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<span>Concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grammatical_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Grammatical construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax–lexicon_continuum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax–lexicon_continuum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Syntax–lexicon continuum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax–lexicon_continuum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar_as_an_inventory_of_constructions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar_as_an_inventory_of_constructions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Grammar as an inventory of constructions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar_as_an_inventory_of_constructions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principle_of_no_synonymy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principle_of_no_synonymy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Principle of no synonymy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principle_of_no_synonymy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Some_construction_grammars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Some_construction_grammars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Some construction grammars</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Some_construction_grammars-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Some construction grammars subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Some_construction_grammars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Berkeley_Construction_Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berkeley_Construction_Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Berkeley Construction Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berkeley_Construction_Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sign_Based_Construction_Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sign_Based_Construction_Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sign Based Construction Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sign_Based_Construction_Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Goldbergian/Lakovian_construction_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goldbergian/Lakovian_construction_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Goldbergian/Lakovian construction grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goldbergian/Lakovian_construction_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Cognitive grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radical_construction_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radical_construction_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Radical construction grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radical_construction_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Embodied_construction_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embodied_construction_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Embodied construction grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embodied_construction_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluid_construction_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluid_construction_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Fluid construction grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluid_construction_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implemented_construction_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implemented_construction_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Implemented construction grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implemented_construction_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div 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href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktsioonigrammatika" title="Konstruktsioonigrammatika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konstruktsioonigrammatika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_de_construcciones" title="Gramática de construcciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gramática de construcciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="دستور ساختار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستور ساختار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaire_de_construction" title="Grammaire de construction – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grammaire de construction" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EB%AC%B8%EB%AC%B8%EB%B2%95" title="구문문법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구문문법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%81%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կառուցվածքային քերականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կառուցվածքային քերականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_Grammar" title="Construction Grammar – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Construction Grammar" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A7_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="דקדוק התבניות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דקדוק התבניות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructiegrammatica" title="Constructiegrammatica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Constructiegrammatica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktiokielioppi" title="Konstruktiokielioppi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Konstruktiokielioppi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktionsgrammatik" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the TV show also sometimes abbreviated "CXG", see <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Ex-Girlfriend_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (TV series)">Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (TV series)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234201967">.mw-parser-output .linguistics-body{max-width:20em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Construction grammar</b> (often abbreviated <b>CxG</b>) is a family of theories within the field of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a> which posit that <b>constructions</b>, or learned pairings of linguistic patterns with meanings, are the fundamental building blocks of human language. Constructions include words (<i>aardvark</i>, <i>avocado</i>), <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> (<i>anti-</i>, <i>-ing</i>), fixed expressions and <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a> (<i>by and large</i>, <i>jog X's memory</i>), and abstract grammatical rules such as the <a href="/wiki/English_passive_voice" title="English passive voice">passive voice</a> (<i>The cat was hit by a car</i>) or the <a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb#In_English" title="Ditransitive verb">ditransitive</a> (<i>Mary gave Alex the ball</i>). Any linguistic pattern is considered to be a construction as long as some aspect of its form or its meaning cannot be predicted from its component parts, or from other constructions that are recognized to exist. In construction grammar, every utterance is understood to be a combination of multiple different constructions, which together specify its precise meaning and form.<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg2006_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advocates of construction grammar argue that language and culture are not designed by people, but are 'emergent' or automatically constructed in a process which is comparable to <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> in <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a><sup id="cite_ref-Croft_2006_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Croft_2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beckner_2009_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beckner_2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cornish_etal_2009_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornish_etal_2009-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacWhinney_2015_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacWhinney_2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the formation of natural constructions such as <a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">nests</a> made by <a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">social insects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dahl_2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dahl_2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constructions correspond to <a href="/wiki/Replicator_(evolution_unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Replicator (evolution unit)">replicators</a> or <a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">memes</a> in memetics and other cultural replicator theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirby_2013_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirby_2013-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zehentner_2019_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zehentner_2019-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacWhinney_2015_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacWhinney_2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peschek_2010_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peschek_2010-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is argued that construction grammar is not an original model of cultural evolution, but for essential part the same as <a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">memetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackmore_2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackmore_2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction grammar is associated with concepts from cognitive linguistics that aim to show in various ways how human <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creative</a> behaviour is automatic and not planned.<sup id="cite_ref-Lakoff&Johnson_1999_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakoff&Johnson_1999-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dahl_2004_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dahl_2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Construction grammar was first developed in the 1980s by linguists such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Fillmore" title="Charles J. Fillmore">Charles Fillmore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kay" title="Paul Kay">Paul Kay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Lakoff" title="George Lakoff">George Lakoff</a>, in order to analyze idioms and fixed expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-croft2001_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-croft2001-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lakoff's 1977 paper "Linguistic Gestalts" put forward an early version of CxG, arguing that the meaning of an expression was not simply a function of the meanings of its parts. Instead, he suggested, constructions themselves must have meanings. </p><p>Another early study was "There-Constructions," which appeared as Case Study 3 in George Lakoff's <i><a href="/wiki/Women,_Fire,_and_Dangerous_Things" title="Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things">Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It argued that the meaning of the whole was not a function of the meanings of the parts, that odd grammatical properties of <a href="/wiki/Deictic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deictic">Deictic</a> There-constructions followed from the pragmatic meaning of the construction, and that variations on the central construction could be seen as simple extensions using form-meaning pairs of the central construction. </p><p>Fillmore et al.'s (1988) paper on the English <i>let alone</i> construction was a second classic. These two papers propelled cognitive linguists into the study of CxG. Since the late 1990s there has been a shift towards a general preference for the usage-based model.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The shift towards the usage-based approach in construction grammar has inspired the development of several <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpus</a>-based methodologies of constructional analysis (for example, <a href="/wiki/Collostructional_analysis" title="Collostructional analysis">collostructional analysis</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most distinctive features of CxG is its use of multi-word expressions and phrasal patterns as the building blocks of syntactic analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example is the Correlative Conditional construction, found in the proverbial expression <i>The bigger they come, the harder they fall</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction grammarians point out that this is not merely a fixed phrase; the Correlative Conditional is a general pattern (<i>The Xer, the Yer</i>) with "slots" that can be filled by almost any comparative phrase (e.g. <i>The more you think about it, the less you understand</i>). Advocates of CxG argue these kinds of idiosyncratic patterns are more common than is often recognized, and that they are best understood as multi-word, partially filled constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg2006_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction grammar rejects the idea that there is a sharp dichotomy between <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical items</a>, which are arbitrary and specific, and grammatical rules, which are completely general. Instead, CxG posits that there are linguistic patterns at every level of generality and specificity: from individual words, to partially filled constructions (e.g. <i>drive X crazy</i>), to fully abstract rules (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">subject–auxiliary inversion</a>). All of these patterns are recognized as constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to theories that posit an innate <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal grammar</a> for all languages, construction grammar holds that speakers learn constructions <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductively</a> as they are exposed to them, using general cognitive processes. It is argued that children pay close attention to each utterance they hear, and gradually make generalizations based on the utterances they have heard. Because constructions are learned, they are expected to vary considerably across different languages.<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg2003_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg2003-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammatical_construction">Grammatical construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Grammatical construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In construction grammar, as in general <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_construction" title="Grammatical construction">grammatical construction</a> is a pairing of form and content. The formal aspect of a construction is typically described as a <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> template, but the form covers more than just syntax, as it also involves <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> aspects, such as <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>. The content covers <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatic</a> meaning. </p><p>The semantic meaning of a grammatical construction is made up of conceptual structures postulated in <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">cognitive semantics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Image_schema" title="Image schema">image-schemas</a>, frames, conceptual metaphors, conceptual metonymies, prototypes of various kinds, mental spaces, and bindings across these (called "blends"). Pragmatics just becomes the cognitive semantics of communication—the modern version of the old <a href="/wiki/John_R._Ross" title="John R. Ross">Ross</a>-Lakoff performative hypothesis from the 1960s. </p><p>The form and content are symbolically linked in the sense advocated by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Langacker" title="Ronald Langacker">Langacker</a>. </p><p>Thus a construction is treated like a <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a> in which all structural aspects are integrated parts and not distributed over different modules as they are in the componential model. Consequentially, not only constructions that are lexically fixed, like many idioms, but also more abstract ones like <a href="/wiki/Argument_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument structure">argument structure</a> schemata, are pairings of form and conventionalized meaning. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Ditransitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditransitive">ditransitive</a> schema [S V IO DO] is said to express semantic content X CAUSES Y TO RECEIVE Z, just like <i>kill</i> means X CAUSES Y TO DIE. </p><p>In construction grammar, a grammatical construction, regardless of its formal or semantic complexity and make up, is a pairing of form and meaning. Thus words and word classes may be regarded as instances of constructions. Indeed, construction grammarians argue that all pairings of form and meaning are constructions, including phrase structures, <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax–lexicon_continuum"><span id="Syntax.E2.80.93lexicon_continuum"></span>Syntax–lexicon continuum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Syntax–lexicon continuum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike the componential model, construction grammar denies any strict distinction between the two and proposes a <i>syntax–lexicon continuum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dufter2017_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dufter2017-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The argument goes that words and complex constructions are both pairs of form and meaning and differ only in internal symbolic complexity. Instead of being discrete modules and thus subject to very different processes they form the extremes of a continuum (from regular to idiosyncratic): syntax > <a href="/wiki/Subcategorization" title="Subcategorization">subcategorization frame</a> > idiom > <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> > <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_category" title="Syntactic category">syntactic category</a> > word/<a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> (these are the traditional terms; construction grammars use a different terminology). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar_as_an_inventory_of_constructions">Grammar as an inventory of constructions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Grammar as an inventory of constructions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In construction grammar, the grammar of a language is made up of <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomic</a> networks of families of constructions, which are based on the same principles as those of the conceptual categories known from <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a>, such as inheritance, prototypicality, extensions, and multiple parenting. </p><p>Four different models are proposed in relation to how information is stored in the taxonomies: </p> <ol><li><b>Full-entry model</b> <dl><dd>In the full-entry model information is stored redundantly at all relevant levels in the taxonomy, which means that it operates, if at all, with minimal generalization.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (December 2018)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd> <dd></dd></dl></li> <li><b>Usage-based model</b> <dl><dd>The usage-based model is based on <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive learning</a>, meaning that linguistic knowledge is acquired in a bottom-up manner through use. It allows for redundancy and generalizations, because the language user generalizes over recurring experiences of use.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (December 2018)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd> <dd></dd></dl></li> <li><b>Default inheritance model</b> <dl><dd>According to the default inheritance model, each network has a default central form-meaning pairing from which all instances inherit their features. It thus operates with a fairly high level of generalization, but does also allow for some redundancy in that it recognizes extensions of different types.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (December 2018)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd> <dd></dd></dl></li> <li><b>Complete inheritance model</b> <dl><dd>In the complete inheritance model, information is stored only once at the most superordinate level of the network. Instances at all other levels inherit features from the superordinate item. The complete inheritance does not allow for redundancy in the networks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (December 2018)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principle_of_no_synonymy">Principle of no synonymy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Principle of no synonymy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because construction grammar does not operate with surface derivations from underlying structures, it adheres to functionalist linguist <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Bolinger" title="Dwight Bolinger">Dwight Bolinger</a>'s <i>principle of no synonymy</i>, on which <a href="/wiki/Adele_Goldberg_(linguist)" title="Adele Goldberg (linguist)">Adele Goldberg</a> elaborates in her book.<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg1995_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg1995-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This means that construction grammarians argue, for instance, that active and passive versions of the same proposition are not derived from an underlying structure, but are instances of two different constructions. As constructions are pairings of form and meaning,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> active and passive versions of the same proposition are not synonymous, but display differences in content: in this case the pragmatic content. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Some_construction_grammars">Some construction grammars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Some construction grammars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As mentioned above, Construction grammar is a "family" of theories rather than one unified theory. There are a number of formalized Construction grammar frameworks. Some of these are: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berkeley_Construction_Grammar">Berkeley Construction Grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Berkeley Construction Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Berkeley Construction Grammar (BCG: formerly also called simply Construction Grammar in upper case) focuses on the formal aspects of constructions and makes use of a unification-based framework for description of syntax, not unlike <a href="/wiki/Head-driven_phrase_structure_grammar" title="Head-driven phrase structure grammar">head-driven phrase structure grammar</a>. Its proponents/developers include Charles Fillmore, Paul Kay, <a href="/wiki/Laura_Michaelis" title="Laura Michaelis">Laura Michaelis</a>, and to a certain extent <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sag" title="Ivan Sag">Ivan Sag</a>. Immanent within BCG works like Fillmore and Kay 1995<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Michaelis and Ruppenhofer 2001<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the notion that phrasal representations—embedding relations—should not be used to represent combinatoric properties of lexemes or lexeme classes. For example, BCG abandons the traditional practice of using non-branching domination (NP over N' over N) to describe undetermined nominals that function as NPs, instead introducing a determination construction that requires ('asks for') a non-maximal nominal sister and a lexical 'maximality' feature for which plural and mass nouns are unmarked. BCG also offers a unification-based representation of 'argument structure' patterns as abstract verbal lexeme entries ('linking constructions'). These linking constructions include transitive, oblique goal and passive constructions. These constructions describe classes of verbs that combine with phrasal constructions like the VP construction but contain no phrasal information in themselves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sign_Based_Construction_Grammar">Sign Based Construction Grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sign Based Construction Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the mid-2000s, several of the developers of BCG, including Charles Fillmore, Paul Kay, Ivan Sag and Laura Michaelis, collaborated in an effort to improve the formal rigor of BCG and clarify its representational conventions. The result was Sign Based Construction Grammar (SBCG). SBCG<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is based on a multiple-inheritance hierarchy of typed feature structures. The most important type of feature structure in SBCG is the sign, with subtypes word, lexeme and phrase. The inclusion of phrase within the canon of signs marks a major departure from traditional syntactic thinking. In SBCG, phrasal signs are licensed by correspondence to the mother of some licit construct of the grammar. A construct is a local tree with signs at its nodes. Combinatorial constructions define classes of constructs. Lexical class constructions describe combinatoric and other properties common to a group of lexemes. Combinatorial constructions include both inflectional and derivational constructions. SBCG is both formal and generative; while cognitive-functional grammarians have often opposed their standards and practices to those of formal, generative grammarians, there is in fact no incompatibility between a formal, generative approach and a rich, broad-coverage, functionally based grammar. It simply happens that many formal, generative theories are descriptively inadequate grammars. SBCG is generative in a way that prevailing syntax-centered theories are not: its mechanisms are intended to represent all of the patterns of a given language, including idiomatic ones; there is no 'core' grammar in SBCG. SBCG a licensing-based theory, as opposed to one that freely generates syntactic combinations and uses general principles to bar illicit ones: a word, lexeme or phrase is well formed if and only if it is described by a lexeme or construction. Recent SBCG works have expanded on the lexicalist model of idiomatically combining expressions sketched out in Sag 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goldbergian/Lakovian_construction_grammar"><span id="Goldbergian.2FLakovian_construction_grammar"></span>Goldbergian/Lakovian construction grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Goldbergian/Lakovian construction grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The type of construction grammar associated with linguists like Goldberg and Lakoff looks mainly at the external relations of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_construction" title="Grammatical construction">constructions</a> and the structure of constructional networks. In terms of form and function, this type of construction grammar puts psychological plausibility as its highest desideratum. It emphasizes experimental results and parallels with general cognitive psychology. It also draws on certain principles of cognitive linguistics. In the Goldbergian strand, constructions interact with each other in a network via four inheritance relations: <a href="/wiki/Polysemy" title="Polysemy">polysemy</a> link, subpart link, metaphorical extension, and finally instance link.<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg1995_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg1995-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_grammar">Cognitive grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cognitive grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometimes, Ronald Langacker's <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">cognitive grammar</a> framework is described as a type of construction grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cognitive grammar deals mainly with the semantic content of constructions, and its central argument is that conceptual semantics is primary to the degree that form mirrors, or is motivated by, content. Langacker argues that even abstract grammatical units like <a href="/wiki/Part-of-speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Part-of-speech">part-of-speech</a> classes are semantically motivated and involve certain conceptualizations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radical_construction_grammar">Radical construction grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Radical construction grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_A._Croft" class="mw-redirect" title="William A. Croft">William A. Croft</a>'s radical construction grammar is designed for <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> purposes and takes into account cross-linguistic factors. It deals mainly with the internal structure of constructions. Radical construction grammar is totally non-<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionist</a>, and Croft argues that constructions are not derived from their parts, but that the parts are derived from the constructions they appear in. Thus, in radical construction grammar, constructions are linked to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gestalt" class="extiw" title="wikt:gestalt">Gestalts</a>. Radical construction grammar rejects the idea that syntactic categories, roles, and relations are universal and argues that they are not only language-specific, but also construction specific. Thus, there are no universals that make reference to formal categories, since formal categories are language- and construction-specific. The only universals are to be found in the patterns concerning the mapping of meaning onto form. Radical construction grammar rejects the notion of syntactic relations altogether and replaces them with semantic relations. Like Goldbergian/Lakovian construction grammar and cognitive grammar, radical construction grammar is closely related to cognitive linguistics, and like cognitive grammar, radical construction grammar appears to be based on the idea that form is semantically motivated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Embodied_construction_grammar">Embodied construction grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Embodied construction grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Embodied construction grammar (ECG), which is being developed by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/NTL/">Neural Theory of Language (NTL)</a> group at ICSI, UC Berkeley, and the University of Hawaiʻi, particularly including Benjamin Bergen and Nancy Chang, adopts the basic constructionist definition of a grammatical construction, but emphasizes the relation of constructional semantic content to <a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">embodiment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensorimotor_rhythm" title="Sensorimotor rhythm">sensorimotor</a> experiences. A central claim is that the content of all linguistic signs involves <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mental_simulation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mental simulation (page does not exist)">mental simulations</a> and is ultimately dependent on basic <a href="/wiki/Image_schema" title="Image schema">image schemas</a> of the kind advocated by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Johnson_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Johnson (professor)">Mark Johnson</a> and George Lakoff, and so ECG aligns itself with cognitive linguistics. Like construction grammar, embodied construction grammar makes use of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification-based&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unification-based (page does not exist)">unification-based</a> model of representation. A non-technical introduction to the NTL theory behind embodied construction grammar as well as the theory itself and a variety of applications can be found in Jerome Feldman's <i>From Molecule to Metaphor: A Neural Theory of Language</i> (MIT Press, 2006). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluid_construction_grammar">Fluid construction grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fluid construction grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fluid_construction_grammar" title="Fluid construction grammar">Fluid construction grammar</a> (FCG) was designed by <a href="/wiki/Luc_Steels" title="Luc Steels">Luc Steels</a> and his collaborators for doing experiments on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcg-net.org">the origins and evolution of language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FCG is a fully operational and computationally implemented formalism for construction grammars and proposes a uniform mechanism for parsing and production. Moreover, it has been demonstrated through robotic experiments that FCG grammars can be grounded in embodiment and sensorimotor experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FCG integrates many notions from contemporary <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Feature_structure" title="Feature structure">feature structures</a> and unification-based language processing. Constructions are considered bidirectional and hence usable both for parsing and production. Processing is flexible in the sense that it can even cope with partially ungrammatical or incomplete sentences. FCG is called 'fluid' because it acknowledges the premise that language users constantly change and update their grammars. The research on FCG is conducted at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csl.sony.fr">Sony CSL Paris</a> and the AI Lab at the <a href="/wiki/Vrije_Universiteit_Brussel" title="Vrije Universiteit Brussel">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implemented_construction_grammar">Implemented construction grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Implemented construction grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the above approaches to construction grammar have not been implemented as a computational model for large scale practical usage in <a href="/wiki/Natural_Language_Processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Language Processing">Natural Language Processing</a> frameworks but interest in construction grammar has been shown by more traditional computational linguists as a contrast to the current boom in more opaque <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> models. This is largely due to the representational convenience of CxG models and their potential to integrate with current tokenizers as a perceptual layer for further processing in neurally inspired models.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approaches to integrate constructional grammar with existing Natural Language Processing frameworks include hand-built feature sets and templates and used computational models to identify their prevalence in text collections, but some suggestions for more emergent models have been proposed, e.g. in the 2023 Georgetown University Roundtable on Linguistics. <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Esa_Itkonen" title="Esa Itkonen">Esa Itkonen</a>, who defends humanistic linguistics and opposes Darwinian linguistics,<sup id="cite_ref-Itkonen_2011_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Itkonen_2011-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> questions the originality of the work of Adele Goldberg, Michael Tomasello, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Fauconnier" title="Gilles Fauconnier">Gilles Fauconnier</a>, William Croft and George Lakoff. According to Itkonen, construction grammarians have appropriated old ideas in linguistics adding some false claims.<sup id="cite_ref-Itkonen_2011-fi_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Itkonen_2011-fi-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, construction type and conceptual blending correspond to <i>analogy</i> and <i>blend</i>, respectively, in the works of <a href="/wiki/William_Dwight_Whitney" title="William Dwight Whitney">William Dwight Whitney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hockett" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Hockett">Charles Hockett</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-Itkonen_2005_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Itkonen_2005-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, the claim made by construction grammarians, that their research represents a continuation of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussurean</a> linguistics, has been considered misleading.<sup id="cite_ref-Elffers_2012_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elffers_2012-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German philologist Elisabeth Leiss regards construction grammar as regress, linking it with the 19th century <a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">social darwinism</a> of <a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leiss_2009_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leiss_2009-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a dispute between the advocates of construction grammar and <a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">memetics</a>, an evolutionary approach which adheres to the Darwinian view of language and culture. Advocates of construction grammar argue that memetics takes the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a> to cultural evolution while construction grammar rejects human <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> in language construction;<sup id="cite_ref-Christiansen&Chater_2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christiansen&Chater_2008-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but, according to memetician <a href="/wiki/Susan_Blackmore" title="Susan Blackmore">Susan Blackmore</a>, this makes construction grammar the same as memetics.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackmore_2008_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackmore_2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lastly, the most basic syntactic patterns of English, namely the core grammatical relations subject-verb, verb object and verb-indirect object, are counter-evidence for the very concept of constructions as pairings of linguistic patterns with meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-Ninio2011_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ninio2011-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of the postulated form-meaning pairing, core grammatical relations possess a wide variability of semantics, exhibiting a neutralization of semantic distinctions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, in a detailed discussion of the dissociation of grammatical case-roles from semantics, <a href="/wiki/Talmy_Givon" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmy Givon">Talmy Givon</a> lists the multiple semantic roles of subjects and direct objects in English.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As these phenomena are well-established, some linguists propose that core grammatical relations be excluded from CxG as they are not constructions, leaving the theory to be a model merely of idioms or infrequently used, minor patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the pairing of the syntactic construction and its prototypical meaning are learned in early childhood,<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg1995_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg1995-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> children should initially learn the basic constructions with their prototypical semantics, that is, 'agent of action' for the subject in the SV relation, 'affected object of agent's action' for the direct object term in VO, and 'recipient in transfer of possession of object' for the indirect-object in VI.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anat_Ninio" title="Anat Ninio">Anat Ninio</a> examined the speech of a large sample of young English-speaking children and found that they do not in fact learn the syntactic patterns with the prototypical semantics claimed to be associated with them, or with any single semantics.<sup id="cite_ref-Ninio2011_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ninio2011-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major reason is that such pairings are not consistently modelled for them in parental speech. Examining the maternal speech addressed to the children, Ninio also found that the pattern of subjects, direct objects and indirect objects in mothers’ speech does not provide the required prototypical semantics for the construction to be established. Adele Goldberg and her associates had previously reported similar negative results concerning the pattern of direct objects in parental speech.<sup id="cite_ref-goldberg2006_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldberg2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These findings are a blow to the CxG theory that relies on a learned association of form and prototypical meaning in order to set up the constructions said to form the basic units of syntax. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anankastic_conditional" title="Anankastic conditional">Anankastic conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_Morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction Morphology">Construction Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snowclone" title="Snowclone">Snowclone</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-goldberg2006-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goldberg2006_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goldberg2006_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goldberg2006_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGoldberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Goldberg, Adele (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LHrcqeZmUN4C"><i>Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalization in Language</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 5–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-9-268525" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-9-268525"><bdi>0-19-9-268525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructions+at+Work%3A+The+Nature+of+Generalization+in+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=5-10&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-9-268525&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Adele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLHrcqeZmUN4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstruction+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Croft_2006-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Croft_2006_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroft2006" class="citation book cs1">Croft, William (2006). 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New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829954-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829954-7"><bdi>978-0-19-829954-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radical+Construction+Grammar%3A+Syntactic+Theory+in+Typological+Perspective&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829954-7&rft.aulast=Croft&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DESa_E-q8hbwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstruction+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLakoff,_George1987" class="citation book cs1">Lakoff, George (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womenfiredangero00lako"><i>Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind</i></a></span>. 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John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027294012" title="Special:BookSources/9789027294012"><bdi>9789027294012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analogy+as+Structure+and+Process.+Approaches+in+linguistics%2C+cognitive+psychology+and+philosophy+of+science&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9789027294012&rft.aulast=Itkonen&rft.aufirst=Esa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstruction+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elffers_2012-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elffers_2012_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElffers2012" class="citation journal cs1">Elffers, Els (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/hel_0750-8069_2012_num_34_1_3235">"Saussurean structuralism and cognitive linguistics"</a>. <i>Histoire épistemologique langage</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 19–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fhel.2012.3235">10.3406/hel.2012.3235</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170602847">170602847</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Histoire+%C3%A9pistemologique+langage&rft.atitle=Saussurean+structuralism+and+cognitive+linguistics&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-40&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fhel.2012.3235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170602847%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Elffers&rft.aufirst=Els&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fhel_0750-8069_2012_num_34_1_3235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstruction+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leiss_2009-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leiss_2009_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeiss2009" class="citation book cs1">Leiss, Elisabeth (2009). <i>Sprachphilosophie</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Language+as+shaped+by+the+brain&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=489-558&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X08004998&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18826669&rft.aulast=Christiansen&rft.aufirst=Morten+H.&rft.au=Chater%2C+Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F168484%2F1%2Fdownload10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstruction+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ninio2011-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ninio2011_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ninio2011_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNinio2011" class="citation book cs1">Ninio, Anat (2011). <i>Syntactic development, its input and output</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199565962" title="Special:BookSources/9780199565962"><bdi>9780199565962</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syntactic+development%2C+its+input+and+output.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199565962&rft.aulast=Ninio&rft.aufirst=Anat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstruction+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrews, Avery D. (1985). The major functions of the noun phrase. In T. Shopen (ed), <i>Language typology and syntactic description, Vol. 1: Clause structure</i> (pp. 62 154). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dik, Simon C. (1997). <i>The theory of functional grammar, Part 1.</i> Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kibrik, Alexander E. (1997). Beyond subject and object: toward a comprehensive relational typology. <i>Linguistic Typology, 13,</i> 279 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lyons, John (1968). <i>Introduction to theoretical linguistics.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (p. 439)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Valin, Robert D. Jr. and LaPolla, Randy (1997). <i>Syntax: structure, meaning and function.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Givón, Talmy (1997). Grammatical relations: an introduction. In T. Givón (ed), <i>Grammatical relations: A functionalist perspective</i> (pp. 1 84). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (pp. 2-3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackendoff, Ray S. (1997). Twistin' the night away. <i>Language, 73,</i> 534 559.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariel, Mira (2008). A review of A. E. Goldberg (2006). <i>Constructions at work: The nature of generalizations in language.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. <i>Language, 84,</i> 632 636.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, John R. (1998). Syntactic constructions as prototype categories. In M. Tomasello, (ed), <i>The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure</i> (pp. 177-202). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (p. 187) </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sethuraman, Nitya and Goodman, Judith C. (2004). Children's mastery of the transitive construction. In E. V. Clark (ed), <i>Online proceedings of the 32nd session of the Stanford Child Language Research Forum</i> (pp. 60-67). Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www">http://www</a> csli.stanford.edu/pubs</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bergen, Benjamin and Nancy Chang. Embodied Construction Grammar in Simulation-Based Language Understanding. In press. J.-O. Östman and M. Fried (eds.). <i>Construction Grammar(s): Cognitive and Cross-Language Dimensions</i>. Johns Benjamins.</li> <li>Croft, William A. (2001). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ESa_E-q8hbwC&dq=%22Radical+Construction+Grammar%3A+Syntactic+Theory+in+Typological+Perspective%22&pg=PR13">Radical Construction Grammar: Syntactic Theory in Typological Perspective</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Croft, William A. and D. Alan Cruse (2004). <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Feldman, Jerome A. (2006). <i>From Molecule to Metaphor: A Neural Theory of Language </i>. Cambridge : MIT Press.</li> <li>Fillmore, Charles, Paul Kay and Catherine O'Connor (1988). Regularity and Idiomaticity in Grammatical Constructions: The Case of <i>let alone</i>. <i>Language</i> 64: 501–38.</li> <li>Goldberg, Adele. (1995) <i>Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Goldberg, Adele (2006). <i>Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalization in Language</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Hilpert, Martin (2014). <i>Construction Grammar and its Application to English</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.</li> <li>Lakoff, George (1987). <i>Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind</i>. Chicago: CSLI.</li> <li>Langacker, Ronald (1987, 1991). <i>Foundations of Cognitive Grammar</i>. 2 vols. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Michaelis, Laura A. and Knud Lambrecht (1996). Toward a Construction-Based Model of Language Function: The Case of Nominal Extraposition. <i>Language</i> 72: 215–247.</li> <li>Michaelis, Laura A. and Josef Ruppenhofer (2001). <i>Beyond Alternations: A Construction-Based Account of the Applicative Construction in German</i>. Stanford: CSLI Publications.</li> <li>Michaelis, Laura A. (2004). Type Shifting in Construction Grammar: An Integrated Approach to Aspectual Coercion. <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i> 15: 1–67.</li> <li>De Beule Joachim and Steels Luc (2005). Hierarchy in Fluid Construction Grammar. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNCS/LNAI) 3698 (2005) pages 1–15). Berlin: Springer.</li> <li>Steels, Luc and De Beule, Joachim (2006). Unify and merge in fluid construction grammars. In: Vogt, P., Sugita, Y., Tuci, E. and Nehaniv, C., editors, <i>Symbol Grounding and Beyond: Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on the Emergence and Evolution of Linguistic Communication, EELC 2006, Rome, Italy, September 30–October 1, 2006</i>, Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS/LNAI) Vol. 4211, Berlin. Springer-Verlag. pp. 197–223.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constructiongrammar.org">Construction Grammar</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcg-net.org/">Fluid Construction Grammar</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ai.vub.ac.be">VUB Artificial Intelligence Laboratory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csl.sony.fr">Sony CSL Paris</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/NTL">NTL Project</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&oldid=1224278412">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Construction_grammar&oldid=1224278412</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Memetics" title="Category:Memetics">Memetics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_linguistics" title="Category:Cognitive linguistics">Cognitive linguistics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociobiology" title="Category:Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grammar_frameworks" title="Category:Grammar frameworks">Grammar frameworks</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Finnish-language_sources_(fi)" title="Category:CS1 Finnish-language sources (fi)">CS1 Finnish-language sources (fi)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_examples" title="Category:All articles needing examples">All articles needing examples</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_examples_from_December_2018" title="Category:Articles needing examples from December 2018">Articles needing examples from December 2018</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 May 2024, at 11:08<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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