate the contested lands of <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liddiard2005P47_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liddiard2005P47-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The architecture would, for mid-12th century nobility, have summoned up images of King Arthur or <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, then the idealised versions of royal and imperial power.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even formidable military designs such as that at Château Gaillard were built with political effect in mind.<sup id="cite_ref-LiddiardP54_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LiddiardP54-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gaillard was designed to reaffirm Angevin authority in a fiercely disputed conflict zone and the keep, although militarily impressive, contained only an anteroom and a royal audience chamber, and was built on soft chalk and without an internal well, both serious defects from a defensive perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-LiddiardP54_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LiddiardP54-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During most of the medieval period, Iberia was divided between Christian and Islamic kingdoms, neither of which traditionally built keeps, instead building watchtowers or mural towers.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 12th century, however, the influence of France and the various <a href="/wiki/Military_order_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military order (society)">military orders</a> was encouraging the development of square keeps in Christian castles across the region, and by the second half of the century this practice was spread across into the Islamic kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg/170px-Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg/255px-Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg/340px-Rouen_-_Tour_Jeanne_d%27Arc_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3336" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan.donjon.chateau.Rouen.ground.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Plan.donjon.chateau.Rouen.ground.png/170px-Plan.donjon.chateau.Rouen.ground.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Plan.donjon.chateau.Rouen.ground.png 1.5x" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="229" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tour Jeanne d'Arc at <a href="/wiki/Rouen_Castle" title="Rouen Castle">Rouen Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, France, a circular design built in 1204</div></div></div></div></div> <p>By contrast, the remainder of Europe saw stone towers being used in castles, but not in a way that fulfilled the range of functions seen in the western European keeps. In the Low Countries, it became popular for the local nobility to build stand-alone, square towers, but rarely as part of a wider castle.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, square stone towers became popular in Venice, but these did not fulfil the same role as western keeps.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Germany, rectangular stone castles began to replace motte-and-bailey castles from the 12th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-TaylorP7_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TaylorP7-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These designs included stone versions of the traditional <i>Bergfriede</i>, which still remained distinct from the domestic keeps used in more western parts of Europe, with the occasional notable exception, such as the large, residential <i>Bergfried</i> at <a href="/wiki/Eltville_Castle" title="Eltville Castle">Eltville Castle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TaylorP7_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TaylorP7-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several designs for new castles emerged that made keeps unnecessary. One such design was the <a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">concentric</a> approach, involving exterior walls guarded with towers, and perhaps supported by further, concentric layered defenses: thus castles such as <a href="/wiki/Framlingham_Castle" title="Framlingham Castle">Framlingham</a> never had a central keep. Military factors may well have driven this development: R. Brown, for example, suggests that designs with a separate keep and bailey system inherently lacked a co-ordinated and combined defensive system, and that once bailey walls were sophisticated enough, a keep became militarily unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In England, <a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">gatehouses</a> were also growing in size and sophistication until they too challenged the need for a keep in the same castle. The classic <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edwardian</a> gatehouse, with two large, flanking towers and multiple portcullises, designed to be defended from attacks both within and outside the main castle, has been often compared to the earlier Norman keeps: some of the largest gatehouses are called gatehouse keeps for this reason.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">quadrangular castle</a> design that emerged in France during the 13th century was another development that removed the need for a keep. Castles had needed additional living space since their first emergence in the 9th century; initially this had been provided by halls in the bailey, then later by ranges of chambers alongside the inside of a bailey wall, such as at <a href="/wiki/Goodrich_Castle" title="Goodrich Castle">Goodrich</a>. But French designs in the late 12th century took the layout of a contemporary unfortified manor house, whose rooms faced around a central, rectangular courtyard, and built a wall around them to form a castle.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result, illustrated initially at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Tanlay" title="Château de Tanlay">Yonne</a>, and later at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Farcheville" title="Château de Farcheville">Château de Farcheville</a>, was a characteristic quadrangular layout with four large, circular corner towers. It lacked a keep, which was not needed to support this design.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_medieval_keeps_(14th–16th_centuries)"><span id="Late_medieval_keeps_.2814th.E2.80.9316th_centuries.29"></span>Late medieval keeps (14th–16th centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late medieval keeps (14th–16th centuries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg/250px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg/330px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg/500px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes_Paris_FRA_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2251" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Keep at the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes" title="Château de Vincennes">Château de Vincennes</a> in Paris, completed by 1360 as the heart of a palace fortress</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_Chateau_de_Vincennes_keep.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Plan_of_Chateau_de_Vincennes_keep.png/170px-Plan_of_Chateau_de_Vincennes_keep.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Plan_of_Chateau_de_Vincennes_keep.png 1.5x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="253" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The end of the medieval period saw a fresh resurgence in the building of keeps in western castles. Some castles continued to be built without keeps: the <a href="/wiki/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</a> in the 1370s, for example, combined a now traditional quadrangular design with machicolated corner towers, gatehouses and moat; the walls, innovatively, were of equal height to the towers.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fashion became copied across French and in England, particularly amongst the <i><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">nouveau riche</a></i>, for example at <a href="/wiki/Nunney_Castle" title="Nunney Castle">Nunney</a>. The royalty and the very wealthiest in France, England and Spain, however, began to construct a small number of keeps on a much larger scale than before, in England sometimes termed tower keeps, as part of new palace fortresses.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shift reflected political and social pressures, such as the desire of the wealthiest lords to have privacy from their growing households of retainers, as well as the various architectural ideas being exchanged across the region, despite the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred Years War">Hundred Years War</a> between France and England.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The resurgence in French keep design began after the defeat of the royal armies at the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Crécy</a> in 1346 and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poitiers_(1356)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Poitiers (1356)">Poitiers</a> in 1356, which caused high levels of social unrest across the remaining French territories.<sup id="cite_ref-DurandPurtonP81_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DurandPurtonP81-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V of France</a> attempted to restore French royal authority and prestige through the construction of a new range of castles.<sup id="cite_ref-DurandPurtonP81_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DurandPurtonP81-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes" title="Château de Vincennes">Château de Vincennes</a>, where a new keep was completed under Charles by 1380, was the first example of these <i>palace fortresses</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-DurandPurtonP81_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DurandPurtonP81-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The keep at Vincennes was highly innovative: six stories high, with a <i><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">chemin de ronde</a></i> running around the <a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">machicolated</a> battlements; the luxuriously appointed building was protected by an <i><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">enceinte</a></i> wall that formed a "fortified envelope" around the keep.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vincennes keep was copied elsewhere across France, particularly as the French kings reconquered territories from the English, encouraging a style that emphasised very tall keeps with prominent machicolations.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No allowance for the emerging new gunpowder weapons was made in these keeps, although later in the century <a href="/wiki/Gunport" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunport">gunports</a> were slowly being added, as for example by <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI</a> to his keep at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG/250px-Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG/330px-Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG/500px-Penafiel-Espana0007.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Keep at <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1afiel_Castle" title="Peñafiel Castle">Peñafiel Castle</a> in Spain, built in the mid-15th century</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Penafiel_castle_keep_rotated.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Penafiel_castle_keep_rotated.png/190px-Penafiel_castle_keep_rotated.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Penafiel_castle_keep_rotated.png/285px-Penafiel_castle_keep_rotated.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Penafiel_castle_keep_rotated.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="235" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div><p> The French model spread into Iberia in the second half of the century, where the most powerful nobles in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a> built a number of similar tall keeps, such as that at <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1afiel_Castle" title="Peñafiel Castle">Peñafiel</a>, taking advantage of the weakness of the Castilian Crown during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_Castile" title="Henry IV of Castile">Henry IV of Castile</a> responded in the 15th century by creating a sequence of royal castles with prominent keeps at the <a href="/wiki/Castle_of_La_Mota" class="mw-redirect" title="Castle of La Mota">Castle of La Mota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portillo,_Valladolid" title="Portillo, Valladolid">Portillo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar_of_Segovia" title="Alcázar of Segovia">Alcázar of Segovia</a>: built to particular proportions, these keeps became known as a key element of the Valladolid school of Spanish castle design.<sup id="cite_ref-KaufmanKaufmanP284_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KaufmanKaufmanP284-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smaller versions of these keeps were subsequently built by many aspiring new aristocracy in Spain, including many converted <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>, keen to improve their social prestige and position in society.<sup id="cite_ref-KaufmanKaufmanP284_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KaufmanKaufmanP284-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French model of tall keeps was also echoed in some German castles, such as that at <a href="/wiki/Karl%C5%A1tejn" title="Karlštejn">Karlštejn</a>, although the layout and positioning of these towers still followed the existing <i>bergfried</i> model, rather than that in western castles.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An other impressive 15th century metiterenian castle keep is the keep of the <a href="/wiki/Kolossi_Castle" title="Kolossi Castle">Kolossi Castle</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, a three floor square keep, 21 meters high. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /></p><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:KOLOSSI_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KOLOSSI_01.jpg/190px-KOLOSSI_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KOLOSSI_01.jpg/285px-KOLOSSI_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KOLOSSI_01.jpg/380px-KOLOSSI_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="709" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Keep at <a href="/wiki/Kolossi_Castle" title="Kolossi Castle">Kolossi Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, built in the 1454</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg/250px-%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg/330px-%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg/380px-%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%B7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="446" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The 15th and 16th centuries saw a small number of English and occasional Welsh castles develop still grander keeps.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these large <i>tower keeps</i> were built in the north of England during the 14th century, at locations such as <a href="/wiki/Warkworth_Castle" title="Warkworth Castle">Warkworth</a>. They were probably partially inspired by designs in France, but they also reflected the improvements in the security along the Scottish border during the period, and the regional rise of major noble families such as the <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_1st_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland">Percies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Neville" title="House of Neville">Nevilles</a>, whose wealth encouraged a surge in castle building at the end of the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New castles at <a href="/wiki/Raby_Castle" title="Raby Castle">Raby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolton_Castle" title="Bolton Castle">Bolton</a>, and Warkworth Castle took the quadrangular castle styles of the south and combined them with exceptionally large tower keeps to form a distinctive, northern style.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Built by major noble houses, these castles were typically even more opulent than the smaller castles like Nunney, built by the <i>nouveau riche</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They marked what historian Anthony Emery has described as a "...second peak of castle building in England and Wales," following on from the Edwardian designs at the end of the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th century, the fashion for the creation of very expensive, French-influenced palatial castles featuring complex tower keeps spread, with new keeps being built at <a href="/wiki/Wardour_Castle" title="Wardour Castle">Wardour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tattershall_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattershall Castle">Tattershall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raglan_Castle" title="Raglan Castle">Raglan Castle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pounds1994P271_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pounds1994P271-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In central and eastern England, some keeps began to be built in brick, with <a href="/wiki/Caister_Castle" title="Caister Castle">Caister</a> and Tattershall forming examples of this trend.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Scotland, the construction of <a href="/wiki/Holyrood_Palace" title="Holyrood Palace">Holyrood Great Tower</a> between 1528 and 1532 drew on this English tradition, but incorporated additional French influences to produce a highly secure but comfortable keep, guarded by a gun park.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tower keeps were expensive buildings to construct, each built to a unique design for a specific lord and, as historian Norman Pounds has suggested, they "...were designed to allow very rich men to live in luxury and splendour."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg/190px-Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg/285px-Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg/380px-Warkworth_Castle_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Keep at <a href="/wiki/Warkworth_Castle" title="Warkworth Castle">Warkworth Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>, England, a large tower keep built during the 1370s</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warkworth_keep.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Warkworth_keep.jpg/190px-Warkworth_keep.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Warkworth_keep.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="224" data-file-height="242" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>At the same time as these keeps were being built by the extremely wealthy, much smaller, keep-like structures called <a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">tower houses</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">peel towers</a> were built across Ireland, Scotland, and northern England, often by relatively poorer local lords and landowners.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was originally argued that Irish tower houses were based on the Scottish design, but the pattern of development of such castles in Ireland does not support this hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A tower house would typically be a tall, square, stone-built, crenelated building; Scottish and Ulster tower houses were often also surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Barmkin" title="Barmkin">barmkyn</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">bawn</a> wall.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most academics have concluded that tower houses should not be classified as keeps but rather as a form of fortified house.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the 16th century progressed, keeps fell out of fashion once again. In England, the gatehouse also began to supplant the keep as the key focus for a new castle development.<sup id="cite_ref-ThompsonPP73_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThompsonPP73-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 15th century, it was increasingly unusual for a lord to build both a keep and a large gatehouse at the same castle, and by the early 16th century, the gatehouse had easily overtaken the keep as the more fashionable feature: indeed, almost no new keeps were built in England after this period.<sup id="cite_ref-ThompsonPP73_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThompsonPP73-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The classical <a href="/wiki/Palladian" class="mw-redirect" title="Palladian">Palladian</a> style began to dominate European architecture during the 17th century, causing a further move away from the use of keeps. Buildings in this style usually required considerable space for the <a href="/wiki/Enfilade_(architecture)" title="Enfilade (architecture)">enfiladed</a> formal rooms that became essential for modern palaces by the middle of the century, and this style was impossible to fit into a traditional keep.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The keep at <a href="/wiki/Bolsover_Castle" title="Bolsover Castle">Bolsover Castle</a> in England was one of the few to be built as part of a Palladian design.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_use_and_destruction_of_keeps_(17th–21st_centuries)"><span id="Later_use_and_destruction_of_keeps_.2817th.E2.80.9321st_centuries.29"></span>Later use and destruction of keeps (17th–21st centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Later use and destruction of keeps (17th–21st centuries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_hexagonal_Great_Tower,_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/The_hexagonal_Great_Tower%2C_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg/190px-The_hexagonal_Great_Tower%2C_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/The_hexagonal_Great_Tower%2C_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg/285px-The_hexagonal_Great_Tower%2C_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/The_hexagonal_Great_Tower%2C_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg/380px-The_hexagonal_Great_Tower%2C_Raglan_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1531739.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Raglan_keep.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Raglan_keep.png/250px-Raglan_keep.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Raglan_keep.png/285px-Raglan_keep.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Raglan_keep.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Slighting" title="Slighting">slighted</a> keep of <a href="/wiki/Raglan_Castle" title="Raglan Castle">Raglan Castle</a>, Wales</div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage,_RE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage%2C_RE.jpg/220px-Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage%2C_RE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage%2C_RE.jpg/330px-Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage%2C_RE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage%2C_RE.jpg/440px-Royal_Naval_Dockyard_Bermuda_circa_1899_Ordnance_Survey_map_by_Lieutenant_Arthur_Johnson_Savage%2C_RE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>1899 Ordnance Survey map of the fortified <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Dockyard,_Bermuda" title="Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda">Royal Naval Dockyard</a> (to become the <i>North Yard</i> on completion of the South Yard, shown then under construction) in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_fortress" title="Imperial fortress">Imperial fortress</a> <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="British Overseas Territory">colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, with its Keep at the northern (right) end</figcaption></figure> <p>From the 17th century onwards, some keeps were deliberately destroyed. In England, many were destroyed after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Second_English_Civil_War" title="Second English Civil War">Second English Civil War</a> in 1649, when Parliament took steps to prevent another royalist uprising by <a href="/wiki/Slighting" title="Slighting">slighting</a>, or damaging, castles so as to prevent them from having any further military utility. Slighting was quite expensive and took considerable effort to carry out, so damage was usually done in the most cost-efficient fashion with only selected walls being destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keeps were singled out for particular attention in this process because of their continuing political and cultural importance, and the prestige they lent their former royalist owners – at <a href="/wiki/Kenilworth_Castle" title="Kenilworth Castle">Kenilworth</a>, for example, only the keep was slighted, and at <a href="/wiki/Raglan_Castle" title="Raglan Castle">Raglan</a>, the keep was the main focus of parliamentary activity.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was some equivalent destruction of keeps in France in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as the slighting of <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Montaiguillon" title="Château de Montaiguillon">Montaiguillon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu" title="Cardinal Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a> in 1624, but the catalogue of damage was far less than that of the 1640s and early 1650s in England.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, ruined medieval castles became fashionable again in the middle of the 18th century. They were considered an interesting counterpoint to <a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian classical architecture</a>, and gave a degree of medieval allure to their owners.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some keeps were modified to exaggerate this effect: <a href="/wiki/Hawarden_Castle_(medieval)" title="Hawarden Castle (medieval)">Hawarden</a>, for example, was remodelled to appear taller but also more decayed, the better to produce a good silhouette.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interest continued and, in the late 18th and 19th century, it became fashionable to build intact, replica castles in England, resulting in what A. Rowan has called the <i>Norman style</i> of new castle building, characterised by the inclusion of large keeps; the final replica keep to be built in this way was at <a href="/wiki/Penrhyn_Castle" title="Penrhyn Castle">Penrhyn</a> between 1820 and 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg/250px-Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg/330px-Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg/500px-Chateau_pierrefonds143.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png/170px-Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png/255px-Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png/340px-Pierrefonds_Donjon_Ground_Floor_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="556" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The keep of <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Pierrefonds" title="Château de Pierrefonds">Château de Pierrefonds</a>, France, rebuilt during the 19th century in a <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival</a> style</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Where there was an existing castle on a site, another response across 19th-century Europe was to attempt to improve the buildings, bringing their often chaotic historic features into line with a more integrated architectural aesthetic, in a style often termed <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revivalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JonesP4_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JonesP4-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were numerous attempts to restore or rebuild keeps so as to produce this consistently Gothic style: in England, the architect <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Salvin" title="Anthony Salvin">Anthony Salvin</a> was particularly prominent – as illustrated by reworking and heightening of the keep at <a href="/wiki/Windsor_Castle" title="Windsor Castle">Windsor Castle</a>, while in France, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc" title="Eugène Viollet-le-Duc">Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</a> reworked the keeps at castles in locations like <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Pierrefonds" title="Château de Pierrefonds">Pierrefonds</a> during the 1860s and 1870s, admittedly in a largely speculative fashion, since the original keep had been mostly destroyed in 1617.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World Wars</a> in the 20th century caused damage to many castle keeps across Europe; in particular, the famous keep at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coucy" title="Château de Coucy">Coucy</a> was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German Army</a> in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 20th century the conservation of castle keeps formed part of government policy across France, England, Ireland, and Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 21st century in England, most keeps are in ruins and form part of the <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">heritage</a> industries, rather than being used as functioning buildings – the keep of <a href="/wiki/Windsor_Castle" title="Windsor Castle">Windsor Castle</a> being a rare exception. In Germany, large numbers of the <i><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">bergfried</a></i> towers were restored as functional buildings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often as government offices or <a href="/wiki/Youth_hostel" class="mw-redirect" title="Youth hostel">youth hostels</a>, or the modern conversion of tower houses, which in many cases have become modernised domestic homes.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Keeps" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Keeps">Keeps</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tenshu" title="Tenshu">Tenshu</a>, the Japanese castle keep, often wooden</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Medieval architecture</a></li> <li>Semi-fortified Romanian <a href="/wiki/Cul%C4%83" title="Culă">culă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chardak" title="Chardak">Čardak</a>, similar fortifications used by South Slavs</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The timber structure of surviving medieval <a href="/wiki/Bell_tower" title="Bell tower">bell towers</a> have provided archaeologists with indications of at least some of the architectural techniques available at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In practice, smaller keeps are often hard to distinguish from the design of a <i>Bergfried</i> – it is also worth bearing in mind the lack of clarity of the term <i>keep</i> when drawing distinctions of this kind.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although medieval writers typically referred to Norman keeps as a <i>magna turris</i>, or <i>great tower</i>, there was no specific contemporary term for a <a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">shell keep</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Étampes may have influenced the later <a href="/wiki/Quatrefoil" title="Quatrefoil">quatrefoil</a> design of the keep at <a href="/wiki/York_Castle" title="York Castle">York Castle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term "tower house" is also used in the literature to describe this class of building.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although <a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">tower houses</a> are typically associated with smaller landowners, in Scotland larger tower houses were also built by the rich.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As Edward Corp has illustrated in the case of the exiled <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a>, operating a modern 17th century court within an older style of building could be extremely challenging.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://HistoricEngland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1336100?section=official-list-entry">1336100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barroca (1991), p. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBottomley,_Frank1983" class="citation book cs1">Bottomley, Frank (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/castleexplorersg00bott"><i>The Castle Explorer's Guide</i></a></span>. Crown Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-42172-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-517-42172-0"><bdi>0-517-42172-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Castle+Explorer%27s+Guide&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-517-42172-0&rft.au=Bottomley%2C+Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcastleexplorersg00bott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKeep" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DixonP9-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DixonP9_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DixonP9_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DixonP9_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DixonP9_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DixonP9_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dixon, p.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">, Kenyon and Thompson, pp.175–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dixon, pp.9–12; Gondolin, p.103-4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KingPP190-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KingPP190_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KingPP190_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">King, pp.190–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liddiard2005P47-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liddiard2005P47_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liddiard2005P47_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.190</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KingDixonPP190-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KingDixonPP190_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KingDixonPP190_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">King, pp.190–6; Dixon, p.12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries, pp.203–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, pp.20–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeVries,_p.209-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeVries,_p.209_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeVries,_p.209_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries, p.209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, pp.53–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toy, p.53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenyon, p.13 citing Armitage 1912: pp.147–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durand, p.17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Higham and Barker, p.244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Higham and Barker, p.246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.109; Purton, p.195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann and Kaufmann, pp.123, 306; Thompson (2008), pp.22–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson, p.78; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeill, pp.20, 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Viollet-le-Duc, p.77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hulme, p.214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown1962P36-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown1962P36_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.36; Toy (1985), p.54; Creighton and Higham, pp.41–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creighton and Higham, p.41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.53; King, p.62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pounds1994P20-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pounds1994P20_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pounds1994P20_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, p.20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hulme, p.213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toy (1985), p.66; Baldwin, p.298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toy (198), p.66; King, p.67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-King_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-King_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.45; King, p.68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.46; Thompson (2008), p.65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.67; Hulme, p.216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hulme, pp.216, 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hume, p.217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), pp.51–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.34; Pettifer (2000a), p.xiii; Turner, p.27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.48; King, p.73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.42; Durand, p.29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown1962P42-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown1962P42_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durand, p.29, Toy (1933) cited Creighton, p.49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, p.41; Toy (1985), pp.58–9; Viollet-le-Duc, p.83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hulme,_p.222-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hulme,_p.222_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hulme, p.222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, pp.53–4; King, p.81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), pp.6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.98; Gondoin, p.156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Butler, p.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.100; Baldwin, p.298; Châtelain, p.303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, p.299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durand, pp.29, 57; Gondoin, p.156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durand, p.59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King1991P77-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-King1991P77_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, p.21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, pp.52–3; Heslop, pp.279, 289; Anderson, p.113; Hull, p.142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, pp.114–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, pp.81–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heslop, p.288-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiddiardP54-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LiddiardP54_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LiddiardP54_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p.54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tuulse, p.74; Burton, p.230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tuulse, p.74; Burton, p.236; Anderson, p.151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Purton, p.94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schulz, p.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TaylorP7-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TaylorP7_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TaylorP7_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, p.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, pp.62, 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pettifer (2000b), p.320; Brown, p.69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gondoin, p.167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Châtelain, p.35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, pp.265–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emery, p.206; Anderson, p.223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DurandPurtonP81-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DurandPurtonP81_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DurandPurtonP81_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DurandPurtonP81_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Durand, p.81; Purton, p.140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durand, p.81; Purton, p.140; Anderson, p.208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Purton, p.141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Purton, p.141, 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KaufmanKaufmanP284-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KaufmanKaufmanP284_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KaufmanKaufmanP284_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, p.271; Johnson (2002), p.111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emery, pp.14–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, pp.152–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, p.152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emery, p.25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pounds1994P271-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pounds1994P271_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, p.271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creighton and Higham, p.54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dunbar, pp.69–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, p.270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emery, p.26; Toy (1985), p.225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tabraham, p.80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry, p.223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toy (1985), p.224; Reid, p.33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pettifer (2000b), p.320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ThompsonPP73-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonPP73_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonPP73_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson (1994), pp.73, 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brindle and Kerr, p.50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Corp, p.241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gomme and Maguire, pp.69–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bull, p.134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, p.174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Châtelain, p.38-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerrard, p.16; Creighton, p.85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pettifer (2000a), p.75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson (1994), p.162, citing Rowan (1952).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JonesP4-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JonesP4_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p.4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanser, pp.181–2, 184; Jones, p.4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, rise, p.44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stubbs and Makaš, p.98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, pp.285–8, 291.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Anderson, William. (1980) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4F5OAAAAYAAJ">Castles of Europe: From Charlemagne to the Renaissance.</a></i> London: Ferndale. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-905746-20-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-905746-20-1">0-905746-20-1</a>.</li> <li>Armitage, Ella S. (1912) <i>The Early Norman Castles of the British isles.</i> London: J. Murray. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/458514584">458514584</a>.</li> <li>Baldwin, John W. (1991) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3IojohYAe4EC">The Government of Philip Augustus: Foundations of French Royal Power in the Middle Ages.</a></i> Berkeley, US: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07391-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07391-3">978-0-520-07391-3</a>.</li> <li>Barroca, Mário Jorge. (1991) "Do Castelo da Reconquista ao Castelo Românico (Séc. IX a XII)", <i>Portvgalia</i> XI-XII, pp. 89–136.</li> <li>Brindle, Steven and Brian Kerr. (1997) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uIlJAAAACAAJ&q=Windsor+Revealed:+New+light+on+the+history+of+the+castle">Windsor Revealed: New Light on the History of the Castle.</a></i> London: English Heritage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85074-688-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85074-688-1">978-1-85074-688-1</a>.</li> <li>Brown, R. Allen. (1962) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BXNnAAAAMAAJ">English Castles.</a></i> London: Batsford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1392314">1392314</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurton2008" class="citation cs2">Burton, Peter (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.castlestudiesgroup.org.uk/Iberian%20Castles%20-%20Peter%20Burton.pdf">"Islamic Castles in Iberia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The Castle Studies Group Journal</i>, <b>21</b>: <span class="nowrap">228–</span>244</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Castle+Studies+Group+Journal&rft.atitle=Islamic+Castles+in+Iberia&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E228-%3C%2Fspan%3E244&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.castlestudiesgroup.org.uk%2FIberian%2520Castles%2520-%2520Peter%2520Burton.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKeep" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/20px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li> <li>Butler, Lawrence. (1997) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MhM-AAAACAAJ&q=Clifford's+Tower+Castles+of+York+butler">Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York.</a></i> London: English Heritage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85074-673-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85074-673-7">1-85074-673-7</a>.</li> <li>Châtelain, André. (1983) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mnfKemAwhPwC">Châteaux Forts et Féodalité en Ile de France, du XIème au XIIIème siècle.</a></i> Nonette: Créer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-902894-16-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-902894-16-1">978-2-902894-16-1</a>. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li> <li>Corp, Edward. (2009) "The Jacobite Court at Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Etiquette and the Use of the Royal Apartments", in</li> <li>Creighton, Oliver Hamilton and Robert Higham. (2003) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8A1_Z1DTgYYC">Medieval Castles.</a></i> Princes Risborough, UK: Shire Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0546-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0546-5">978-0-7478-0546-5</a>.</li> <li>Creighton, Oliver Hamilton. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rr-ixYkUVcoC">Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community, and Fortification in Medieval England.</a></i> London: Equinox. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904768-67-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904768-67-8">978-1-904768-67-8</a>.</li> <li>Cruickshanks, Eveline. (ed) (2009) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YH5nAAAAMAAJ&q=Cruickshanks+Stuart+Courts">The Stuart Courts.</a></i> Stroud, UK: The History Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5206-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5206-7">978-0-7524-5206-7</a>.</li> <li>DeVries, Kelly. (2003) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kyhRTSTY_IIC">Medieval Military Technology.</a></i> Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-921149-74-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-921149-74-3">978-0-921149-74-3</a>.</li> <li>Dixon, Philip. (2002) "The Myth of the Keep", in Meirion-Jones, Impey and Jones (ed) (2002).</li> <li>Durand, Philippe. (1999) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7qsxzqs1sAwC">Le Château-fort.</a></i> Paris: Gisserot. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87747-435-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87747-435-1">978-2-87747-435-1</a>. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li> <li>Emery, Anthony. (2006) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g7EXvaDEYioC">Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300–1500: Southern England.</a></i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58132-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58132-5">978-0-521-58132-5</a>.</li> <li>Gomme, Andor and Alison Maguire. (2008) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9QyzoRo_c0cC">Design and Plan in the Country House: From Castle Donjons to Palladian Boxes.</a></i> Yale: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12645-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12645-7">978-0-300-12645-7</a>.</li> <li>Gondoin, Stéphane W. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HfA-kZb3JGEC">Châteaux-Forts: Assiéger et Fortifier au Moyen Âge.</a></i> Paris: Cheminements. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84478-395-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84478-395-0">978-2-84478-395-0</a>. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li> <li>Hanser, David A. (2006) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zojzUU976h0C">Architecture of France.</a></i> Westport, US: Greenwood Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31902-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31902-0">978-0-313-31902-0</a>.</li> <li>Heslop, T. A. (2003) "Orford Castle: Nostalgia and Sophisticated Living", in Liddiard (ed) 2003.</li> <li>Higham, Robert and Philip Barker. (1992) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i5ZwQgAACAAJ">Timber Castles.</a></i> London: Batsford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85989-754-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85989-754-9">978-0-85989-754-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHistoric_England1336100" class="citation web cs2"><a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a> (24 Oct 1950), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://HistoricEngland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1336100?section=official-list-entry">"Rochester Castle (1336100)"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England" title="National Heritage List for England">National Heritage List for England</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Heritage+List+for+England&rft.atitle=Rochester+Castle+%281336100%29&rft.date=1950-10-24&rft.au=Historic+England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2FHistoricEngland.org.uk%2Flisting%2Fthe-list%2Flist-entry%2F1336100%3Fsection%3Dofficial-list-entry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKeep" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hull, Lise E. (2006) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fBbNJLEWiLIC">Britain's Medieval Castles</a>.</i> Westport: Praeger. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98414-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98414-4">978-0-275-98414-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHulme2008" class="citation cs2">Hulme, Richard (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.castlestudiesgroup.org.uk/Great%20Towers%20-%20R%20Hulme.pdf">"Twelfth Century Great Towers – The Case for the Defence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The Castle Studies Group Journal</i>, <b>21</b>: <span class="nowrap">209–</span>229</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Castle+Studies+Group+Journal&rft.atitle=Twelfth+Century+Great+Towers+%E2%80%93+The+Case+for+the+Defence&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Hulme&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.castlestudiesgroup.org.uk%2FGreat%2520Towers%2520-%2520R%2520Hulme.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKeep" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/20px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li> <li>Jones, Nigel R. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=epsFOeV1mCMC">Architecture of England, Scotland, and Wales.</a></i> Westport, US: Greenwood Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31850-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31850-4">978-0-313-31850-4</a>.</li> <li>Kaufmann, J. E. and H. W. Kaufmann. (2004) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TUNauRscYQUC">The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts, and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></i> Cambridge, US: Da Capo. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81358-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81358-0">978-0-306-81358-0</a>.</li> <li>Kenyon, J. and M. W. Thompson. (1995) "A Note on the Word 'keep'", <i>Medieval Archaeology</i> 38, pp. 175–6.</li> <li>Kenyon, John R. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qP17QlDKnF0C">Medieval Fortifications.</a></i> London: Continuum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-7886-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-7886-3">978-0-8264-7886-3</a>.</li> <li>King, D. J. Cathcart. (1991) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwwOAAAAQAAJ">The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History.</a></i> London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-00350-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-00350-4">0-415-00350-4</a>.</li> <li>Liddiard, Robert. (ed) (2003) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J5qe7uWeXYwC">Anglo-Norman Castles.</a></i> Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-904-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-904-1">978-0-85115-904-1</a>.</li> <li>Liddiard, Robert. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzhUAAAAMAAJ&q=liddiard+castles+in+context">Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism, and Landscape, 1066 to 1500.</a></i> Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9545575-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-9545575-2-2">0-9545575-2-2</a>.</li> <li>McNeill, Tom. (2000) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YcLdpW7iU5EC">Castles in Ireland: Feudal Power in a Gaelic World.</a></i> London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22853-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22853-4">978-0-415-22853-4</a>.</li> <li>Meirion-Jones, Gwyn, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Impey" title="Edward Impey">Edward Impey</a> and Michael Jones. (eds) (2002) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5JkYAAAAYAAJ">The Seigneurial Residence in Western Europe AD c800-1600.</a></i> Oxford: Archaeopress. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84171-466-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84171-466-0">978-1-84171-466-0</a>.</li> <li>Nicholson, Helen J. (2004) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_t2pjAU850cC">Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300–1500.</a></i> Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-76330-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-76330-8">978-0-333-76330-8</a>.</li> <li>Pettifer, Adrian. (2000a) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs5DnKUSu9gC">Welsh Castles: a Guide by Counties.</a></i> Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-778-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-778-8">978-0-85115-778-8</a>.</li> <li>Pettifer, Adrian. (2000b) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=47iheRUGKIEC">English Castles: a Guide by Counties.</a></i> Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-782-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-782-5">978-0-85115-782-5</a>.</li> <li>Pounds, Norman John Greville. (1994) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d8babfRDfxwC">The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History.</a></i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45828-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45828-3">978-0-521-45828-3</a>.</li> <li>Purton, Peter. (2010) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WaEaIsb1Y6gC">A History of the Late Medieval Siege, 1200–1500.</a></i> Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-449-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-449-6">978-1-84383-449-6</a>.</li> <li>Rowan, A. J. (1952) <i>The Castle Style in British Domestic Architecture in the 18th and 19th Centuries.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis.</li> <li>Schulz, Juergen. (2004) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dUxL9AuZY30C">The New Palaces of Medieval Venice.</a></i> University Park, US: Pennsylvania State University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02351-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02351-9">978-0-271-02351-9</a>.</li> <li>Stubbs, John H. and Emily G. Makaš. (2011) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AIkLY7ZPmUcC">Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas.</a></i> Hoboken, US: John Wiley. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-60385-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-60385-7">978-0-470-60385-7</a>.</li> <li>Tabraham, Chris J. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oc1Kzmh1I84C">Scotland's Castles.</a></i> London: Batsford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-8943-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-8943-9">978-0-7134-8943-9</a>.</li> <li>Taylor, Robert R. (1998) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vTZ5fD3hKgcC">The Castles of the Rhine: Recreating the Middle Ages in Modern Germany.</a></i> Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-268-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-268-9">978-0-88920-268-9</a>.</li> <li>Thompson, M. W. (1994) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ckAL_bfnHgcC">The Decline of the Castle</a>.</i> Leicester, UK: Harveys Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85422-608-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85422-608-8">1-85422-608-8</a>.</li> <li>Thompson, M. W. (2008) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xHKluWlJS_8C">The Rise of the Castle.</a></i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08853-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08853-4">978-0-521-08853-4</a>.</li> <li>Toy, Sidney. (1933) "The Round Castles of Cornwall", <i>Archaeologia</i> 83, pp. 204–7.</li> <li>Toy, Sidney. (1985) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6tBZbTHcDXoC">Castles: Their Construction and History.</a></i> New York: Dover Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-24898-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-24898-1">978-0-486-24898-1</a>.</li> <li>Turner, Rick. (2006) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yMBaAQAACAAJ">Chepstow Castle.</a></i> Cardiff, UK: Cadw. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85760-229-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85760-229-6">978-1-85760-229-6</a>.</li> <li>Tuulse, Armin. (1958) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eyVEPoVsWHEC">Castles of the Western World.</a></i> Newton Abbot, UK: David and Charles. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42332-6">978-0-486-42332-6</a>.</li> <li>Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel. (1854) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lysDAAAAQAAJ">Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'architecture Française du XIe au XVIe Siècle.</a></i> Paris: Bance. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7056424">7056424</a>. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keep&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWyeth2018" class="citation cs2">Wyeth, William (2018), "Medieval Timber Motte Towers", <i>Medieval Archaeology</i>, <b>62</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">135–</span>156, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00766097.2018.1451594">10.1080/00766097.2018.1451594</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165529012">165529012</a></cite><span 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fortifications" title="Template talk:Fortifications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fortifications332" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortifications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abatis" title="Abatis">Abatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Agger_(ancient_Rome)" title="Agger (ancient Rome)">Agger</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco"><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Burgus" title="Burgus">Burgus</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">Caltrop</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">Castellum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castros</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chengqiang</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">City gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">Crannog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">Defensive wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faussebraye" title="Faussebraye">Faussebraye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">Gatehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwehr_(border)" title="Landwehr (border)">Landwehr</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuraghe" title="Nuraghe">Nuraghe</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">Pincer gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">Rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a> (Rath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schwedenschanze" title="Schwedenschanze">Schwedenschanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">Stockade</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">Sudis</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trou_de_loup" title="Trou de loup">Trou de loup</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">Vallum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">Wagon fort</a> (<span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Laager</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_fort" title="Vitrified fort">Vitrified fort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_work" title="Advanced work">Advanced work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">Alcazaba</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(landform)" title="Amba (landform)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">Barbican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartizan" title="Bartizan">Bartizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_tower" title="Battery tower">Battery tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">Battlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">Bawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_entrance" title="Bent entrance">Bent entrance</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfried</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">Berm</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">Boom</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Bret%C3%A8che" title="Bretèche">Bretèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_tower" title="Bridge tower">Bridge tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">Burh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter-churn_tower" title="Butter-churn tower">Butter-churn tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">Caer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_gate" title="Chamber gate">Chamber gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartaque" title="Chartaque">Chartaque</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chashi" title="Chashi">Chashi</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">Chemin de ronde</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">Chemise</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cheval_de_frise" title="Cheval de frise">Cheval de frise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corner_tower" title="Corner tower">Corner tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">Drawbridge</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">Enceinte</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">Embrasure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanking_tower" title="Flanking tower">Flanking tower</a></li> <li>Fortified buildings (<a href="/wiki/Fortified_church" title="Fortified church">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortified_house" title="Fortified house">house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_tulou" title="Fujian tulou">Fujian tulou</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_tower" title="Gate tower">Gate tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">Glacis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Guard tower">Guard tower</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gulyay-gorod" title="Gulyay-gorod">Gulyay-gorod</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gusuku" title="Gusuku">Gusuku</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_tower" title="Half tower">Half tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(castle)" title="Hoarding (castle)">Hoarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_bailey" title="Inner bailey">Inner bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Keep</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_(fortification)" title="Kremlin (fortification)">Kremlin</a></i></span> <small>(<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Detinets" title="Detinets">Detinets</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole" title="Loophole">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">Merlon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_hole" title="Murder hole">Murder hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ditch" title="Neck ditch">Neck ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_bailey" title="Outer bailey">Outer bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwork" title="Outwork">Outwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapet" title="Parapet">Parapet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">Peel tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">Portcullis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postern" title="Postern">Postern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_tower" title="Powder tower">Powder tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">Reduit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricetto" title="Ricetto">Ricetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundel_(fortification)" title="Roundel (fortification)">Roundel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">Shell keep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_wall_(castle)" title="Shield wall (castle)">Shield wall</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_castle" title="Japanese castle">Shiro</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">Tower house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">Turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking ring fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">Wall tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_(castle)" title="Bailey (castle)">Bailey (or ward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">Watchtower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_tower" title="Witch tower">Witch tower</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yagura_(tower)" title="Yagura (tower)">Yagura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yett" title="Yett">Yett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwinger" title="Zwinger">Zwinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Abwurfdach" class="mw-redirect" title="Abwurfdach">Abwurfdach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">Barricade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Caponier" title="Caponier">Caponier</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_(fortification)" title="Cavalier (fortification)">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterguard" title="Counterguard">Counterguard</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Couvreface" title="Couvreface">Couvreface</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Coupure" title="Coupure">Coupure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covertway" title="Covertway">Covertway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crownwork" title="Crownwork">Crownwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_Forts" title="Device Forts">Device Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrenchment_(fortification)" title="Entrenchment (fortification)">Entrenchment</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fl%C3%A8che_(fortification)" title="Flèche (fortification)">Flèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorge_(fortification)" title="Gorge (fortification)">Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_magazine" title="Gunpowder magazine">Gunpowder magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwork" title="Hornwork">Hornwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Kotta mara</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Lunette_(fortification)" title="Lunette (fortification)">Lunette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)" title="Magazine (artillery)">Magazine</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Orillon" title="Orillon">Orillon</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">Ostrog</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanka_(fortification)" title="Palanka (fortification)">Palanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place-of-arms" title="Place-of-arms">Place-of-arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">Presidio</a></i></span> (Spanish America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Punji sticks</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ravelin" title="Ravelin">Ravelin</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Redan" title="Redan">Redan</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrenchment_(military)" title="Retrenchment (military)">Retrenchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">Sandbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterscarp" title="Counterscarp">Scarp and Counterscarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(fortification)" title="Sconce (fortification)">Sconce</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Schanze" title="Schanze">Schanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">Sea fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_(frontier_defensive_structure)" title="Station (frontier defensive structure)">Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star fort</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Tenaille" title="Tenaille">Tenaille</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">Barbed wire</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">Barbette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_outpost" title="Border outpost">Border outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">Coastal artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control_tower" title="Fire control tower">Fire control tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Gun turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martello_tower" title="Martello tower">Martello tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">Wire obstacles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_scaffolding" title="Admiralty scaffolding">Admiralty scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">Anti-tank trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbed tape">Barbed tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointet-element" title="Cointet-element">Belgian gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">Blast wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Border security">Border security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">Bomb shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoy_anti-tank_obstacle" title="Buoy anti-tank obstacle">Buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremer_wall" title="Bremer wall">Bremer wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">Concertina wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Defensive fighting position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparations_of_the_Second_World_War#Lines_and_islands" title="British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War">British "hedgehog" road block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_teeth_(fortification)" title="Dragon's teeth (fortification)">Dragon's teeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">Entry control point (ECP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">Electric fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_support_base" title="Fire support base">Fire support base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardened_aircraft_shelter" title="Hardened aircraft shelter">Hardened aircraft shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">Hesco bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabal_(earthworks)" title="Kabal (earthworks)">Kabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_line_of_resistance" title="Main line of resistance">Main line of resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">Pillbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment_(aircraft)" title="Revetment (aircraft)">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_gun" title="Sentry gun">Sentry gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Submarine pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_storage_area" title="Weapon storage area">Weapon storage area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_Storage_and_Security_System" title="Weapons Storage and Security System">Weapons Storage and Security System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_castle" title="Cave castle">Cave castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_castle" title="Hill castle">Hill castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillside_castle" title="Hillside castle">Hillside castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilltop_castle" title="Hilltop castle">Hilltop castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_castle" title="Island castle">Island castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_castle" title="Lowland castle">Lowland castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_castle" title="Marsh castle">Marsh castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Moated castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_castle" title="Ridge castle">Ridge castle</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Rocca_(fortification)" title="Rocca (fortification)">Rocca</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_castle" title="Rock castle">Rock castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_castle" title="Spur castle">Spur castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Water castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Floating water castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_barrier" title="Border barrier">Border barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">Fence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Hunting lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_castle" title="Imperial castle">Imperial castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpfalz" title="Kaiserpfalz">Kaiserpfalz</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lustschloss" title="Lustschloss">Lustschloss</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstacle" title="Obstacle">Obstacle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ordensburg" title="Ordensburg">Ordensburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_castle" title="Urban castle">Urban castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_fort" title="Bastion fort">Bastion fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-plan_castle" title="Z-plan castle">Z-plan castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bastion_forts" title="List of bastion forts">Bastion forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles" title="List of castles">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_defensive_walls" title="List of cities with defensive walls">Cities with defensive walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_line" title="Defense line">Defense line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified estate">Fortified estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fortifications" title="List of fortifications">Fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts" title="List of forts">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Military installations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">Walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related word</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">Castle town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">Château</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festung" title="Festung">Festung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_gateway" title="Fortified gateway">Fortified gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper" title="Gatekeeper">Gatekeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_redoubt" title="National redoubt">National redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palas" title="Palas">Palas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">Picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schloss" title="Schloss">Schloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedette_(sentry)" title="Vedette (sentry)">Vedette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">Continuity of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_urbanism" title="Military urbanism">Military urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_siege_engines" title="List of siege engines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_guerrilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nobold">See also</span>: <b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>51 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> 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