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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Visual arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puranic_chronology_of_the_Vedic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient South Asian historical period</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Early Vedic period</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/220px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/330px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/440px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age India</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data">1500-1100 <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data">Late Vedic period, <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Late Vedic period</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Vedic_Culture_(1100-500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/220px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/330px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/440px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="767" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BCE</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Early Vedic culture</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Vedic period</b>, or the <b>Vedic age</b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BCE</span>), is the period in the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age in India">Bronze Age</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a> of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">history of India</a> when the Vedic literature, including the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span>–900 BCE), was composed in the northern <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, between the end of the urban <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> and a <a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Second_urbanisation_(c._600_–_200_BCE)" title="History of India">second urbanisation</a>, which began in the central <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span> BCE. The Vedas are <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> texts which formed the basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, a tribal union of several <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rigvedic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Rigvedic tribes">Indo-Aryan tribes</a>. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClishOlivelle2012xxiv_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClishOlivelle2012xxiv-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McClish_Olivelle2012_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClish_Olivelle2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and <b>Vedic culture</b> to be traced and inferred.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201050_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201050-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedas were composed and <a href="/wiki/Vedas#Transmission" title="Vedas">orally transmitted</a> with precision<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by speakers of an <a href="/wiki/Old_Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Indo-Aryan">Old Indo-Aryan</a> language who had <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration theory">migrated</a> into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal">patrilineal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early <a href="/wiki/Indo_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a> were a <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a> society centred in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoral</a> way of life. </p><p>Around <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span>–1000 BCE the <i>Aryan</i> culture spread eastward to the fertile western <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> Plain. <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron tools</a> were adopted, which allowed for the clearing of forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns, <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">kingdoms</a>, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201050_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201050-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>'s codification of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">orthodox sacrificial ritual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a> culture, of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a>. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahajanapada">mahajanapadas</a>) as well as <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a> movements (including <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">social classes</a> that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion#Brahmanism" title="Historical Vedic religion">Brahmanical orthodoxy</a>, and around the beginning of the Common Era, the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic tradition</a> formed one of the main constituents of "<a href="/wiki/Roots_of_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roots of Hinduism">Hindu synthesis</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> include the <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Black and red ware culture">black and red ware culture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a> (PGW).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan peoples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Indo-Aryan migration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">Indigenous Aryans</a></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:402px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:400px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and arrival in the subcontinent as Indo-Aryans[9]"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/400px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/600px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/800px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_200x113" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:113px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#FF4500;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Indo-Aryans</div></a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_255x24" style="position:absolute; left:255px; top:24px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Afanasievo<br />culture</div></a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_175x90" style="position:absolute; left:175px; top:90px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Iranians</div></a> </span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/400px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/600px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/800px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" title="File:Yamnaya Steppe Pastoralists.jpg"> </a></div>Bronze Age spread of <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and arrival in the subcontinent as Indo-Aryans<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </div></div> <p>The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher201060_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher201060-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>, which occurred around 1900 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201041_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> groups of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan peoples</a> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">migrated into north-western India</a> and started to inhabit the northern <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus Valley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199630,_33–35_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630,_33–35-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a> represented a sub-group that diverged from other <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian tribes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo horizon</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007322_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007322-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roots_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roots-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indo-Iranians originated in the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a>, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>–<a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a> area (present-day northern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>) to northwest India,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bactria-Marga_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bactria-Marga-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the rise of the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz culture</a> at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BCE. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Iranian_origins.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/220px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/330px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/440px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological cultures associated with <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Iranian migration">Indo-Iranian migrations</a> (after <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture"><i>EIEC</i></a>). The <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a> cultures have often been associated with <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> migrations. The <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">GGC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper_Hoard_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Hoard Culture">Copper Hoard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">PGW</a> cultures are candidates for cultures associated with <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a> movements.</figcaption></figure> <p>Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryant2001_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant2001-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008186_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008186-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKak2001b_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKak2001b-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200195_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200195-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the idea of a purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream.<sup id="cite_ref-Indigenous_Aryans_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indigenous_Aryans-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>-<a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">samhita</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199631_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199631-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>i.e.</i> the oldest layer of the <i><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></i>, which was composed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1400–1000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2019[httpsarchiveorgdetailswhich-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khanpage11mode2up_11]_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2019[httpsarchiveorgdetailswhich-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khanpage11mode2up_11]-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitanni_confirm_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitanni_confirm-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199630_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Proto-Indo-European religion</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodard2006242_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodard2006242-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Indo-Iranian religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the <a href="/wiki/Zeravshan_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeravshan River">Zeravshan River</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>) and (present-day) Tajikistan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana culture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the god <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and the ritual drink <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bactria-Marga_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bactria-Marga-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Vedic_period_(c._1500_BCE_–_c._1000_BCE)"><span id="Early_Vedic_period_.28c._1500_BCE_.E2.80.93_c._1000_BCE.29"></span>Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigvedic tribes">Rigvedic tribes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg/220px-Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg/330px-Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg/440px-Cremation_Urn_with_Lid_LACMA_AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Cremation urn of the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BCE</span>), associated with Vedic material culture</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Rigveda</i> contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the <a href="/wiki/Dasa" title="Dasa">Dasas</a> and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (<i>akratu</i>) or obey the commandments of gods (<i>avrata</i>). Their speech is described as <i>mridhra</i> which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Asko_Parpola" title="Asko Parpola">Asko Parpola</a> connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes <a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a> and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008192_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008192-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199838_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199838-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a> culture,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a difference also noted by Samuel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the <i>Rigveda</i>. Most notable of such conflicts was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ten_Kings" title="Battle of the Ten Kings">Battle of the Ten Kings</a>, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day <a href="/wiki/Ravi_River" title="Ravi River">Ravi</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The battle was fought between the tribe <i><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81ratas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhāratas">Bharatas</a></i>, led by their chief <a href="/wiki/Sudas" title="Sudas">Sudas</a>, against a confederation of ten tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008187_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008187-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river <a href="/wiki/Sarasvati_River" title="Sarasvati River">Saraswati</a>, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200832_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200832-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2011103_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2011103-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (September 2017)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru</a>, after the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200832_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200832-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Vedic_period_(c._1000_–_c._600_BCE)"><span id="Later_Vedic_period_.28c._1000_.E2.80.93_c._600_BCE.29"></span>Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG/220px-Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG/330px-Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG/440px-Painted_Grey_Ware_-_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Pottery of the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a> (c. 1000–600 BCE), associated with Vedic material culture</figcaption></figure> <p>After the 12th century BCE, as the <i>Rigveda</i> had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETignor2014_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETignor2014-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaushik2013[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaushik2013[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Gangetic</a> plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–39_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–39-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008200_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008200-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing the Śrauta ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20078–10_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20078–10-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It differed from the related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a> and the Mahajanapadas of <a href="/wiki/Kosala" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosala">Kosala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–50_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–50-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this period the <i><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a></i> system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–40_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–40-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in this stage of Indian history were a "hierarchical <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">order of estates</a> which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four: <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAvari201689_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAvari201689-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–41_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–41-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199033_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199033-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199841–43_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199841–43-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Vedic era texts including the early <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and many Sutras important to later <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> culture were completed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19952–8_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19952–8-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg/220px-%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg/330px-%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg/440px-%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3900" data-file-height="2332" /></a><figcaption>Modern replica of utensils and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_fire_altar" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic fire altar">falcon shaped altar</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Agnicayana" title="Agnicayana">Agnicayana</a>, an elaborate <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> ritual originating from the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king <a href="/wiki/Parikshit" title="Parikshit">Parikshit</a> and his successor <a href="/wiki/Janamejaya_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Janamejaya II">Janamejaya</a>, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the <i><a href="/wiki/Ashvamedha" title="Ashvamedha">Ashvamedha</a></i> (horse sacrifice).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200842_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200842-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200842_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200842-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a>, the division of Vedic society in <a href="/wiki/Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmins">Brahmins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic <a href="/wiki/Salva_(India)" title="Salva (India)">Salva tribe</a>, and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchala</a> kingdom on the Ganges, under King <a href="/wiki/Ke%C5%9Bin_D%C4%81lbhya" title="Keśin Dālbhya">Keśin Dālbhya</a> (approximately between 900 and 750 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a> emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> of India and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, reaching its prominence under the king <a href="/wiki/Janaka" title="Janaka">Janaka</a>, whose court provided patronage for <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> sages and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uddalaka_Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Uddalaka Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gargi_Vachaknavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gargi Vachaknavi">Gargi Vachaknavi</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king <a href="/wiki/Pravahana_Jaivali" title="Pravahana Jaivali">Pravahana Jaivali</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaychaudhuri197267–68_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaychaudhuri197267–68-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Towards_urbanization">Towards urbanization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Towards urbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahajanapada">Mahajanapadas</a>. The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxviii–xxix_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxviii–xxix-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anga" title="Anga">Anga</a>, a small kingdom to the east of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> (on the door step of modern-day <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200840_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200840-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Yadavas" class="mw-redirect" title="Yadavas">Yadavas</a> expanded towards the south and settled in <a href="/wiki/Mathura" title="Mathura">Mathura</a>. To the south of their kingdom was <a href="/wiki/Vatsa" title="Vatsa">Vatsa</a> which was governed from its capital <a href="/wiki/Kausambi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kausambi">Kausambi</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada River</a> and parts of North Western <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> formed the southern limits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200841_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200841-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199865_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199865-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199866_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199866-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> marks a final apex in the codification of <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a> texts, and at the same time the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2011208_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2011208-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">shramana</a> movements (including <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_ch._3_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_ch._3-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in "<a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a>," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2013chapter_II_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2013chapter_II-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>. Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in the Kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks">Indo-Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthians" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthians">Indo-Parthians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999117–120_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999117–120-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period culminated with the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>, which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#f8eaba;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:1px solid #ccc;background:#efefef;font-weight:normal;"> Preceded by <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magan_(civilization)" title="Magan (civilization)">Magan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyarite_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite kingdom">Himyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">The Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#Ancient_Europe" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Aegean Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argaric_culture" title="Argaric culture">Argaric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torrean_civilization" title="Torrean civilization">Torrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talaiotic_culture" title="Talaiotic culture">Talaiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessos" title="Tartessos">Tartessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches" title="Guanches">Guanches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caucasus" title="History of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma kingdom">Kerma kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Simien" title="Kingdom of Simien">Kingdom of Simien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harla_kingdom" title="Harla kingdom">Harla kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbaria_(region)" title="Barbaria (region)">Barbaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosylon" title="Mosylon">Mosylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heis_(town)" title="Heis (town)">Mundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toniki" title="Toniki">Toniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromata" title="Aromata">Aromata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikon_(Somalia)" title="Nikon (Somalia)">Nicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rauso" title="Rauso">Rauso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">North Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasamones" title="Nasamones">Nasamones chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battiadae" title="Battiadae">Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massylii" title="Massylii">Massylii Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ouarsenis" title="Kingdom of Ouarsenis">Kingdom of Ouarsenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandal kingdom">Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Capsus" title="Kingdom of Capsus">Kingdom of Capsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Kingdom of Masuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Kingdom of Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodna" title="Hodna">Kingdom of Hodna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemencha" title="Nemencha">Nemencha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laguatan" title="Laguatan">Laguatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe#History" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scytho-Siberian_world" title="Scytho-Siberian world">Scythia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_peoples" title="Tungusic peoples">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohe_people" title="Mohe people">Mohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Hunas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xionites" title="Xionites">Xionites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Huns" title="Iranian Huns">Iranian Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongols" title="Proto-Mongols">Proto-Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumo_Xi" title="Kumo Xi">Kumo Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiwei_people" title="Shiwei people">Shiwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Pannonian Avars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_(people)" title="Hu (people)">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">Siberia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Yavana kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fergana_Valley#History" title="Fergana Valley">Fergana Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin#History" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan#Prehistoric_and_ancient_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korea#Prehistoric_and_Antiquity_period" title="History of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia#Ancient_period" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern America</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Puebloans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinagua" title="Sinagua">Sinagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Dorset" title="Pre-Dorset">Pre-Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns culture</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerica</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacha" title="Capacha">Capacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_culture" title="Mixtec culture">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Cocl%C3%A9" title="Gran Coclé">Gran Coclé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicuilco" title="Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chup%C3%ADcuaro" title="Chupícuaro">Chupícuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Mexico_shaft_tomb_tradition" title="Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition">Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuchitl%C3%A1n_culture" title="Teuchitlán culture">Teuchitlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veraguas_culture" title="Veraguas culture">Veraguas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquis" title="Diquis">Diquis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nicoya" title="Kingdom of Nicoya">Nicoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac_culture" title="Totonac culture">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andean_South_America" title="History of Andean South America">Andes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caral%E2%80%93Supe_civilization" title="Caral–Supe civilization">Caral–Supe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casma%E2%80%93Sechin_culture" title="Casma–Sechin culture">Casma–Sechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_culture" title="Lima culture">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ortoiroid_people" title="Ortoiroid people">Ortoiroid people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanahatabey" title="Guanahatabey">Guanahatabey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Kalinago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Kalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafaring_in_the_Pre-Columbian_Caribbean" title="Seafaring in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean">Seafaring</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kintampo_Complex" title="Kintampo Complex">Kintampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt" title="Dhar Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sao_civilisation" title="Sao civilisation">Sao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekoi_people" title="Ekoi people">Ekoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_prehistory" title="Serer prehistory">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambian_stone_circles" title="Senegambian stone circles">Senegambia megaliths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-imperial_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-imperial Mali">Pre-imperial Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno" title="Djenné-Djenno">Djenné-Djenno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bura_culture" title="Bura culture">Bura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahelian_kingdoms" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takrur" title="Takrur">Takrur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Pygmies" title="African Pygmies">Pygmies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesia#History" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesia#History" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesia#History" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93ng_B%C3%A0ng_dynasty" title="Hồng Bàng dynasty">Hồng Bàng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suvarnabhumi" title="Suvarnabhumi">Suvarnabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhanavati" title="Singhanavati">Singhanavati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sungai_Batu" title="Sungai Batu">Sungai Batu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon_kingdoms" title="Mon kingdoms">Mon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_city-states" title="Pyu city-states">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaton_kingdom" title="Thaton kingdom">Thaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82u_L%E1%BA%A1c" title="Âu Lạc">Âu Lạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chi_Tu" title="Chi Tu">Chi Tu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tun_Sun" title="Tun Sun">Tun Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funan" title="Funan">Funan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambralinga" title="Tambralinga">Tambralinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagaung_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagaung kingdom">Tagaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Ksetra_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Ksetra kingdom">Sri Ksetra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A2m_%E1%BA%A4p" title="Lâm Ấp">Lâm Ấp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quduqian" title="Quduqian">Quduqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pan_(kingdom)" title="Pan Pan (kingdom)">Pan Pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rakhine" title="History of Rakhine">Arakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xitu" title="Xitu">Xitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantoli" title="Kantoli">Kantoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_kingdom" title="Old Pahang kingdom">Mueang Pahang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavo_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavo kingdom">Lavo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melayu_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Melayu kingdom">Melayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaravati" title="Dvaravati">Dvaravati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chenla" title="Chenla">Chenla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shailendra_dynasty" title="Shailendra dynasty">Shailendra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Cambodia" title="Early history of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial_states_of_Thailand" title="Initial states of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-colonial_Timor" title="Pre-colonial Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Philippines" title="Prehistory of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Singapore" title="Early history of Singapore">Singapore</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">Ancient maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border:1px solid #ccc;background:#efefef;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_history" title="Category:Ancient history">Category</a></li> <li>Followed by <a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_history" title="Template:Ancient history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_history" title="Template talk:Ancient history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Indian_caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Indian caste system">castes</a> was absent,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaal200854_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaal200854-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">social classes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political hierarchy was determined by rank, where <i>rājan</i> (tribal king or chieftain) and <i>rājanya</i> (tribal nobility) stood at the top, the <i>viś</i> (the common people) in the middle, and the <i>dāsa</i> and <i>dasyu</i> (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19955_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19955-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The words <i>Brahamana</i> and <i>Kshatriya</i> occur in various family books of the <i>Rigveda</i>, but they are not associated with the term <i><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a></i>. The words <i>Vaishya</i> and <i>Shudra</i> are absent. Verses of the <i>Rigveda</i>, such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008192_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008192-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>O, Indra, fond of <i>soma</i>, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk <i>soma</i>, would you impart to me endless wealth.</p></blockquote> <p>The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the <i>Rigveda</i>. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wife enjoyed a respectable position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200835_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200835-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled <i>aghnya</i> (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Soma</i> and <i>sura</i> were popular drinks in the Vedic society, of which <i>soma</i> was sanctified by religion. Flute (<i>vana</i>), lute (<i>vina</i>), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a <a href="/wiki/Heptatonic_scale" title="Heptatonic scale">heptatonic scale</a> was used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200835_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200835-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the <i>rajan</i> from the people and the emergence of a <i><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a></i> hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups—<a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmanas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriyas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishyas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudras</a>. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The <i><a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a></i> associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher <i>varnas</i>. The effects of <i><a href="/wiki/Rajasuya" title="Rajasuya">Rajasuya</a></i> sacrifice depended on the <i>varna</i> of the sacrificer. <i>Rajasuya</i> endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three <i>varnas</i> is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. <i>Panchavamsha Brahmana</i> and verse 13.8.3.11 of the <i>Shatapatha Brahmana</i> place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The <i><a href="/wiki/Purusha_Sukta" title="Purusha Sukta">Purusha Sukta</a></i> visualised the four <i>varnas</i> as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008201–203_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008201–203-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like <i>Rigveda</i> IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008204_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008204-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvi_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvi-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a <i>grihapati</i>. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like <i>Tattiriya Samhita</i> indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as <a href="/wiki/Vishpala" title="Vishpala">Vishpala</a>, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008204–206_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008204–206-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a>, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxxvi_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxxvi-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_organisation">Political organisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Political organisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Vedic weaponry</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><table style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;margin:auto;width:360px"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:180px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:180px;height:180px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg/77px-MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg" decoding="async" width="77" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg/116px-MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg/154px-MET_2001_433_53_O.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="386" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px">Ancient Indian antennae sword; metalwork, 1500–500 BCE</div></td><td style="width:180px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:180px;height:180px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ax_Blade_(Celt).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Ax_Blade_%28Celt%29.jpg/157px-Ax_Blade_%28Celt%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Ax_Blade_%28Celt%29.jpg/235px-Ax_Blade_%28Celt%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Ax_Blade_%28Celt%29.jpg/314px-Ax_Blade_%28Celt%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="625" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px">Ancient Indian axe blade, 1500–1000 BCE</div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a <i>rajan</i>. The autonomy of the <i>rajan</i> was restricted by the tribal councils called <i>sabha</i> and <i>samiti</i>. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The <i>rajan</i> could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Llewellyn_Basham" title="Arthur Llewellyn Basham">Arthur Llewellyn Basham</a>, a noted historian and <a href="/wiki/Indologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Indologist">indologist</a>, theorises that <i>sabha</i> was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, <i>samiti</i> was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. <i>Rajan</i> had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (<i>sabhasad</i>) and chiefs of sects (<i>gramani</i>). The main responsibility of the <i>rajan</i> was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the <i>purohita</i> (chaplain), the <i>senani</i> (army chief), <i>dutas</i> (envoys) and <i>spash</i> (spies).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar197745_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar197745-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Purohita</i> performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200833–34_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200833–34-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200841_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200841-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> rituals) to strengthen the emerging <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">social hierarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>rajan</i> was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of <i>rashtra</i> (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as <i>samrat</i> (supreme ruler). The <i>rajan's</i> increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (<i>bali</i>) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. <i>Sabha</i> and <i>samiti</i> are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king, their influence declined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states (<i>rajya</i>), oligarchical states (<i>gana</i> or <i>sangha</i>), and tribal principalities had emerged in India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>'s analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witzel's_study_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel's_study-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellah" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bellah">Robert Bellah</a> observes that it is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a <a href="/wiki/Complex_chiefdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex chiefdom">complex chiefdom</a>, as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA491_491_f.]_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA491_491_f.]-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early <a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">state formation</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA697_pp._697–698],_citing_Trigger_(2003)_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA697_pp._697–698],_citing_Trigger_(2003)-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsunderstandingear0000trigpage108mode2up_108–109]_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsunderstandingear0000trigpage108mode2up_108–109]-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Romila Thapar</a> characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to structure social relations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA698_698_f.]_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA698_698_f.]-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>, the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a> movements,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA509_p._509],_citing_Olivelle_(1998),_pp._xii–x_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA509_p._509],_citing_Olivelle_(1998),_pp._xii–x-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998"Notes_on_the_translation":_pp._xii–x_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998"Notes_on_the_translation":_pp._xii–x-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the end of the Vedic Period, which was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahajanapada">Mahajanapada</a> period. </p><p>According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">chiefdoms</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra_district" title="Kurukshetra district">Kurukshetra district</a> itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995a_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995a-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995b_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995b-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> and agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200835_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200835-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are references, in the <i>Rigveda</i>, to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (<i>bali</i>) and priests (<i>dana</i>), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the <i>Rigveda</i>, but the word <i>ayas</i> and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of <i>ayas</i>. Some scholars believe that <i>ayas</i> refers to iron and the words <i>dham</i> and <i>karmara</i> refer to iron-welders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008190_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008190-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, philological evidence indicates that <i>ayas</i> in the <i>Rigveda</i> refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or <i>śyāma ayas</i>, literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic <i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age</a> culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age</a> culture.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199840_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199840-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> valley during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvii_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvii-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (<i>krishna–ayas</i> or <i>shyama–ayas</i>, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008198–199_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008198–199-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200842–43_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200842–43-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Panis</i> in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">semitic</a> traders, but the evidence for this is slim.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200832_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200832-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of the <i>Rigveda</i>. Some of these might have needed full-time specialists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008190_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008190-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of the <i>Rigveda</i> refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (<i>dasa</i>, <i>dasi</i>) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg/220px-An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg/330px-An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg/440px-An_attempt_to_depict_the_creative_activities_of_Prajapati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption>A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of <a href="/wiki/Prajapati" title="Prajapati">Prajapati</a>, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vedic_religion">Vedic religion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vedic religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four <i><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></i>, but the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a> and the older <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> as well as the oldest <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arautasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Śrautasutra">Śrautasutras</a> are also considered to be Vedic. The <i>Vedas</i> record the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> priests and the <a href="/wiki/Purohita" title="Purohita">purohitas</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">rishis</a>, the composers of the hymns of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i>, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing <i>Veda</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></i> means "what is heard"). </p><p>The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (<a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a>) which included the <a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">chanting</a> of Rigvedic verses (see <a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Vedic chant</a>), singing of <i>Samans</i> and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras (<a href="/wiki/Yajus" class="mw-redirect" title="Yajus">Yajus</a>). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENigal198681_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENigal198681-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>—into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. </p><p>Vedic people believed in the <a href="/wiki/Transmigration_of_a_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmigration of a soul">transmigration of the soul</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Peepul" class="mw-redirect" title="Peepul">peepul</a> tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the <i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinghalGupta150–151_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinghalGupta150–151-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a> etc. trace their root to the <i>Vedas</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay198242–45_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay198242–45-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Sacrificial_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrificial fire">sacrificial fire</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> and some deities of social order such as <a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra (Vedic)">Mitra</a>–<a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aryaman" title="Aryaman">Aryaman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhaga" title="Bhaga">Bhaga</a> and Amsa, further nature deities such as <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a> (the Sun), <a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a> (the wind) and <a href="/wiki/Prithvi" title="Prithvi">Prithivi</a> (the earth). Goddesses included <a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Ushas</a> (the dawn), Prithvi and <a href="/wiki/Aditi" title="Aditi">Aditi</a> (the mother of the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80dityas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ādityas">Aditya</a> gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially <a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a>, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Indo-Iranian</a> religion remain visible, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>. </p><p>Ethics in the <i>Vedas</i> are based on the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rta">Rta</a>. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrishnananda1994[httpsarchiveorgdetailsAShortHistoryofReligiousandPhilosophicThoughtofIndiaSwamiKrishnanandaDevineLifeSocietypagen11mode2up_11]_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishnananda1994[httpsarchiveorgdetailsAShortHistoryofReligiousandPhilosophicThoughtofIndiaSwamiKrishnanandaDevineLifeSocietypagen11mode2up_11]-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2004215_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2004215-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influence_on_Hinduism">Influence on Hinduism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Influence on Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around the beginning of the Common Era, the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic tradition</a> formed one of the main constituents of the "<a href="/wiki/Hinduism#Roots_of_Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu synthesis</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamisonWitzel200365_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamisonWitzel200365-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vedic_Hinduism_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vedic_Hinduism-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> acknowledge the authority of the <i>Vedas</i>, but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>. Later texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and epics, namely the <a href="/wiki/Gita" class="mw-redirect" title="Gita">Gita</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, are essential parts of these later developments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/220px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/330px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/440px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>An early-19th-century manuscript of <i>Rigveda</i> (<a href="/wiki/Padapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Padapatha">padapatha</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Vedic_accent" title="Vedic accent">Vedic accent</a> is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.</figcaption></figure> <p>The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Rigvedic text</b>: The <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i> is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic text. Its time span likely corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Late Harappan culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a>.</li> <li><b>Mantra language texts</b>: This period includes both the <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantra</a> and prose language of the <i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i> (<i>Paippalada</i> and <i>Shaunmkiya</i>), the <i>Rigveda <a href="/wiki/Khilani" title="Khilani">Khilani</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> Samhita</i> (containing some 75 mantras not in the <i>Rigveda</i>), and the mantras of the <i><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></i>. Many of these texts are largely derived from the <i>Rigveda</i>, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of <i>vishva</i> "all" by <i>sarva</i>, and the spread of the <i>kuru-</i> verbal stem (for Rigvedic <i>krno-</i>). This is the time of the early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in north-western India, corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Black_and_Red_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Black and Red Ware">Black and Red Ware</a> (BRW) and <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted Grey Ware">Painted Grey Ware</a> (PGW) cultures, and the early <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, dating from c. the 12th to 11th centuries BCE.</li> <li><b>Samhita prose texts</b>: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the <a href="/wiki/Injunctive_mood" title="Injunctive mood">injunctive</a>. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the <i>Black <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></i> (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware culture from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a> and the subsequent eastward shift of the political centre from the Kurus to the <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchalas</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>.</li> <li><b>Brahmana prose texts</b>: The <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a> proper of the four <i>Vedas</i> belong to this period, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a>, the oldest of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brihad-Aranyaka_Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad">BAU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">ChU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaiminiya_Upanishad_Brahmana" title="Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana">JUB</a>) and the oldest <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arautasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Śrautasutra">Śrautasutras</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baudhayana_%C5%9Arauta_Sutra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baudhayana Śrauta Sutra (page does not exist)">BSS</a>, VadhSS). In the east, <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a> (N. Bihar and Nepal) is established as the third main political centre of the Vedic period.</li> <li><b>Sutra language texts</b>: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arautasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Śrautasutra">Śrauta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grhyasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Grhyasutra">Grhya</a> Sutras, and some <i>Upanishads</i> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">KathU</a>, <a href="/wiki/MaitrU" class="mw-redirect" title="MaitrU">MaitrU</a>).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Visual arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mathura" title="Art of Mathura">Art of Mathura</a></div> <p>In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>, but the following millennium, coinciding with the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Indo–Aryan migration</a> during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989112–115,_125_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989112–115,_125-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">early Vedic religion</a> focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrishanTadikonda1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkDyJh--iaL0CpgPP13_ix-x]_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishanTadikonda1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkDyJh--iaL0CpgPP13_ix-x]-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various artefacts may belong to the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Hoard_culture" title="Copper Hoard culture">Copper Hoard culture</a> (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Black and red ware culture">Black and red ware culture</a> (1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> include the <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Black and red ware culture">Black and red ware culture</a> and the Painted Grey Ware culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008218-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between the Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarvill2009"ochre‐coloured_pottery"_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarvill2009"ochre‐coloured_pottery"-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008218-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pottery was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008218-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008218-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and the "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pottery is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMishra2007-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pottery, as the name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMishra2007-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMishra2007-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMishra2007-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMishra2007-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Painted_grey_ware_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted grey ware culture">Painted grey ware culture</a> is a significant pottery style that has been linked to a group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHedge2015_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHedge2015-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It's also thought that the groups that introduced the painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHedge2015_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHedge2015-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into a smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHedge2015_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHedge2015-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELal1996412–419_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELal1996412–419-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Puranic_chronology_of_the_Vedic_period">Puranic chronology of the Vedic period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Puranic chronology of the Vedic period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Puranic_chronology" class="mw-redirect" title="Puranic chronology">Puranic chronology</a>, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a>, envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKak2001b_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKak2001b-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view, the Vedas were received by the <a href="/wiki/Seven_rishis" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven rishis">seven rishis</a> thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Vaivasvata_Manu" title="Vaivasvata Manu">Vaivasvata Manu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Manu_(Hinduism)" title="Manu (Hinduism)">Manu</a> of the current <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">kalpa</a> (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERocher1986122_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERocher1986122-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra_War" title="Kurukshetra War">Kurukshetra War</a>, the background-scene of the <i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i>, which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80ry%C4%81varta" title="Āryāvarta">Āryāvarta</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh200919_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh200919-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is dated in this chronology at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100 BCE</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#History" title="South Asia">History of South Asia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_(orthographic_projection)_without_national_boundaries.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="South Asia (orthographic projection)"><img alt="South Asia (orthographic projection)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/150px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/225px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/300px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">Outline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Palaeolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(2,500,000–250,000 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madrasian_culture" title="Madrasian culture">Madrasian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Neolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(10,800–3300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7570–6200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7000–3300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (5000–3000 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(3500–1500 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anarta_tradition" title="Anarta tradition">Anarta tradition</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3950</span>–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahar%E2%80%93Banas_culture" title="Ahar–Banas culture">Ahar-Banas culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (3000–1500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandu_culture" title="Pandu culture">Pandu culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–750 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malwa_culture" title="Malwa culture">Malwa culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jorwe_culture" title="Jorwe culture">Jorwe culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1400–700 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age</a> <span class="nobold">(3300–1300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Early_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Early Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–2600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Mature_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Mature Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2600–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Late Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1900–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–1600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Swat culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1600–500 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a> <span class="nobold">(1500–200 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1500–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1500–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware" title="Black and red ware">Black and Red ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1300–1000 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1200–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (700–200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (799–684 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (684–424 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kingdoms</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BC</span> – AD 1600)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Maha Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>–300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (550–330 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Ror Dynasty</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (450 BC – AD 489)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (424–345 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (380–321 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (330–323 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (321–184 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (312–303 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 AD</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1345)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1102)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1279)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 AD</span> – AD 800)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (247 BC – AD 224)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle Kingdoms</a> <span class="nobold">(230 BC – AD 1206)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230 BC – AD 220)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kuninda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuninda Kingdom">Kuninda Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (200 BC – AD 300)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mitra_dynasty_(Mathura)" title="Mitra dynasty (Mathura)">Mitra Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 50 BC</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (185–73 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (180 BC – AD 10)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (75–26 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (50 BC – AD 400)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 21 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 130</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satrap Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 35–405 )</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 60–240)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Bharshiva Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (170–350)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Nagas of Padmavati</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (210–340)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (224–651)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Indo-Sassanid Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230–360)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty">Vakataka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhras Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (280–550)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (345–525)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty" title="Western Ganga dynasty">Western Ganga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1000)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1100)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina_dynasty" title="Vishnukundina dynasty">Vishnukundina Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (420–624)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maitraka_dynasty" title="Maitraka dynasty">Maitraka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–767)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty">Rai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (489–632)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Kabul Shahi Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span> – 1026)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (543–753)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maukhari_dynasty" title="Maukhari dynasty">Maukhari Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (606–647)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (618–841)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (624–1075)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (632–661)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (650–1036)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (661–750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mallabhum_kingdom" title="Mallabhum kingdom">Mallabhum kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (694–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhauma-Kara_dynasty" title="Bhauma-Kara dynasty">Bhauma-Kara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (736–916)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (750–1174)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (753–982)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Paramara_dynasty" title="Paramara dynasty">Paramara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (800–1327)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">Yadava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (850–1334)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Somavamshi_dynasty" title="Somavamshi dynasty">Somavamshi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (882–1110)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (942–1244)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (973–1189)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lohara_dynasty" title="Lohara dynasty">Lohara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1003–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1040–1347)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sena_dynasty" title="Sena dynasty">Sena Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1070–1230)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1078–1434)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1083–1323)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1102–1766)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kalachuris of Tripuri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (675–1210)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani" title="Kalachuris of Kalyani">Kalachuris of Kalyani</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1156–1184)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chutia_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chutia Kingdom">Chutiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1187–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deva_dynasty" title="Deva dynasty">Deva Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Late medieval period</a> <span class="nobold">(1206–1526)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (977–1186)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1170–1206)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1290)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1290–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1320–1414)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1414–1451)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1451–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahom_kingdom" title="Ahom kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1228–1826)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Chitradurga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1300–1779)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reddi_Kingdom" title="Reddi Kingdom">Reddy Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1325–1448)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1336–1646)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1352–1576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Kingdom" title="Garhwal Kingdom">Garhwal Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1358–1803)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1399–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gajapati_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajapati Empire">Gajapati Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1434–1541)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Namgyal_dynasty_of_Ladakh" title="Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh">Ladakh Kingdom </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1470–1842)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1596)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1636)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Berar_sultanate" title="Berar sultanate">Berar sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1574)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bidar_Sultanate" title="Bidar Sultanate">Bidar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1619)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1686)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Golkonda_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Golkonda Sultanate">Golkonda Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1518–1687)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Keladi" title="Nayakas of Keladi">Keladi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1499–1763)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Koch_dynasty" title="Koch dynasty">Koch Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1515–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> <span class="nobold">(1526–1858)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1526–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Sur Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1540–1556)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">Madurai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1529–1736)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayak_kingdom" title="Thanjavur Nayak kingdom">Thanjavur Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1532–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhoi_dynasty" title="Bhoi dynasty">Bhoi dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1541–1804)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1576–1757)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ramnad_estate" title="Ramnad estate">Marava Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1642–1975)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tondaiman" title="Tondaiman">Thondaiman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1650–1948)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1674–1818)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Misl" class="mw-redirect" title="Misl">Sikh Confederacy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1707–1799)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1729–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1799–1849)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial states</a> <span class="nobold">(1510–1961)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1510–1961)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1605–1825)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1620–1869)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1759–1954)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1757–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1858–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">National histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Regional histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Assam" title="History of Assam">Assam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Balochistan" title="History of Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bengal" title="History of Bengal">Bengal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bihar" title="History of Bihar">Bihar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gujarat" title="History of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="History of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kabul">Kabul</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Karnataka" title="History of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kashmir" title="History of Kashmir">Kashmir</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rajasthan" title="History of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maharashtra" title="History of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="History of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Punjab" title="History of Punjab">Punjab</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Odisha" title="History of Odisha">Odisha</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sindh" title="History of Sindh">Sindh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_India" title="History of South India">South India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Specialised histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Agriculture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India#History" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_monarchs" title="List of Indian monarchs">Dynasties</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">Education</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia">Influence on Southeast Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_studies" title="Pakistan studies">Pakistan studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions#History" title="Indian religions">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a> (Contemporaneous period in Iranian history)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-McClish_Olivelle2012-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McClish_Olivelle2012_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcClishOlivelle2012">McClish & Olivelle 2012</a>, p. xxiv: "Although the Vedas are essentially liturgical documents and increasingly mystical reflections on Vedic ritual, they are sufficiently rich and extensive to give us some understanding of what life was like at the time. The earliest of the Vedas, the <i>Ṛgveda Saṃhitā</i>, contains 1,028 hymns, some of which may be as old as 1500 BCE. Because the Vedic texts are the primary way in which we can understand the period between the fall of the IVC (ca 1700) and the second wave of urbanization (600 BCE), we call the intervening era of South Asian history the 'Vedic Period.'"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a <i>tape-recording</i> of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li>Rita Banerji (2008), <i>Sex and Power</i>, Penguin UK: "The Vedic patriarchal culture was defined by an extremely aggressive need to establish a social order that catered to male sexuality, both on earth and in the heavens—among humans and also among the gods."</li> <li>Alphonso Lingis (2018), <i>The Alphonso Lingis Reader</i>, University of Minnesota Press: "Patriarchal culture entered Siam late, through the royal family, which, though to this day Buddhist, in the late Sukhothai period—as Angkor long before it—imported brahminical priests and, with them, Vedic patriarchal culture."</li> <li>Chitrabhanu Sen (1978), <i>A Dictionary of the Vedic Rituals: Based on the Śrauta and Gṛhya Sūtras</i>, Concept Publishing Company: "But the most important transformation that occurred in the patriarchal Vedic society is the exclusion of women from the sacrifices."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-roots-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-roots_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 408 states that around 1800–1600 BCE, the Indo-Aryans are believed to have split off from the Iranians.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 454 states that one of these Indo-Aryan groups would found the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> kingdom in northern Syria (c. 1500–1300 BCE).</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, pp. 33, 35 states that they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians, who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone and "chased them to the extremities of Central Eurasia."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, p. 34 states that the other group were the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic people">Vedic people</a>, who were pursued by the Iranians "across Iran into India."</li></ul> For an overview of the current relevant research, see: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBhan2002">Bhan 2002</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFRatnagar2008">Ratnagar 2008</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFParpola2015">Parpola 2015</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJoseph2018">Joseph 2018</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJoseph2019">Joseph 2019</a></li></ul> </div> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bactria-Marga-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bactria-Marga_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bactria-Marga_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">According to <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, pp. 454–455, at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and the ritual drink <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a>, which according to Anthony was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion." <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 454: "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, <a href="/wiki/Verethraghna" class="mw-redirect" title="Verethraghna">Verethraghna</a>, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the <i>Rigveda</i>. He was associated more than any other deity with <i>Soma</i>, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from <i>Ephedra</i>) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Narasimhan et al. state that there was no genetic impact from Bactria-Margiana populations on the ancestry of South Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indigenous_Aryans-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Indigenous_Aryans_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 186: "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."</li> <li>As of 2006, <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams2006">Mallory & Adams 2006</a>, pp. 460–461 note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency" as to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_homeland" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European homeland">Indo-European homeland</a>, namely the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">migration out of the Eurasian steppes</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBryant2001">Bryant 2001</a>, p. 7: "This does not mean that the Indigenous Aryan position is historically probable. The available evidence by no means denies the <i>normative view</i>—that of external Aryan origins and, if anything, <i>favors</i> it." <a href="#CITEREFBryantPatton2005">Bryant & Patton 2005</a>, p. 342 used the term "Indo-Aryan Controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and some of its opponents.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a>: "The 'revisionist project' certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise. Though the ones pursuing this project use dialectic methods quite effectively, they frequently also turn traditional Indian discussion methods and scholastic tricks to their advantage [...] The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the 'truth' of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at 'rewriting' history out of national pride or for the purpose of 'nation building'."</li> <li>In her review of Bryant's "The Indo-Aryan Controversy," <a href="#CITEREFJamison2006">Jamison 2006</a> comments: "...the parallels between the Intelligent Design issue and the Indo-Aryan "controversy" are distressingly close. The Indo-Aryan controversy is a manufactured one with a non-scholarly agenda, and the tactics of its manufacturers are very close to those of the ID proponents mentioned above. However unwittingly and however high their aims, the two editors have sought to put a gloss of intellectual legitimacy, with a sense that real scientific questions are being debated, on what is essentially a religion-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Mitanni_confirm-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mitanni_confirm_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2019">Witzel 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/which-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khan/page/11/mode/2up">11</a>: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the <i>Rig Veda</i> for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The <i>Rig Veda</i> is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the <i>Rig Veda</i> cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Erdosy, this battle provided a prototype for the epic <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995335_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995335-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hiltebeitel calls this idea a "particularly baffling fancy."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20012,_note_12_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20012,_note_12-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel's_study-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Witzel's_study_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel's study is furthermore cited by: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2011">Hiltebeitel 2011</a>, p. 57</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFProferes2003">Proferes 2003</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPanikkar2001">Panikkar 2001</a>, pp. 350–351 remarks: "<i>Ṛta</i> is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vedic_Hinduism-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vedic_Hinduism_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamisonWitzel2003">Jamison & Witzel 2003</a>, p. 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from mediaeval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-3"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClishOlivelle2012xxiv-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClishOlivelle2012xxiv_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcClishOlivelle2012">McClish & Olivelle 2012</a>, p. xxiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201050-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201050_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201050_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein2010">Stein 2010</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2005">Witzel 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, pp. 3–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 49–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2002">Hiltebeitel 2002</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1989">Witzel 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019">Narasimhan et al. 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher201060-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher201060_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPletcher2010">Pletcher 2010</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201041-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201041_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630,_33–35-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199630,_33–35_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, pp. 30, 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007410–411_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, pp. 410–411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007322-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007322_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuzmina2007">Kuzmina 2007</a>, p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant2001-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryant2001_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBryant2001">Bryant 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008186-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008186_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKak2001b-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKak2001b_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKak2001b_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKak2001b">Kak 2001b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200195-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200195_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199631-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199631_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2019[httpsarchiveorgdetailswhich-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khanpage11mode2up_11]-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2019[httpsarchiveorgdetailswhich-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khanpage11mode2up_11]_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2019">Witzel 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/which-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khan/page/11/mode/2up">11</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199630-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199630_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodard2006242-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodard2006242_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodard2006">Woodard 2006</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007375,_408–411_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 375, 408–411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008192-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008192_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008192_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199838-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199838_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2007_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2007">Bronkhorst 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995335-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995335_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErdosy1995">Erdosy 1995</a>, p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20012,_note_12-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20012,_note_12_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2001">Hiltebeitel 2001</a>, p. 2, note 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008187-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008187_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200832-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200832_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200832_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200832_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2011103-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2011103_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReddy2011">Reddy 2011</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–38_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, pp. 37–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETignor2014-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETignor2014_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTignor2014">Tignor 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaushik2013[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaushik2013[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaushik2013">Kaushik 2013</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–39-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199837–39_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, pp. 37–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008200-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008200_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995_53-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 48–51, 61–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20078–10-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20078–10_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, pp. 8–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–50-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–50_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–40-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–40_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAvari201689-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAvari201689_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAvari2016">Avari 2016</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–41-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199839–41_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, pp. 39–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199033-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199033_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199841–43-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199841–43_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, pp. 41–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19952–8-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19952–8_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, pp. 2–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–56_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 48–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200842-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200842_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200842_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaychaudhuri197267–68-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaychaudhuri197267–68_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaychaudhuri1972">Raychaudhuri 1972</a>, pp. 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxviii–xxix-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxviii–xxix_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, pp. xxviii–xxix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200840-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200840_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200841-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200841_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200841_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199865-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199865_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMajumdar1998">Majumdar 1998</a>, p. 65.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199866-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar199866_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMajumdar1998">Majumdar 1998</a>, p. 66.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2011208-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2011208_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2011">Fortson 2011</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_ch._3-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_ch._3_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 48–51, ch. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2013chapter_II-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2013chapter_II_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2013">Long 2013</a>, p. chapter II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999117–120-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999117–120_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen1999">Sen 1999</a>, pp. 117–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWanReins2021" class="citation book cs1">Wan, Peter P.; Reins, Thomas D. (17 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lfIeEAAAQBAJ"><i>Asia Past and Present: A Brief History</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-95520-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-95520-8"><bdi>978-1-118-95520-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+Past+and+Present%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2021-02-17&rft.isbn=978-1-118-95520-8&rft.aulast=Wan&rft.aufirst=Peter+P.&rft.au=Reins%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlfIeEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaal200854-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaal200854_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaal2008">Staal 2008</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008191-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008191_77-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19955-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19955_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200835-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200835_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200835_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200835_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008201–203-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008201–203_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, pp. 201–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008204-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008204_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvi-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvi_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, p. xxvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008204–206-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008204–206_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, pp. 204–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxxvi-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxxvi_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, p. xxxvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar197745-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar197745_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMajumdar1977">Majumdar 1977</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200833–34-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200833–34_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008200–201_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, pp. 200–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA491_491_f.]-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA491_491_f.]_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellah2011">Bellah 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xHr-uN4XpAgC&pg=PA491">491 f.</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA697_pp._697–698],_citing_Trigger_(2003)-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA697_pp._697–698],_citing_Trigger_(2003)_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellah2011">Bellah 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xHr-uN4XpAgC&pg=PA697">pp. 697–698</a>, citing Trigger (2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsunderstandingear0000trigpage108mode2up_108–109]-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsunderstandingear0000trigpage108mode2up_108–109]_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrigger2003">Trigger 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingear0000trig/page/108/mode/2up">108–109</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA698_698_f.]-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA698_698_f.]_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellah2011">Bellah 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xHr-uN4XpAgC&pg=PA698">698 f.</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA509_p._509],_citing_Olivelle_(1998),_pp._xii–x-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellah2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxHr-uN4XpAgCpgPA509_p._509],_citing_Olivelle_(1998),_pp._xii–x_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellah2011">Bellah 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xHr-uN4XpAgC&pg=PA509">p. 509</a>, citing Olivelle (1998), pp. xii–x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998"Notes_on_the_translation":_pp._xii–x-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998"Notes_on_the_translation":_pp._xii–x_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, "Notes on the translation": pp. xii–x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995a-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995a_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErdosy1995a">Erdosy 1995a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995b-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdosy1995b_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErdosy1995b">Erdosy 1995b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008190-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008190_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008190_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199840-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund199840_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998">Kulke & Rothermund 1998</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvii-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998xxvii_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, p. xxvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008198–199-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008198–199_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, pp. 198–199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham200842–43-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham200842–43_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham2008">Basham 2008</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENigal198681-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENigal198681_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNigal1986">Nigal 1986</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESinghalGupta150–151-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinghalGupta150–151_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinghalGupta">Singhal & Gupta</a>, pp. 150–151.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFSinghalGupta (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay198242–45-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay198242–45_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDay1982">Day 1982</a>, pp. 42–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishnananda1994[httpsarchiveorgdetailsAShortHistoryofReligiousandPhilosophicThoughtofIndiaSwamiKrishnanandaDevineLifeSocietypagen11mode2up_11]-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrishnananda1994[httpsarchiveorgdetailsAShortHistoryofReligiousandPhilosophicThoughtofIndiaSwamiKrishnanandaDevineLifeSocietypagen11mode2up_11]_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrishnananda1994">Krishnananda 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/AShortHistoryofReligiousandPhilosophicThoughtofIndiaSwamiKrishnanandaDevineLifeSociety/page/n11/mode/2up">11</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2004215-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2004215_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege2004">Holdrege 2004</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamisonWitzel200365-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamisonWitzel200365_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamisonWitzel2003">Jamison & Witzel 2003</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989112–115,_125-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989112–115,_125_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaulPaul1989">Paul & Paul 1989</a>, pp. 112–115, 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaulPaul1989_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaulPaul1989">Paul & Paul 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishanTadikonda1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkDyJh--iaL0CpgPP13_ix-x]-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrishanTadikonda1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkDyJh--iaL0CpgPP13_ix-x]_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrishanTadikonda1996">Krishan & Tadikonda 1996</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PP13">ix-x</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawJameson2008248_113-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShawJameson2008">Shaw & Jameson 2008</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008218-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008218_114-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarvill2009"ochre‐coloured_pottery"-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarvill2009"ochre‐coloured_pottery"_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarvill2009">Darvill 2009</a>, "ochre‐coloured pottery".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDani196699-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDani196699_116-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDani1966">Dani 1966</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZahir2016274–293_117-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZahir2016">Zahir 2016</a>, pp. 274–293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMishra2007-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMishra2007_118-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMishra2007">Mishra 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHedge2015-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHedge2015_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHedge2015_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHedge2015_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHedge2015">Hedge 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELal1996412–419-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELal1996412–419_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLal1996">Lal 1996</a>, pp. 412–419.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERocher1986122-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERocher1986122_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRocher1986">Rocher 1986</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh200919-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh200919_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2009">Singh 2009</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Anthony" title="David W. Anthony">Anthony, David W.</a> (2007). <i>The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0"><bdi>978-0-691-05887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse%2C+the+Wheel%2C+and+Language%3A+How+Bronze-Age+Riders+from+the+Eurasian+Steppes+Shaped+the+Modern+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05887-0&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthonyRinge2015" class="citation cs2">Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Perspectives", <i>Annual Review of Linguistics</i>, <b>1</b>: 199–219, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812">10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+Indo-European+Homeland+from+Linguistic+and+Perspectives&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=199-219&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ringe%2C+Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvari2016" class="citation book cs1">Avari, Burjor (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ&q=%5B%5BBrahmin%5D%5D+priests+and+warrior+free+peasants+and+traders+labourers+and+artisans,+were+the+fourth&pg=PA89"><i>India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200</i></a>. 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Origins and Development of the Kuru State"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies</i>, <b>1</b> (4): 1–26, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 June 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Vedic+Studies&rft.atitle=Early+Sanskritization.+Origins+and+Development+of+the+Kuru+State&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com%2Fejvs0104%2Fejvs0104article.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf">"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS)</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 1–115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Vedic+Studies+%28EJVS%29&rft.atitle=Autochthonous+Aryans%3F+The+Evidence+from+Old+Indian+and+Iranian+Texts&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-115&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FEJVS-7-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2005" class="citation book cs1">Witzel, Michael (2005). "Vedas and Upaniṣads". In Gavin Flood (ed.). <i>The Blackwell companion to Hinduism</i> (1st paperback ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 68–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-3251-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-3251-5"><bdi>1-4051-3251-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vedas+and+Upani%E1%B9%A3ads&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+companion+to+Hinduism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=68-71&rft.edition=1st+paperback&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4051-3251-5&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/which-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khan/page/n21/mode/2up">"Beyond the Flight of the Falcon: Early 'Aryans' Within and Outside India"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Romila Thapar</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/which-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khan/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Which of Us are Aryans?: Rethinking the Concept of Our Origins</i></a>. Aleph. pp. 1–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-88292-38-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-88292-38-2"><bdi>978-93-88292-38-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Flight+of+the+Falcon%3A+Early+%27Aryans%27+Within+and+Outside+India&rft.btitle=Which+of+Us+are+Aryans%3F%3A+Rethinking+the+Concept+of+Our+Origins&rft.pages=1-29&rft.pub=Aleph&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-93-88292-38-2&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhich-of-us-are-aryans-by-romila-thapar-michael-witzel-jaya-menon-kai-friese-razib-khan%2Fpage%2Fn21%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2006" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger D. (18 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242"><i>Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-09295-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-09295-4"><bdi>978-0-252-09295-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Sacred+Space%3A+Vedic+and+Roman+Cult&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2006-08-18&rft.isbn=978-0-252-09295-4&rft.aulast=Woodard&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEB4fB0inNYEC%26pg%3DFA242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZahir2016" class="citation cs2">Zahir, Muhammad (15 April 2016), <i>The Gandhara Grave Culture: New Perspectives on Protohistoric Cemeteries in Northern and Northwestern Pakistan</i>, pp. 274–293</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gandhara+Grave+Culture%3A+New+Perspectives+on+Protohistoric+Cemeteries+in+Northern+and+Northwestern+Pakistan&rft.pages=274-293&rft.date=2016-04-15&rft.aulast=Zahir&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin</a>, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C"><i>The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism</i></a>. Malden, MA (US): Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-3251-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-3251-5"><bdi>1-4051-3251-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Hinduism&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA+%28US%29&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-4051-3251-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqSfneQ0YYY8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2004" class="citation cs2">Thapar, Romila (2004), <i>Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</i>, University of California Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrasad2020" class="citation cs2">Prasad, R. U. S. (2020), <i>The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE – 500 BCE)</i>, Vernon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rig-Vedic+and+Post-Rig-Vedic+Polity+%281500+BCE+%E2%80%93+500+BCE%29&rft.pub=Vernon+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Prasad&rft.aufirst=R.+U.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+period" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&oldid=1258535964">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&oldid=1258535964</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vedic_period" title="Category:Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_India" title="Category:Ancient India">Ancient India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_history_of_Pakistan" title="Category:Ancient history of Pakistan">Ancient history of Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iron_Age_Asia" title="Category:Iron Age Asia">Iron Age Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iron_Age_cultures_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Iron Age cultures of South Asia">Iron Age cultures of South Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Punjab" title="Category:History of Punjab">History of Punjab</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Sindh" title="Category:History of Sindh">History of Sindh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-Aryan_archaeological_cultures" title="Category:Indo-Aryan archaeological 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1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulPaul1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPletcher2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrasad2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProferes2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatnagar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaychaudhuri1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReddy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRocher1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawJameson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghalGupta2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaal2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTignor2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrigger2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWanReins2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinternitzSarma1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZahir2016\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n 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CITEREFSinghalGupta\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","300","28.3"],["?","120","11.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","11.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","5.7"],["type","40","3.8"],["gsub","40","3.8"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","3.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","40","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.8"],["[others]","220","20.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-65766dc7f8-b2zv2","timestamp":"20241209222950","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Vedic 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