Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#" xmlns:fb="https://www.facebook.com/2008/fbml"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1"> <meta content="mdpi" name="sso-service" /> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" name="viewport" /> <title>Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells</title><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/font-awesome.min.css?eb190a3a77e5e1ee?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery.multiselect.css?f56c135cbf4d1483?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/chosen.min.css?d7ca5ca9441ef9e1?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/main2.css?69b39374e6b554b7?1732615622"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/mask-icon-128.svg?c1c7eca266cd7013?1732615622" color="#4f5671"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-180x180.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-144x144.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-114x114.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-72x72.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732615622"> <link rel="manifest" href="/manifest.json"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <meta name="application-name" content=" "/> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/vaccines-logo-sq.png?8600e93ff98dbf14"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/vaccines-logo-sq.png?8600e93ff98dbf14"> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/vaccines-logo-sq.png?8600e93ff98dbf14"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/xml2html/article-html.css?230b005b39af4260?1732615622"> <style> h2, #abstract .related_suggestion_title { } .batch_articles a { color: #000; } a, .batch_articles .authors a, a:focus, a:hover, a:active, .batch_articles a:focus, .batch_articles a:hover, li.side-menu-li a { } span.label a { color: #fff; } #main-content a.title-link:hover, #main-content a.title-link:focus, #main-content div.generic-item a.title-link:hover, #main-content div.generic-item a.title-link:focus { } #main-content #middle-column .generic-item.article-item a.title-link:hover, #main-content #middle-column .generic-item.article-item a.title-link:focus { } .art-authors a.toEncode { color: #333; font-weight: 700; } #main-content #middle-column ul li::before { } .accordion-navigation.active a.accordion__title, .accordion-navigation.active a.accordion__title::after { } .accordion-navigation li:hover::before, .accordion-navigation li:hover a, .accordion-navigation li:focus a { } .relative-size-container .relative-size-image .relative-size { } .middle-column__help__fixed a:hover i, } input[type="checkbox"]:checked:after { } input[type="checkbox"]:not(:disabled):hover:before { } #main-content .bolded-text { } #main-content .hypothesis-count-container { } #main-content .hypothesis-count-container:before { } .full-size-menu ul li.menu-item .dropdown-wrapper { } .full-size-menu ul li.menu-item > a.open::after { } #title-story .title-story-orbit .orbit-caption { #background: url('/img/design/000000_background.png') !important; background: url('/img/design/ffffff_background.png') !important; color: rgb(51, 51, 51) !important; } #main-content .content__container__orbit { background-color: #000 !important; } #main-content .content__container__journal { color: #fff; } .html-article-menu .row span { } .html-article-menu .row span.active { } .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li.active::before, .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li.active a { color: rgba(184,65,38,0.75) !important; font-weight: 700; } .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li:hover::before , .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li:hover a { color: rgba(184,65,38,0.75) !important; } .side-menu-ul li.active a, .side-menu-ul li.active, .side-menu-ul li.active::before { color: rgba(184,65,38,0.75) !important; } .side-menu-ul li.active a { } .result-selected, .active-result.highlighted, .active-result:hover, .result-selected, .active-result.highlighted, .active-result:focus { } .search-container.search-container__default-scheme { } nav.tab-bar .open-small-search.active:after { } .search-container.search-container__default-scheme .custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link::after { color: #fff; } @media only screen and (max-width: 50em) { #main-content .content__container.journal-info { color: #fff; } #main-content .content__container.journal-info a { color: #fff; } } .button.button--color { } .button.button--color:hover, .button.button--color:focus { } .button.button--color-journal { position: relative; background-color: rgba(184,65,38,0.75); border-color: #fff; color: #fff !important; } .button.button--color-journal:hover::before { content: ''; position: absolute; top: 0; left: 0; height: 100%; width: 100%; background-color: #ffffff; opacity: 0.2; } .button.button--color-journal:visited, .button.button--color-journal:hover, .button.button--color-journal:focus { background-color: rgba(184,65,38,0.75); border-color: #fff; color: #fff !important; } .button.button--color path { } .button.button--color:hover path { fill: #fff; } #main-content #search-refinements .ui-slider-horizontal .ui-slider-range { } .breadcrumb__element:last-of-type a { } #main-header { } #full-size-menu .top-bar, #full-size-menu li.menu-item span.user-email { } .top-bar-section li:not(.has-form) a:not(.button) { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item .dropdown-wrapper li a:hover { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item a:hover, #full-size-menu li.menu.item a:focus, nav.tab-bar a:hover { } #full-size-menu li.menu.item a:active, #full-size-menu li.menu.item a.active { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item a.open-mega-menu.active, #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu, a.open-mega-menu.active { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu li, #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu a { border-color: #9a9a9a; } div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1732615622"> <meta name="title" content="Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells"> <meta name="description" content="Avian viral diseases including avian influenza, Marek’s disease and Newcastle disease are detrimental to economies around the world that depend on the poultry trade. A significant zoonotic threat is also posed by avian influenza viruses. Vaccination is an important and widely used method for controlling these poultry diseases. However, the current vaccines do not provide full protection or sterile immunity. Hence, there is a need to develop improved vaccines. The major aim of developing improved vaccines is to induce strong and specific humoral and cellular immunity in vaccinated animals. One strategy used to enhance the immunogenicity of vaccines is the selective delivery of protective antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) including dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. APCs have a central role in the initiation and maintenance of immune responses through their ability to capture, process and present antigens to T and B cells. Vaccine technology that selectively targets APCs has been achieved by coupling antigens to monoclonal antibodies or ligands that are targeted by APCs. The aim of this review is to discuss existing strategies of selective delivery of antigens to APCs for effective vaccine development in poultry." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/vaccines-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Angita Shrestha"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jean-Remy Sadeyen"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Munir Iqbal"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Review"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Vaccines 2018, Vol. 6, Page 75"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2018-11-15"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/vaccines6040075"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Avian viral diseases including avian influenza, Marek’s disease and Newcastle disease are detrimental to economies around the world that depend on the poultry trade. A significant zoonotic threat is also posed by avian influenza viruses. Vaccination is an important and widely used method for controlling these poultry diseases. However, the current vaccines do not provide full protection or sterile immunity. Hence, there is a need to develop improved vaccines. The major aim of developing improved vaccines is to induce strong and specific humoral and cellular immunity in vaccinated animals. One strategy used to enhance the immunogenicity of vaccines is the selective delivery of protective antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) including dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. APCs have a central role in the initiation and maintenance of immune responses through their ability to capture, process and present antigens to T and B cells. Vaccine technology that selectively targets APCs has been achieved by coupling antigens to monoclonal antibodies or ligands that are targeted by APCs. The aim of this review is to discuss existing strategies of selective delivery of antigens to APCs for effective vaccine development in poultry." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="antigen-presenting cell" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="dendritic cell" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="antigen targeting" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="antigen targeted vaccine" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="nanoparticles" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2076-393X"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Vaccines"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2018-11-15"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="6"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="4"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Review" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="75" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2076-393X"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Vaccines"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2018/12"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2018/11/15"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="6"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="4"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="75"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Shrestha, Angita"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Sadeyen, Jean-Remy"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Iqbal, Munir"> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/vaccines6040075"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-vaccines6040075"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/pdf?version=1542264240"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/pdf?version=1542264240"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/pdf?version=1542264240"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/vaccines-logo-social.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Avian viral diseases including avian influenza, Marek’s disease and Newcastle disease are detrimental to economies around the world that depend on the poultry trade. A significant zoonotic threat is also posed by avian influenza viruses. Vaccination is an important and widely used method for controlling these poultry diseases. However, the current vaccines do not provide full protection or sterile immunity. Hence, there is a need to develop improved vaccines. The major aim of developing improved vaccines is to induce strong and specific humoral and cellular immunity in vaccinated animals. One strategy used to enhance the immunogenicity of vaccines is the selective delivery of protective antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) including dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. APCs have a central role in the initiation and maintenance of immune responses through their ability to capture, process and present antigens to T and B cells. Vaccine technology that selectively targets APCs has been achieved by coupling antigens to monoclonal antibodies or ligands that are targeted by APCs. The aim of this review is to discuss existing strategies of selective delivery of antigens to APCs for effective vaccine development in poultry." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001-550.jpg?1570701645" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-WPK7SW5'); </script> <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> _linkedin_partner_id = "2846186"; window._linkedin_data_partner_ids = window._linkedin_data_partner_ids || []; window._linkedin_data_partner_ids.push(_linkedin_partner_id); </script><script type="text/javascript"> (function(){var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; var b = document.createElement("script"); b.type = "text/javascript";b.async = true; b.src = "https://snap.licdn.com/li.lms-analytics/insight.min.js"; s.parentNode.insertBefore(b, s);})(); </script> <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics" data-cfasync="false" src="//script.crazyegg.com/pages/scripts/0116/4951.js" async="async" ></script> </head> <body> <div class="direction direction_right" id="small_right" style="border-right-width: 0px; padding:0;"> <i class="fa fa-caret-right fa-2x"></i> </div> <div class="big_direction direction_right" id="big_right" style="border-right-width: 0px;"> <div style="text-align: right;"> Next Article in Journal<br> <div><a href="/2076-393X/6/4/76">The Immunomodulatory and Antimicrobial Properties of the Vertebrate Ribonuclease A Superfamily</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="direction" id="small_left" style="border-left-width: 0px"> <i class="fa fa-caret-left fa-2x"></i> </div> <div class="big_direction" id="big_left" style="border-left-width: 0px;"> <div> Previous Article in Journal<br> <div><a href="/2076-393X/6/4/74">Two Live Attenuated Vaccines against Recent Low–and Highly Pathogenic H7N9 Influenza Viruses Are Safe and Immunogenic in Ferrets</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div id="menuModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-menu" aria-hidden="true" data-reveal role="dialog"> <div class="menu-container"> <div class="UI_NavMenu"> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Journals</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="/about/journals">Active Journals</a> <a href="/about/journalfinder">Find a Journal</a> <a href="/about/journals/proposal">Journal Proposal</a> <a href="/about/proceedings">Proceedings Series</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a href="/topics"> <h2>Topics</h2> </a> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Information</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; max-width: 200px; float: left;"> <a href="/authors">For Authors</a> <a href="/reviewers">For Reviewers</a> <a href="/editors">For Editors</a> <a href="/librarians">For Librarians</a> <a href="/publishing_services">For Publishers</a> <a href="/societies">For Societies</a> <a href="/conference_organizers">For Conference Organizers</a> </div> <div style="width: 100%; max-width: 250px; float: left;"> <a href="/openaccess">Open Access Policy</a> <a href="/ioap">Institutional Open Access Program</a> <a href="/special_issues_guidelines">Special Issues Guidelines</a> <a href="/editorial_process">Editorial Process</a> <a href="/ethics">Research and Publication Ethics</a> <a href="/apc">Article Processing Charges</a> <a href="/awards">Awards</a> <a href="/testimonials">Testimonials</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a href="/authors/english"> <h2>Editing Services</h2> </a> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Initiatives</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sciforum</a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">MDPI Books</a> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Preprints.org</a> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scilit</a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SciProfiles</a> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Encyclopedia</a> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">JAMS</a> <a href="/about/proceedings">Proceedings Series</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>About</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="/about">Overview</a> <a href="/about/contact">Contact</a> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Careers</a> <a href="/about/announcements">News</a> <a href="/about/press">Press</a> <a href="http://blog.mdpi.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Blog</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-container__buttons"> <a class="button UA_SignInUpButton" href="/user/login">Sign In / Sign Up</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="captchaModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-new--small" data-reveal aria-label="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"></div> <div id="actionDisabledModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal aria-labelledby="actionDisableModalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog" style="width: 300px;"> <h2 id="actionDisableModalTitle">Notice</h2> <form action="/email/captcha" method="post" id="emailCaptchaForm"> <div class="row"> <div id="js-action-disabled-modal-text" class="small-12 columns"> </div> <div id="js-action-disabled-modal-submit" class="small-12 columns" style="margin-top: 10px; display: none;"> You can make submissions to other journals <a href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload">here</a>. </div> </div> </form> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="rssNotificationModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="rssNotificationModalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 id="rssNotificationModalTitle">Notice</h2> <p> You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader. </p> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <a class="button button--color js-rss-notification-confirm">Continue</a> <a class="button button--grey" onclick="$(this).closest('.reveal-modal').find('.close-reveal-modal').click(); return false;">Cancel</a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-openaccess" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess</a>. </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-feature" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. </p> <p> Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers. </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-choice" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal. <div style="margin-top: -10px;"> <div id="drop-article-label-choice-journal-link" style="display: none; margin-top: -10px; padding-top: 10px;"> </div> </div> </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-resubmission" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Original Submission Date Received: <span id="drop-article-label-resubmission-date"></span>. </p> </div> <div id="container"> <noscript> <div id="no-javascript"> You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. </div> </noscript> <div class="fixed"> <nav class="tab-bar show-for-medium-down"> <div class="row full-width collapse"> <div class="medium-3 small-4 columns"> <a href="/"> <img class="full-size-menu__mdpi-logo" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1732615622" style="width: 64px;" title="MDPI Open Access Journals"> </a> </div> <div class="medium-3 small-4 columns right-aligned"> <div class="show-for-medium-down"> <a href="#" style="display: none;"> <i class="material-icons" onclick="$('#menuModal').foundation('reveal', 'close'); return false;">clear</i> </a> <a class="js-toggle-desktop-layout-link" title="Toggle desktop layout" style="display: none;" href="/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie"> <i class="material-icons">zoom_out_map</i> </a> <a href="#" class="js-open-small-search open-small-search"> <i class="material-icons show-for-small only">search</i> </a> <a title="MDPI main page" class="js-open-menu" data-reveal-id="menuModal" href="#"> <i class="material-icons">menu</i> </a> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <section class="main-section"> <header> <div class="full-size-menu show-for-large-up"> <div class="row full-width"> <div class="large-1 columns"> <a href="/"> <img class="full-size-menu__mdpi-logo" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1732615622" title="MDPI Open Access Journals"> </a> </div> <div class="large-8 columns text-right UI_NavMenu"> <ul> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about/journals" data-dropdown="journals-dropdown" aria-controls="journals-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">Journals</a> <ul id="journals-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/about/journals"> Active Journals </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/journalfinder"> Find a Journal </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/journals/proposal"> Journal Proposal </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/topics">Topics</a> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/authors" data-dropdown="information-dropdown" aria-controls="information-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover:true; hover_timeout:200">Information</a> <ul id="information-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-5 columns right-border"> <ul> <li> <a href="/authors">For Authors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/reviewers">For Reviewers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editors">For Editors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/librarians">For Librarians</a> </li> <li> <a href="/publishing_services">For Publishers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/societies">For Societies</a> </li> <li> <a href="/conference_organizers">For Conference Organizers</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="small-7 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/openaccess">Open Access Policy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/ioap">Institutional Open Access Program</a> </li> <li> <a href="/special_issues_guidelines">Special Issues Guidelines</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editorial_process">Editorial Process</a> </li> <li> <a href="/ethics">Research and Publication Ethics</a> </li> <li> <a href="/apc">Article Processing Charges</a> </li> <li> <a href="/awards">Awards</a> </li> <li> <a href="/testimonials">Testimonials</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/authors/english">Editing Services</a> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about/initiatives" data-dropdown="initiatives-dropdown" aria-controls="initiatives-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">Initiatives</a> <ul id="initiatives-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Sciforum </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> MDPI Books </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Preprints.org </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Scilit </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> SciProfiles </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Encyclopedia </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> JAMS </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about" data-dropdown="about-dropdown" aria-controls="about-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">About</a> <ul id="about-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/about"> Overview </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/contact"> Contact </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Careers </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/announcements"> News </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/press"> Press </a> </li> <li> <a href="http://blog.mdpi.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Blog </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="large-3 columns text-right full-size-menu__buttons"> <div> <a class="button button--default-inversed UA_SignInUpButton" href="/user/login">Sign In / Sign Up</a> <a class="button button--default js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_NavSubmitButton" href=" https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?journal=vaccines " data-disabledmessage="new submissions are not possible.">Submit</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="header-divider"> </div> <div class="search-container hide-for-small-down row search-container__homepage-scheme"> <form id="basic_search" style="background-color: inherit !important;" class="large-12 medium-12 columns " action="/search" method="get"> <div class="row search-container__main-elements"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-12 columns text-right1 small-only-text-left"> <div class="show-for-medium-up"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> </div> <span class="search-container__title">Search<span class="hide-for-medium"> for Articles</span><span class="hide-for-small">:</span></span> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Title / Keyword</div> </div> <input type="text" placeholder="Title / Keyword" id="q" tabindex="1" name="q" value="" /> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Author / Affiliation / Email</div> </div> <input type="text" id="authors" placeholder="Author / Affiliation / Email" tabindex="2" name="authors" value="" /> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Journal</div> </div> <select id="journal" tabindex="3" name="journal" class="chosen-select"> <option value="">All Journals</option> <option value="acoustics" > Acoustics </option> <option value="amh" > Acta Microbiologica Hellenica (AMH) </option> <option value="actuators" > Actuators </option> <option value="admsci" > Administrative Sciences </option> <option value="adolescents" > Adolescents </option> <option value="arm" > Advances in Respiratory Medicine (ARM) </option> <option value="aerobiology" > Aerobiology </option> <option value="aerospace" > Aerospace </option> <option value="agriculture" > Agriculture </option> <option value="agriengineering" > AgriEngineering </option> <option value="agrochemicals" > Agrochemicals </option> <option value="agronomy" > Agronomy </option> <option value="ai" > AI </option> <option value="air" > Air </option> <option value="algorithms" > Algorithms </option> <option value="allergies" > Allergies </option> <option value="alloys" > Alloys </option> <option value="analytica" > Analytica </option> <option value="analytics" > Analytics </option> <option value="anatomia" > Anatomia </option> <option value="anesthres" > Anesthesia Research </option> <option value="animals" > Animals </option> <option value="antibiotics" > Antibiotics </option> <option value="antibodies" > Antibodies </option> <option value="antioxidants" > Antioxidants </option> <option value="applbiosci" > Applied Biosciences </option> <option value="applmech" > Applied Mechanics </option> <option value="applmicrobiol" > Applied Microbiology </option> <option value="applnano" > Applied Nano </option> <option value="applsci" > Applied Sciences </option> <option value="asi" > Applied System Innovation (ASI) </option> <option value="appliedchem" > AppliedChem </option> <option value="appliedmath" > AppliedMath </option> <option value="aquacj" > Aquaculture Journal </option> <option value="architecture" > Architecture </option> <option value="arthropoda" > Arthropoda </option> <option value="arts" > Arts </option> <option value="astronomy" > Astronomy </option> <option value="atmosphere" > Atmosphere </option> <option value="atoms" > Atoms </option> <option value="audiolres" > Audiology Research </option> <option value="automation" > Automation </option> <option value="axioms" > Axioms </option> <option value="bacteria" > Bacteria </option> <option value="batteries" > Batteries </option> <option value="behavsci" > Behavioral Sciences </option> <option value="beverages" > Beverages </option> <option value="BDCC" > Big Data and Cognitive Computing (BDCC) </option> <option value="biochem" > BioChem </option> <option value="bioengineering" > Bioengineering </option> <option value="biologics" > Biologics </option> <option value="biology" > Biology </option> <option value="blsf" > Biology and Life Sciences Forum </option> <option value="biomass" > Biomass </option> <option value="biomechanics" > Biomechanics </option> <option value="biomed" > BioMed </option> <option value="biomedicines" > Biomedicines </option> <option value="biomedinformatics" > BioMedInformatics </option> <option value="biomimetics" > Biomimetics </option> <option value="biomolecules" > Biomolecules </option> <option value="biophysica" > Biophysica </option> <option value="biosensors" > Biosensors </option> <option value="biotech" > BioTech </option> <option value="birds" > Birds </option> <option value="blockchains" > Blockchains </option> <option value="brainsci" > Brain Sciences </option> <option value="buildings" > Buildings </option> <option value="businesses" > Businesses </option> <option value="carbon" > C </option> <option value="cancers" > Cancers </option> <option value="cardiogenetics" > Cardiogenetics </option> <option value="catalysts" > Catalysts </option> <option value="cells" > Cells </option> <option value="ceramics" > Ceramics </option> <option value="challenges" > Challenges </option> <option value="ChemEngineering" > ChemEngineering </option> <option value="chemistry" > Chemistry </option> <option value="chemproc" > Chemistry Proceedings </option> <option value="chemosensors" > Chemosensors </option> <option value="children" > Children </option> <option value="chips" > Chips </option> <option value="civileng" > CivilEng </option> <option value="cleantechnol" > Clean Technologies (Clean Technol.) </option> <option value="climate" > Climate </option> <option value="ctn" > Clinical and Translational Neuroscience (CTN) </option> <option value="clinbioenerg" > Clinical Bioenergetics </option> <option value="clinpract" > Clinics and Practice </option> <option value="clockssleep" > Clocks & Sleep </option> <option value="coasts" > Coasts </option> <option value="coatings" > Coatings </option> <option value="colloids" > Colloids and Interfaces </option> <option value="colorants" > Colorants </option> <option value="commodities" > Commodities </option> <option value="complications" > Complications </option> <option value="compounds" > Compounds </option> <option value="computation" > Computation </option> <option value="csmf" > Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum </option> <option value="computers" > Computers </option> <option value="condensedmatter" > Condensed Matter </option> <option value="conservation" > Conservation </option> <option value="constrmater" > Construction Materials </option> <option value="cmd" > Corrosion and Materials Degradation (CMD) </option> <option value="cosmetics" > Cosmetics </option> <option value="covid" > COVID </option> <option value="crops" > Crops </option> <option value="cryo" > Cryo </option> <option value="cryptography" > Cryptography </option> <option value="crystals" > Crystals </option> <option value="cimb" > Current Issues in Molecular Biology (CIMB) </option> <option value="curroncol" > Current Oncology </option> <option value="dairy" > Dairy </option> <option value="data" > Data </option> <option value="dentistry" > Dentistry Journal </option> <option value="dermato" > Dermato </option> <option value="dermatopathology" > Dermatopathology </option> <option value="designs" > Designs </option> <option value="diabetology" > Diabetology </option> <option value="diagnostics" > Diagnostics </option> <option value="dietetics" > Dietetics </option> <option value="digital" > Digital </option> <option value="disabilities" > Disabilities </option> <option value="diseases" > Diseases </option> <option value="diversity" > Diversity </option> <option value="dna" > DNA </option> <option value="drones" > Drones </option> <option value="ddc" > Drugs and Drug Candidates (DDC) </option> <option value="dynamics" > Dynamics </option> <option value="earth" > Earth </option> <option value="ecologies" > Ecologies </option> <option value="econometrics" > Econometrics </option> <option value="economies" > Economies </option> <option value="education" > Education Sciences </option> <option value="electricity" > Electricity </option> <option value="electrochem" > Electrochem </option> <option value="electronicmat" > Electronic Materials </option> <option value="electronics" > Electronics </option> <option value="ecm" > Emergency Care and Medicine </option> <option value="encyclopedia" > Encyclopedia </option> <option value="endocrines" > Endocrines </option> <option value="energies" > Energies </option> <option value="esa" > Energy Storage and Applications (ESA) </option> <option value="eng" > Eng </option> <option value="engproc" > Engineering Proceedings </option> <option value="entropy" > Entropy </option> <option value="environsciproc" > Environmental Sciences Proceedings </option> <option value="environments" > Environments </option> <option value="epidemiologia" > Epidemiologia </option> <option value="epigenomes" > Epigenomes </option> <option value="ebj" > European Burn Journal (EBJ) </option> <option value="ejihpe" > European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE) </option> <option value="fermentation" > Fermentation </option> <option value="fibers" > Fibers </option> <option value="fintech" > FinTech </option> <option value="fire" > Fire </option> <option value="fishes" > Fishes </option> <option value="fluids" > Fluids </option> <option value="foods" > Foods </option> <option value="forecasting" > Forecasting </option> <option value="forensicsci" > Forensic Sciences </option> <option value="forests" > Forests </option> <option value="fossstud" > Fossil Studies </option> <option value="foundations" > Foundations </option> <option value="fractalfract" > Fractal and Fractional (Fractal Fract) </option> <option value="fuels" > Fuels </option> <option value="future" > Future </option> <option value="futureinternet" > Future Internet </option> <option value="futurepharmacol" > Future Pharmacology </option> <option value="futuretransp" > Future Transportation </option> <option value="galaxies" > Galaxies </option> <option value="games" > Games </option> <option value="gases" > Gases </option> <option value="gastroent" > Gastroenterology Insights </option> <option value="gastrointestdisord" > Gastrointestinal Disorders </option> <option value="gastronomy" > Gastronomy </option> <option value="gels" > Gels </option> <option value="genealogy" > Genealogy </option> <option value="genes" > Genes </option> <option value="geographies" > Geographies </option> <option value="geohazards" > GeoHazards </option> <option value="geomatics" > Geomatics </option> <option value="geometry" > Geometry </option> <option value="geosciences" > Geosciences </option> <option value="geotechnics" > Geotechnics </option> <option value="geriatrics" > Geriatrics </option> <option value="glacies" > Glacies </option> <option value="gucdd" > Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD) </option> <option value="grasses" > Grasses </option> <option value="hardware" > Hardware </option> <option value="healthcare" > Healthcare </option> <option value="hearts" > Hearts </option> <option value="hemato" > Hemato </option> <option value="hematolrep" > Hematology Reports </option> <option value="heritage" > Heritage </option> <option value="histories" > Histories </option> <option value="horticulturae" > Horticulturae </option> <option value="hospitals" > Hospitals </option> <option value="humanities" > Humanities </option> <option value="humans" > Humans </option> <option value="hydrobiology" > Hydrobiology </option> <option value="hydrogen" > Hydrogen </option> <option value="hydrology" > Hydrology </option> <option value="hygiene" > Hygiene </option> <option value="immuno" > Immuno </option> <option value="idr" > Infectious Disease Reports </option> <option value="informatics" > Informatics </option> <option value="information" > Information </option> <option value="infrastructures" > Infrastructures </option> <option value="inorganics" > Inorganics </option> <option value="insects" > Insects </option> <option value="instruments" > Instruments </option> <option value="iic" > Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction </option> <option value="ijerph" > International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) </option> <option value="ijfs" > International Journal of Financial Studies (IJFS) </option> <option value="ijms" > International Journal of Molecular Sciences (IJMS) </option> <option value="IJNS" > International Journal of Neonatal Screening (IJNS) </option> <option value="ijpb" > International Journal of Plant Biology (IJPB) </option> <option value="ijt" > International Journal of Topology </option> <option value="ijtm" > International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM) </option> <option value="ijtpp" > International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP) </option> <option value="ime" > International Medical Education (IME) </option> <option value="inventions" > Inventions </option> <option value="IoT" > IoT </option> <option value="ijgi" > ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (IJGI) </option> <option value="J" > J </option> <option value="jal" > Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL) </option> <option value="jcdd" > Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD) </option> <option value="jcto" > Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO) </option> <option value="jcm" > Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM) </option> <option value="jcs" > Journal of Composites Science (J. Compos. Sci.) </option> <option value="jcp" > Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy (JCP) </option> <option value="jdad" > Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease (JDAD) </option> <option value="jdb" > Journal of Developmental Biology (JDB) </option> <option value="jeta" > Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA) </option> <option value="jfb" > Journal of Functional Biomaterials (JFB) </option> <option value="jfmk" > Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK) </option> <option value="jof" > Journal of Fungi (JoF) </option> <option value="jimaging" > Journal of Imaging (J. Imaging) </option> <option value="jintelligence" > Journal of Intelligence (J. Intell.) </option> <option value="jlpea" > Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA) </option> <option value="jmmp" > Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP) </option> <option value="jmse" > Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (JMSE) </option> <option value="jmahp" > Journal of Market Access & Health Policy (JMAHP) </option> <option value="jmp" > Journal of Molecular Pathology (JMP) </option> <option value="jnt" > Journal of Nanotheranostics (JNT) </option> <option value="jne" > Journal of Nuclear Engineering (JNE) </option> <option value="ohbm" > Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine (JOHBM) </option> <option value="jop" > Journal of Parks </option> <option value="jpm" > Journal of Personalized Medicine (JPM) </option> <option value="jpbi" > Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry (JPBI) </option> <option value="jor" > Journal of Respiration (JoR) </option> <option value="jrfm" > Journal of Risk and Financial Management (JRFM) </option> <option value="jsan" > Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks (JSAN) </option> <option value="joma" > Journal of the Oman Medical Association (JOMA) </option> <option value="jtaer" > Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER) </option> <option value="jvd" > Journal of Vascular Diseases (JVD) </option> <option value="jox" > Journal of Xenobiotics (JoX) </option> <option value="jzbg" > Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens (JZBG) </option> <option value="journalmedia" > Journalism and Media </option> <option value="kidneydial" > Kidney and Dialysis </option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases" > Kinases and Phosphatases </option> <option value="knowledge" > Knowledge </option> <option value="labmed" > LabMed </option> <option value="laboratories" > Laboratories </option> <option value="land" > Land </option> <option value="languages" > Languages </option> <option value="laws" > Laws </option> <option value="life" > Life </option> <option value="limnolrev" > Limnological Review </option> <option value="lipidology" > Lipidology </option> <option value="liquids" > Liquids </option> <option value="literature" > Literature </option> <option value="livers" > Livers </option> <option value="logics" > Logics </option> <option value="logistics" > Logistics </option> <option value="lubricants" > Lubricants </option> <option value="lymphatics" > Lymphatics </option> <option value="make" > Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction (MAKE) </option> <option value="machines" > Machines </option> <option value="macromol" > Macromol </option> <option value="magnetism" > Magnetism </option> <option value="magnetochemistry" > Magnetochemistry </option> <option value="marinedrugs" > Marine Drugs </option> <option value="materials" > Materials </option> <option value="materproc" > Materials Proceedings </option> <option value="mca" > Mathematical and Computational Applications (MCA) </option> <option value="mathematics" > Mathematics </option> <option value="medsci" > Medical Sciences </option> <option value="msf" > Medical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="medicina" > Medicina </option> <option value="medicines" > Medicines </option> <option value="membranes" > Membranes </option> <option value="merits" > Merits </option> <option value="metabolites" > Metabolites </option> <option value="metals" > Metals </option> <option value="meteorology" > Meteorology </option> <option value="methane" > Methane </option> <option value="mps" > Methods and Protocols (MPs) </option> <option value="metrics" > Metrics </option> <option value="metrology" > Metrology </option> <option value="micro" > Micro </option> <option value="microbiolres" > Microbiology Research </option> <option value="micromachines" > Micromachines </option> <option value="microorganisms" > Microorganisms </option> <option value="microplastics" > Microplastics </option> <option value="minerals" > Minerals </option> <option value="mining" > Mining </option> <option value="modelling" > Modelling </option> <option value="mmphys" > Modern Mathematical Physics </option> <option value="molbank" > Molbank </option> <option value="molecules" > Molecules </option> <option value="mti" > Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI) </option> <option value="muscles" > Muscles </option> <option value="nanoenergyadv" > Nanoenergy Advances </option> <option value="nanomanufacturing" > Nanomanufacturing </option> <option value="nanomaterials" > Nanomaterials </option> <option value="ndt" > NDT </option> <option value="network" > Network </option> <option value="neuroglia" > Neuroglia </option> <option value="neurolint" > Neurology International </option> <option value="neurosci" > NeuroSci </option> <option value="nitrogen" > Nitrogen </option> <option value="ncrna" > Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) </option> <option value="nursrep" > Nursing Reports </option> <option value="nutraceuticals" > Nutraceuticals </option> <option value="nutrients" > Nutrients </option> <option value="obesities" > Obesities </option> <option value="oceans" > Oceans </option> <option value="onco" > Onco </option> <option value="optics" > Optics </option> <option value="oral" > Oral </option> <option value="organics" > Organics </option> <option value="organoids" > Organoids </option> <option value="osteology" > Osteology </option> <option value="oxygen" > Oxygen </option> <option value="parasitologia" > Parasitologia </option> <option value="particles" > Particles </option> <option value="pathogens" > Pathogens </option> <option value="pathophysiology" > Pathophysiology </option> <option value="pediatrrep" > Pediatric Reports </option> <option value="pets" > Pets </option> <option value="pharmaceuticals" > Pharmaceuticals </option> <option value="pharmaceutics" > Pharmaceutics </option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology" > Pharmacoepidemiology </option> <option value="pharmacy" > Pharmacy </option> <option value="philosophies" > Philosophies </option> <option value="photochem" > Photochem </option> <option value="photonics" > Photonics </option> <option value="phycology" > Phycology </option> <option value="physchem" > Physchem </option> <option value="psf" > Physical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="physics" > Physics </option> <option value="physiologia" > Physiologia </option> <option value="plants" > Plants </option> <option value="plasma" > Plasma </option> <option value="platforms" > Platforms </option> <option value="pollutants" > Pollutants </option> <option value="polymers" > Polymers </option> <option value="polysaccharides" > Polysaccharides </option> <option value="populations" > Populations </option> <option value="poultry" > Poultry </option> <option value="powders" > Powders </option> <option value="proceedings" > Proceedings </option> <option value="processes" > Processes </option> <option value="prosthesis" > Prosthesis </option> <option value="proteomes" > Proteomes </option> <option value="psychiatryint" > Psychiatry International </option> <option value="psychoactives" > Psychoactives </option> <option value="psycholint" > Psychology International </option> <option value="publications" > Publications </option> <option value="qubs" > Quantum Beam Science (QuBS) </option> <option value="quantumrep" > Quantum Reports </option> <option value="quaternary" > Quaternary </option> <option value="radiation" > Radiation </option> <option value="reactions" > Reactions </option> <option value="realestate" > Real Estate </option> <option value="receptors" > Receptors </option> <option value="recycling" > Recycling </option> <option value="rsee" > Regional Science and Environmental Economics (RSEE) </option> <option value="religions" > Religions </option> <option value="remotesensing" > Remote Sensing </option> <option value="reports" > Reports </option> <option value="reprodmed" > Reproductive Medicine (Reprod. Med.) </option> <option value="resources" > Resources </option> <option value="rheumato" > Rheumato </option> <option value="risks" > Risks </option> <option value="robotics" > Robotics </option> <option value="ruminants" > Ruminants </option> <option value="safety" > Safety </option> <option value="sci" > Sci </option> <option value="scipharm" > Scientia Pharmaceutica (Sci. Pharm.) </option> <option value="sclerosis" > Sclerosis </option> <option value="seeds" > Seeds </option> <option value="sensors" > Sensors </option> <option value="separations" > Separations </option> <option value="sexes" > Sexes </option> <option value="signals" > Signals </option> <option value="sinusitis" > Sinusitis </option> <option value="smartcities" > Smart Cities </option> <option value="socsci" > Social Sciences </option> <option value="siuj" > Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal (SIUJ) </option> <option value="societies" > Societies </option> <option value="software" > Software </option> <option value="soilsystems" > Soil Systems </option> <option value="solar" > Solar </option> <option value="solids" > Solids </option> <option value="spectroscj" > Spectroscopy Journal </option> <option value="sports" > Sports </option> <option value="standards" > Standards </option> <option value="stats" > Stats </option> <option value="stresses" > Stresses </option> <option value="surfaces" > Surfaces </option> <option value="surgeries" > Surgeries </option> <option value="std" > Surgical Techniques Development </option> <option value="sustainability" > Sustainability </option> <option value="suschem" > Sustainable Chemistry </option> <option value="symmetry" > Symmetry </option> <option value="synbio" > SynBio </option> <option value="systems" > Systems </option> <option value="targets" > Targets </option> <option value="taxonomy" > Taxonomy </option> <option value="technologies" > Technologies </option> <option value="telecom" > Telecom </option> <option value="textiles" > Textiles </option> <option value="thalassrep" > Thalassemia Reports </option> <option value="therapeutics" > Therapeutics </option> <option value="thermo" > Thermo </option> <option value="timespace" > Time and Space </option> <option value="tomography" > Tomography </option> <option value="tourismhosp" > Tourism and Hospitality </option> <option value="toxics" > Toxics </option> <option value="toxins" > Toxins </option> <option value="transplantology" > Transplantology </option> <option value="traumacare" > Trauma Care </option> <option value="higheredu" > Trends in Higher Education </option> <option value="tropicalmed" > Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed) </option> <option value="universe" > Universe </option> <option value="urbansci" > Urban Science </option> <option value="uro" > Uro </option> <option value="vaccines" selected='selected'> Vaccines </option> <option value="vehicles" > Vehicles </option> <option value="venereology" > Venereology </option> <option value="vetsci" > Veterinary Sciences </option> <option value="vibration" > Vibration </option> <option value="virtualworlds" > Virtual Worlds </option> <option value="viruses" > Viruses </option> <option value="vision" > Vision </option> <option value="waste" > Waste </option> <option value="water" > Water </option> <option value="wild" > Wild </option> <option value="wind" > Wind </option> <option value="women" > Women </option> <option value="world" > World </option> <option value="wevj" > World Electric Vehicle Journal (WEVJ) </option> <option value="youth" > Youth </option> <option value="zoonoticdis" > Zoonotic Diseases </option> </select> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Article Type</div> </div> <select id="article_type" tabindex="4" name="article_type" class="chosen-select"> <option value="">All Article Types</option> <option value="research-article">Article</option> <option value="review-article">Review</option> <option value="rapid-communication">Communication</option> <option value="editorial">Editorial</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="book-review">Book Review</option> <option value="brief-communication">Brief Communication</option> <option value="brief-report">Brief Report</option> <option value="case-report">Case Report</option> <option value="clinicopathological-challenge">Clinicopathological Challenge</option> <option value="article-commentary">Comment</option> <option value="commentary">Commentary</option> <option value="concept-paper">Concept Paper</option> <option value="conference-report">Conference Report</option> <option value="correction">Correction</option> <option value="creative">Creative</option> <option value="data-descriptor">Data Descriptor</option> <option value="discussion">Discussion</option> <option value="Entry">Entry</option> <option value="essay">Essay</option> <option value="expression-of-concern">Expression of Concern</option> <option value="extended-abstract">Extended Abstract</option> <option value="field-guide">Field Guide</option> <option value="guidelines">Guidelines</option> <option value="hypothesis">Hypothesis</option> <option value="interesting-image">Interesting Images</option> <option value="letter">Letter</option> <option value="books-received">New Book Received</option> <option value="obituary">Obituary</option> <option value="opinion">Opinion</option> <option value="perspective">Perspective</option> <option value="proceedings">Proceeding Paper</option> <option value="project-report">Project Report</option> <option value="protocol">Protocol</option> <option value="registered-report">Registered Report</option> <option value="reply">Reply</option> <option value="retraction">Retraction</option> <option value="note">Short Note</option> <option value="study-protocol">Study Protocol</option> <option value="systematic_review">Systematic Review</option> <option value="technical-note">Technical Note</option> <option value="tutorial">Tutorial</option> <option value="viewpoint">Viewpoint</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns small-push-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-collapsed-button-container"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <input type="submit" id="search" value="Search" class="button button--dark button--full-width searchButton1 US_SearchButton" tabindex="12"> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns large-text-left small-only-text-center small-pull-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-collapsed-link-container"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <a class="main-search-clear search-container__link" href="#" onclick="openAdvanced(''); return false;">Advanced<span class="show-for-small-only"> Search</span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="search-container__advanced" style="margin-top: 0; padding-top: 0px; background-color: inherit; color: inherit;"> <div class="row"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 columns show-for-medium-up"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Section</div> </div> <select id="section" tabindex="5" name="section" class="chosen-select"> <option value=""></option> </select> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Special Issue</div> </div> <select id="special_issue" tabindex="6" name="special_issue" class="chosen-select"> <option value=""></option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Volume</div> <input type="text" id="volume" tabindex="7" name="volume" placeholder="..." value="6" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Issue</div> <input type="text" id="issue" tabindex="8" name="issue" placeholder="..." value="4" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Number</div> <input type="text" id="number" tabindex="9" name="number" placeholder="..." value="" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Page</div> <input type="text" id="page" tabindex="10" name="page" placeholder="..." value="" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 columns small-push-6 medium-reset order large-reset-order medium-reset-order js-search-expanded-button-container"></div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 columns large-text-left small-only-text-center small-pull-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-expanded-link-container"></div> </div> </div> </form> <form id="advanced-search" class="large-12 medium-12 columns"> <div class="search-container__advanced"> <div id="advanced-search-template" class="row advanced-search-row"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-12 columns show-for-medium-up"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-3 columns connector-div"> <div class="search-input-label"><span class="show-for-medium-up">Logical Operator</span><span class="show-for-small">Operator</span></div> <select class="connector"> <option value="and">AND</option> <option value="or">OR</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-3 medium-3 small-6 columns search-text-div"> <div class="search-input-label">Search Text</div> <input type="text" class="search-text" placeholder="Search text"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 large-offset-0 medium-offset-0 small-offset-3 columns search-field-div"> <div class="search-input-label">Search Type</div> <select class="search-field"> <option value="all">All fields</option> <option value="title">Title</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="keywords">Keywords</option> <option value="authors">Authors</option> <option value="affiliations">Affiliations</option> <option value="doi">Doi</option> <option value="full_text">Full Text</option> <option value="references">References</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-3 columns"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <div class="search-action-div"> <div class="search-plus"> <i class="material-icons">add_circle_outline</i> </div> </div> <div class="search-action-div"> <div class="search-minus"> <i class="material-icons">remove_circle_outline</i> </div> </div> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 large-offset-0 medium-offset-0 small-offset-3 end columns"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <input class="advanced-search-button button button--dark search-submit" type="submit" value="Search"> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns show-for-medium-up"></div> </div> </div> </form> </div> <div class="header-divider"> </div> <div class="breadcrumb row full-row"> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/about/journals">Journals</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/journal/vaccines">Vaccines</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/2076-393X/6">Volume 6</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/2076-393X/6/4">Issue 4</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="#">10.3390/vaccines6040075</a> </div> </div> </header> <div id="main-content" class=""> <div class="row full-width row-fixed-left-column"> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 medium-3 small-12 columns"> <div class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/vaccines"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/vaccines-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" alt="vaccines-logo" title="Vaccines" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border"> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_ArticleSubmitButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?form%5Bjournal_id%5D%3D76" data-disabledmessage="creating new submissions is not possible."> Submit to this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleReviewButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/volunteer/journals/review" data-disabledmessage="volunteering as journal reviewer is not possible."> Review for this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--color-journal button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleEditIssueButton" href="/journalproposal/sendproposalspecialissue/vaccines" data-path="/2076-393X/6/4/75" data-disabledmessage="proposing new special issue is not possible."> Propose a Special Issue </a> </div> <div class="generic-item link-article-menu show-for-small"> <a href="#" class="link-article-menu show-for-small"> <span class="closed">►</span> <span class="open" style="display: none;">▼</span> Article Menu </a> </div> <div class="hide-small-down-initially UI_ArticleMenu"> <div class="generic-item"> <h2>Article Menu</h2> </div> <ul class="accordion accordion__menu" data-accordion data-options="multi_expand:true;toggleable: true"> <li class="accordion-direct-link"> <a href="/2076-393X/6/4/75/scifeed_display" data-reveal-id="scifeed-modal" data-reveal-ajax="true">Subscribe SciFeed</a> </li> <li class="accordion-direct-link js-article-similarity-container" style="display: none"> <a href="#" class="js-similarity-related-articles">Recommended Articles</a> </li> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#related" class="accordion__title">Related Info Links</a> <div id="related" class="content UI_ArticleMenu_RelatedLinks"> <ul> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/30445683" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">PubMed/Medline</a> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Enhancing%20Protective%20Efficacy%20of%20Poultry%20Vaccines%20through%20Targeted%20Delivery%20of%20Antigens%20to%20Antigen-Presenting%20Cells" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Google Scholar</a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#authors" class="accordion__title">More by Authors Links</a> <div id="authors" class="content UI_ArticleMenu_AuthorsLinks"> <ul class="side-menu-ul"> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on DOAJ</a> </li> <div id="AuthorDOAJExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Angita%20Shrestha%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Shrestha, A.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Jean-Remy%20Sadeyen%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sadeyen, J.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Munir%20Iqbal%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iqbal, M.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on Google Scholar</a> </li> <div id="AuthorGoogleExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Angita%20Shrestha" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Shrestha, A.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jean-Remy%20Sadeyen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sadeyen, J.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Munir%20Iqbal" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iqbal, M.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on PubMed</a> </li> <div id="AuthorPubMedExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Angita%20Shrestha" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Shrestha, A.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Jean-Remy%20Sadeyen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sadeyen, J.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Munir%20Iqbal" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iqbal, M.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> </ul> </div> </li> </ul> <span style="display:none" id="scifeed_hidden_flag"></span> <span style="display:none" id="scifeed_subscribe_url">/ajax/scifeed/subscribe</span> </div> </div> <div class="content__container responsive-moving-container large medium active hidden" data-id="article-counters"> <div id="counts-wrapper" class="row generic-item no-border" data-equalizer> <div id="js-counts-wrapper__views" class="small-12 hide columns count-div-container"> <a href="#metrics" > <div class="count-div" data-equalizer-watch> <span class="name">Article Views</span> <span class="count view-number"></span> </div> </a> </div> <div id="js-counts-wrapper__citations" class="small-12 columns hide count-div-container"> <a href="#metrics" > <div class="count-div" data-equalizer-watch> <span class="name">Citations</span> <span class="count citations-number Var_ArticleMaxCitations">-</span> </div> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container"> <div class="hide-small-down-initially"> <ul class="accordion accordion__menu" data-accordion data-options="multi_expand:true;toggleable: true"> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#table_of_contents" class="accordion__title">Table of Contents</a> <div id="table_of_contents" class="content active"> <div class="menu-caption" id="html-quick-links-title"></div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="pbgrd-sky"></div> <script src="https://cdn.pbgrd.com/core-mdpi.js"></script> <style>.content__container { min-width: 300px; }</style>  </div> <div id="middle-column" class="content__column large-9 medium-9 small-12 columns end middle-bordered"> <div class="middle-column__help"> <div class="middle-column__help__fixed show-for-medium-up"> <span id="js-altmetrics-donut" href="#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="display: none;"> <span data-badge-type='donut' class='altmetric-embed' data-doi='10.3390/vaccines6040075'></span> <span>Altmetric</span> </span> <a href="#" class="UA_ShareButton" data-reveal-id="main-share-modal" title="Share"> <i class="material-icons">share</i> <span>Share</span> </a> <a href="#" data-reveal-id="main-help-modal" title="Help"> <i class="material-icons">announcement</i> <span>Help</span> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" data-reveal-id="cite-modal" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/cite" > <i class="material-icons">format_quote</i> <span>Cite</span> </a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com/discussion-groups/public/10.3390/vaccines6040075?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=publication&utm_campaign=discuss_in_sciprofiles" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" title="Discuss in Sciprofiles"> <i class="material-icons">question_answer</i> <span>Discuss in SciProfiles</span> </a> <a href="#" class="" data-hypothesis-trigger-endorses-tab title="Endorse"> <i data-hypothesis-endorse-trigger class="material-icons" >thumb_up</i> <div data-hypothesis-endorsement-count data-hypothesis-trigger-endorses-tab class="hypothesis-count-container"> ... </div> <span>Endorse</span> </a> <a href="#" data-hypothesis-trigger class="js-hypothesis-open UI_ArticleAnnotationsButton" title="Comment"> <i class="material-icons">textsms</i> <div data-hypothesis-annotation-count class="hypothesis-count-container"> ... </div> <span>Comment</span> </a> </div> <div id="main-help-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Need Help?</h2> </div> <div class="small-6 columns"> <h3>Support</h3> <p> Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/about/contactform" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Get Support </a> </div> <div class="small-6 columns"> <h3>Feedback</h3> <p> Please let us know what you think of our products and services. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/feedback/send" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Give Feedback </a> </div> <div class="small-6 columns end"> <h3>Information</h3> <p> Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/authors" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Get Information </a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> </div> <div class="middle-column__main "> <div class="page-highlight"> <style type="text/css"> img.review-status { width: 30px; } </style> <div id="jmolModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal aria-labelledby="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <h2>JSmol Viewer</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns text-center"> <iframe style="width: 520px; height: 520px;" frameborder="0" id="jsmol-content"></iframe> <div class="content"></div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle" id="abstract" class="abstract_div"> <div class="js-check-update-container"></div> <div class="html-content__container content__container content__container__combined-for-large__first" style="overflow: auto; position: inherit;"> <div class='html-profile-nav'> <div class='top-bar'> <div class='nav-sidebar-btn show-for-large-up' data-status='opened' > <i class='material-icons'>first_page</i> </div> <a id="js-button-download" class="button button--color-inversed" style="display: none;" href="/2076-393X/6/4/75/pdf?version=1542264240" data-name="Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells" data-journal="vaccines"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> Download PDF </a> <div class='nav-btn'> <i class='material-icons'>settings</i> </div> <a href="/2076-393X/6/4/75/reprints" id="js-button-reprints" class="button button--color-inversed"> Order Article Reprints </a> </div> <div class='html-article-menu'> <div class='html-first-step row'> <div class='html-font-family large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'> Font Type: </div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif'>Arial</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Georgia1, Georgia, serif;' data-fontfamily='Georgia1, Georgia, serif'>Georgia</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Verdana, Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Verdana, Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif' >Verdana</i></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='html-font-resize large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'>Font Size:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-percent="100">Aa</span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-percent="120">Aa</span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-percent="160">Aa</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='row'> <div class='html-line-space large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns' >Line Spacing:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-line-height="1.5em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-line-height="1.8em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-line-height="2.1em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='html-column-width large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns' >Column Width:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-column-width="20%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-column-width="10%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-column-width="0%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-bg large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns end'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'>Background:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-bright" data-bg="bright"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-dark" data-bg="dark"> <i class="fa fa-file-text-o"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-creme" data-bg="creme"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <article ><div class='html-article-content'> <span itemprop="publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"></span><span itemprop="url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75"></span> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <h1 class="title hypothesis_container" itemprop="name"> Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop1471751' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Angita Shrestha</div><div id="profile-card-drop1471751" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Angita Shrestha</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/993462?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Angita%20Shrestha" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Angita%20Shrestha&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Angita%20Shrestha" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1,2</sup>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop1471752' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Jean-Remy Sadeyen</div><div id="profile-card-drop1471752" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Jean-Remy Sadeyen</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/981883?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Jean-Remy%20Sadeyen" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Jean-Remy%20Sadeyen&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jean-Remy%20Sadeyen" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1</sup> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop1471753' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Munir Iqbal</div><div id="profile-card-drop1471753" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/profiles/369270/thumb/Munir_Iqbal.jpg" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Munir Iqbal</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/369270?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Munir%20Iqbal" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Munir%20Iqbal&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Munir%20Iqbal" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1,*</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="1471753" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#fad599949ed7999d93d596d59f979b9396d78a88958e9f998e939594d9cacacbc2cc9ecac9cacecb9ccec9cacecb99ca9cca99cacbc89ecb9ecacecb9cca9ccb9ccaceca9bcacfcbc3cec9ca99ca9fcec9cbc2cacc"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5165-5339" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1732615622" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a></span> </div> <div class="nrm"></div> <span style="display:block; height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, Surrey, UK</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Vaccines</em> <b>2018</b>, <em>6</em>(4), 75; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075">https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 9 October 2018</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 9 November 2018</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 13 November 2018</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 15 November 2018</span> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-182956" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-182956" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-182956" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2076-393X/6/4/75/pdf?version=1542264240" data-name="Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells" data-journal="vaccines">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2076-393X/6/4/75/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2076-393X/6/4/75/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2076-393X/6/4/75/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001.png?1570701645" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of ligand-based antigen targeting. Pattern recognition receptor (PRR) ligands can be conjugated to the antigen chemically or recombinantly. In most cases, Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have been used for antigen targeting. The TLR ligands have dual functions. They facilitate the targeting of antigens to antigen presenting cells (APCs) and also act as adjuvants. Once the antigen–PRR ligand conjugate binds to the respective receptor on antigen presenting cells, it undergoes receptor mediated endocytosis and is presented either via the MHC I or MHC II pathways. CpG ODN: CpG oligodeoxynucleotide.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002.png?1570701645" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of antibody-based antigen targeting. The full antibody or antibody fragments such as Fab (fragment antigen binding), scFv (single chain fragment variable antibody) can be conjugated to the antigen chemically or recombinantly. In most cases, C-type lectin receptors (CLR) have been targeted for this purpose. Dendritic cell (DC) activation signals like Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists are often required for protective immunity. Once the antigen–antibody complex binds to the respective receptor on antigen presenting cells, it undergoes receptor mediated endocytosis and is presented either via the MHC I or MHC II pathway.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003.png?1570701645" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of nanoparticle-based antigen targeting. Various nanoparticles such as poly-<span class="html-small-caps">d</span>,<span class="html-small-caps">l</span>-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), polylactic acid (PLA), chitosan, liposomes and virus-like particles (VLPs) have been used for antigen targeting. These nanoparticles can be decorated on their surface with antibodies or ligands that can bind specifically to the antigen presenting cell receptors.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004.png?1570701645" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of viral vector vaccine delivery method. The gene encoding the antigen of interest can be introduced into the viral genome via recombination. The recombinant viral vectors can be administered to the recipient. Upon entry into the recipient cells, they release the viral genome into the cytoplasm. This results in the in vivo expression of the encoded antigen. The antigen can either be expressed on the cell surface, or secreted and then processed by antigen-presenting cells.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005.png?1570701645" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) delivery system. CPP are cationic peptides. CPP–antigen conjugates can be designed either chemically or recombinantly. CPP can undergo electrostatic interaction with the negatively charged cell surface glycoproteins under physiological condition. This facilitates the direct translocation of antigens across the cell membrane. Furthermore, CPP–antigen conjugates can also enter the cell by endocytosis. Direct translocation of the CPP–antigen conjugate allows antigen presentation via the MHC I pathway whereas entry by endocytosis facilitates the antigen presentation via the MHC II pathway.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006.png?1570701645" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of the structure of E2 acetyltransferase display system (E2DISP) domain. (<b>A</b>) Representation of five catalytic acetyltransferase core domain (CD) trimers (monomers of each trimer is represented by blue, green and yellow colours). The C-terminal CD of E2 can self-assemble into trimers which aggregate to generate a pentagonal dodecahedral protein scaffold (see B). (<b>B</b>) Twenty trimers of the E2 polypeptide chain form a pentagonal dodecahedron (60-mer) with icosahedral symmetry. About 60 large polypeptides can be presented on the E2 scaffold as N-terminal fusions to the acetyltransferase CD. These particles can self-assemble in vitro and elicit T-cell and B-cell responses.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2076-393X/6/4/75/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Avian viral diseases including avian influenza, Marek’s disease and Newcastle disease are detrimental to economies around the world that depend on the poultry trade. A significant zoonotic threat is also posed by avian influenza viruses. Vaccination is an important and widely used method for controlling these poultry diseases. However, the current vaccines do not provide full protection or sterile immunity. Hence, there is a need to develop improved vaccines. The major aim of developing improved vaccines is to induce strong and specific humoral and cellular immunity in vaccinated animals. One strategy used to enhance the immunogenicity of vaccines is the selective delivery of protective antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) including dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. APCs have a central role in the initiation and maintenance of immune responses through their ability to capture, process and present antigens to T and B cells. Vaccine technology that selectively targets APCs has been achieved by coupling antigens to monoclonal antibodies or ligands that are targeted by APCs. The aim of this review is to discuss existing strategies of selective delivery of antigens to APCs for effective vaccine development in poultry.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=antigen-presenting+cell">antigen-presenting cell</a>; <a href="/search?q=dendritic+cell">dendritic cell</a>; <a href="/search?q=antigen+targeting">antigen targeting</a>; <a href="/search?q=antigen+targeted+vaccine">antigen targeted vaccine</a>; <a href="/search?q=nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-vaccines-06-00075' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>For the past two decades, poultry production and trade have been on the rise globally as poultry meat continues to be one of the most popular animal meats for consumption by man [<a href="#B1-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. Currently over 55 billion birds are raised for meat and eggs, with chicken meat accounting for approximately 90% of total poultry meat production [<a href="#B2-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">2</a>]. However, poultry continue to be at risk of morbidity and mortality due to infection with bacteria such as <span class='html-italic'>Salmonella</span> and viruses e.g., avian influenza A virus (IAV), Marek’s disease virus (MDV) and Newcastle disease virus (NDV), which result in significant reductions to the poultry trade and zoonotic infection [<a href="#B3-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">3</a>,<a href="#B4-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">5</a>,<a href="#B6-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Due to the widespread prevalence of these bacteria and viruses, vaccination has become key to controlling them, in addition to surveillance, biosecurity, culling, and restrictions to intra- and international movement [<a href="#B7-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">7</a>]. However, the performance of current vaccines remains suboptimal and these pathogens continue to circulate in vaccinated poultry flocks. Thus, there is a need to develop more effective vaccines that induce sterile immunity. One key hurdle in developing such vaccines is eliciting a strong and long-lasting humoral and cellular immune response. To achieve this, we can specifically target antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Recently, advancements have been made in the fields of molecular biology, cellular biology, immunology and vaccinology, which have led to the development of improved antigen delivery and targeting strategies [<a href="#B8-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. The targeting strategy determines the intracellular route taken by the antigen into the cell, thus affecting the efficiency of antigen presentation via the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) I and MHC II pathways [<a href="#B10-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. In this review, we will discuss potential strategies of targeting antigens to APCs for effective vaccine development for poultry. We will also briefly discuss novel antigen delivery methods.</div></section><section id='sec2-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Avian Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)</h2><div class='html-p'>Avian APCs, like mammalian APCs, include B cells, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). However, studies have shown that bursectomised birds lacking B cells are able to produce normal T cell responses. Hence, B cells could be less important for antigen presentation in birds [<a href="#B13-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. Furthermore, birds lack lymph nodes, the primary site for antigen presentation in mammals [<a href="#B14-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. It is thought that heterophils (the chicken functional equivalent of the mammalian neutrophil) and thrombocytes (homologous in function to mammalian platelets, which are absent in chickens) could also possess an ability to present antigens [<a href="#B14-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. DCs are the most potent professional APCs in birds and act as a link between innate and acquired immunity [<a href="#B7-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">7</a>]. DCs can initiate adaptive immune responses by processing and presenting antigens to T cells. The maturation state of DCs can affect the resultant immune response. Immature migratory DCs behave as antigen-capturing cells to scan the microenvironment for antigens. Upon encountering antigens, they exhibit functional and morphological changes, called maturation, which optimises antigen processing and maximises antigen presentation to naïve T cells [<a href="#B15-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. The maturation process involves redistribution of MHC molecules from intracellular endocytic compartments to the cell surface, increase in the expression of co-stimulatory molecules required for the T cell activation, secretion of distinct cytokines and chemokines, cytoskeletal reorganisation and morphological changes including the proliferation of dendrites from the membrane of DCs [<a href="#B16-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. Some vaccine adjuvants can induce DC maturation to improve antigen processing and presentation [<a href="#B17-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Comparative gene expression profiling has been used to investigate similarities between immune cell subsets of chickens, humans and mice [<a href="#B18-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">18</a>]. Although less work has been reported on chicken DCs, it has been predicted that the antigen processing and presentation pathways are likely to be similar to those of mammals [<a href="#B14-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. Matured DCs process exogenous antigens and cytosolic antigens (endogenous) in different ways [<a href="#B19-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">19</a>]. Upon encountering exogenous antigens, DCs utilise an endocytic pathway to internalise them into an early endosome. The early endosome matures into a late endosome and fuses with a lysosome that contains proteases and hydrolases. These enzymes degrade antigens into small peptides, which are processed and loaded onto MHC II molecules. MHC II-peptide complexes are recognised by CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells, which mature and differentiate into T helper cell 1 (Th1) or T helper cell 2 (Th2) cells. Th1 predominantly facilitates a pro-inflammatory response, which involves secretion of interferons (typically IFN-γ) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNFα), which activate macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells. Th2 cells have an anti-inflammatory role by secreting cytokines e.g., interleukins (IL4, IL10, IL13), which stimulate B cells to produce antibodies [<a href="#B19-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">19</a>,<a href="#B20-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B21-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. Furthermore, some pathogens including viruses and bacteria, can be internalised into cells via the non-endocytic pathway. This follows processing of antigens through proteasomal proteolysis, translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum (via Transporter Associated with antigen Processing (TAP)) for further trimming and loading of optimised peptides onto MHC I molecules. These MHC I-peptide complexes are recognised by CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells, which have cytotoxic activity to kill the infected cells directly [<a href="#B19-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">19</a>,<a href="#B20-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B21-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">21</a>].</div></section><section id='sec3-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Targeting Antigens to Specific APC Receptors</h2><div class='html-p'>In vaccine development for mammals, antigens targeted to APCs using ligand- or antibody-based methods have shown higher efficacy than their untargeted counterparts [<a href="#B22-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">22</a>]. Similar strategies could be applied in developing poultry vaccines and we discuss these below.</div><section id='sec3dot1-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. Ligand-Based APC Targeting</h4><div class='html-p'>In ligand-based APC targeting, antigens are conjugated to the ligand of pattern recognition receptors (PRR). This results in antigen–PRR ligand conjugate vaccines (<a href="#vaccines-06-00075-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>). The conjugated ligand is targeted by the associated PRR on the surface of APCs, which in turn ensures that the APC processes the antigen. There are different PRRs that could be selected when designing antigen–PRR ligand conjugate vaccines depending upon the desired immune response. Out of the four PRR families: Toll-like receptors (TLRs), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like helicases receptors (RLRs), and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), the TLRs have been extensively used in producing antigen-PRR ligand conjugate vaccines in mammals [<a href="#B9-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">9</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>TLRs are transmembrane receptors localised on either the cell surface or on endosomal vesicles. They recognise evolutionary conserved molecular motifs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)) of infectious microbes such as bacterial cell wall components such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), peptidoglycan, lipopeptides, flagellin, bacterial DNA and viral double-stranded RNA [<a href="#B23-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. To date, 13 TLRs have been identified in mammals [<a href="#B24-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. In chickens, 10 TLRs have been identified [<a href="#B25-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. Due to the wide range of functions exhibited by TLRs in avian host defence, they are regarded as, a key target for vaccine development. There have been numerous studies where TLR ligands have been used as adjuvants in vaccine development in poultry [<a href="#B27-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. These TLR ligands are promising candidates for ligand-based APC targeting.</div><div class='html-p'>Exciting research has recently demonstrated the ability of TLR2 to enhance both direct and cross-presentation of antigens coupled to TLR2 targeting lipid moieties. They have been shown to induce balanced Th responses and to promote the development of antibody responses [<a href="#B28-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. It has been demonstrated that TLR2 is involved in the generation and longevity of antibody secreting cells (ASC) [<a href="#B29-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. TLR2 is usually described as the TLR recognising the largest range of ligands. These include various bacterial cell wall components such as lipoproteins, peptidoglycan (PGN), LPS, lipoteichoic acids (LTA) [<a href="#B28-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. In a study, the effect of three TLR2 ligands: lipomannan, synthetic lipopeptide tri-palmitoyl-S-glyceryl cysteine (Pam<sub>3</sub>C)SK<sub>4</sub> and fibroblast-stimulating lipopeptide (FSL)-1 on chicken splenocytes were compared. (Pam<sub>3</sub>C)SK<sub>4</sub> induced high IL-1b responses while (FSL)-1 induced an early and prolonged expression of IL8 [<a href="#B30-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. In another study, stimulation of chicken splenocytes by (Pam<sub>3</sub>C)SK<sub>4</sub> not only produced Th1-associated cytokines IFN-γ and IL-12 but also Th2-associated cytokine IL-4 [<a href="#B31-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. Furthermore, outer membrane lipoprotein I (Opr I) has been shown to bind in vitro and in vivo to the epithelial cells of the trachea and the small intestine of chickens. This suggests that Opr I lipoprotein can be used as a ligand to deliver antigens to chicken mucosal surfaces [<a href="#B32-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">32</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>TLR ligands have been used as adjuvants alongside vaccines for various viral diseases in chickens, for example infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), avian IAV, NDV and MDV [<a href="#B27-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. It has been shown that chickens immunised intramuscularly with formalin-inactivated avian IAV H5N2 along with <span class='html-italic'>Salmonella enterica</span> flagellin (TLR5 ligand) developed enhanced titres of influenza-specific Immunoglobulin A (IgA) compared to those given formalin-inactivated H5N2 alone. This vaccine formulation also enhanced the proliferation of chicken splenocytes [<a href="#B33-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">33</a>]. In addition, when inactivated H5N1 vaccine was administered in chickens with either CpG oligonucleotides (ODN) or poly I:C (ligands for TLR21 and TLR3, respectively), significant levels of secretory IgA and anti- avian IAV-specific IgG were induced in the respiratory tract and serum respectively [<a href="#B34-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">34</a>]. Similarly, when CpG-ODN (TLR21 ligand) was used with inactivated NDV vaccine (La Sota strain), it enhanced the levels of serum IgG and secretory IgA, along with induction of T cell proliferation [<a href="#B35-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">35</a>]. Moreover, CpG ODN administered with DNA vaccines expressing VP2 proteins of IBDV has been shown to increase the antibody titres and survival rate in chickens following lethal challenge with IBDV [<a href="#B36-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">36</a>]. Hence, CpG ODN could be a potential TLR ligand to target antigens to chicken APCs. In rabbit and mouse models, various antigen-TLR-ligand conjugated vaccines have been developed to target TLR9, which is a functional homologue of chicken TLR21 [<a href="#B9-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">9</a>].</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. Antibody-Based APC Targeting</h4><div class='html-p'>Antibodies can target specific antigens that are expressed only on the surface of diseased cells, or highly expressed on the diseased cells compared to the healthy cells. In cancer therapy, this concept has been utilised when treating tumours with antibodies targeting cancer cell receptors conjugated to toxins or radionucleotides to selectively deliver cytotoxic molecules [<a href="#B12-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. Antibody targeted vaccines (ATV) similarly exploit the targeting properties of antibodies whereby antibodies are used to deliver a cargo of antigens to APCs. Targeting antibody conjugated antigens to the specific endocytic receptors on APCs could prevent unspecific uptake of antigens by irrelevant non-immune cells, hence it increases amount of antigens reaching the APCs [<a href="#B12-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. Antibody-based targeting is carried out either by conjugating antigens to mAbs specific for selected APC surface molecules or by genetic engineering in which the antigen is fused to different antibody fragments such as single chain fragment variable (scFv) or fragment antigen binding (Fab), specific for the APC receptors (<a href="#vaccines-06-00075-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>). The antigen used can either be the entire protein or small disease-specific peptides. The coupling of antigen to antibody can be carried out either by chemical linkage or by production of recombinant antibody-antigen fusion constructs [<a href="#B12-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. There are several advantages of using recombinant antigen coupled antibodies over chemically-conjugated antibodies. Firstly, it is possible to genetically modify the targeting antibodies. This allows us to modify their solubility (by changing amino acid composition), their ability to fix complement components (by changing glycosylation sites) and their binding to Fc receptors (by changing glycosylation or using Fab or scFv). Moreover, multiple antigens or epitopes from different antigens can be assembled into one construct allowing the induction of a broader immune response [<a href="#B11-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">11</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The initial ATV studies focused on inducing a humoral immune response whereby model antigens such as egg avidin and egg lysozyme were targeted to MHC molecules and Fc receptors in mice (without adjuvants) [<a href="#B37-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">37</a>,<a href="#B38-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">38</a>]. The antigen-specific antibody titres generated were comparable to immunisations with antigens emulsified in complete Freund’s adjuvant. These initial studies demonstrated that robust antibody responses to ATVs could be obtained with a very low concentration of antigen [<a href="#B37-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">37</a>,<a href="#B38-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">38</a>,<a href="#B39-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">39</a>]. Currently, ATVs are being exploited for their ability to potentiate an immune response against various targets, including viruses.</div><div class='html-p'>In mammals, research into antibody-based targeting has primarily focused on receptors such as CLRs, integrins and Fc receptors. Among CLRs, dendritic cell receptor for Endocytosis-205 (DEC-205), NK lectin group receptor-1 (DNGR-1) and dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN) are the major receptors being targeted [<a href="#B11-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">11</a>]. DEC-205 is a CLR that belongs to the family of mannose receptor (MR). It is internalised by means of coated pits and vesicles and traffics to endosomal compartments which are rich in MHC II molecules. This receptor is shown to enhance antigen presentation via the MHC II pathway and is also involved in the cross-presentation [<a href="#B40-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. Chicken DEC-205 has a highly conserved structure with 51% and 48% amino acid sequence similarity to human and mouse DEC-205, respectively [<a href="#B40-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. In mammals, DEC-205 is primarily expressed on DCs and thymic cortical epithelium. The chicken DEC-205 is one of the important DC markers along with cluster of differentiation 45 (CD45), CD83, CD11c and colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) [<a href="#B41-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. The first antibody targeting study in chicken was directed towards DEC-205 receptor. Avian IAV H5N2 haemagglutinin (HA) was chemically conjugated to anti-chicken DEC-205 antibody. Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to measure HA specific antibody titre in chicken serum samples by coating the plates with recombinant HA. A single dose of this ATV was shown to be sufficient to elicit a strong antibody response in chickens as early as fourteen days after priming [<a href="#B42-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">42</a>]. Several mammalian studies have also shown that targeting antigens to DEC-205 induced a strong humoral response, both in presence and absence of adjuvants [<a href="#B43-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">43</a>,<a href="#B44-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">44</a>]. The CDX-1401 vaccine (Celldex Therapeutics Inc., New Haven, Connecticut, USA) was used in the first phase I study of a protein vaccine targeting DCs in vivo in human. This was an anti-cancer vaccine and comprised of tumour antigen NY-ESO-1 in full-length fused to anti-DEC-205 antibody. This vaccine was proven to be safe in humans and induced both humoral and cellular response against the tumour antigens [<a href="#B45-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">45</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>In mice, CD11c receptor which belongs to the family of β<sub>2</sub> integrins is considered as an effective immune receptor and is expressed in all DC subsets at high levels [<a href="#B46-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">46</a>]. In mice, the in vivo targeting of antigens to DCs via CD11c has been shown to result in the efficient processing and presentation of antigens on both MHC I and MHC II molecules, inducing robust CD4<sup>+</sup> and CD8<sup>+</sup> T cell responses [<a href="#B47-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">47</a>]. In addition, antigen-containing liposomes coated with CD11c antibody have been shown to induce Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses and protect mice against subsequent tumour challenge, provided LPS or IFN-γ was co-administered [<a href="#B48-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">48</a>]. Several groups have applied CD11c antibodies to selectively stain chicken DCs, NK cells and macrophages. It has been reported that bursal secretory dendritic cells (BSDC) express putative CD11c [<a href="#B41-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. Thus, CD11c is thought to be a potential receptor for vaccine target in chickens. Similarly, chB6 (Bu-1) molecule has been identified as a unique B cell marker in chickens and is not found in mammals [<a href="#B49-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">49</a>]. It is a highly glycosylated type I transmembrane protein and thought to be important for B cell development [<a href="#B50-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">50</a>]. Hence, antibodies targeting chB6 could potentially be important for activation of B cells in chickens.</div><section id='DifferentParametersofTargetingAntibodyThatAffectImmunogenicity' type=''><h4 class='' data-nested='3'> Different Parameters of Targeting Antibody That Affect Immunogenicity</h4><div class='html-p'>There are several factors that influence the outcome of the immune response induced by APCs, when using an antibody to target an antigen. These factors are either related to the different types of APCs being targeted, the choice of the target receptor or the specific antibody used. Regarding the influence by the specific antibody used, it has been shown that the intracellular route for internalised antigens is dependent on whether the mAb recognises the stalk region or the lectin domain of DC-SIGN [<a href="#B51-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. In mice, some anti-Clec9A mAbs were reported to induce a strong humoral responses in the absence of adjuvants, whereas other anti-Clec9A mAbs were unable to induce humoral response in the absence of adjuvants [<a href="#B52-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">52</a>,<a href="#B53-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">53</a>]. This could relate to issues with affinity and epitope specificity. Another feature of the antibody that might affect the immune response is its isotype. Antigens targeted to Clec9A using rat IgG2A mAb resulted in strong antibody responses in absence of adjuvants. On the other hand, when rat IgG1 mAb was used to target Clec9A, DC activation factor was required to induce a strong antibody response. This was suggested to be due to the lack of T cell epitopes in rat IgG1 [<a href="#B54-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">54</a>]. Also, the isotype of the targeted antibody could influence the persistence of the antibody–antigen complex in the bloodstream, affecting the chances of the constructs reaching the specific APCs [<a href="#B55-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">55</a>]. Furthermore, antibodies typically display variable capacity for initiating a signaling response within APCs. These signaling cascades play an important role in the efficiency of the response to an antigen. Large-scale gene expression profiling was used for characterising the signaling mediated by DC-SIGN upon activation by DC-SIGN-specific antibody; some antibodies were able to induce cell signaling whereas others were not [<a href="#B56-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">56</a>]. There could be factors like the affinity of the antibody for the APC target molecule or the specific epitope bound that can affect the immunogenicity.</div></section></section><section id='sec3dot3-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.3. Nanoparticle-Based APC Targeting</h4><div class='html-p'>Methods involving nanoparticles offer a novel approach for in situ targeting of antigens to APCs. They involve encapsulating both antigens and adjuvants within delivery vehicles (<a href="#vaccines-06-00075-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>) [<a href="#B57-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">57</a>]. By co-delivering both antigens and adjuvants in the same compartment, these nano-carriers ensure that only APCs exposed to antigens receive the activation signal and prevent any non-specific activation of other APCs [<a href="#B21-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. Nanoparticle delivery systems include a wide range of nano-scale size materials (<1 µm) such as polymeric particles, liposomes, virus-like particles (VLPs), nanocrystals, immune-stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) and virosomes. In order to target nanoparticles encapsulating specific antigen to the APC receptor, the surface of nanoparticles is decorated with antibodies or carbohydrate ligands that bind specifically to the APC receptor [<a href="#B21-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. Polymer nanoparticles and liposomes can be coated with antibodies by PEGylation or avidin-biotin interactions while VLPs are generally engineered to express receptor ligands [<a href="#B9-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. It has been shown that nanoparticles coated with DC receptor-specific antibodies were more efficient in targeting human DCs in comparison to the nanoparticles coated with carbohydrate ligands [<a href="#B58-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">58</a>]. These nanoparticles are efficiently taken up by DCs because their size and particulate structure are similar to that of pathogens [<a href="#B59-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">59</a>]. They can also induce long-lasting immune responses by delivering antigens in a slow and sustained manner. Furthermore, the release properties of the nanoparticles can be easily controlled by regulating their physicochemical characteristics (size, surface charge, biomaterial composition, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity). In addition, antigens encapsulated in nanoparticles can be protected from enzymatic degradation, improving their half-life and solubility [<a href="#B60-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">60</a>]. Antigens delivered by nanoparticles are internalised via various endocytic pathways. For example, particles ~1 µm are internalised via micropinocytosis, ~120 nm are internalised by receptor-mediated clathrin endocytosis, and ~90 nm are internalised by caveolae-mediated lipid rafts or caveolin-independent endocytosis [<a href="#B61-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">61</a>]. These different internalisation routes can determine the intracellular fate of antigen processing and subsequent T cell activation.</div><div class='html-p'>Out of several nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles such as poly-<span class='html-small-caps'>d</span>,<span class='html-small-caps'>l</span>-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), polylactic acid (PLA), chitosan, liposomes and VLPs are extensively studied for drug and antigen delivery system. Two chitosan derivatives, <span class='html-italic'>O</span>-2′-hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan and <span class='html-italic'>N</span>-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan, have been used to make nanoparticles as a mucosal delivery vehicle for live attenuated ND vaccines. The release of NDV was effective in both systems with stronger cellular, humoral and mucosal immune response [<a href="#B62-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">62</a>]. Liposomes on the other hand, are spherical, uni- or multi-lamellar, nano- or micro-sized vesicles composed of phospholipid bilayers. They are biodegradable and non-toxic [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. They can incorporate viral envelope glycoproteins (haemagglutinin and neuraminidase of influenza virus) to form virosomes [<a href="#B64-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">64</a>]. Hydrophilic antigens are incorporated within the aqueous hollow cavity, whereas hydrophobic antigens are inserted into the bilayer [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. Liposomes can be targeted to APCs by introducing receptor ligands into the bilayer by metal chelating linkage of His-tagged antibodies to the bilayer, or by first introducing protein A into the bilayer and then attaching receptor-specific antibodies to protein A [<a href="#B65-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">65</a>]. Liposomes have been used as adjuvanted vaccine candidates due to their ability to induce humoral and CTL responses against the encapsulated antigens [<a href="#B65-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">65</a>]. In various studies ND vaccines have been developed using phosphatidylcholine/cholesterol liposomes in order to deliver antigens. Such liposomal vaccines have shown enhanced immune response with higher antibody titre and T-cell, B-cell proliferation in chickens [<a href="#B65-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">65</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>VLPs (pseudovirions) are self-assembling nanoparticles composed of one or more viral structural proteins; capsid and/or envelope proteins and lacking an infectious viral genome. Thus, they are potentially safer alternatives to live, attenuated and inactivated vaccines. They can be derived from different viruses with sizes ranging from 20 nm to 800 nm and there are currently well-developed manufacturing processes to ensure consistency [<a href="#B66-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">66</a>]. Antigens can be incorporated into the insertion sites of VLPs by genetic fusion (chimeric VLP) or by in vitro chemical conjugation (conjugated VLPs) [<a href="#B67-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">67</a>]. The naturally optimised size, the highly ordered and repetitive structure, the charge surface coupled with immunogenic properties and adjuvanticity make the VLP an attractive antigen delivery system, vaccine candidate and targeted drug carrier. VLPs are efficiently taken up by APCs for both MHC I and MHC II presentation. It has been shown that the highly repetitive surface structures of VLPs are able to induce DC and B cell maturation by triggering TLRs and cross-linking B cell receptors, respectively [<a href="#B68-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">68</a>]. Thus, a strong B and T cell immune response can be stimulated. Various studies have been carried out to develop effective VLP vaccines to treat avian viral diseases. Chimeric VLP vaccines have been shown to confer protection in chickens against high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) subtype H5N1 and velogenic NDV. Such chimeric VLPs also allowed a strategy of differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) [<a href="#B69-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">69</a>]. Similarly, another study showed that H5/H7/H9/N1/gag VLPs could induce immune responses against heterologous H5, H7 and H9 virus challenges, providing a platform for the development of broadly protective avian IAV vaccines [<a href="#B70-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">70</a>]. Furthermore, there have also been reports of potential VLP vaccines against IBDV [<a href="#B71-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">71</a>].</div></section></section><section id='sec4-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Other Antigen Delivery Systems</h2><section id='sec4dot1-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.1. Viral Vectors</h4><div class='html-p'>Viral-based delivery systems consist of either live attenuated viruses or genetically modified replication defective viruses that drive the expression of recombinant antigens integrated into their genome following replication in the cells they invade (<a href="#vaccines-06-00075-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>). This facilitates antigen presentation by the MHC I pathway [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. Recombinant viral vectors can be a potential platform for delivering antigens targeted with APC specific antibodies, as they allow long-term antigen production in vivo. Viral vectors such as adenovirus, vaccinia virus, alphavirus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), have been exploited as recombinant viral vaccines for livestock [<a href="#B72-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. Viral vectors have potential to act as adjuvants [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. They also allow easy differentiation of infected and vaccinated animals. Thus, it is easier to monitor infection even in vaccinated animals [<a href="#B72-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. Furthermore, viruses such as herpesvirus of turkey (HVT), NDV, fowl pox virus (FPV), adenovirus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) and MDV have been genetically modified to be used as vaccine vectors for combating multiple avian viral diseases [<a href="#B72-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. Despite several advantages, there are certain safety issues to consider when using viral vectors for antigen delivery. Some of these concerns include the possibility of the integration of viral DNA into host chromosomes, reversion to virulence, the transcriptional activation of oncogenes, and hindrance of replication in animals carrying pre-existing immunity against the viral vectors.</div></section><section id='sec4dot2-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.2. Cell-Penetrating Peptides (CPP)</h4><div class='html-p'>Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) are a group of cationic peptides (about 4–30 amino acids length) that have the ability to enter the cytoplasm of the cells [<a href="#B73-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">73</a>,<a href="#B74-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">74</a>]. They are rich in lysine and/or arginine. They can deliver a number of antigens including RNA, DNA, peptides, proteins and drugs into the cell. Transactivator of transcription proteins (TAT) from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and penetratin from the <span class='html-italic'>Drosophila antennapedia</span> domain are the most well-known CPP that have been used to deliver antigens with induction of strong cellular and antibody responses [<a href="#B73-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">73</a>]. Illustration of the CPP antigen delivery system is shown in <a href="#vaccines-06-00075-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>. The mechanism of uptake and internalisation of CPP is unknown. However, it is thought that small CPPs can be internalised by both endocytosis and direct translocation across the membrane whereas the large CPP-cargo molecules are internalised only via the endocytic pathway [<a href="#B75-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">75</a>,<a href="#B76-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">76</a>]. After endocytosis, the CPP-cargo molecules are enclosed in endosomes. Some unknown properties of CPPs allow them to escape from the endosome and diffuse into the cytoplasm [<a href="#B74-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">74</a>]. This can enable antigen presentation by MHC I molecules, leading to more efficient CTL responses. Some CPP-antigen complexes can remain in the endosome, fuse with lysosomes, and undergo lysosomal degradation facilitating the MHC II pathway, and enhancing CD4<sup>+</sup> T-cell response [<a href="#B77-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">77</a>]. Furthermore, CPP-antigen complex can be internalised into DCs without the need of receptor targeting molecules (antibodies or ligands). As CPPs are positively charged under physiological conditions, they can undergo electrostatic interaction with the negatively-charged cell surface glycoproteins (GAG: glycosaminoglycans) [<a href="#B78-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">78</a>]. This induces internalisation of target antigens to the cytoplasm. The CPP–antigen complex can be designed either by chemical linkage via covalent bonds (amide, thioether or thiol maleimide) or by producing recombinant fusion constructs [<a href="#B76-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">76</a>]. Moreover, the basic characteristics of CPPs are similar to nuclear localization sequences (NLS), and thus some CPPs can deliver plasmid DNA and transcription factors into the nucleus [<a href="#B79-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">79</a>]. Several studies have suggested that CPPs can be used for DC vaccination against cancer and other infectious diseases by inducing antigen specific CD4<sup>+</sup> and CD8<sup>+</sup> T cell responses [<a href="#B80-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">80</a>,<a href="#B81-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">81</a>]. However, it has been shown that there is no advantage of using CPPs over receptor-specific antibodies in targeting antigens to human DCs [<a href="#B82-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">82</a>].</div></section><section id='sec4dot3-vaccines-06-00075' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 4.3. E2 Scaffold System</h4><div class='html-p'>This is a novel antigen delivery system based on the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex of <span class='html-italic'>Geobacilus stearothermophilus</span> [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. The PDH complex is made up of multiple copies of three different enzymes; E1, E2 and E3. E2 is a dihydrolipoyl acyltransferase enzyme composed of three independently folded domains separated by flexible linkers: a lipoyl domain (LD), a peripheral subunit binding domain (PSBD) and a catalytic acetyltransferase core domain (CD). The C-terminal CD of E2 can self- assemble into trimers, which aggregate to generate a pentagonal dodecahedral protein scaffold with icosahedral symmetry resembling a VLP (<a href="#vaccines-06-00075-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>) [<a href="#B83-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">83</a>]. The exogenous peptides are displayed on the E2 scaffold by engineering plasmids that can allow the insertion of the exogenous oligonucleotides at the 5’ end of the gene encoding E2 CD. Such engineered E2 core is referred to as the E2 acetyltransferase display system (E2DISP) and it has an ability to display 60 copies of heterologous polypeptides on the E2 core surface [<a href="#B84-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">84</a>]. One of the key advantages of this system is that the E2 core domain can naturally display 187 amino acid residues in the form of two folded protein domains (LD and PSBD) and two flexible linkers [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. This facilitates the display of the full-length protein as antigen, which is more advantageous than displaying smaller peptides in terms of higher epitope diversity for antibody production and T cell induction. Furthermore, the display of 60 copies of an antigen of interest per E2DISP particle can stimulate a stronger immune response by triggering and cross-linking specific B-cell antigen receptor [<a href="#B63-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. Studies have demonstrated that epitopes displayed on the E2 surface can elicit both B and T cell responses, indicating that E2DISP particle can process the displayed epitopes via both MHC I and MHC II pathways [<a href="#B85-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">85</a>,<a href="#B86-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">86</a>,<a href="#B87-vaccines-06-00075" class="html-bibr">87</a>]. Factors such as stability, non-toxicity, low cost and lack of integration make E2DISP an attractive antigen delivery system.</div></section></section><section id='sec5-vaccines-06-00075' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 5. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>Poultry vaccine technology can benefit greatly from approaches that involve targeting antigens to key APCs. Various mammalian studies have shown that targeting antigens to APCs increases the efficacy of vaccines by preventing the unwanted uptake of antigens by irrelevant non-immune cells. This selective delivery increases the amount of antigens reaching target APCs. Hence, lesser vaccine doses can be administered, which is an effective way of inducing rapid and strong immune responses cost-effectively. Vaccine dose sparing is one key advantage for developing poultry vaccines considering the low market value of the individual animals. Efficient in vivo targeting of antigens to APCs is quite challenging. Knowing which receptor to target is important in order to induce the desired immune responses. Considering that there are similarities between avian and mammalian immune systems, we can refer to some of the mammalian studies in order to predict which avian APC receptors could be targeted. However, further research is required for identifying the most responsive avian APCs for antigen targeting. There is also a need to continue exploring novel antigen targeting systems that use various ligands, antibodies and nanoparticles, which transport antigen to avian APCs efficiently and selectively. Addressing the range of current limitations in antigen target/delivery systems will be a step change in the vaccinology field and will help in preventing and controlling infectious diseases affecting both animals and humans.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>M.I. helped with designing the structure of the review, editing figures and proof reading. A.S. drafted all the sections of the manuscript and prepared the figures. J.-R.S. provided the resources for the review. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This work was supported by funding from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council awards BB/R50595X/1, BBS/E/I/00007030, BBS/E/I/00007031, BBS/E/I/00007035, BBS/E/I/00007036.</div></section><section id='html-ack' class='html-ack'><h2 >Acknowledgments</h2><div class='html-p'>We would like to thank Joshua Sealy and Sue Baigent from The Pirbright Institute for giving critical feedback on the manuscript, as well as proof reading the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Food and Agriculture Organisation. Meat Market Review. Available online: <a href='http://www.fao.org/3/I9286EN/i9286en.pdf' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >http://www.fao.org/3/I9286EN/i9286en.pdf</a> (accessed on 6 October 2018).</li><li id='B2-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='2.'>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Poultry Species, Gateway to Poultry Production and Products. Available online: <a href='http://www.fao.org/poultry-production-products/production/poultry-species/en/' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >http://www.fao.org/poultry-production-products/production/poultry-species/en/</a> (accessed on 6 October 2018).</li><li id='B3-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='3.'>Economic and Social Impact of Avian Influenza. Available online: <a href='http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/211939/economic-and-social-impacts-of-avian-influenza-geneva.pdf' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/211939/economic-and-social-impacts-of-avian-influenza-geneva.pdf</a> (accessed on 6 October 2018).</li><li id='B4-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='4.'>Antipas, B.; Kebkiba, B.; Mopate, L.Y. Epidemiology of Newcastle disease and its economic impact in chad. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Exp. Biol.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>2</span>, 2286–2292. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Epidemiology+of+Newcastle+disease+and+its+economic+impact+in+chad&author=Antipas,+B.&author=Kebkiba,+B.&author=Mopate,+L.Y.&publication_year=2012&journal=Eur.+J.+Exp.+Biol.&volume=2&pages=2286%E2%80%932292" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B5-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='5.'>English, B.C.; Menard, J.; Jensen, K. <span class='html-italic'>Projected Economic Impacts of an Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Outbreak in Tennesse</span>; Department of Agricultural Economics, The University of Tennessee: Knoxville, TN, USA, 2005. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Projected+Economic+Impacts+of+an+Exotic+Newcastle+Disease+(END)+Outbreak+in+Tennesse&author=English,+B.C.&author=Menard,+J.&author=Jensen,+K.&publication_year=2005" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B6-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='6.'>Fakhrul Islam, A.; Walkden-Brown, S.; Groves, P.; Underwood, G. Kinetics of marek’s disease virus (MDV) infection in broiler chickens 1: Effect of varying vaccination to challenge interval on vaccinal protection and load of MDV and herpesvirus of turkey in the spleen and feather dander over time. <span class='html-italic'>Avian Pathol.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>37</span>, 225–235. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Kinetics+of+marek%E2%80%99s+disease+virus+(MDV)+infection+in+broiler+chickens+1:+Effect+of+varying+vaccination+to+challenge+interval+on+vaccinal+protection+and+load+of+MDV+and+herpesvirus+of+turkey+in+the+spleen+and+feather+dander+over+time&author=Fakhrul+Islam,+A.&author=Walkden-Brown,+S.&author=Groves,+P.&author=Underwood,+G.&publication_year=2008&journal=Avian+Pathol.&volume=37&pages=225%E2%80%93235&doi=10.1080/03079450701802230&pmid=18568648" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03079450701802230" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18568648" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B7-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='7.'>Marangon, S.; Busani, L. The use of vaccination in poultry production. <span class='html-italic'>Rev. Sci. Technol.</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 265–274. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+use+of+vaccination+in+poultry+production&author=Marangon,+S.&author=Busani,+L.&publication_year=2006&journal=Rev.+Sci.+Technol.&volume=26&pages=265%E2%80%93274&doi=10.20506/rst.26.1.1742" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.26.1.1742" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B8-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='8.'>Apostolopoulos, V. Vaccine Delivery Methods into The Future. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccines</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>4</span>, 9. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Vaccine+Delivery+Methods+into+The+Future&author=Apostolopoulos,+V.&publication_year=2016&journal=Vaccines&volume=4&pages=9&doi=10.3390/vaccines4020009&pmid=27043641" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines4020009" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27043641" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B9-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-x' data-content='9.'>Chen, P.; Liu, X.; Sun, Y.; Zhou, P.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, Y. Dendritic Cell Targeted Vaccines: Recent Progresses And Challenges. <span class='html-italic'>Hum. Vaccines Immunother.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>12</span>, 612–622. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dendritic+Cell+Targeted+Vaccines:+Recent+Progresses+And+Challenges&author=Chen,+P.&author=Liu,+X.&author=Sun,+Y.&author=Zhou,+P.&author=Wang,+Y.&author=Zhang,+Y.&publication_year=2015&journal=Hum.+Vaccines+Immunother.&volume=12&pages=612%E2%80%93622&doi=10.1080/21645515.2015.1105415&pmid=26513200" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2015.1105415" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26513200" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B10-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='10.'>Apostolopoulos, V.; Thalhammer, T.; Tzakos, A.; Stojanovska, L. Targeting Antigens To Dendritic Cell Receptors For Vaccine Development. <span class='html-italic'>J. Drug Deliv.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>2013</span>, 869718. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+Antigens+To+Dendritic+Cell+Receptors+For+Vaccine+Development&author=Apostolopoulos,+V.&author=Thalhammer,+T.&author=Tzakos,+A.&author=Stojanovska,+L.&publication_year=2013&journal=J.+Drug+Deliv.&volume=2013&pages=869718&doi=10.1155/2013/869718&pmid=24228179" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/869718" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24228179" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B11-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='11.'>Pugholm, L.H.; Varming, K.; Agger, R. Antibody-Mediated Delivery of antigen to dendritic cells. <span class='html-italic'>Immunother. Open Access</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>2</span>. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Antibody-Mediated+Delivery+of+antigen+to+dendritic+cells&author=Pugholm,+L.H.&author=Varming,+K.&author=Agger,+R.&publication_year=2016&journal=Immunother.+Open+Access&volume=2&doi=10.4172/2471-9552.1000119" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4172/2471-9552.1000119" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B12-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='12.'>Keler, T.; He, L.; Ramakrishna, V.; Champion, B. Antibody-Targeted Vaccines. <span class='html-italic'>Oncogene</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 3758–3767. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Antibody-Targeted+Vaccines&author=Keler,+T.&author=He,+L.&author=Ramakrishna,+V.&author=Champion,+B.&publication_year=2007&journal=Oncogene&volume=26&pages=3758%E2%80%933767&doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210375&pmid=17530028" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1210375" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17530028" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B13-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='13.'>Beal, R.; Powers, C.; Davison, T.; Barrow, P.; Smith, A. Clearance of enteric salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium in chickens is independent of b-cell function. <span class='html-italic'>Infect. Immunity</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>74</span>, 1442–1444. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Clearance+of+enteric+salmonella+enterica+serovar+typhimurium+in+chickens+is+independent+of+b-cell+function&author=Beal,+R.&author=Powers,+C.&author=Davison,+T.&author=Barrow,+P.&author=Smith,+A.&publication_year=2006&journal=Infect.+Immunity&volume=74&pages=1442%E2%80%931444&doi=10.1128/IAI.74.2.1442-1444.2006&pmid=16428801" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.74.2.1442-1444.2006" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16428801" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B14-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='14.'>Wu, Z.; Kaiser, P. Antigen presenting cells in a non-mammalian model system, the chicken. <span class='html-italic'>Immunobiology</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>216</span>, 1177–1183. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Antigen+presenting+cells+in+a+non-mammalian+model+system,+the+chicken&author=Wu,+Z.&author=Kaiser,+P.&publication_year=2011&journal=Immunobiology&volume=216&pages=1177%E2%80%931183&doi=10.1016/j.imbio.2011.05.012&pmid=21719145" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imbio.2011.05.012" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21719145" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B15-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='15.'>Singla, B.; Ghoshal, P.; Lin, H.; Wei, Q.; Dong, Z.; Csányi, G. Pkcδ-Mediated Nox2 Activation Promotes Fluid-Phase Pinocytosis of Antigens by Immature Dendritic Cells. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Immunol.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>9</span>, 537. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Pkc%CE%B4-Mediated+Nox2+Activation+Promotes+Fluid-Phase+Pinocytosis+of+Antigens+by+Immature+Dendritic+Cells&author=Singla,+B.&author=Ghoshal,+P.&author=Lin,+H.&author=Wei,+Q.&author=Dong,+Z.&author=Cs%C3%A1nyi,+G.&publication_year=2018&journal=Front.+Immunol.&volume=9&pages=537&doi=10.3389/fimmu.2018.00537&pmid=29632528" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00537" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29632528" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B16-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='16.'>Verdijk, P.; van Veelen, P.; de Ru, A.; Hensbergen, P.; Mizuno, K.; Koerten, H.; Koning, F.; Tensen, C.; Mommaas, A. Morphological changes during dendritic cell maturation correlate with cofilin activation and translocation to the cell membrane. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Immunol.</span> <b>2004</b>, <span class='html-italic'>34</span>, 156–164. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Morphological+changes+during+dendritic+cell+maturation+correlate+with+cofilin+activation+and+translocation+to+the+cell+membrane&author=Verdijk,+P.&author=van+Veelen,+P.&author=de+Ru,+A.&author=Hensbergen,+P.&author=Mizuno,+K.&author=Koerten,+H.&author=Koning,+F.&author=Tensen,+C.&author=Mommaas,+A.&publication_year=2004&journal=Eur.+J.+Immunol.&volume=34&pages=156%E2%80%93164&doi=10.1002/eji.200324241&pmid=14971041" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.200324241" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14971041" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eji.200324241/pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B17-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='17.'>García, A.; De Sanctis, J. An Overview of Adjuvant Formulations and Delivery Systems. <span class='html-italic'>Apmis</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>122</span>, 257–267. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=An+Overview+of+Adjuvant+Formulations+and+Delivery+Systems&author=Garc%C3%ADa,+A.&author=De+Sanctis,+J.&publication_year=2013&journal=Apmis&volume=122&pages=257%E2%80%93267&doi=10.1111/apm.12143&pmid=23919674" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.12143" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23919674" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B18-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='18.'>Vu Manh, T.; Marty, H.; Sibille, P.; Le Vern, Y.; Kaspers, B.; Dalod, M.; Schwartz-Cornil, I.; Quere, P. Existence of Conventional Dendritic Cells in Gallus Gallus Revealed by Comparative Gene Expression Profiling. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immunol.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>192</span>, 4510–4517. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Existence+of+Conventional+Dendritic+Cells+in+Gallus+Gallus+Revealed+by+Comparative+Gene+Expression+Profiling&author=Vu+Manh,+T.&author=Marty,+H.&author=Sibille,+P.&author=Le+Vern,+Y.&author=Kaspers,+B.&author=Dalod,+M.&author=Schwartz-Cornil,+I.&author=Quere,+P.&publication_year=2014&journal=J.+Immunol.&volume=192&pages=4510%E2%80%934517&doi=10.4049/jimmunol.1303405&pmid=24740508" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1303405" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24740508" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B19-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='19.'>Compeer, E.; Flinsenberg, T.; van der Grein, S.; Boes, M. Antigen Processing And Remodeling of the endosomal pathway: Requirements for antigen cross-presentation. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Immunol.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>3</span>, 1–12. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Antigen+Processing+And+Remodeling+of+the+endosomal+pathway:+Requirements+for+antigen+cross-presentation&author=Compeer,+E.&author=Flinsenberg,+T.&author=van+der+Grein,+S.&author=Boes,+M.&publication_year=2012&journal=Front.+Immunol.&volume=3&pages=1%E2%80%9312&doi=10.3389/fimmu.2012.00037&pmid=22566920" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2012.00037" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22566920" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B20-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='20.'>Sadegh-Nasseri, S.; Kim, A. MHC Class II Auto-Antigen Presentation Is Unconventional. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Immunol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>, 1–5. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=MHC+Class+II+Auto-Antigen+Presentation+Is+Unconventional&author=Sadegh-Nasseri,+S.&author=Kim,+A.&publication_year=2015&journal=Front.+Immunol.&volume=6&pages=1%E2%80%935&doi=10.3389/fimmu.2015.00372&pmid=26257739" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2015.00372" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26257739" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B21-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='21.'>Adiko, A.; Babdor, J.; Gutiérrez-Martínez, E.; Guermonprez, P.; Saveanu, L. Intracellular Transport Routes for MHC I and Their Relevance for Antigen Cross-Presentation. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Immunol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>, 1–11. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Intracellular+Transport+Routes+for+MHC+I+and+Their+Relevance+for+Antigen+Cross-Presentation&author=Adiko,+A.&author=Babdor,+J.&author=Guti%C3%A9rrez-Mart%C3%ADnez,+E.&author=Guermonprez,+P.&author=Saveanu,+L.&publication_year=2015&journal=Front.+Immunol.&volume=6&pages=1%E2%80%9311&doi=10.3389/fimmu.2015.00335&pmid=26191062" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2015.00335" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26191062" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B22-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='22.'>Sehgal, K.; Dhodapkar, K.; Dhodapkar, M. Targeting Human Dendritic Cells in Situ Improve Vaccines. <span class='html-italic'>Immunol. Lett.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>162</span>, 59–67. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+Human+Dendritic+Cells+in+Situ+Improve+Vaccines&author=Sehgal,+K.&author=Dhodapkar,+K.&author=Dhodapkar,+M.&publication_year=2014&journal=Immunol.+Lett.&volume=162&pages=59%E2%80%9367&doi=10.1016/j.imlet.2014.07.004&pmid=25072116" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imlet.2014.07.004" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25072116" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B23-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='23.'>Janeway, C.; Medzhitov, R. Innate Immune Recognition. <span class='html-italic'>Annu Rev Immunol.</span> <b>2002</b>, <span class='html-italic'>20</span>, 197–216. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Innate+Immune+Recognition&author=Janeway,+C.&author=Medzhitov,+R.&publication_year=2002&journal=Annu+Rev+Immunol.&volume=20&pages=197%E2%80%93216&doi=10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.083001.084359&pmid=11861602" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.083001.084359" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11861602" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B24-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='24.'>Shi, Z.; Cai, Z.; Sanchez, A.; Zhang, T.; Wen, S.; Wang, J.; Yang, J.; Fu, S.; Zhang, D. A Novel Toll-Like Receptor That Recognizes Vesicular Stomatitis Virus. <span class='html-italic'>J. Biol. Chem.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>286</span>, 4517–4524. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+Novel+Toll-Like+Receptor+That+Recognizes+Vesicular+Stomatitis+Virus&author=Shi,+Z.&author=Cai,+Z.&author=Sanchez,+A.&author=Zhang,+T.&author=Wen,+S.&author=Wang,+J.&author=Yang,+J.&author=Fu,+S.&author=Zhang,+D.&publication_year=2010&journal=J.+Biol.+Chem.&volume=286&pages=4517%E2%80%934524&doi=10.1074/jbc.M110.159590&pmid=21131352" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M110.159590" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21131352" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B25-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='25.'>Iqbal, M.; Philbin, V.; Smith, A. Expression Patterns Of Chicken Toll-Like Receptor mRNA In Tissues, Immune Cell Subsets And Cell Lines. <span class='html-italic'>Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol.</span> <b>2005</b>, <span class='html-italic'>104</span>, 117–127. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Expression+Patterns+Of+Chicken+Toll-Like+Receptor+mRNA+In+Tissues,+Immune+Cell+Subsets+And+Cell+Lines&author=Iqbal,+M.&author=Philbin,+V.&author=Smith,+A.&publication_year=2005&journal=Vet.+Immunol.+Immunopathol.&volume=104&pages=117%E2%80%93127&doi=10.1016/j.vetimm.2004.11.003&pmid=15661337" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2004.11.003" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15661337" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B26-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='26.'>Higgs, R.; Cormican, P.; Cahalane, S.; Allan, B.; Lloyd, A.; Meade, K.; James, T.; Lynn, D.; Babiuk, L.; O’Farrelly, C. Induction of a Novel Chicken Toll-Like Receptor Following Salmonella Enterica Serovar Typhimurium Infection. <span class='html-italic'>Infect. Immunity</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>74</span>, 1692–1698. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Induction+of+a+Novel+Chicken+Toll-Like+Receptor+Following+Salmonella+Enterica+Serovar+Typhimurium+Infection&author=Higgs,+R.&author=Cormican,+P.&author=Cahalane,+S.&author=Allan,+B.&author=Lloyd,+A.&author=Meade,+K.&author=James,+T.&author=Lynn,+D.&author=Babiuk,+L.&author=O%E2%80%99Farrelly,+C.&publication_year=2006&journal=Infect.+Immunity&volume=74&pages=1692%E2%80%931698&doi=10.1128/IAI.74.3.1692-1698.2006&pmid=16495540" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.74.3.1692-1698.2006" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16495540" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B27-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='27.'>Gupta, S.; Deb, R.; Dey, S.; Chellappa, M. Toll-Like receptor-based adjuvants: Enhancing the immune response to vaccines against infectious diseases of chicken. <span class='html-italic'>Expert Rev. Vaccines</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>13</span>, 909–925. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Toll-Like+receptor-based+adjuvants:+Enhancing+the+immune+response+to+vaccines+against+infectious+diseases+of+chicken&author=Gupta,+S.&author=Deb,+R.&author=Dey,+S.&author=Chellappa,+M.&publication_year=2014&journal=Expert+Rev.+Vaccines&volume=13&pages=909%E2%80%93925&doi=10.1586/14760584.2014.920236&pmid=24855906" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1586/14760584.2014.920236" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24855906" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B28-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='28.'>Basto, A.; Leitão, A. Targeting TLR2 For Vaccine Development. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immunol. Res</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>2014</span>, 619410. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+TLR2+For+Vaccine+Development&author=Basto,+A.&author=Leit%C3%A3o,+A.&publication_year=2014&journal=J.+Immunol.+Res&volume=2014&pages=619410&doi=10.1155/2014/619410&pmid=25057505" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/619410" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25057505" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B29-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='29.'>Boeglin, E.; Smulski, C.; Brun, S.; Milosevic, S.; Schneider, P.; Fournel, S. Toll-Like Receptor Agonists Synergize With CD40L to induce either proliferation or plasma cell differentiation of mouse B Cells. <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>, e25542. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Toll-Like+Receptor+Agonists+Synergize+With+CD40L+to+induce+either+proliferation+or+plasma+cell+differentiation+of+mouse+B+Cells&author=Boeglin,+E.&author=Smulski,+C.&author=Brun,+S.&author=Milosevic,+S.&author=Schneider,+P.&author=Fournel,+S.&publication_year=2011&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=6&pages=e25542&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025542&pmid=21991317" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025542" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21991317" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B30-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='30.'>St. Paul, M.; Paolucci, S.; Sharif, S. Characterization of Responses Initiated By Different Toll-Like Receptor 2 Ligands In Chicken Spleen Cells. <span class='html-italic'>Res. Vet. Sci.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>95</span>, 919–923. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Characterization+of+Responses+Initiated+By+Different+Toll-Like+Receptor+2+Ligands+In+Chicken+Spleen+Cells&author=St.+Paul,+M.&author=Paolucci,+S.&author=Sharif,+S.&publication_year=2013&journal=Res.+Vet.+Sci.&volume=95&pages=919%E2%80%93923&doi=10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.06.025&pmid=23911311" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.06.025" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23911311" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B31-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='31.'>St. Paul, M.; Paolucci, S.; Sharif, S. Treatment with Ligands for Toll-Like Receptors 2 and 5 Induces a Mixed T-helper 1- and 2-Like Response in Chicken Splenocytes. <span class='html-italic'>J. Interferon Cytokine Res.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>32</span>, 592–598. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Treatment+with+Ligands+for+Toll-Like+Receptors+2+and+5+Induces+a+Mixed+T-helper+1-+and+2-Like+Response+in+Chicken+Splenocytes&author=St.+Paul,+M.&author=Paolucci,+S.&author=Sharif,+S.&publication_year=2012&journal=J.+Interferon+Cytokine+Res.&volume=32&pages=592%E2%80%93598&doi=10.1089/jir.2012.0004&pmid=23030671" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/jir.2012.0004" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23030671" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B32-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='32.'>Loots, K.; Revets, H.; Goddeeris, B. Attachment of the outer membrane lipoprotein (OprI) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to the mucosal surfaces of the respiratory and digestive tract of chickens. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 546–551. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Attachment+of+the+outer+membrane+lipoprotein+(OprI)+of+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+to+the+mucosal+surfaces+of+the+respiratory+and+digestive+tract+of+chickens&author=Loots,+K.&author=Revets,+H.&author=Goddeeris,+B.&publication_year=2008&journal=Vaccine&volume=26&pages=546%E2%80%93551&doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.11.030&pmid=18160185" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.11.030" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18160185" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B33-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='33.'>Chaung, H.; Cheng, L.; Hung, L.; Tsai, P.; Skountzou, I.; Wang, B.; Compans, R.; Lien, Y. Salmonella flagellin enhances mucosal immunity of avian influenza vaccine in chickens. <span class='html-italic'>Vet. Microbiol.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>157</span>, 69–77. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Salmonella+flagellin+enhances+mucosal+immunity+of+avian+influenza+vaccine+in+chickens&author=Chaung,+H.&author=Cheng,+L.&author=Hung,+L.&author=Tsai,+P.&author=Skountzou,+I.&author=Wang,+B.&author=Compans,+R.&author=Lien,+Y.&publication_year=2012&journal=Vet.+Microbiol.&volume=157&pages=69%E2%80%9377&doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.12.014&pmid=22226542" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.12.014" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22226542" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B34-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='34.'>Liang, J.; Fu, J.; Kang, H.; Lin, J.; Yu, Q.; Yang, Q. Comparison of 3 kinds of Toll-like receptor ligands for inactivated avian H5N1 influenza virus intranasal immunization in chicken. <span class='html-italic'>Pollut. Sci.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>92</span>, 2651–2660. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparison+of+3+kinds+of+Toll-like+receptor+ligands+for+inactivated+avian+H5N1+influenza+virus+intranasal+immunization+in+chicken&author=Liang,+J.&author=Fu,+J.&author=Kang,+H.&author=Lin,+J.&author=Yu,+Q.&author=Yang,+Q.&publication_year=2013&journal=Pollut.+Sci.&volume=92&pages=2651%E2%80%932660&doi=10.3382/ps.2013-03193&pmid=24046412" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2013-03193" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24046412" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://academic.oup.com/ps/article-pdf/92/10/2651/4427054/poultrysci92-2651.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B35-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='35.'>Zhang, L.; Zhang, M.; Li, J.; Cao, T.; Tian, X.; Zhou, F. Enhancement of mucosal immune responses by intranasal co-delivery of Newcastle disease vaccine plus CpG oligonucleotide in SPF chickens in vivo. <span class='html-italic'>Res. Vet. Sci.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>85</span>, 495–502. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Enhancement+of+mucosal+immune+responses+by+intranasal+co-delivery+of+Newcastle+disease+vaccine+plus+CpG+oligonucleotide+in+SPF+chickens+in+vivo&author=Zhang,+L.&author=Zhang,+M.&author=Li,+J.&author=Cao,+T.&author=Tian,+X.&author=Zhou,+F.&publication_year=2008&journal=Res.+Vet.+Sci.&volume=85&pages=495%E2%80%93502&doi=10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.02.006&pmid=18359498" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.02.006" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18359498" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B36-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='36.'>Mahmood, M.; Siddique, M.; Hussain, I.; Khan, A.; Mansoor, M. Protection capability of recombinant plasmid DNA vaccine containing VP2 gene of very virulent infectious bursal disease virus in chickens adjuvanted with CpG oligodeoxynucleotide. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>24</span>, 4838–4846. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Protection+capability+of+recombinant+plasmid+DNA+vaccine+containing+VP2+gene+of+very+virulent+infectious+bursal+disease+virus+in+chickens+adjuvanted+with+CpG+oligodeoxynucleotide&author=Mahmood,+M.&author=Siddique,+M.&author=Hussain,+I.&author=Khan,+A.&author=Mansoor,+M.&publication_year=2006&journal=Vaccine&volume=24&pages=4838%E2%80%934846&doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.016&pmid=16600440" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.016" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16600440" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B37-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='37.'>Carayanniotis, G.; Barber, B. Characterization of the adjuvant-free serological response to protein antigens coupled to antibodies specific for class II MHC determinants. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>1990</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, 137–144. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Characterization+of+the+adjuvant-free+serological+response+to+protein+antigens+coupled+to+antibodies+specific+for+class+II+MHC+determinants&author=Carayanniotis,+G.&author=Barber,+B.&publication_year=1990&journal=Vaccine&volume=8&pages=137%E2%80%93144&doi=10.1016/0264-410X(90)90136-A" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-410X(90)90136-A" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B38-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='38.'>Snider, D.P.; Kaubisch, A.; Segal, D.M. Enhanced antigen immunogenicity induced by bispecific antibodies. <span class='html-italic'>J. Exp. Med.</span> <b>1990</b>, <span class='html-italic'>171</span>, 1957–1963. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Enhanced+antigen+immunogenicity+induced+by+bispecific+antibodies&author=Snider,+D.P.&author=Kaubisch,+A.&author=Segal,+D.M.&publication_year=1990&journal=J.+Exp.+Med.&volume=171&pages=1957%E2%80%931963&doi=10.1084/jem.171.6.1957&pmid=2351931" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.171.6.1957" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2351931" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://jem.rupress.org/content/jem/171/6/1957.full.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B39-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='39.'>Snider, D.P.; Segal, D.M. Targeted antigen presentation using crosslinked antibody heteroaggregates. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immunol.</span> <b>1987</b>, <span class='html-italic'>139</span>, 1609–1616. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeted+antigen+presentation+using+crosslinked+antibody+heteroaggregates&author=Snider,+D.P.&author=Segal,+D.M.&publication_year=1987&journal=J.+Immunol.&volume=139&pages=1609%E2%80%931616&pmid=2957430" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2957430" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B40-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='40.'>Staines, K.; Young, J.; Butter, C. Expression of Chicken DEC205 Reflects the Unique Structure and Function of the Avian Immune System. <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, e51799. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Expression+of+Chicken+DEC205+Reflects+the+Unique+Structure+and+Function+of+the+Avian+Immune+System&author=Staines,+K.&author=Young,+J.&author=Butter,+C.&publication_year=2013&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=8&pages=e51799&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0051799&pmid=23326318" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051799" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23326318" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/42584504.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B41-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='41.'>Nagy, N.; Bódi, I.; Oláh, I. Avian dendritic cells: Phenotype and ontogeny in lymphoid organs. <span class='html-italic'>Dev. Comp. Immunol.</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>58</span>, 47–59. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Avian+dendritic+cells:+Phenotype+and+ontogeny+in+lymphoid+organs&author=Nagy,+N.&author=B%C3%B3di,+I.&author=Ol%C3%A1h,+I.&publication_year=2016&journal=Dev.+Comp.+Immunol.&volume=58&pages=47%E2%80%9359&doi=10.1016/j.dci.2015.12.020&pmid=26751596" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dci.2015.12.020" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26751596" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B42-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='42.'>Jáuregui-Zúñiga, D.; Pedraza-Escalona, M.; Espino-Solís, G.; Quintero-Hernández, V.; Olvera-Rodríguez, A.; Díaz-Salinas, M.; López, S.; Possani, L. Targeting antigens to Dec-205 on dendritic cells induces a higher immune response in chickens: Hemagglutinin of avian influenza virus example. <span class='html-italic'>Res. Vet. Sci.</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>111</span>, 55–62. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+antigens+to+Dec-205+on+dendritic+cells+induces+a+higher+immune+response+in+chickens:+Hemagglutinin+of+avian+influenza+virus+example&author=J%C3%A1uregui-Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga,+D.&author=Pedraza-Escalona,+M.&author=Espino-Sol%C3%ADs,+G.&author=Quintero-Hern%C3%A1ndez,+V.&author=Olvera-Rodr%C3%ADguez,+A.&author=D%C3%ADaz-Salinas,+M.&author=L%C3%B3pez,+S.&author=Possani,+L.&publication_year=2017&journal=Res.+Vet.+Sci.&volume=111&pages=55%E2%80%9362&doi=10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.12.002&pmid=27987414" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.12.002" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27987414" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B43-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='43.'>Bonifaz, L.; Bonnyay, D.; Mahnke, K.; Rivera, M.; Nussenzweig, M.C.; Steinman, R.M. Efficient Targeting of Protein Antigen to the Dendritic Cell Receptor DEC-205 in the Steady State Leads to Antigen Presentation on Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I Products and Peripheral CD8<sup>+</sup> T Cell Tolerance. <span class='html-italic'>J. Exp. Med.</span> <b>2002</b>, <span class='html-italic'>196</span>, 1627–1638. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Efficient+Targeting+of+Protein+Antigen+to+the+Dendritic+Cell+Receptor+DEC-205+in+the+Steady+State+Leads+to+Antigen+Presentation+on+Major+Histocompatibility+Complex+Class+I+Products+and+Peripheral+CD8++T+Cell+Tolerance&author=Bonifaz,+L.&author=Bonnyay,+D.&author=Mahnke,+K.&author=Rivera,+M.&author=Nussenzweig,+M.C.&author=Steinman,+R.M.&publication_year=2002&journal=J.+Exp.+Med.&volume=196&pages=1627%E2%80%931638&doi=10.1084/jem.20021598&pmid=12486105" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20021598" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12486105" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B44-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='44.'>Pugholm, L.; Petersen, L.; Søndergaard, E.; Varming, K.; Agger, R. Enhanced Humoral Responses Induced by Targeting of Antigen to Murine Dendritic Cells. <span class='html-italic'>Scand. J. Immunol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>82</span>, 515–522. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Enhanced+Humoral+Responses+Induced+by+Targeting+of+Antigen+to+Murine+Dendritic+Cells&author=Pugholm,+L.&author=Petersen,+L.&author=S%C3%B8ndergaard,+E.&author=Varming,+K.&author=Agger,+R.&publication_year=2015&journal=Scand.+J.+Immunol.&volume=82&pages=515%E2%80%93522&doi=10.1111/sji.12387&pmid=26346906" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sji.12387" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26346906" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sji.12387/pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B45-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='45.'>Dhodapkar, M.; Sznol, M.; Zhao, B.; Wang, D.; Carvajal, R.; Keohan, M.; Chuang, E.; Sanborn, R.; Lutzky, J.; Powderly, J.; et al. Induction of Antigen-Specific Immunity with a Vaccine Targeting NY-ESO-1 to the Dendritic Cell Receptor DEC-205. <span class='html-italic'>Sci. Transl. Med.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>, 232ra51. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Induction+of+Antigen-Specific+Immunity+with+a+Vaccine+Targeting+NY-ESO-1+to+the+Dendritic+Cell+Receptor+DEC-205&author=Dhodapkar,+M.&author=Sznol,+M.&author=Zhao,+B.&author=Wang,+D.&author=Carvajal,+R.&author=Keohan,+M.&author=Chuang,+E.&author=Sanborn,+R.&author=Lutzky,+J.&author=Powderly,+J.&publication_year=2014&journal=Sci.+Transl.+Med.&volume=6&pages=232ra51&doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.3008068&pmid=24739759" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3008068" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24739759" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B46-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='46.'>Beyer, M.; Wang, H.; Peters, N.; Doths, S.; Koerner-Rettberg, C.; Openshaw, P.; Schwarze, J. The beta2 integrin CD11c distinguishes a subset of cytotoxic pulmonary T cells with potent antiviral effects in vitro and in vivo. <span class='html-italic'>Respir. Res.</span> <b>2005</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+beta2+integrin+CD11c+distinguishes+a+subset+of+cytotoxic+pulmonary+T+cells+with+potent+antiviral+effects+in+vitro+and+in+vivo&author=Beyer,+M.&author=Wang,+H.&author=Peters,+N.&author=Doths,+S.&author=Koerner-Rettberg,+C.&author=Openshaw,+P.&author=Schwarze,+J.&publication_year=2005&journal=Respir.+Res.&volume=6&doi=10.1186/1465-9921-6-70&pmid=16011799" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-6-70" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16011799" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/28976112.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B47-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='47.'>Castro, F.; Tutt, A.; White, A.; Teeling, J.; James, S.; French, R.; Glennie, M. CD11c provides an effective immunotarget for the generation of both CD4 and CD8 T cell responses. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Immunol.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>38</span>, 2263–2273. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=CD11c+provides+an+effective+immunotarget+for+the+generation+of+both+CD4+and+CD8+T+cell+responses&author=Castro,+F.&author=Tutt,+A.&author=White,+A.&author=Teeling,+J.&author=James,+S.&author=French,+R.&author=Glennie,+M.&publication_year=2008&journal=Eur.+J.+Immunol.&volume=38&pages=2263%E2%80%932273&doi=10.1002/eji.200838302&pmid=18651710" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.200838302" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651710" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eji.200838302/pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B48-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='48.'>Van Broekhoven, C.; Parish, C.; Demangel, C.; Britton, W.; Altin, J. Targeting Dendritic Cells with Antigen-Containing Liposomes. <span class='html-italic'>Cancer Res.</span> <b>2004</b>, <span class='html-italic'>64</span>, 4357–4365. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+Dendritic+Cells+with+Antigen-Containing+Liposomes&author=Van+Broekhoven,+C.&author=Parish,+C.&author=Demangel,+C.&author=Britton,+W.&author=Altin,+J.&publication_year=2004&journal=Cancer+Res.&volume=64&pages=4357%E2%80%934365&doi=10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0138&pmid=15205352" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0138" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15205352" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B49-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='49.'>Tregaskes, C.A.; Bumstead, N.; Davison, T.F.; Young, J.R. Chicken B-cell marker chB6 (Bu-1) is a highly glycosylated protein of unique structure. <span class='html-italic'>Immunogenetics</span> <b>1996</b>, <span class='html-italic'>44</span>, 212–217. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Chicken+B-cell+marker+chB6+(Bu-1)+is+a+highly+glycosylated+protein+of+unique+structure&author=Tregaskes,+C.A.&author=Bumstead,+N.&author=Davison,+T.F.&author=Young,+J.R.&publication_year=1996&journal=Immunogenetics&volume=44&pages=212%E2%80%93217&doi=10.1007/BF02602587&pmid=8662088" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02602587" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8662088" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B50-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='50.'>Funk, P.E.; Tregaskes, C.A.; Young, J.R.; Thompson, C.B. The avian chB6 (Bu-1) alloantigen can mediate rapid cell death. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immunol.</span> <b>1997</b>, <span class='html-italic'>159</span>, 1695–1702. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+avian+chB6+(Bu-1)+alloantigen+can+mediate+rapid+cell+death&author=Funk,+P.E.&author=Tregaskes,+C.A.&author=Young,+J.R.&author=Thompson,+C.B.&publication_year=1997&journal=J.+Immunol.&volume=159&pages=1695%E2%80%931702&pmid=9257830" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9257830" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B51-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='51.'>Tacken, P.; Ginter, W.; Berod, L.; Cruz, L.; Joosten, B.; Sparwasser, T.; Figdor, C.; Cambi, A. Targeting DC-SIGN via its neck region leads to prolonged antigen residence in early endosomes, delayed lysosomal degradation, and cross-presentation. <span class='html-italic'>Blood</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>118</span>, 4111–4119. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+DC-SIGN+via+its+neck+region+leads+to+prolonged+antigen+residence+in+early+endosomes,+delayed+lysosomal+degradation,+and+cross-presentation&author=Tacken,+P.&author=Ginter,+W.&author=Berod,+L.&author=Cruz,+L.&author=Joosten,+B.&author=Sparwasser,+T.&author=Figdor,+C.&author=Cambi,+A.&publication_year=2011&journal=Blood&volume=118&pages=4111%E2%80%934119&doi=10.1182/blood-2011-04-346957&pmid=21860028" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2011-04-346957" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21860028" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/bloodjournal/118/15/4111.full.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B52-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='52.'>Li, J.; Ahmet, F.; Sullivan, L.; Brooks, A.; Kent, S.; De Rose, R.; Salazar, A.; Reis e Sousa, C.; Shortman, K.; Lahoud, M.; et al. Antibodies targeting Clec9A promote strong humoral immunity without adjuvant in mice and non-human primates. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Immunol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>45</span>, 854–864. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Antibodies+targeting+Clec9A+promote+strong+humoral+immunity+without+adjuvant+in+mice+and+non-human+primates&author=Li,+J.&author=Ahmet,+F.&author=Sullivan,+L.&author=Brooks,+A.&author=Kent,+S.&author=De+Rose,+R.&author=Salazar,+A.&author=Reis+e+Sousa,+C.&author=Shortman,+K.&author=Lahoud,+M.&publication_year=2015&journal=Eur.+J.+Immunol.&volume=45&pages=854%E2%80%93864&doi=10.1002/eji.201445127&pmid=25487143" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.201445127" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25487143" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eji.201445127/pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B53-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='53.'>Lahoud, M.; Ahmet, F.; Kitsoulis, S.; Wan, S.; Vremec, D.; Lee, C.; Phipson, B.; Shi, W.; Smyth, G.; Lew, A.; et al. Targeting Antigen to Mouse Dendritic Cells via Clec9A Induces Potent CD4 T Cell Responses Biased toward a Follicular Helper Phenotype. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immunol.</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>187</span>, 842–850. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Targeting+Antigen+to+Mouse+Dendritic+Cells+via+Clec9A+Induces+Potent+CD4+T+Cell+Responses+Biased+toward+a+Follicular+Helper+Phenotype&author=Lahoud,+M.&author=Ahmet,+F.&author=Kitsoulis,+S.&author=Wan,+S.&author=Vremec,+D.&author=Lee,+C.&author=Phipson,+B.&author=Shi,+W.&author=Smyth,+G.&author=Lew,+A.&publication_year=2011&journal=J.+Immunol.&volume=187&pages=842%E2%80%93850&doi=10.4049/jimmunol.1101176&pmid=21677141" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1101176" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21677141" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://www.jimmunol.org/content/jimmunol/187/2/842.full.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B54-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='54.'>Joffre, O.; Sancho, D.; Zelenay, S.; Keller, A.; Reis e Sousa, C. Efficient and versatile manipulation of the peripheral CD4<sup>+</sup> T-cell compartment by antigen targeting to DNGR-1/CLEC9A. <span class='html-italic'>Eur. J. Immunol.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>40</span>, 1255–1265. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Efficient+and+versatile+manipulation+of+the+peripheral+CD4++T-cell+compartment+by+antigen+targeting+to+DNGR-1/CLEC9A&author=Joffre,+O.&author=Sancho,+D.&author=Zelenay,+S.&author=Keller,+A.&author=Reis+e+Sousa,+C.&publication_year=2010&journal=Eur.+J.+Immunol.&volume=40&pages=1255%E2%80%931265&doi=10.1002/eji.201040419&pmid=20333625" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.201040419" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20333625" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B55-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='55.'>Caminschi, I.; Shortman, K. Boosting antibody responses by targeting antigens to dendritic cells. <span class='html-italic'>Trends Immunol.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>33</span>, 71–77. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Boosting+antibody+responses+by+targeting+antigens+to+dendritic+cells&author=Caminschi,+I.&author=Shortman,+K.&publication_year=2012&journal=Trends+Immunol.&volume=33&pages=71%E2%80%9377&doi=10.1016/j.it.2011.10.007&pmid=22153931" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2011.10.007" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22153931" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B56-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='56.'>Hodges, A.; Sharrocks, K.; Edelmann, M.; Baban, D.; Moris, A.; Schwartz, O.; Drakesmith, H.; Davies, K.; Kessler, B.; McMichael, A.; et al. Activation of the lectin DC-SIGN induces an immature dendritic cell phenotype triggering Rho-GTPase activity required for HIV-1 replication. <span class='html-italic'>Nat. Immunol.</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, 569–577. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Activation+of+the+lectin+DC-SIGN+induces+an+immature+dendritic+cell+phenotype+triggering+Rho-GTPase+activity+required+for+HIV-1+replication&author=Hodges,+A.&author=Sharrocks,+K.&author=Edelmann,+M.&author=Baban,+D.&author=Moris,+A.&author=Schwartz,+O.&author=Drakesmith,+H.&author=Davies,+K.&author=Kessler,+B.&author=McMichael,+A.&publication_year=2007&journal=Nat.+Immunol.&volume=8&pages=569%E2%80%93577&doi=10.1038/ni1470&pmid=17496896" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ni1470" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17496896" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B57-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='57.'>Paulis, L.; Mandal, S.; Kreutz, M.; Figdor, C. Dendritic cell-based nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy. <span class='html-italic'>Curr. Opin. Immunol.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>25</span>, 389–395. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dendritic+cell-based+nanovaccines+for+cancer+immunotherapy&author=Paulis,+L.&author=Mandal,+S.&author=Kreutz,+M.&author=Figdor,+C.&publication_year=2013&journal=Curr.+Opin.+Immunol.&volume=25&pages=389%E2%80%93395&doi=10.1016/j.coi.2013.03.001&pmid=23571027" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2013.03.001" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23571027" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B58-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='58.'>Cruz, L.; Tacken, P.; Pots, J.; Torensma, R.; Buschow, S.; Figdor, C. Comparison of antibodies and carbohydrates to target vaccines to human dendritic cells via DC-SIGN. <span class='html-italic'>Biomaterials</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>33</span>, 4229–4239. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparison+of+antibodies+and+carbohydrates+to+target+vaccines+to+human+dendritic+cells+via+DC-SIGN&author=Cruz,+L.&author=Tacken,+P.&author=Pots,+J.&author=Torensma,+R.&author=Buschow,+S.&author=Figdor,+C.&publication_year=2012&journal=Biomaterials&volume=33&pages=4229%E2%80%934239&doi=10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.02.036&pmid=22410170" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.02.036" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22410170" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B59-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='59.'>Park, Y.; Lee, S.; Kim, Y.; Lee, M.; Cha, G.; Jung, I.; Kang, T.; Han, H. Nanoparticle-Based Vaccine Delivery for Cancer Immunotherapy. <span class='html-italic'>Immune Netw.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>13</span>, 177. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Nanoparticle-Based+Vaccine+Delivery+for+Cancer+Immunotherapy&author=Park,+Y.&author=Lee,+S.&author=Kim,+Y.&author=Lee,+M.&author=Cha,+G.&author=Jung,+I.&author=Kang,+T.&author=Han,+H.&publication_year=2013&journal=Immune+Netw.&volume=13&pages=177&doi=10.4110/in.2013.13.5.177&pmid=24198742" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4110/in.2013.13.5.177" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24198742" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B60-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='60.'>Gregory, A.; Titball, R.; Williamson, D. Vaccine delivery using nanoparticles. <span class='html-italic'>Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>3</span>. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Vaccine+delivery+using+nanoparticles&author=Gregory,+A.&author=Titball,+R.&author=Williamson,+D.&publication_year=2013&journal=Front.+Cell.+Infect.+Microbiol.&volume=3&doi=10.3389/fcimb.2013.00013&pmid=23532930" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2013.00013" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23532930" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B61-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='61.'>Zhao, L.; Seth, A.; Wibowo, N.; Zhao, C.; Mitter, N.; Yu, C.; Middelberg, A. Nanoparticle vaccines. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>32</span>, 327–337. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Nanoparticle+vaccines&author=Zhao,+L.&author=Seth,+A.&author=Wibowo,+N.&author=Zhao,+C.&author=Mitter,+N.&author=Yu,+C.&author=Middelberg,+A.&publication_year=2014&journal=Vaccine&volume=32&pages=327%E2%80%93337&doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.11.069&pmid=24295808" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.11.069" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24295808" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B62-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='62.'>Dimitrov, K.; Afonso, C.; Yu, Q.; Miller, P. Newcastle disease vaccines—A solved problem or a continuous challenge? <span class='html-italic'>Vet. Microbiol.</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>206</span>, 126–136. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Newcastle+disease+vaccines%E2%80%94A+solved+problem+or+a+continuous+challenge?&author=Dimitrov,+K.&author=Afonso,+C.&author=Yu,+Q.&author=Miller,+P.&publication_year=2017&journal=Vet.+Microbiol.&volume=206&pages=126%E2%80%93136&doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.12.019&pmid=28024856" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.12.019" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28024856" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B63-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='63.'>Trovato, M. Novel antigen delivery systems. <span class='html-italic'>World J. Virol.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>4</span>, 156. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Novel+antigen+delivery+systems&author=Trovato,+M.&publication_year=2015&journal=World+J.+Virol.&volume=4&pages=156&doi=10.5501/wjv.v4.i3.156&pmid=26279977" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.5501/wjv.v4.i3.156" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26279977" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B64-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='64.'>Huckriede, A.; Bungener, L.; Stegmann, T.; Daemen, T.; Medema, J.; Palache, A.; Wilschut, J. The virosome concept for influenza vaccines. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2005</b>, <span class='html-italic'>23</span>, S26–S38. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+virosome+concept+for+influenza+vaccines&author=Huckriede,+A.&author=Bungener,+L.&author=Stegmann,+T.&author=Daemen,+T.&author=Medema,+J.&author=Palache,+A.&author=Wilschut,+J.&publication_year=2005&journal=Vaccine&volume=23&pages=S26%E2%80%93S38&doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.04.026&pmid=16026906" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.04.026" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16026906" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B65-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='65.'>Schwendener, R. Liposomes as vaccine delivery systems: A review of the recent advances. <span class='html-italic'>Ther. Adv. Vaccines</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>2</span>, 159–182. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Liposomes+as+vaccine+delivery+systems:+A+review+of+the+recent+advances&author=Schwendener,+R.&publication_year=2014&journal=Ther.+Adv.+Vaccines&volume=2&pages=159%E2%80%93182&doi=10.1177/2051013614541440&pmid=25364509" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2051013614541440" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25364509" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B66-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='66.'>Kushnir, N.; Streatfield, S.; Yusibov, V. Virus-like particles as a highly efficient vaccine platform: Diversity of targets and production systems and advances in clinical development. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>31</span>, 58–83. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Virus-like+particles+as+a+highly+efficient+vaccine+platform:+Diversity+of+targets+and+production+systems+and+advances+in+clinical+development&author=Kushnir,+N.&author=Streatfield,+S.&author=Yusibov,+V.&publication_year=2012&journal=Vaccine&volume=31&pages=58%E2%80%9383&doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.10.083&pmid=23142589" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.10.083" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23142589" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B67-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='67.'>Jain, N.; Sahni, N.; Kumru, O.; Joshi, S.; Volkin, D.; Russell Middaugh, C. Formulation and stabilization of recombinant protein based virus-like particle vaccines. <span class='html-italic'>Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>93</span>, 42–55. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Formulation+and+stabilization+of+recombinant+protein+based+virus-like+particle+vaccines&author=Jain,+N.&author=Sahni,+N.&author=Kumru,+O.&author=Joshi,+S.&author=Volkin,+D.&author=Russell+Middaugh,+C.&publication_year=2015&journal=Adv.+Drug+Deliv.+Rev.&volume=93&pages=42%E2%80%9355&doi=10.1016/j.addr.2014.10.023&pmid=25451136" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2014.10.023" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25451136" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B68-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='68.'>Noad, R.; Roy, P. Virus-like particles as immunogens. <span class='html-italic'>Trends Microbiol.</span> <b>2003</b>, <span class='html-italic'>11</span>, 438–444. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Virus-like+particles+as+immunogens&author=Noad,+R.&author=Roy,+P.&publication_year=2003&journal=Trends+Microbiol.&volume=11&pages=438%E2%80%93444&doi=10.1016/S0966-842X(03)00208-7" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-842X(03)00208-7" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B69-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='69.'>Noh, J.; Park, J.; Lee, D.; Yuk, S.; Kwon, J.; Lee, S.; Lee, J.; Park, S.; Choi, I.; Song, C. Chimeric Bivalent Virus-Like Particle Vaccine for H5N1 HPAI and ND Confers Protection against a Lethal Challenge in Chickens and Allows a Strategy of Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA). <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>11</span>, e0162946. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Chimeric+Bivalent+Virus-Like+Particle+Vaccine+for+H5N1+HPAI+and+ND+Confers+Protection+against+a+Lethal+Challenge+in+Chickens+and+Allows+a+Strategy+of+Differentiating+Infected+from+Vaccinated+Animals+(DIVA)&author=Noh,+J.&author=Park,+J.&author=Lee,+D.&author=Yuk,+S.&author=Kwon,+J.&author=Lee,+S.&author=Lee,+J.&author=Park,+S.&author=Choi,+I.&author=Song,+C.&publication_year=2016&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=11&pages=e0162946&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0162946&pmid=27626934" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162946" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27626934" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B70-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='70.'>Pushko, P.; Tretyakova, I.; Hidajat, R.; Zsak, A.; Chrzastek, K.; Tumpey, T.; Kapczynski, D. Virus-Like Particles Displaying H5, H7, H9 Hemagglutinins and N1 Neuraminidase Elicit Protective Immunity To Heterologous Avian Influenza Viruses In Chickens. <span class='html-italic'>Virology</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>501</span>, 176–182. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Virus-Like+Particles+Displaying+H5,+H7,+H9+Hemagglutinins+and+N1+Neuraminidase+Elicit+Protective+Immunity+To+Heterologous+Avian+Influenza+Viruses+In+Chickens&author=Pushko,+P.&author=Tretyakova,+I.&author=Hidajat,+R.&author=Zsak,+A.&author=Chrzastek,+K.&author=Tumpey,+T.&author=Kapczynski,+D.&publication_year=2017&journal=Virology&volume=501&pages=176%E2%80%93182&doi=10.1016/j.virol.2016.12.001&pmid=27936463" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2016.12.001" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27936463" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B71-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='71.'>Choi, K. A Virus-like Particle Vaccine against Infectious Bursal Disease Virus: Potential Uses and Applications. <span class='html-italic'>Br. J. Virol.</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>3</span>, 1–5. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+Virus-like+Particle+Vaccine+against+Infectious+Bursal+Disease+Virus:+Potential+Uses+and+Applications&author=Choi,+K.&publication_year=2016&journal=Br.+J.+Virol.&volume=3&pages=1%E2%80%935&doi=10.17582/journal.bjv/2016.3.1.1.5" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.bjv/2016.3.1.1.5" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B72-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='72.'>Baron, M.; Iqbal, M.; Nair, V. Recent advances in viral vectors in veterinary vaccinology. <span class='html-italic'>Curr. Opin. Virol.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>29</span>, 1–7. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Recent+advances+in+viral+vectors+in+veterinary+vaccinology&author=Baron,+M.&author=Iqbal,+M.&author=Nair,+V.&publication_year=2018&journal=Curr.+Opin.+Virol.&volume=29&pages=1%E2%80%937&doi=10.1016/j.coviro.2018.02.002&pmid=29477122" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2018.02.002" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29477122" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B73-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='73.'>Lim, S.; Koo, J.; Choi, J. Use of Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Dendritic Cell-Based Vaccination. <span class='html-italic'>Immune Netw.</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>16</span>, 33. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Use+of+Cell-Penetrating+Peptides+in+Dendritic+Cell-Based+Vaccination&author=Lim,+S.&author=Koo,+J.&author=Choi,+J.&publication_year=2016&journal=Immune+Netw.&volume=16&pages=33&doi=10.4110/in.2016.16.1.33&pmid=26937230" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4110/in.2016.16.1.33" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26937230" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://synapse.koreamed.org/Synapse/Data/PDFData/0078IN/in-16-33.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B74-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='74.'>Erazo-Oliveras, A.; Muthukrishnan, N.; Baker, R.; Wang, T.; Pellois, J. Improving the Endosomal Escape of Cell-Penetrating Peptides and Their Cargos: Strategies and Challenges. <span class='html-italic'>Pharmaceuticals</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>5</span>, 1177–1209. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Improving+the+Endosomal+Escape+of+Cell-Penetrating+Peptides+and+Their+Cargos:+Strategies+and+Challenges&author=Erazo-Oliveras,+A.&author=Muthukrishnan,+N.&author=Baker,+R.&author=Wang,+T.&author=Pellois,+J.&publication_year=2012&journal=Pharmaceuticals&volume=5&pages=1177%E2%80%931209&doi=10.3390/ph5111177&pmid=24223492" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ph5111177" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24223492" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B75-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='75.'>Ramsey, J.; Flynn, N. Cell-penetrating peptides transport therapeutics into cells. <span class='html-italic'>Pharm. Ther.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>154</span>, 78–86. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cell-penetrating+peptides+transport+therapeutics+into+cells&author=Ramsey,+J.&author=Flynn,+N.&publication_year=2015&journal=Pharm.+Ther.&volume=154&pages=78%E2%80%9386&doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.07.003&pmid=26210404" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.07.003" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26210404" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="https://manuscript.elsevier.com/S0163725815001412/pdf/S0163725815001412.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B76-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='76.'>Koren, E.; Torchilin, V. Cell-penetrating peptides: Breaking through to the other side. <span class='html-italic'>Trends Mol. Med.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>18</span>, 385–393. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cell-penetrating+peptides:+Breaking+through+to+the+other+side&author=Koren,+E.&author=Torchilin,+V.&publication_year=2012&journal=Trends+Mol.+Med.&volume=18&pages=385%E2%80%93393&doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.012&pmid=22682515" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.012" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22682515" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B77-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='77.'>El-Sayed, A.; Futaki, S.; Harashima, H. Delivery of Macromolecules Using Arginine-Rich Cell-Penetrating Peptides: Ways to Overcome Endosomal Entrapment. <span class='html-italic'>AAPS J.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>11</span>, 13–22. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Delivery+of+Macromolecules+Using+Arginine-Rich+Cell-Penetrating+Peptides:+Ways+to+Overcome+Endosomal+Entrapment&author=El-Sayed,+A.&author=Futaki,+S.&author=Harashima,+H.&publication_year=2009&journal=AAPS+J.&volume=11&pages=13%E2%80%9322&doi=10.1208/s12248-008-9071-2&pmid=19125334" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1208/s12248-008-9071-2" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19125334" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2664872?pdf=render" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B78-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='78.'>Ziegler, A. Thermodynamic studies and binding mechanisms of cell-penetrating peptides with lipids and glycosaminoglycans. <span class='html-italic'>Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>60</span>, 580–597. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Thermodynamic+studies+and+binding+mechanisms+of+cell-penetrating+peptides+with+lipids+and+glycosaminoglycans&author=Ziegler,+A.&publication_year=2008&journal=Adv.+Drug+Deliv.+Rev.&volume=60&pages=580%E2%80%93597&doi=10.1016/j.addr.2007.10.005&pmid=18045730" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2007.10.005" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18045730" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B79-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='79.'>Zaro, J.; Vekich, J.; Tran, T.; Shen, W. Nuclear Localization of Cell-Penetrating Peptides Is Dependent On Endocytosis Rather Than Cytosolic Delivery in CHO Cells. <span class='html-italic'>Mol. Pharm.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>6</span>, 337–344. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Nuclear+Localization+of+Cell-Penetrating+Peptides+Is+Dependent+On+Endocytosis+Rather+Than+Cytosolic+Delivery+in+CHO+Cells&author=Zaro,+J.&author=Vekich,+J.&author=Tran,+T.&author=Shen,+W.&publication_year=2009&journal=Mol.+Pharm.&volume=6&pages=337%E2%80%93344&doi=10.1021/mp800239p&pmid=19718791" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/mp800239p" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19718791" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B80-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='80.'>Wadia, J.; Dowdy, S. Transmembrane delivery of protein and peptide drugs by TAT-mediated transduction in the treatment of cancer. <span class='html-italic'>Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.</span> <b>2005</b>, <span class='html-italic'>57</span>, 579–596. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Transmembrane+delivery+of+protein+and+peptide+drugs+by+TAT-mediated+transduction+in+the+treatment+of+cancer&author=Wadia,+J.&author=Dowdy,+S.&publication_year=2005&journal=Adv.+Drug+Deliv.+Rev.&volume=57&pages=579%E2%80%93596&doi=10.1016/j.addr.2004.10.005&pmid=15722165" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2004.10.005" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15722165" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B81-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='81.'>Foerg, C.; Merkle, H. On The Biomedical Promise of Cell Penetrating Peptides: Limits versus Prospects. <span class='html-italic'>J. Pharm. Sci.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>97</span>, 144–162. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=On+The+Biomedical+Promise+of+Cell+Penetrating+Peptides:+Limits+versus+Prospects&author=Foerg,+C.&author=Merkle,+H.&publication_year=2008&journal=J.+Pharm.+Sci.&volume=97&pages=144%E2%80%93162&doi=10.1002/jps.21117&pmid=17763452" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.21117" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17763452" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B82-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='82.'>Tacken, P.; Joosten, B.; Reddy, A.; Wu, D.; Eek, A.; Laverman, P.; Kretz-Rommel, A.; Adema, G.; Torensma, R.; Figdor, C. No Advantage of Cell-Penetrating Peptides over Receptor-Specific Antibodies in Targeting Antigen to Human Dendritic Cells for Cross-Presentation. <span class='html-italic'>J. Immunol.</span> <b>2008</b>, <span class='html-italic'>180</span>, 7687–7696. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=No+Advantage+of+Cell-Penetrating+Peptides+over+Receptor-Specific+Antibodies+in+Targeting+Antigen+to+Human+Dendritic+Cells+for+Cross-Presentation&author=Tacken,+P.&author=Joosten,+B.&author=Reddy,+A.&author=Wu,+D.&author=Eek,+A.&author=Laverman,+P.&author=Kretz-Rommel,+A.&author=Adema,+G.&author=Torensma,+R.&author=Figdor,+C.&publication_year=2008&journal=J.+Immunol.&volume=180&pages=7687%E2%80%937696&doi=10.4049/jimmunol.180.11.7687&pmid=18490772" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.180.11.7687" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18490772" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>] [<a href="http://www.jimmunol.org/content/jimmunol/180/11/7687.full.pdf" target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer">Green Version</a>]</li><li id='B83-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='83.'>Perham, R. Swinging Arms and Swinging Domains in Multifunctional Enzymes: Catalytic Machines for Multistep Reactions. <span class='html-italic'>Annu. Rev. Biochem.</span> <b>2000</b>, <span class='html-italic'>69</span>, 961–1004. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Swinging+Arms+and+Swinging+Domains+in+Multifunctional+Enzymes:+Catalytic+Machines+for+Multistep+Reactions&author=Perham,+R.&publication_year=2000&journal=Annu.+Rev.+Biochem.&volume=69&pages=961%E2%80%931004&doi=10.1146/annurev.biochem.69.1.961&pmid=10966480" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.69.1.961" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10966480" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B84-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='84.'>Trovato, M. Delivery strategies for novel vaccine formulations. <span class='html-italic'>World J. Virol.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>1</span>, 4. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Delivery+strategies+for+novel+vaccine+formulations&author=Trovato,+M.&publication_year=2012&journal=World+J.+Virol.&volume=1&pages=4&doi=10.5501/wjv.v1.i1.4&pmid=24175206" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.5501/wjv.v1.i1.4" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24175206" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B85-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='85.'>Domingo, G.; Orru, S.; Perham, R. Multiple Display of Peptides and Proteins on a Macromolecular Scaffold Derived from a Multienzyme Complex. <span class='html-italic'>J. Mol. Biol.</span> <b>2001</b>, <span class='html-italic'>305</span>, 259–267. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Multiple+Display+of+Peptides+and+Proteins+on+a+Macromolecular+Scaffold+Derived+from+a+Multienzyme+Complex&author=Domingo,+G.&author=Orru,+S.&author=Perham,+R.&publication_year=2001&journal=J.+Mol.+Biol.&volume=305&pages=259%E2%80%93267&doi=10.1006/jmbi.2000.4311&pmid=11124904" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/jmbi.2000.4311" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11124904" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li><li id='B86-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='86.'>Domingo, G.; Caivano, A.; Sartorius, R.; Barba, P.; Bäckström, M.; Piatier-Tonneau, D.; Guardiola, J.; De Berardinis, P.; Perham, R. Induction of specific T-helper and cytolytic responses to epitopes displayed on a virus-like protein scaffold derived from the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2003</b>, <span class='html-italic'>21</span>, 1502–1509. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Induction+of+specific+T-helper+and+cytolytic+responses+to+epitopes+displayed+on+a+virus-like+protein+scaffold+derived+from+the+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+multienzyme+complex&author=Domingo,+G.&author=Caivano,+A.&author=Sartorius,+R.&author=Barba,+P.&author=B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m,+M.&author=Piatier-Tonneau,+D.&author=Guardiola,+J.&author=De+Berardinis,+P.&author=Perham,+R.&publication_year=2003&journal=Vaccine&volume=21&pages=1502%E2%80%931509&doi=10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00664-3" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00664-3" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B87-vaccines-06-00075' class='html-xx' data-content='87.'>D’Apice, L.; Sartorius, R.; Caivano, A.; Mascolo, D.; Del Pozzo, G.; Di Mase, D.; Ricca, E.; Pira, G.; Manca, F.; Malanga, D.; et al. Comparative analysis of new innovative vaccine formulations based on the use of procaryotic display systems. <span class='html-italic'>Vaccine</span> <b>2007</b>, <span class='html-italic'>25</span>, 1993–2000. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+analysis+of+new+innovative+vaccine+formulations+based+on+the+use+of+procaryotic+display+systems&author=D%E2%80%99Apice,+L.&author=Sartorius,+R.&author=Caivano,+A.&author=Mascolo,+D.&author=Del+Pozzo,+G.&author=Di+Mase,+D.&author=Ricca,+E.&author=Pira,+G.&author=Manca,+F.&author=Malanga,+D.&publication_year=2007&journal=Vaccine&volume=25&pages=1993%E2%80%932000&doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.11.047&pmid=17239998" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.11.047" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>] [<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17239998" class='cross-ref' data-typ='pmid' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>PubMed</a>]</li></ol></section><section id='Figures' type='display-objects'><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="vaccines-06-00075-f001"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f001"> <img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g001 550" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 1.</b> Illustration of ligand-based antigen targeting. Pattern recognition receptor (PRR) ligands can be conjugated to the antigen chemically or recombinantly. In most cases, Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have been used for antigen targeting. The TLR ligands have dual functions. They facilitate the targeting of antigens to antigen presenting cells (APCs) and also act as adjuvants. Once the antigen–PRR ligand conjugate binds to the respective receptor on antigen presenting cells, it undergoes receptor mediated endocytosis and is presented either via the MHC I or MHC II pathways. CpG ODN: CpG oligodeoxynucleotide.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f001" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 1.</b> Illustration of ligand-based antigen targeting. Pattern recognition receptor (PRR) ligands can be conjugated to the antigen chemically or recombinantly. In most cases, Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have been used for antigen targeting. The TLR ligands have dual functions. They facilitate the targeting of antigens to antigen presenting cells (APCs) and also act as adjuvants. Once the antigen–PRR ligand conjugate binds to the respective receptor on antigen presenting cells, it undergoes receptor mediated endocytosis and is presented either via the MHC I or MHC II pathways. CpG ODN: CpG oligodeoxynucleotide.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g001" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g001.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="vaccines-06-00075-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f002"> <img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g002 550" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Illustration of antibody-based antigen targeting. The full antibody or antibody fragments such as Fab (fragment antigen binding), scFv (single chain fragment variable antibody) can be conjugated to the antigen chemically or recombinantly. In most cases, C-type lectin receptors (CLR) have been targeted for this purpose. Dendritic cell (DC) activation signals like Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists are often required for protective immunity. Once the antigen–antibody complex binds to the respective receptor on antigen presenting cells, it undergoes receptor mediated endocytosis and is presented either via the MHC I or MHC II pathway.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f002" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 2.</b> Illustration of antibody-based antigen targeting. The full antibody or antibody fragments such as Fab (fragment antigen binding), scFv (single chain fragment variable antibody) can be conjugated to the antigen chemically or recombinantly. In most cases, C-type lectin receptors (CLR) have been targeted for this purpose. Dendritic cell (DC) activation signals like Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists are often required for protective immunity. Once the antigen–antibody complex binds to the respective receptor on antigen presenting cells, it undergoes receptor mediated endocytosis and is presented either via the MHC I or MHC II pathway.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g002" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g002.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="vaccines-06-00075-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f003"> <img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g003 550" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Illustration of nanoparticle-based antigen targeting. Various nanoparticles such as poly-<span class='html-small-caps'>d</span>,<span class='html-small-caps'>l</span>-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), polylactic acid (PLA), chitosan, liposomes and virus-like particles (VLPs) have been used for antigen targeting. These nanoparticles can be decorated on their surface with antibodies or ligands that can bind specifically to the antigen presenting cell receptors.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f003" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 3.</b> Illustration of nanoparticle-based antigen targeting. Various nanoparticles such as poly-<span class='html-small-caps'>d</span>,<span class='html-small-caps'>l</span>-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), polylactic acid (PLA), chitosan, liposomes and virus-like particles (VLPs) have been used for antigen targeting. These nanoparticles can be decorated on their surface with antibodies or ligands that can bind specifically to the antigen presenting cell receptors.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g003" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g003.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="vaccines-06-00075-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f004"> <img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g004 550" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> Illustration of viral vector vaccine delivery method. The gene encoding the antigen of interest can be introduced into the viral genome via recombination. The recombinant viral vectors can be administered to the recipient. Upon entry into the recipient cells, they release the viral genome into the cytoplasm. This results in the in vivo expression of the encoded antigen. The antigen can either be expressed on the cell surface, or secreted and then processed by antigen-presenting cells.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f004" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 4.</b> Illustration of viral vector vaccine delivery method. The gene encoding the antigen of interest can be introduced into the viral genome via recombination. The recombinant viral vectors can be administered to the recipient. Upon entry into the recipient cells, they release the viral genome into the cytoplasm. This results in the in vivo expression of the encoded antigen. The antigen can either be expressed on the cell surface, or secreted and then processed by antigen-presenting cells.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g004" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g004.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="vaccines-06-00075-f005"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f005"> <img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g005 550" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Illustration of the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) delivery system. CPP are cationic peptides. CPP–antigen conjugates can be designed either chemically or recombinantly. CPP can undergo electrostatic interaction with the negatively charged cell surface glycoproteins under physiological condition. This facilitates the direct translocation of antigens across the cell membrane. Furthermore, CPP–antigen conjugates can also enter the cell by endocytosis. Direct translocation of the CPP–antigen conjugate allows antigen presentation via the MHC I pathway whereas entry by endocytosis facilitates the antigen presentation via the MHC II pathway.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f005" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 5.</b> Illustration of the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) delivery system. CPP are cationic peptides. CPP–antigen conjugates can be designed either chemically or recombinantly. CPP can undergo electrostatic interaction with the negatively charged cell surface glycoproteins under physiological condition. This facilitates the direct translocation of antigens across the cell membrane. Furthermore, CPP–antigen conjugates can also enter the cell by endocytosis. Direct translocation of the CPP–antigen conjugate allows antigen presentation via the MHC I pathway whereas entry by endocytosis facilitates the antigen presentation via the MHC II pathway.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g005" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g005.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="vaccines-06-00075-f006"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f006"> <img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g006 550" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/6/4/75/display" href="#fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Illustration of the structure of E2 acetyltransferase display system (E2DISP) domain. (<b>A</b>) Representation of five catalytic acetyltransferase core domain (CD) trimers (monomers of each trimer is represented by blue, green and yellow colours). The C-terminal CD of E2 can self-assemble into trimers which aggregate to generate a pentagonal dodecahedral protein scaffold (see B). (<b>B</b>) Twenty trimers of the E2 polypeptide chain form a pentagonal dodecahedron (60-mer) with icosahedral symmetry. About 60 large polypeptides can be presented on the E2 scaffold as N-terminal fusions to the acetyltransferase CD. These particles can self-assemble in vitro and elicit T-cell and B-cell responses.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_vaccines-06-00075-f006" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 6.</b> Illustration of the structure of E2 acetyltransferase display system (E2DISP) domain. (<b>A</b>) Representation of five catalytic acetyltransferase core domain (CD) trimers (monomers of each trimer is represented by blue, green and yellow colours). The C-terminal CD of E2 can self-assemble into trimers which aggregate to generate a pentagonal dodecahedral protein scaffold (see B). (<b>B</b>) Twenty trimers of the E2 polypeptide chain form a pentagonal dodecahedron (60-mer) with icosahedral symmetry. About 60 large polypeptides can be presented on the E2 scaffold as N-terminal fusions to the acetyltransferase CD. These particles can self-assemble in vitro and elicit T-cell and B-cell responses.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Vaccines 06 00075 g006" data-large="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006.png" data-original="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006.png" data-lsrc="/vaccines/vaccines-06-00075/article_deploy/html/images/vaccines-06-00075-g006.png" /></div> </div></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<a href='http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/' target='_blank' rel="noopener noreferrer" >http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>).</section> </div> </div> <div class="additional-content"> <h2><a name="cite"></a>Share and Cite</h2> <div class="social-media-links" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#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" title="Email"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Enhancing+Protective+Efficacy+of+Poultry+Vaccines+through+Targeted+Delivery+of+Antigens+to+Antigen-Presenting+Cells&hashtags=mdpivaccines&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F365912&via=MDPIOpenAccess" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter-x-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href=" http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F365912&title=Enhancing%20Protective%20Efficacy%20of%20Poultry%20Vaccines%20through%20Targeted%20Delivery%20of%20Antigens%20to%20Antigen-Presenting%20Cells%26source%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%26summary%3DAvian%20viral%20diseases%20including%20avian%20influenza%2C%20Marek%E2%80%99s%20disease%20and%20Newcastle%20disease%20are%20detrimental%20to%20economies%20around%20the%20world%20that%20depend%20on%20the%20poultry%20trade.%20A%20significant%20zoonotic%20threat%20is%20also%20posed%20by%20avian%20influenza%20viruses.%20Vaccination%20%5B...%5D" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="facebook" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" title="Wechat" data-reveal-id="weixin-share-modal"> <i class="fa fa-weixin-square" style="font-size: 26px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="Reddit" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-reddit-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="Mendeley" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-mendeley-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> </div> <div class="in-tab" style="padding-top: 0px!important; margin-top: 15px;"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Shrestha, A.; Sadeyen, J.-R.; Iqbal, M. Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells. <em>Vaccines</em> <b>2018</b>, <em>6</em>, 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Shrestha A, Sadeyen J-R, Iqbal M. Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells. <em>Vaccines</em>. 2018; 6(4):75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Shrestha, Angita, Jean-Remy Sadeyen, and Munir Iqbal. 2018. "Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells" <em>Vaccines</em> 6, no. 4: 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Shrestha, A., Sadeyen, J. -R., & Iqbal, M. (2018). Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells. <em>Vaccines</em>, <em>6</em>(4), 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> </div> </div> <div class="info-box no-margin"> Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details <a target="_blank" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784">here</a>. </div> <h2><a name="metrics"></a>Article Metrics</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div id="loaded_cite_count" style="display:none">No</div> <div id="framed_div_cited_count" class="in-tab" style="display: none; overflow: auto;"></div> <div id="loaded" style="display:none">No</div> <div id="framed_div" class="in-tab" style="display: none; margin-top: 10px;"></div> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div id="article_stats_div" style="display: none; margin-bottom: 1em;"> <h3>Article Access Statistics</h3> <div id="article_stats_swf" ></div> For more information on the journal statistics, click <a href="/journal/vaccines/stats">here</a>. <div class="info-box"> Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view. </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div></div> <div class="webpymol-controls webpymol-controls-template" style="margin-top: 10px; display: none;"> <a class="bzoom">Zoom</a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="borient"> Orient </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="blines"> As Lines </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bsticks"> As Sticks </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bcartoon"> As Cartoon </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bsurface"> As Surface </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bprevscene">Previous Scene</a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bnextscene">Next Scene</a> </div> <div id="scifeed-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="recommended-articles-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="author-biographies-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="cite-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Cite</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns">  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-bibtex" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="182956"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="bibtex"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form>  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-endnote" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="182956"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="endnote_no_abstract"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form>  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-ris" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="182956"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="ris"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form> <div> Export citation file: <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-bibtex'].submit()">BibTeX</a> | <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-endnote'].submit()">EndNote</a> | <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-ris'].submit()">RIS</a> </div> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="in-tab"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Shrestha, A.; Sadeyen, J.-R.; Iqbal, M. Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells. <em>Vaccines</em> <b>2018</b>, <em>6</em>, 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Shrestha A, Sadeyen J-R, Iqbal M. Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells. <em>Vaccines</em>. 2018; 6(4):75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Shrestha, Angita, Jean-Remy Sadeyen, and Munir Iqbal. 2018. "Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells" <em>Vaccines</em> 6, no. 4: 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Shrestha, A., Sadeyen, J. -R., & Iqbal, M. (2018). Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells. <em>Vaccines</em>, <em>6</em>(4), 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040075 </p> </div> </div> <div class="info-box no-margin"> Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details <a target="_blank" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784">here</a>. </div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div id="footer"> <div class="journal-info"> <span> <em><a class="Var_JournalInfo" href="/journal/vaccines">Vaccines</a></em>, EISSN 2076-393X, Published by MDPI </span> <div class="large-right"> <span> <a href="/rss/journal/vaccines" class="rss-link">RSS</a> </span> <span> <a href="/journal/vaccines/toc-alert">Content Alert</a> </span> </div> </div> <div class="row full-width footer-links" data-equalizer="footer" data-equalizer-mq="small"> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns" data-equalizer-watch="footer"> <h3> Further Information </h3> <a href="/apc"> Article Processing Charges </a> <a href="/about/payment"> Pay an Invoice </a> <a href="/openaccess"> Open Access Policy </a> <a href="/about/contact"> Contact MDPI </a> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Jobs at MDPI </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns" data-equalizer-watch="footer"> <h3> Guidelines </h3> <a href="/authors"> For Authors </a> <a href="/reviewers"> For Reviewers </a> <a href="/editors"> For Editors </a> <a href="/librarians"> For Librarians </a> <a href="/publishing_services"> For Publishers </a> <a href="/societies"> For Societies </a> <a href="/conference_organizers"> For Conference Organizers </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns"> <h3> MDPI Initiatives </h3> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Sciforum </a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> MDPI Books </a> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Preprints.org </a> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Scilit </a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=bottom_menu&utm_campaign=initiative" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> SciProfiles </a> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Encyclopedia </a> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> JAMS </a> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 right-border-large-without columns UA_FooterFollowMDPI"> <h3> Follow MDPI </h3> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/mdpi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> LinkedIn </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/MDPIOpenAccessPublishing" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Facebook </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/MDPIOpenAccess" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Twitter </a> </div> <div id="footer-subscribe" class="large-4 large-pull-8 medium-12 small-12 left-border-large columns"> <div class="footer-subscribe__container"> <img class="show-for-large-up" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-white-small.png?71d18e5f805839ab?1732615622" alt="MDPI" title="MDPI Open Access Journals" style="height: 50px; margin-bottom: 10px;"> <form id="newsletter" method="POST" action="/subscribe"> <p> Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals </p> <select multiple id="newsletter-journal" class="foundation-select" name="journals[]"> <option value="acoustics">Acoustics</option> <option value="amh">Acta Microbiologica Hellenica</option> <option value="actuators">Actuators</option> <option value="admsci">Administrative Sciences</option> <option value="adolescents">Adolescents</option> <option value="arm">Advances in Respiratory Medicine</option> <option value="aerobiology">Aerobiology</option> <option value="aerospace">Aerospace</option> <option value="agriculture">Agriculture</option> <option value="agriengineering">AgriEngineering</option> <option value="agrochemicals">Agrochemicals</option> <option value="agronomy">Agronomy</option> <option value="ai">AI</option> <option value="air">Air</option> <option value="algorithms">Algorithms</option> <option value="allergies">Allergies</option> <option value="alloys">Alloys</option> <option value="analytica">Analytica</option> <option value="analytics">Analytics</option> <option value="anatomia">Anatomia</option> <option value="anesthres">Anesthesia Research</option> <option value="animals">Animals</option> <option value="antibiotics">Antibiotics</option> <option value="antibodies">Antibodies</option> <option value="antioxidants">Antioxidants</option> <option value="applbiosci">Applied Biosciences</option> <option value="applmech">Applied Mechanics</option> <option value="applmicrobiol">Applied Microbiology</option> <option value="applnano">Applied Nano</option> <option value="applsci">Applied Sciences</option> <option value="asi">Applied System Innovation</option> <option value="appliedchem">AppliedChem</option> <option value="appliedmath">AppliedMath</option> <option value="aquacj">Aquaculture Journal</option> <option value="architecture">Architecture</option> <option value="arthropoda">Arthropoda</option> <option value="arts">Arts</option> <option value="astronomy">Astronomy</option> <option value="atmosphere">Atmosphere</option> <option value="atoms">Atoms</option> <option value="audiolres">Audiology Research</option> <option value="automation">Automation</option> <option value="axioms">Axioms</option> <option value="bacteria">Bacteria</option> <option value="batteries">Batteries</option> <option value="behavsci">Behavioral Sciences</option> <option value="beverages">Beverages</option> <option value="BDCC">Big Data and Cognitive Computing</option> <option value="biochem">BioChem</option> <option value="bioengineering">Bioengineering</option> <option value="biologics">Biologics</option> <option value="biology">Biology</option> <option value="blsf">Biology and Life Sciences Forum</option> <option value="biomass">Biomass</option> <option value="biomechanics">Biomechanics</option> <option value="biomed">BioMed</option> <option value="biomedicines">Biomedicines</option> <option value="biomedinformatics">BioMedInformatics</option> <option value="biomimetics">Biomimetics</option> <option value="biomolecules">Biomolecules</option> <option value="biophysica">Biophysica</option> <option value="biosensors">Biosensors</option> <option value="biotech">BioTech</option> <option value="birds">Birds</option> <option value="blockchains">Blockchains</option> <option value="brainsci">Brain Sciences</option> <option value="buildings">Buildings</option> <option value="businesses">Businesses</option> <option value="carbon">C</option> <option value="cancers">Cancers</option> <option value="cardiogenetics">Cardiogenetics</option> <option value="catalysts">Catalysts</option> <option value="cells">Cells</option> <option value="ceramics">Ceramics</option> <option value="challenges">Challenges</option> <option value="ChemEngineering">ChemEngineering</option> <option value="chemistry">Chemistry</option> <option value="chemproc">Chemistry Proceedings</option> <option value="chemosensors">Chemosensors</option> <option value="children">Children</option> <option value="chips">Chips</option> <option value="civileng">CivilEng</option> <option value="cleantechnol">Clean Technologies</option> <option value="climate">Climate</option> <option value="ctn">Clinical and Translational Neuroscience</option> <option value="clinbioenerg">Clinical Bioenergetics</option> <option value="clinpract">Clinics and Practice</option> <option value="clockssleep">Clocks & Sleep</option> <option value="coasts">Coasts</option> <option value="coatings">Coatings</option> <option value="colloids">Colloids and Interfaces</option> <option value="colorants">Colorants</option> <option value="commodities">Commodities</option> <option value="complications">Complications</option> <option value="compounds">Compounds</option> <option value="computation">Computation</option> <option value="csmf">Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum</option> <option value="computers">Computers</option> <option value="condensedmatter">Condensed Matter</option> <option value="conservation">Conservation</option> <option value="constrmater">Construction Materials</option> <option value="cmd">Corrosion and Materials Degradation</option> <option value="cosmetics">Cosmetics</option> <option value="covid">COVID</option> <option value="crops">Crops</option> <option value="cryo">Cryo</option> <option value="cryptography">Cryptography</option> <option value="crystals">Crystals</option> <option value="cimb">Current Issues in Molecular Biology</option> <option value="curroncol">Current Oncology</option> <option value="dairy">Dairy</option> <option value="data">Data</option> <option value="dentistry">Dentistry Journal</option> <option value="dermato">Dermato</option> <option value="dermatopathology">Dermatopathology</option> <option value="designs">Designs</option> <option value="diabetology">Diabetology</option> <option value="diagnostics">Diagnostics</option> <option value="dietetics">Dietetics</option> <option value="digital">Digital</option> <option value="disabilities">Disabilities</option> <option value="diseases">Diseases</option> <option value="diversity">Diversity</option> <option value="dna">DNA</option> <option value="drones">Drones</option> <option value="ddc">Drugs and Drug Candidates</option> <option value="dynamics">Dynamics</option> <option value="earth">Earth</option> <option value="ecologies">Ecologies</option> <option value="econometrics">Econometrics</option> <option value="economies">Economies</option> <option value="education">Education Sciences</option> <option value="electricity">Electricity</option> <option value="electrochem">Electrochem</option> <option value="electronicmat">Electronic Materials</option> <option value="electronics">Electronics</option> <option value="ecm">Emergency Care and Medicine</option> <option value="encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</option> <option value="endocrines">Endocrines</option> <option value="energies">Energies</option> <option value="esa">Energy Storage and Applications</option> <option value="eng">Eng</option> <option value="engproc">Engineering Proceedings</option> <option value="entropy">Entropy</option> <option value="environsciproc">Environmental Sciences Proceedings</option> <option value="environments">Environments</option> <option value="epidemiologia">Epidemiologia</option> <option value="epigenomes">Epigenomes</option> <option value="ebj">European Burn Journal</option> <option value="ejihpe">European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education</option> <option value="fermentation">Fermentation</option> <option value="fibers">Fibers</option> <option value="fintech">FinTech</option> <option value="fire">Fire</option> <option value="fishes">Fishes</option> <option value="fluids">Fluids</option> <option value="foods">Foods</option> <option value="forecasting">Forecasting</option> <option value="forensicsci">Forensic Sciences</option> <option value="forests">Forests</option> <option value="fossstud">Fossil Studies</option> <option value="foundations">Foundations</option> <option value="fractalfract">Fractal and Fractional</option> <option value="fuels">Fuels</option> <option value="future">Future</option> <option value="futureinternet">Future Internet</option> <option value="futurepharmacol">Future Pharmacology</option> <option value="futuretransp">Future Transportation</option> <option value="galaxies">Galaxies</option> <option value="games">Games</option> <option value="gases">Gases</option> <option value="gastroent">Gastroenterology Insights</option> <option value="gastrointestdisord">Gastrointestinal Disorders</option> <option value="gastronomy">Gastronomy</option> <option value="gels">Gels</option> <option value="genealogy">Genealogy</option> <option value="genes">Genes</option> <option value="geographies">Geographies</option> <option value="geohazards">GeoHazards</option> <option value="geomatics">Geomatics</option> <option value="geometry">Geometry</option> <option value="geosciences">Geosciences</option> <option value="geotechnics">Geotechnics</option> <option value="geriatrics">Geriatrics</option> <option value="glacies">Glacies</option> <option value="gucdd">Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease</option> <option value="grasses">Grasses</option> <option value="hardware">Hardware</option> <option value="healthcare">Healthcare</option> <option value="hearts">Hearts</option> <option value="hemato">Hemato</option> <option value="hematolrep">Hematology Reports</option> <option value="heritage">Heritage</option> <option value="histories">Histories</option> <option value="horticulturae">Horticulturae</option> <option value="hospitals">Hospitals</option> <option value="humanities">Humanities</option> <option value="humans">Humans</option> <option value="hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</option> <option value="hydrogen">Hydrogen</option> <option value="hydrology">Hydrology</option> <option value="hygiene">Hygiene</option> <option value="immuno">Immuno</option> <option value="idr">Infectious Disease Reports</option> <option value="informatics">Informatics</option> <option value="information">Information</option> <option value="infrastructures">Infrastructures</option> <option value="inorganics">Inorganics</option> <option value="insects">Insects</option> <option value="instruments">Instruments</option> <option value="iic">Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction</option> <option value="ijerph">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</option> <option value="ijfs">International Journal of Financial Studies</option> <option value="ijms">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</option> <option value="IJNS">International Journal of Neonatal Screening</option> <option value="ijpb">International Journal of Plant Biology</option> <option value="ijt">International Journal of Topology</option> <option value="ijtm">International Journal of Translational Medicine</option> <option value="ijtpp">International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power</option> <option value="ime">International Medical Education</option> <option value="inventions">Inventions</option> <option value="IoT">IoT</option> <option value="ijgi">ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information</option> <option value="J">J</option> <option value="jal">Journal of Ageing and Longevity</option> <option value="jcdd">Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease</option> <option value="jcto">Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology</option> <option value="jcm">Journal of Clinical Medicine</option> <option value="jcs">Journal of Composites Science</option> <option value="jcp">Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy</option> <option value="jdad">Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease</option> <option value="jdb">Journal of Developmental Biology</option> <option value="jeta">Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses</option> <option value="jfb">Journal of Functional Biomaterials</option> <option value="jfmk">Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology</option> <option value="jof">Journal of Fungi</option> <option value="jimaging">Journal of Imaging</option> <option value="jintelligence">Journal of Intelligence</option> <option value="jlpea">Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications</option> <option value="jmmp">Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing</option> <option value="jmse">Journal of Marine Science and Engineering</option> <option value="jmahp">Journal of Market Access & Health Policy</option> <option value="jmp">Journal of Molecular Pathology</option> <option value="jnt">Journal of Nanotheranostics</option> <option value="jne">Journal of Nuclear Engineering</option> <option value="ohbm">Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine</option> <option value="jop">Journal of Parks</option> <option value="jpm">Journal of Personalized Medicine</option> <option value="jpbi">Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry</option> <option value="jor">Journal of Respiration</option> <option value="jrfm">Journal of Risk and Financial Management</option> <option value="jsan">Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks</option> <option value="joma">Journal of the Oman Medical Association</option> <option value="jtaer">Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research</option> <option value="jvd">Journal of Vascular Diseases</option> <option value="jox">Journal of Xenobiotics</option> <option value="jzbg">Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens</option> <option value="journalmedia">Journalism and Media</option> <option value="kidneydial">Kidney and Dialysis</option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases">Kinases and Phosphatases</option> <option value="knowledge">Knowledge</option> <option value="labmed">LabMed</option> <option value="laboratories">Laboratories</option> <option value="land">Land</option> <option value="languages">Languages</option> <option value="laws">Laws</option> <option value="life">Life</option> <option value="limnolrev">Limnological Review</option> <option value="lipidology">Lipidology</option> <option value="liquids">Liquids</option> <option value="literature">Literature</option> <option value="livers">Livers</option> <option value="logics">Logics</option> <option value="logistics">Logistics</option> <option value="lubricants">Lubricants</option> <option value="lymphatics">Lymphatics</option> <option value="make">Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction</option> <option value="machines">Machines</option> <option value="macromol">Macromol</option> <option value="magnetism">Magnetism</option> <option value="magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</option> <option value="marinedrugs">Marine Drugs</option> <option value="materials">Materials</option> <option value="materproc">Materials Proceedings</option> <option value="mca">Mathematical and Computational Applications</option> <option value="mathematics">Mathematics</option> <option value="medsci">Medical Sciences</option> <option value="msf">Medical Sciences Forum</option> <option value="medicina">Medicina</option> <option value="medicines">Medicines</option> <option value="membranes">Membranes</option> <option value="merits">Merits</option> <option value="metabolites">Metabolites</option> <option value="metals">Metals</option> <option value="meteorology">Meteorology</option> <option value="methane">Methane</option> <option value="mps">Methods and Protocols</option> <option value="metrics">Metrics</option> <option value="metrology">Metrology</option> <option value="micro">Micro</option> <option value="microbiolres">Microbiology Research</option> <option value="micromachines">Micromachines</option> <option value="microorganisms">Microorganisms</option> <option value="microplastics">Microplastics</option> <option value="minerals">Minerals</option> <option value="mining">Mining</option> <option value="modelling">Modelling</option> <option value="mmphys">Modern Mathematical Physics</option> <option value="molbank">Molbank</option> <option value="molecules">Molecules</option> <option value="mti">Multimodal Technologies and Interaction</option> <option value="muscles">Muscles</option> <option value="nanoenergyadv">Nanoenergy Advances</option> <option value="nanomanufacturing">Nanomanufacturing</option> <option value="nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</option> <option value="ndt">NDT</option> <option value="network">Network</option> <option value="neuroglia">Neuroglia</option> <option value="neurolint">Neurology International</option> <option value="neurosci">NeuroSci</option> <option value="nitrogen">Nitrogen</option> <option value="ncrna">Non-Coding RNA</option> <option value="nursrep">Nursing Reports</option> <option value="nutraceuticals">Nutraceuticals</option> <option value="nutrients">Nutrients</option> <option value="obesities">Obesities</option> <option value="oceans">Oceans</option> <option value="onco">Onco</option> <option value="optics">Optics</option> <option value="oral">Oral</option> <option value="organics">Organics</option> <option value="organoids">Organoids</option> <option value="osteology">Osteology</option> <option value="oxygen">Oxygen</option> <option value="parasitologia">Parasitologia</option> <option value="particles">Particles</option> <option value="pathogens">Pathogens</option> <option value="pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</option> <option value="pediatrrep">Pediatric Reports</option> <option value="pets">Pets</option> <option value="pharmaceuticals">Pharmaceuticals</option> <option value="pharmaceutics">Pharmaceutics</option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</option> <option value="pharmacy">Pharmacy</option> <option value="philosophies">Philosophies</option> <option value="photochem">Photochem</option> <option value="photonics">Photonics</option> <option value="phycology">Phycology</option> <option value="physchem">Physchem</option> <option value="psf">Physical Sciences Forum</option> <option value="physics">Physics</option> <option value="physiologia">Physiologia</option> <option value="plants">Plants</option> <option value="plasma">Plasma</option> <option value="platforms">Platforms</option> <option value="pollutants">Pollutants</option> <option value="polymers">Polymers</option> <option value="polysaccharides">Polysaccharides</option> <option value="populations">Populations</option> <option value="poultry">Poultry</option> <option value="powders">Powders</option> <option value="proceedings">Proceedings</option> <option value="processes">Processes</option> <option value="prosthesis">Prosthesis</option> <option value="proteomes">Proteomes</option> <option value="psychiatryint">Psychiatry International</option> <option value="psychoactives">Psychoactives</option> <option value="psycholint">Psychology International</option> <option value="publications">Publications</option> <option value="qubs">Quantum Beam Science</option> <option value="quantumrep">Quantum Reports</option> <option value="quaternary">Quaternary</option> <option value="radiation">Radiation</option> <option value="reactions">Reactions</option> <option value="realestate">Real Estate</option> <option value="receptors">Receptors</option> <option value="recycling">Recycling</option> <option value="rsee">Regional Science and Environmental Economics</option> <option value="religions">Religions</option> <option value="remotesensing">Remote Sensing</option> <option value="reports">Reports</option> <option value="reprodmed">Reproductive Medicine</option> <option value="resources">Resources</option> <option value="rheumato">Rheumato</option> <option value="risks">Risks</option> <option value="robotics">Robotics</option> <option value="ruminants">Ruminants</option> <option value="safety">Safety</option> <option value="sci">Sci</option> <option value="scipharm">Scientia Pharmaceutica</option> <option value="sclerosis">Sclerosis</option> <option value="seeds">Seeds</option> <option value="sensors">Sensors</option> <option value="separations">Separations</option> <option value="sexes">Sexes</option> <option value="signals">Signals</option> <option value="sinusitis">Sinusitis</option> <option value="smartcities">Smart Cities</option> <option value="socsci">Social Sciences</option> <option value="siuj">Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal</option> <option value="societies">Societies</option> <option value="software">Software</option> <option value="soilsystems">Soil Systems</option> <option value="solar">Solar</option> <option value="solids">Solids</option> <option value="spectroscj">Spectroscopy Journal</option> <option value="sports">Sports</option> <option value="standards">Standards</option> <option value="stats">Stats</option> <option value="stresses">Stresses</option> <option value="surfaces">Surfaces</option> <option value="surgeries">Surgeries</option> <option value="std">Surgical Techniques Development</option> <option value="sustainability">Sustainability</option> <option value="suschem">Sustainable Chemistry</option> <option value="symmetry">Symmetry</option> <option value="synbio">SynBio</option> <option value="systems">Systems</option> <option value="targets">Targets</option> <option value="taxonomy">Taxonomy</option> <option value="technologies">Technologies</option> <option value="telecom">Telecom</option> <option value="textiles">Textiles</option> <option value="thalassrep">Thalassemia Reports</option> <option value="therapeutics">Therapeutics</option> <option value="thermo">Thermo</option> <option value="timespace">Time and Space</option> <option value="tomography">Tomography</option> <option value="tourismhosp">Tourism and Hospitality</option> <option value="toxics">Toxics</option> <option value="toxins">Toxins</option> <option value="transplantology">Transplantology</option> <option value="traumacare">Trauma Care</option> <option value="higheredu">Trends in Higher Education</option> <option value="tropicalmed">Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease</option> <option value="universe">Universe</option> <option value="urbansci">Urban Science</option> <option value="uro">Uro</option> <option value="vaccines">Vaccines</option> <option value="vehicles">Vehicles</option> <option value="venereology">Venereology</option> <option value="vetsci">Veterinary Sciences</option> <option value="vibration">Vibration</option> <option value="virtualworlds">Virtual Worlds</option> <option value="viruses">Viruses</option> <option value="vision">Vision</option> <option value="waste">Waste</option> <option value="water">Water</option> <option value="wild">Wild</option> <option value="wind">Wind</option> <option value="women">Women</option> <option value="world">World</option> <option value="wevj">World Electric Vehicle Journal</option> <option value="youth">Youth</option> <option value="zoonoticdis">Zoonotic Diseases</option> </select> <input name="email" type="email" placeholder="Enter your email address..." required="required" /> <button class="genericCaptcha button button--dark UA_FooterNewsletterSubscribeButton" type="submit">Subscribe</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer-copyright"> <div class="row"> <div class="columns large-6 medium-6 small-12 text-left"> © 1996-2024 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated </div> <div class="columns large-6 medium-6 small-12 small-text-left medium-text-right large-text-right"> <a data-dropdown="drop-view-disclaimer" aria-controls="drop-view-disclaimer" aria-expanded="false" data-options="align:top; is_hover:true; hover_timeout:2000;"> Disclaimer </a> <div id="drop-view-disclaimer" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide text-left" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. </div> <a href="/about/terms-and-conditions"> Terms and Conditions </a> <a href="/about/privacy"> Privacy Policy </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="cookie-notification" class="js-allow-cookies" style="display: none;"> <div class="columns large-10 medium-10 small-12"> We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.<br class="show-for-medium-up"/> Read more about our cookies <a href="/about/privacy">here</a>. </div> <div class="columns large-2 medium-2 small-12 small-only-text-left text-right"> <a class="button button--default" href="/accept_cookies">Accept</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="main-share-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-new--small" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Share Link</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="social-media-links UA_ShareModalLinks" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#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" title="Email"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Enhancing+Protective+Efficacy+of+Poultry+Vaccines+through+Targeted+Delivery+of+Antigens+to+Antigen-Presenting+Cells&hashtags=mdpivaccines&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F365912&via=MDPIOpenAccess" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="Twitter" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter-x-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href=" http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F365912&title=Enhancing%20Protective%20Efficacy%20of%20Poultry%20Vaccines%20through%20Targeted%20Delivery%20of%20Antigens%20to%20Antigen-Presenting%20Cells%26source%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%26summary%3DAvian%20viral%20diseases%20including%20avian%20influenza%2C%20Marek%E2%80%99s%20disease%20and%20Newcastle%20disease%20are%20detrimental%20to%20economies%20around%20the%20world%20that%20depend%20on%20the%20poultry%20trade.%20A%20significant%20zoonotic%20threat%20is%20also%20posed%20by%20avian%20influenza%20viruses.%20Vaccination%20%5B...%5D" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="facebook" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" title="Wechat" data-reveal-id="weixin-share-modal"> <i class="fa fa-weixin-square" style="font-size: 26px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="Reddit" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-reddit-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="Mendeley" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-mendeley-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.citeulike.org/posturl?url=https://www.mdpi.com/365912" title="CiteULike" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-citeulike-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> </div> </div> <div class="small-9 columns"> <input id="js-clipboard-text" type="text" readonly value="https://www.mdpi.com/365912" /> </div> <div class="small-3 columns text-left"> <a class="button button--color js-clipboard-copy" data-clipboard-target="#js-clipboard-text">Copy</a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="weixin-share-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="weixin-share-modal-title" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 id="weixin-share-modal-title" style="margin: 0;">Share</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="weixin-qr-code-section"> <?xml version="1.0" standalone="no"?> <!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> <svg width="300" height="300" version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <desc>https://www.mdpi.com/365912</desc> <g id="elements" fill="black" stroke="none"> <rect x="0" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> </g> </svg> </div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <a href="#" class="back-to-top"><span class="show-for-medium-up">Back to Top</span><span class="show-for-small">Top</span></a> <script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/modernizr-2.8.3.min.js?5227e0738f7f421d?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-1.12.4.min.js?4f252523d4af0b47?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/foundation-5.5.3.min.js?6b2ec41c18b29054?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/foundation-5.5.3.equalizer.min.js?0f6c549b75ec554c?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery.multiselect.js?0edd3998731d1091?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery.cycle2.min.js?63413052928f97ee?1732615622"></script> <script> // old browser fix - this way the console log rows won't throw (silent) errors in browsers not supporting console log if (!window.console) window.console = {}; if (!window.console.log) window.console.log = function () { }; var currentJournalNameSystem = "vaccines"; $(document).ready(function() { $('select.foundation-select').multiselect({ search: true, minHeight: 130, maxHeight: 130, }); $(document).foundation({ orbit: { timer_speed: 4000, }, reveal: { animation: 'fadeAndPop', animation_speed: 100, } }); $(".chosen-select").each(function(element) { var maxSelected = (undefined !== $(this).data('maxselectedoptions') ? $(this).data('maxselectedoptions') : 100); $(this).on('chosen:ready', function(event, data) { var select = $(data.chosen.form_field); if (select.attr('id') === 'journal-browser-volume') { $(data.chosen.dropdown).addClass('UI_JournalBrowser_Volume_Options'); } if (select.attr('id') === 'journal-browser-issue') { $(data.chosen.dropdown).addClass('UI_JournalBrowser_Issue_Options'); } }).chosen({ display_disabled_options: false, disable_search_threshold: 7, max_selected_options: maxSelected, width: "100%" }); }); $(".toEncode").each(function(e) { var oldHref = $(this).attr("href"); var newHref = oldHref.replace('.botdefense.please.enable.javascript.','@'); $(this).attr("href", newHref); if (!$(this).hasClass("emailCaptcha")) { $(this).html(newHref.replace('mailto:', '')); } $(this).removeClass("visibility-hidden"); }); $(document).on('opened.fndtn.reveal', '[data-reveal]', function() { $(document).foundation('equalizer', 'reflow'); }); // fix the images that have tag height / width defined // otherwise the default foundation styles overwrite the tag definitions $("img").each(function() { if ($(this).attr('width') != undefined || $(this).attr('height') != undefined) { $(this).addClass("img-fixed"); } }); $("#basic_search, #advanced_search").submit(function(e) { var searchArguments = false; $(this).find("input,select").not("#search,.search-button").each(function() { if (undefined === $(this).val() || "" === $(this).val()) { $(this).attr('name', null); } else { $(this).attr('name'); searchArguments = true; } }); if (!searchArguments) { window.location = $(this).attr('action'); return false; } }); $(".hide-show-desktop-option").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var parentDiv = $(this).closest("div"); $.ajax({ url: $(this).attr('href'), success: function(msg) { parentDiv.removeClass().hide(); } }); }); $(".generic-toggleable-header").click(function(e) { $(this).toggleClass("active"); $(this).next(".generic-toggleable-content").toggleClass("active"); }); /* * handle whole row as a link if the row contains only one visible link */ $("table.new tr").hover(function() { if ($(this).find("td:visible a").length == 1) { $(this).addClass("single-link"); } }, function() { $(this).removeClass("single-link"); }); $("table.new:not(.table-of-tables)").on("click", "tr.single-link", function(e) { var target = $(e.target); if (!e.ctrlKey && !target.is("a")) { $(this).find("td:visible a")[0].click(); } }); $(document).on("click", ".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link", function(e) { if ($(this).closest("#basic_search").length > 0) { if ($(".search-container__advanced").first().is(":visible")) { openAdvanced() } } if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($(this).hasClass("active")) { $(this).removeClass("active"); $(this).next(".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content").addClass("show-for-medium-up"); } else { $(this).addClass("active"); $(this).next(".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content").removeClass("show-for-medium-up"); $(document).foundation('orbit', 'reflow'); } } if (undefined !== $(this).data("callback")) { var customCallback = $(this).data("callback"); func = window[customCallback]; func(); } }); $(document).on("click", ".js-open-small-search", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).toggleClass("active").closest(".tab-bar").toggleClass("active"); $(".search-container").toggleClass("hide-for-small-down"); }); $(document).on("click", ".js-open-menu", function(e) { $(".search-container").addClass("hide-for-small-down"); }); $(window).on('resize', function() { recalculate_main_browser_position(); recalculate_responsive_moving_containers(); }); updateSearchLabelVisibilities(); recalculate_main_browser_position(); recalculate_responsive_moving_containers(); if (window.document.documentMode == 11) { $("<link/>", { rel: "stylesheet", type: "text/css", href: "https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"}).appendTo("head"); } }); function recalculate_main_browser_position() { if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-large-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-small-main-top-container")); } } else { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-small-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-large-main-top-container")); } } } function recalculate_responsive_moving_containers() { $(".responsive-moving-container.large").each(function() { var previousParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.active[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); var movingContent = previousParent.html(); if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.small[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else if (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.medium[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.large[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } if (previousParent.attr("class") !== currentParent.attr("class")) { currentParent.html(movingContent); previousParent.html(); currentParent.addClass("active"); previousParent.removeClass("active"); } }); } // cookies allowed is checked from a) local storage and b) from server separately so that the footer bar doesn't // get included in the custom page caches function checkCookiesAllowed() { var cookiesEnabled = localStorage.getItem("mdpi_cookies_enabled"); if (null === cookiesEnabled) { $.ajax({ url: "/ajax_cookie_value/mdpi_cookies_accepted", success: function(data) { if (data.value) { localStorage.setItem("mdpi_cookies_enabled", true); checkDisplaySurvey(); } else { $(".js-allow-cookies").show(); } } }); } else { checkDisplaySurvey(); } } function checkDisplaySurvey() { } window.addEventListener('CookiebotOnAccept', function (e) { var CookieDate = new Date; if (Cookiebot.consent.preferences) { CookieDate.setFullYear(CookieDate.getFullYear() + 1); document.cookie = "mdpi_layout_type_v2=mobile; path=/; expires=" + CookieDate.toUTCString() + ";"; $(".js-toggle-desktop-layout-link").css("display", "inline-block"); } }, false); window.addEventListener('CookiebotOnDecline', function (e) { if (!Cookiebot.consent.preferences) { $(".js-toggle-desktop-layout-link").hide(); if ("" === "desktop") { window.location = "/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie"; } } }, false); var hash = $(location).attr('hash'); if ("#share" === hash) { if (1 === $("#main-share-modal").length) { $('#main-share-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open'); } } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/lib.js?f8d3d71b3a772f9d?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/mdpi.js?c267ce58392b15da?1732615622"></script> <script>var banners_url = 'https://serve.mdpi.com';</script> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/ifvisible.min.js?c621d19ecb761212?1732615622'></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?ac4ea55275297c15?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/clipboard.min.js?3f3688138a1b9fc4?1732615622"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $(document).ready(function() { var helpFunctions = $(".middle-column__help__fixed"); var leftColumnAffix = $(".left-column__fixed"); var middleColumn = $("#middle-column"); var clone = null; helpFunctions.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return middleColumn.offset().top - 8 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 30 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 74 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); if (leftColumnAffix.length > 0) { clone = leftColumnAffix.clone(); clone.addClass("left-column__fixed__affix"); clone.insertBefore(leftColumnAffix); clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); clone.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return leftColumnAffix.offset().top - 30 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 50 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 92 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); } $(window).on("resize", function() { if (clone !== null) { clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); } }); new ClipboardJS('.js-clipboard-copy'); }); </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-ui-1.13.2.min.js?1e2047978946a1d2?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/slick.min.js?d5a61c749e44e471?1732615622"></script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(".link-article-menu").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).find('span').toggle(); $(this).next("div").toggleClass("active"); }); $(".js-similarity-related-articles").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); if ('' !== $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url')) { $('#recommended-articles-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open', $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url')); } }); $.ajax({ url: "/article/182956/similarity-related/show-link", success: function(result) { if (result.show) { $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url', result.link); $('.js-article-similarity-container').show(); } } }); $(document).on('opened.fndtn.reveal', '[data-reveal]', function() { var modal = $(this); if (modal.attr('id') === "author-biographies-modal") { modal.find('.multiple-items').slick({ slidesToShow: 1, nextArrow: '<a class="slick-next" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_right</i></a>', prevArrow: '<a class="slick-prev" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_left</i></a>', slidesToScroll: 1, draggable: false, }); modal.find('.multiple-items').slick('refresh'); } }); }); </script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(document).on('keyup', function (e) { if (e.keyCode == 27) { var hElem = $(this).find(".annotator-adder"); if (hElem.length){ hElem.css({'visibility':'hidden'}); } else { document.querySelector("hypothesis-adder").shadowRoot.querySelector(".annotator-adder").style.visibility = "hidden"; } } }); }); </script> <script> window.hypothesisConfig = function () { return { sidebarAppUrl: 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/app.html', showHighlights: 'whenSidebarOpen' , openSidebar: false , assetRoot: 'https://commentingres.mdpi.com/hypothesis', services: [{ apiUrl: 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/api/', authority: 'mdpi', grantToken: '', doi: '10.3390/vaccines6040075' }], }; }; </script> <script async id="hypothesis_frame"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> if (-1 !== window.location.href.indexOf("?src=")) { window.history.replaceState({}, '', `${location.pathname}`); } $(document).ready(function() { var scifeedCounter = 0; var search = window.location.search; var mathjaxReady = false; // late image file loading $("img[data-lsrc]").each(function() { $(this).attr("src", $(this).data("lsrc")); }); // late mathjax initialization var head = document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0]; var script = document.createElement("script"); script.type = "text/x-mathjax-config"; script[(window.opera ? "innerHTML" : "text")] = "MathJax.Hub.processSectionDelay = 0;\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Config({\n" + " \"menuSettings\": {\n" + " CHTMLpreview: false\n" + " },\n" + " \"CHTML-preview\":{\n" + " disabled: true\n" + " },\n" + " \"HTML-CSS\": {\n" + " scale: 90,\n" + " availableFonts: [],\n" + " preferredFont: null,\n" + " preferredFonts: null,\n" + " webFont:\"Gyre-Pagella\",\n" + " imageFont:'TeX',\n" + " undefinedFamily:\"'Arial Unicode MS',serif\",\n" + " linebreaks: { automatic: false }\n" + " },\n" + " \"TeX\": {\n" + " extensions: ['noErrors.js'],\n" + " noErrors: {\n" + " inlineDelimiters: [\"\",\"\"],\n" + " multiLine: true,\n" + " style: {\n" + " 'font-size': '90%',\n" + " 'text-align': 'left',\n" + " 'color': 'black',\n" + " 'padding': '1px 3px',\n" + " 'border': '1px solid'\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + "});\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Register.StartupHook('End', function() {\n" + " refreshMathjaxWidths();\n" + " mathjaxReady = true;\n" + "});\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Startup.signal.Interest(function (message) {\n" + " if (message == 'End') {\n" + " var hypoLink = document.getElementById('hypothesis_frame');\n" + " if (null !== hypoLink) {\n" + " hypoLink.setAttribute('src', 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/embed.js');\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + "});"; head.appendChild(script); script = document.createElement("script"); script.type = "text/javascript"; script.src = "https://pub.mdpi-res.com/bundles/mathjax/MathJax.js?config=TeX-AMS-MML_HTMLorMML"; head.appendChild(script); // article version checker if (0 === search.indexOf('?type=check_update&version=')) { $.ajax({ url: "/2076-393X/6/4/75" + "/versioncheck" + search, success: function(result) { $(".js-check-update-container").html(result); } }); } $('#feed_option').click(function() { // tracker if ($('#scifeed_clicked').length<1) { $(this).append('<span style="display:none" id="scifeed_clicked">done</span>'); } $('#feed_data').toggle('slide', { direction: 'up'}, '1000'); // slideToggle(700); OR toggle(700) $("#scifeed_error_msg").html('').hide(); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").html('').hide(); }); $('#feed_option').click(function(event) { setTimeout(function(){ var captchaSection = $("#captchaSection"); captchaSection.removeClass('ui-helper-hidden').find('input').prop('disabled', false); // var img = captchaSection.find('img'); // img.attr('src', img.data('url') + "?" + (new Date()).getTime()); // $(".captcha_reload").trigger("click"); var img = document.getElementById('gregwar_captcha_scifeed'); img.src = '/generate-captcha/gcb_captcha?n=' + (new Date()).getTime(); },800); }); $(document).on('click', '.split_feeds', function() { var name = $( this ).attr('name'); var flag = 1 - ($(this).is(":checked")*1); $('.split_feeds').each(function (index) { if ($( this ).attr('name') !== name) { $(this)[0].checked = flag; } }); }); $(document).on('click', '#scifeed_submit, #scifeed_submit1', function(event) { event.preventDefault(); $(".captcha_reload").trigger("click"); $("#scifeed_error_msg").html(""); $("#scifeed_error_msg").hide(); }); $(document).on('click', '.subscription_toggle', function(event) { if ($(this).val() === 'Create SciFeed' && $('#scifeed_hidden_flag').length>0) { event.preventDefault(); // alert('Here there would be a captcha because user is not logged in'); var captchaSection = $("#captchaSection"); if (captchaSection.hasClass('ui-helper-hidden')) { captchaSection.removeClass('ui-helper-hidden').find('input').prop('disabled', false); var img = captchaSection.find('img'); img.attr('src', img.data('url') + "?" + (new Date()).getTime()); $("#reloadCaptcha").trigger("click"); } } }); $(document).on('click', '.scifeed_msg', function(){ $(this).hide(); }); $(document).on('click', '.article-scilit-search', function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var data = $(".article-scilit-search-data").val(); var dataArray = data.split(';').map(function(keyword) { return "(\"" + keyword.trim() + "\")"; }); var searchQuery = dataArray.join(" OR "); var searchUrl = encodeURI("https://www.scilit.net/articles/search?q="+ searchQuery + "&advanced=1&highlight=1"); var win = window.open(searchUrl, '_blank'); if (win) { win.focus(); } else { window.location(searchUrl); } }); display_stats(); citedCount(); follow_goto(); // Select the node that will be observed for mutations const targetNodes = document.getElementsByClassName('hypothesis-count-container'); // Options for the observer (which mutations to observe) const config = { attributes: false, childList: true, subtree: false }; // Callback function to execute when mutations are observed const callback = function(mutationList, observer) { for(const mutation of mutationList) { if (mutation.type === 'childList') { let node = $(mutation.target); if (parseInt(node.html()) > 0) { node.show(); } } } }; // Create an observer instance linked to the callback function const observer = new MutationObserver(callback); // Start observing the target node for configured mutations for(const targetNode of targetNodes) { observer.observe(targetNode, config); } // Select the node that will be observed for mutations const mathjaxTargetNode = document.getElementById('middle-column'); // Callback function to execute when mutations are observed const mathjaxCallback = function(mutationList, observer) { if (mathjaxReady && typeof(MathJax) !== 'undefined') { refreshMathjaxWidths(); } }; // Create an observer instance linked to the callback function const mathjaxObserver = new ResizeObserver(mathjaxCallback); // Start observing the target node for configured mutations mathjaxObserver.observe(mathjaxTargetNode); }); /* END $(document).ready */ function refreshMathjaxWidths() { let width = ($('.html-body').width()*0.9) + "px"; $('.MathJax_Display').css('max-width', width); $('.MJXc-display').css('max-width', width); } function sendScifeedFrom(form) { if (!$('#scifeed_email').val().trim()) { // empty email alert('Please, provide an email for subscribe to this scifeed'); return false; } else if (!$('#captchaSection').hasClass('ui-helper-hidden') && !$('#captchaSection').find('input').val().trim()) { // empty captcha alert('Please, fill the captcha field.'); return false; } else if( ((($('#scifeed_form').find('input:checkbox:checked').length)-($('#split_feeds:checked').length))<1) || ($('#scifeed_kwd_txt').length < 0 && !$('#scifeed_kwd_txt').val().trim()) || ($('#scifeed_author_txt').length<0 &&!$('#scifeed_author_txt').val().trim()) ) { alert('You did not select anything to subscribe'); return false; } else if(($('#scifeed_form').find('input:checkbox:checked').length)-($('#split_feeds2:checked').length)<1){ alert("You did not select anything to subscribe"); return false; } else { var url = $('#scifeed_subscribe_url').html(); var formData = $(form).serializeArray(); $.post(url, formData).done(function (data) { if (JSON.parse(data)) { $('.scifeed_msg').hide(); var res = JSON.parse(data); var successFeeds = 0; var errorFeeds = 0; if (res) { $('.scifeed_msg').html(''); $.each(res, function (index, val) { if (val) { if (val.error) { errorFeeds++; $("#scifeed_error_msg").append(index+' - '+val.error+'<br>'); } if (val.notice) // for successful feed creation { successFeeds++; // $("#scifeed_notice_msg").append(index+' - '+val.notice+'<br>'); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").append('<li>'+index+'</li>'); } } }); if (successFeeds>0) { text = $('#scifeed_notice_msg').html(); text = 'The following feed'+(successFeeds>1?'s have':' has')+ ' been sucessfully created:<br><ul>'+ text + '</ul>' +($('#scifeed_hidden_flag').length>0 ? 'You are not logged in, so you probably need to validate '+ (successFeeds>1?'them':' it')+'.<br>' :'' ) +'Please check your email'+(successFeeds>1?'s':'')+' for more details.'; //(successFeeds>1?' for each of them':'')+'.<br>'; $("#scifeed_notice_msg").html(text); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").show(); } if (errorFeeds>0) { $("#scifeed_error_msg").show();; } } $("#feed_data").hide(); } }); } } function follow_goto() { var hashStr = location.hash.replace("#",""); if(typeof hashStr !== 'undefined') { if( hashStr == 'supplementary') { document.getElementById('suppl_id').scrollIntoView(); } if( hashStr == 'citedby') { document.getElementById('cited_id').scrollIntoView(); } } } function cited() { $("#framed_div").toggle('fast', function(){ if ($(this).css('display') != 'none') { var loaded = document.getElementById("loaded"); if(loaded.innerHTML == "No") { // Load Xref result var container = document.getElementById("framed_div"); // This replace the content container.innerHTML = "<img src=\"https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/loading_circle.gif?9a82694213036313?1732615622\" height=\"20\" width=\"20\" alt=\"Processing...\" style=\"vertical-align:middle; margin-right:0.6em;\">"; var url = "/citedby/10.3390%252Fvaccines6040075/76"; $.post(url, function(result) { if (result.success) { container.innerHTML = result.view; } loaded.innerHTML = "Yes"; }); } } return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... }) return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... } function detect_device() { // Added by Bastien (18/08/2014): based on the http://detectmobilebrowsers.com/ detector var check = false; (function(a){if(/(android|bb\d+|meego).+mobile|avantgo|bada\/|blackberry|blazer|compal|elaine|fennec|hiptop|iemobile|ip(hone|od)|iris|kindle|lge |maemo|midp|mmp|mobile.+firefox|netfront|opera m(ob|in)i|palm( os)?|phone|p(ixi|re)\/|plucker|pocket|psp|series(4|6)0|symbian|treo|up\.(browser|link)|vodafone|wap|windows (ce|phone)|xda|xiino/i.test(a)||/1207|6310|6590|3gso|4thp|50[1-6]i|770s|802s|a wa|abac|ac(er|oo|s\-)|ai(ko|rn)|al(av|ca|co)|amoi|an(ex|ny|yw)|aptu|ar(ch|go)|as(te|us)|attw|au(di|\-m|r |s )|avan|be(ck|ll|nq)|bi(lb|rd)|bl(ac|az)|br(e|v)w|bumb|bw\-(n|u)|c55\/|capi|ccwa|cdm\-|cell|chtm|cldc|cmd\-|co(mp|nd)|craw|da(it|ll|ng)|dbte|dc\-s|devi|dica|dmob|do(c|p)o|ds(12|\-d)|el(49|ai)|em(l2|ul)|er(ic|k0)|esl8|ez([4-7]0|os|wa|ze)|fetc|fly(\-|_)|g1 u|g560|gene|gf\-5|g\-mo|go(\.w|od)|gr(ad|un)|haie|hcit|hd\-(m|p|t)|hei\-|hi(pt|ta)|hp( i|ip)|hs\-c|ht(c(\-| |_|a|g|p|s|t)|tp)|hu(aw|tc)|i\-(20|go|ma)|i230|iac( |\-|\/)|ibro|idea|ig01|ikom|im1k|inno|ipaq|iris|ja(t|v)a|jbro|jemu|jigs|kddi|keji|kgt( |\/)|klon|kpt |kwc\-|kyo(c|k)|le(no|xi)|lg( g|\/(k|l|u)|50|54|\-[a-w])|libw|lynx|m1\-w|m3ga|m50\/|ma(te|ui|xo)|mc(01|21|ca)|m\-cr|me(rc|ri)|mi(o8|oa|ts)|mmef|mo(01|02|bi|de|do|t(\-| |o|v)|zz)|mt(50|p1|v )|mwbp|mywa|n10[0-2]|n20[2-3]|n30(0|2)|n50(0|2|5)|n7(0(0|1)|10)|ne((c|m)\-|on|tf|wf|wg|wt)|nok(6|i)|nzph|o2im|op(ti|wv)|oran|owg1|p800|pan(a|d|t)|pdxg|pg(13|\-([1-8]|c))|phil|pire|pl(ay|uc)|pn\-2|po(ck|rt|se)|prox|psio|pt\-g|qa\-a|qc(07|12|21|32|60|\-[2-7]|i\-)|qtek|r380|r600|raks|rim9|ro(ve|zo)|s55\/|sa(ge|ma|mm|ms|ny|va)|sc(01|h\-|oo|p\-)|sdk\/|se(c(\-|0|1)|47|mc|nd|ri)|sgh\-|shar|sie(\-|m)|sk\-0|sl(45|id)|sm(al|ar|b3|it|t5)|so(ft|ny)|sp(01|h\-|v\-|v )|sy(01|mb)|t2(18|50)|t6(00|10|18)|ta(gt|lk)|tcl\-|tdg\-|tel(i|m)|tim\-|t\-mo|to(pl|sh)|ts(70|m\-|m3|m5)|tx\-9|up(\.b|g1|si)|utst|v400|v750|veri|vi(rg|te)|vk(40|5[0-3]|\-v)|vm40|voda|vulc|vx(52|53|60|61|70|80|81|83|85|98)|w3c(\-| )|webc|whit|wi(g |nc|nw)|wmlb|wonu|x700|yas\-|your|zeto|zte\-/i.test(a.substr(0,4)))check = true})(navigator.userAgent||navigator.vendor||window.opera); return check; } function display_stats(){ $("#article_stats_div").toggle(); return false; } /* * Cited By Scopus */ function citedCount(){ $("#framed_div_cited_count").toggle('fast', function(){ if ($(this).css('display') != 'none') { var loaded = document.getElementById("loaded_cite_count"); // to load only once the result! if(loaded.innerHTML == "No") { // Load Xref result var d = document.getElementById("framed_div_cited_count"); // This replace the content d.innerHTML = "<img src=\"https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/loading_circle.gif?9a82694213036313?1732615622\" height=\"20\" width=\"20\" alt=\"Processing...\" style=\"vertical-align:middle; margin-right:0.6em;\">"; $.ajax({ method : "POST", url : "/cite-count/10.3390%252Fvaccines6040075", success : function(data) { if (data.succ) { d.innerHTML = data.view; loaded.innerHTML = "Yes"; follow_goto(); } } }); } } // end else return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... }) return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... } </script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/third-party/highcharts/highcharts.js?bdd06f45e34c33df?1732615622"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/third-party/highcharts/modules/exporting.js?944dc938d06de3a8?1732615622"></script><script type="text/javascript" defer="defer"> var advancedStatsData; var selectedStatsType = "abstract"; $(function(){ var countWrapper = $('#counts-wrapper'); $('#author_stats_id #type_links a').on('click', function(e) { e.preventDefault(); selectedStatsType = $(this).data('type'); $('#article_advanced_stats').vectorMap('set', 'values', advancedStatsData[selectedStatsType]); $('#advanced_stats_max').html(advancedStatsData[selectedStatsType].max); $('#type_links a').removeClass('active'); $(this).addClass('active'); }); $.get('/2076-393X/6/4/75/stats', function (result) { if (!result.success) { return; } // process article metrics part in left column var viewNumber = countWrapper.find(".view-number"); viewNumber.html(result.metrics.views); viewNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.views == 0); var downloadNumber = countWrapper.find(".download-number"); downloadNumber.html(result.metrics.downloads); downloadNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.downloads == 0); var citationsNumber = countWrapper.find(".citations-number"); citationsNumber.html(result.metrics.citations); citationsNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.citations == 0); if (result.metrics.views > 0 || result.metrics.downloads > 0 || result.metrics.citations > 0) { countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__views, #js-counts-wrapper__downloads").addClass("visible").show(); if (result.metrics.citations > 0) { countWrapper.find('.citations-number').html(result.metrics.citations).show(); countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__citations").addClass("visible").show(); } else { countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__citations").remove(); } $("[data-id='article-counters']").removeClass("hidden"); } if (result.metrics.altmetrics_score > 0) { $("#js-altmetrics-donut").show(); } // process view chart in main column var jsondata = result.chart; var series = new Array(); $.each(jsondata.elements, function(i, element) { var dataValues = new Array(); $.each(element.values, function(i, value) { dataValues.push(new Array(value.tip, value.value)); }); series[i] = {name: element.text, data:dataValues}; }); Highcharts.setOptions({ chart: { style: { fontFamily: 'Arial,sans-serif' } } }); $('#article_stats_swf').highcharts({ chart: { type: 'line', width: $("#tabs").width() //* 0.91 }, credits: { enabled: false }, exporting: { enabled: true }, title: { text: jsondata.title.text, x: -20 //center }, xAxis: { categories: jsondata.x_axis.labels.labels, offset: jsondata.x_axis.offset, labels:{ step: jsondata.x_axis.labels.steps, rotation: 30 } }, yAxis: { max: jsondata.y_axis.max, min: jsondata.y_axis.min, offset: jsondata.y_axis.offset, labels: { steps: jsondata.y_axis.steps }, title: { enabled: false } }, tooltip: { formatter: function (){ return this.key.replace("#val#", this.y); } }, legend: { align: 'top', itemDistance: 50 }, series: series }); }); $('#supplement_link').click(function() { document.getElementById('suppl_id').scrollIntoView(); }); $('#stats_link').click(function() { document.getElementById('stats_id').scrollIntoView(); }); // open mol viewer for molbank special supplementary files $('.showJmol').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var jmolModal = $("#jmolModal"); var url = "/article/182956/jsmol_viewer/__supplementary_id__"; url = url.replace(/__supplementary_id__/g, $(this).data('index')); $('#jsmol-content').attr('src', url); jmolModal.find(".content").html($(this).data('description')); jmolModal.foundation("reveal", "open"); }); }); !function() { "use strict"; function e(e) { try { if ("undefined" == typeof console) return; "error"in console ? console.error(e) : console.log(e) } catch (e) {} } function t(e) { return d.innerHTML = '<a href="' + e.replace(/"/g, """) + '"></a>', d.childNodes[0].getAttribute("href") || "" } function n(n, c) { var o = ""; var k = parseInt(n.substr(c + 4, 2), 16); for (var i = c; i < n.length; i += 2) { if (i != c + 4) { var s = parseInt(n.substr(i, 2), 16) ^ k; o += String.fromCharCode(s); } } try { o = decodeURIComponent(escape(o)); } catch (error) { console.error(error); } return t(o); } function c(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll("a"), c = 0; c < r.length; c++) try { var o = r[c] , a = o.href.indexOf(l); a > -1 && (o.href = "mailto:" + n(o.href, a + l.length)) } catch (i) { e(i) } } function o(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll(u), c = 0; c < r.length; c++) try { var o = r[c] , a = o.parentNode , i = o.getAttribute(f); if (i) { var l = n(i, 0) , d = document.createTextNode(l); a.replaceChild(d, o) } } catch (h) { e(h) } } function a(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll("template"), n = 0; n < r.length; n++) try { i(r[n].content) } catch (c) { e(c) } } function i(t) { try { c(t), o(t), a(t) } catch (r) { e(r) } } var l = "/cnd-cgi/l/email-protection#" , u = ".__cf_email__" , f = "data-cfemail" , d = document.createElement("div"); i(document), function() { var e = document.currentScript || document.scripts[document.scripts.length - 1]; e.parentNode.removeChild(e) }() }(); </script><script type="text/javascript"> function setCookie(cname, cvalue, ctime) { ctime = (typeof ctime === 'undefined') ? 10*365*24*60*60*1000 : ctime; // default => 10 years var d = new Date(); d.setTime(d.getTime() + ctime); // ==> 1 hour = 60*60*1000 var expires = "expires="+d.toUTCString(); document.cookie = cname + "=" + cvalue + "; " + expires +"; path=/"; } function getCookie(cname) { var name = cname + "="; var ca = document.cookie.split(';'); for(var i=0; i<ca.length; i++) { var c = ca[i]; while (c.charAt(0)==' ') c = c.substring(1); if (c.indexOf(name) == 0) return c.substring(name.length, c.length); } return ""; } </script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js"></script><script> $(document).ready(function() { if ($("#js-similarity-related-data").length > 0) { $.ajax({ url: '/article/182956/similarity-related', success: function(response) { $("#js-similarity-related-data").html(response); $("#js-related-articles-menu").show(); $(document).foundation('tab', 'reflow'); MathJax.Hub.Queue(["Typeset", MathJax.Hub]); } }); } }); </script><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1732615622"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1732615622"><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/magnific-popup.min.js?2be3d9e7dc569146?1732615622"></script><script> $(function() { $(".js-show-more-academic-editors").on("click", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).hide(); $(".academic-editor-container").removeClass("hidden"); }); }); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/vmap/jqvmap.min.css?126a06688aa11c13?1732615622"> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/vmap/jquery.vmap.min.js?935f68d33bdd88a1?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/vmap/jquery.vmap.world.js?16677403c0e1bef1?1732615622"></script> <script> function updateSlick() { $('.multiple-items').slick('setPosition'); } $(document).ready(function() { $('.multiple-items').slick({ slidesToShow: 1, nextArrow: '<a class="slick-next" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_right</i></a>', prevArrow: '<a class="slick-prev" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_left</i></a>', slidesToScroll: 1, responsive: [ { breakpoint: 1024, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } }, { breakpoint: 600, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } }, { breakpoint: 480, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } } ] }); $('.multiple-items').show(); $(document).on('click', '.reviewReportSelector', function(e) { let path = $(this).attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, $(this)); }); $(document).on('click', '.viewReviewReports', function(e) { let versionOne = $('#versionTab_1'); if (!versionOne.hasClass('activeTab')) { let path = $(this).attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, versionOne); } location.href = "#reviewReports"; }); $(document).on('click', '.reviewersResponse, .authorResponse', function(e) { let version = $(this).attr('data-version'); let targetVersion = $('#versionTab_' + version); if (!targetVersion.hasClass('activeTab')) { let path = targetVersion.attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, targetVersion); } location.href = $(this).attr('data-link'); }); $(document).on('click', '.tab', function (e) { e.preventDefault(); $('.tab').removeClass('activeTab'); $(this).addClass('activeTab') $('.tab').each(function() { $(this).closest('.tab-title').removeClass('active'); }); $(this).closest('.tab-title').addClass('active') }); }); function handleReviews(path, target) { $.ajax({ url: path, context: this, success: function (data) { $('.activeTab').removeClass('activeTab'); target.addClass('activeTab'); $('#reviewSection').html(data.view); }, error: function (xhr, ajaxOptions, thrownError) { console.log(xhr.status); console.log(thrownError); } }); } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?v1?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/storage.js?e9b262d3a3476d25?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/jquery-scrollspy.js?09cbaec0dbb35a67?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/magnific-popup.js?4a09c18460afb26c?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/underscore.js?f893e294cde60c24?1732615622"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $('document').ready(function(){ $("#left-column").addClass("show-for-large-up"); $("#middle-column").removeClass("medium-9").removeClass("left-bordered").addClass("medium-12"); $(window).on('resize scroll', function() { /* if ($('.button--drop-down').isInViewport($(".top-bar").outerHeight())) { */ if ($('.button--drop-down').isInViewport()) { $("#js-button-download").hide(); } else { $("#js-button-download").show(); } }); }); $(document).on('DOMNodeInserted', function(e) { var element = $(e.target); if (element.hasClass('menu') && element.hasClass('html-nav') ) { element.addClass("side-menu-ul"); } }); </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/articles.js?5118449d9ad8913a?1732615622"></script> <script> repositionOpenSideBar = function() { $('#left-column').addClass("show-for-large-up show-for-medium-up").show(); $('#middle-column').removeClass('large-12').removeClass('medium-12'); $('#middle-column').addClass('large-9'); } repositionCloseSideBar = function() { $('#left-column').removeClass("show-for-large-up show-for-medium-up").hide(); $('#middle-column').removeClass('large-9'); $('#middle-column').addClass('large-12').addClass('medium-12'); } </script>   <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="marketing"> !function(e,t,n,s,u,a){e.twq||(s=e.twq=function(){s.exe?s.exe.apply(s,arguments):s.queue.push(arguments); },s.version='1.1',s.queue=[],u=t.createElement(n),u.async=!0,u.src='//static.ads-twitter.com/uwt.js', a=t.getElementsByTagName(n)[0],a.parentNode.insertBefore(u,a))}(window,document,'script'); // Insert Twitter Pixel ID and Standard Event data below twq('init','o2pip'); twq('track','PageView'); </script>  <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e8ee6746d634834',t:'MTczMjY3Njc2NS4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Enhancing Protective Efficacy of Poultry Vaccines through Targeted Delivery of Antigens to Antigen-Presenting Cells