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id="toc-Scientific_achievements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Thermodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valence_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valence_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Valence theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valence_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acids_and_bases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acids_and_bases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Acids and bases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acids_and_bases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heavy_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heavy_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Heavy water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heavy_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-O4_Tetraoxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#O4_Tetraoxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>O<sub>4</sub> Tetraoxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-O4_Tetraoxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relativity_and_quantum_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relativity_and_quantum_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Relativity and quantum physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relativity_and_quantum_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_achievements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_achievements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Other achievements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_achievements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gilbert N. Lewis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3" title="جيلبرت نيوتن لويس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جيلبرت نيوتن لويس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Nyuton_Lyuis" title="Gilbert Nyuton Lyuis – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Gilbert Nyuton Lyuis" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="قیلبرت لوییس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قیلبرت لوییس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8" title="গিলবার্ট নিউটন লুইস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গিলবার্ট নিউটন লুইস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%96%D1%81" title="Гілберт Ньютан Льюіс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гілберт Ньютан Льюіс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B1%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9B%D1%8E%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Гилбърт Люис – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гилбърт Люис" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%84_%CE%9B%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B9%CF%82" title="Γκίλμπερτ Λιούις – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γκίλμπερτ Λιούις" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="گیلبرت لوییس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گیلبرت لوییس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Lewis" title="Gilbert Lewis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gilbert Lewis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B8%EB%B2%84%ED%8A%B8_%EB%89%B4%ED%84%B4_%EB%A3%A8%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%A4" title="길버트 뉴턴 루이스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="길버트 뉴턴 루이스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8" title="गिल्बर्ट न्यूटन ल्यूइस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गिल्बर्ट न्यूटन ल्यूइस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Lewis" title="Gilbert Lewis – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gilbert Lewis" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%98_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A1" title="גילברט ניוטון לואיס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גילברט ניוטון לואיס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="გილბერტ ნიუტონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გილბერტ ნიუტონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Lewis" title="Gilbert Lewis – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Gilbert Lewis" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="გილბერტ ნიუტონ ლუისი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გილბერტ ნიუტონ ლუისი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3" title="جيلبرت نيوتن لويس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جيلبرت نيوتن لويس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Lewis_(scheikundige)" title="Gilbert Lewis (scheikundige) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gilbert Lewis (scheikundige)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AB%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9" title="ギルバート・ルイス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ギルバート・ルイス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%A8._%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8" title="ਗਿਲਬਰਟ ਐਨ. ਲੇਵਿਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਿਲਬਰਟ ਐਨ. ਲੇਵਿਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%B9_%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="گلبرٹ لیوس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گلبرٹ لیوس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Lewis" title="Gilbert Lewis – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gilbert Lewis" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8C%D1%8E%D0%B8%D1%81,_%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Льюис, Гилберт Ньютон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Льюис, Гилберт Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%8A%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Гилберт Њутон Луис – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гилберт Њутон Луис" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gilbert Newton Lewis" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="கில்பர்த்து நியூட்டன் இலூயிசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கில்பர்த்து நியூட்டன் இலூயிசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Lewis" title="Gilbert Lewis – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gilbert Lewis" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%97%D1%81" title="Гілберт Ньютон Льюїс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гілберт Ньютон Льюїс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Gilbert N. Lewis" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E7%88%BE%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E5%A3%AB" title="吉爾伯特·牛頓·路易士 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="吉爾伯特·牛頓·路易士" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E7%88%BE%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF" title="吉爾伯特·路易斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="吉爾伯特·路易斯" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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Lewis">diff</a>)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American physical chemist (1875–1946)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Gilbert Nebril Lewis</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilbert_N_Lewis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/21/Gilbert_N_Lewis.jpg/220px-Gilbert_N_Lewis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/21/Gilbert_N_Lewis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="237" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1998-12-04</span>)</span>December 4, 1998<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace">Secret</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Electron_pair" title="Electron pair">Lewis pair</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lewis_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis structures">Lewis structures</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lewis_acids_and_bases" title="Lewis acids and bases">Lewis acids and bases</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Trouton%E2%80%93Noble_experiment#Right-angle_lever_paradox" title="Trouton–Noble experiment">Lewis–Tolman paradox</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">Valence bond theory</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">Covalent bond</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cubical_atom" title="Cubical atom">Cubical atom</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Fugacity" title="Fugacity">Fugacity</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">Heavy water</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ionic_strength" title="Ionic strength">Ionic strength</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Octet_rule" title="Octet rule">Octet rule</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tetraoxygen" title="Tetraoxygen">Tetraoxygen</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_activity" title="Thermodynamic activity">Thermodynamic activity</a><br />Named <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a><br />Explained <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescence" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescence</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/William_H._Nichols_Medal" title="William H. Nichols Medal">William H. Nichols Medal</a> <small>(1921)</small><br /> <a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> <small>(1924)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Davy_Medal" title="Davy Medal">Davy Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemist</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i> A general equation for free energy and physico-chemical equilibrium, and its application </i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1899)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore William Richards</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kasha" title="Michael Kasha">Michael Kasha</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edward_Mayer" title="Joseph Edward Mayer">Joseph Edward Mayer</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Gilbert Newton Lewis</b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (October 23<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heritage_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heritage-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or October 25, 1875 – March 23, 1946)<sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an American <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemist</a> and a dean of the college of chemistry at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lewis was best known for his discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a> and his concept of <a href="/wiki/Electron_pair" title="Electron pair">electron pairs</a>; his <a href="/wiki/Lewis_structure" title="Lewis structure">Lewis dot structures</a> and other contributions to <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a> have shaped modern theories of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonding</a>. Lewis successfully contributed to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">chemical thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">photochemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">isotope separation</a>, and is also known for <a href="/wiki/Lewis_acids_and_bases" title="Lewis acids and bases">his concept of acids and bases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lewis also researched on <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Physics">quantum physics</a>, and in 1926 he coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>" for the smallest unit of radiant energy.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>G. N. Lewis was born in 1875 in <a href="/wiki/Weymouth,_Massachusetts" title="Weymouth, Massachusetts">Weymouth, Massachusetts</a>. After receiving his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> and studying abroad in Germany and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, Lewis moved to <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> in 1912 to teach chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, where he became the dean of the college of chemistry and spent the rest of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a professor, he incorporated thermodynamic principles into the chemistry curriculum and reformed <a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">chemical thermodynamics</a> in a mathematically rigorous manner accessible to ordinary chemists. He began measuring the <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> values related to several chemical processes, both organic and inorganic. In 1916, he also proposed his theory of bonding and added information about electrons in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>. In 1933, he started his research on isotope separation. Lewis worked with hydrogen and managed to purify a sample of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>. He then came up with his theory of acids and bases, and did work in <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">photochemistry</a> during the last years of his life. </p><p>Though he was nominated 41 times, G. N. Lewis never won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>, resulting in a major <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_controversies" title="Nobel Prize controversies">Nobel Prize controversy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NobelPrize_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NobelPrize-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heritage_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heritage-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Lewis mentored and influenced numerous Nobel laureates at Berkeley including <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> (1934 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/William_F._Giauque" class="mw-redirect" title="William F. Giauque">William F. Giauque</a> (1949 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> (1951 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> (1960 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> (1961 Nobel Prize) and so on, turning Berkeley into one of the world's most prestigious centers for chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 23, 1946, Lewis was found dead in his Berkeley laboratory where he had been working with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">hydrogen cyanide</a>; many postulated that the cause of his death was suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Lewis' death, his children followed their father's career in chemistry, and the Lewis Hall on the Berkeley campus is named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3></div> <p>Lewis was born in 1875 and raised in <a href="/wiki/Weymouth,_Massachusetts" title="Weymouth, Massachusetts">Weymouth, Massachusetts</a>, where there exists a street named for him, G.N. Lewis Way, off Summer Street. Additionally, the wing of the new Weymouth High School Chemistry department has been named in his honor. Lewis received his primary education at home from his parents, Frank Wesley Lewis, a lawyer of independent character, and Mary Burr White Lewis. He read at age three and was intellectually precocious. In 1884 his family moved to <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</a>, and in 1889 he received his first formal education at the university preparatory school. </p><p>In 1893, after two years at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Nebraska">University of Nebraska</a>, Lewis transferred to <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, where he obtained his <a href="/wiki/B.S." class="mw-redirect" title="B.S.">B.S.</a> in 1896. After a year of teaching at <a href="/wiki/Phillips_Academy" title="Phillips Academy">Phillips Academy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Andover,_Massachusetts" title="Andover, Massachusetts">Andover</a>, Lewis returned to Harvard to study with the physical chemist <a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">T. W. Richards</a> and obtained his Ph.D. in 1899 with a dissertation on <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_potential" title="Electrochemical potential">electrochemical potentials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a year of teaching at Harvard, Lewis took a traveling fellowship to Germany, the center of <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a>, and studied with <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a> at <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a> and with <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While working in Nernst's lab, Lewis apparently developed a lifelong enmity with Nernst. In the following years, Lewis started to criticize and denounce his former teacher on many occasions, calling Nernst's work on his heat theorem "<i>a regrettable episode in the history of chemistry</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> friend of Nernst's, <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Palm%C3%A6r_(kemist)" class="extiw" title="sv:Wilhelm Palmær (kemist)">Wilhelm Palmær</a>, was a member of the Nobel Chemistry Committee. There is evidence that he used the Nobel nominating and reporting procedures to block a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for Lewis in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> by nominating Lewis for the prize three times, and then using his position as a committee member to write negative reports.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard,_Manila,_and_MIT"><span id="Harvard.2C_Manila.2C_and_MIT"></span>Harvard, Manila, and MIT</h3></div> <p>After his stay in Nernst's lab, Lewis returned to Harvard in 1901 as an instructor for three more years. He was appointed instructor in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>. In 1904 Lewis was granted a leave of absence and became Superintendent of Weights and Measures for the Bureau of Science in <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. The next year he returned to <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) appointed him to a faculty position, in which he had a chance to join a group of outstanding physical chemists under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Amos_Noyes" title="Arthur Amos Noyes">Arthur Amos Noyes</a>. He became an assistant professor in 1907, associate professor in 1908, and full professor in 1911. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_California,_Berkeley"><span id="University_of_California.2C_Berkeley"></span>University of California, Berkeley</h3></div> <p>G. N. Lewis left MIT in 1912 to become a professor of physical chemistry and dean of the <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_College_of_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkeley College of Chemistry">College of Chemistry</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 21, 1912, he married Mary Hinckley Sheldon, daughter of a Harvard professor of <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. They had two sons, both of whom became chemistry professors, and a daughter. In 1913, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Chi_Sigma" title="Alpha Chi Sigma">Alpha Chi Sigma</a> at Berkeley, the professional chemistry fraternity.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lewis' graduate advisees at Berkeley went on to be exceptionally successful with the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Committee" title="Nobel Committee">Nobel Committee</a>. 14 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel prizes</a> were eventually awarded to the men he took as students.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The best-known of these include <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> (1934 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/William_F._Giauque" class="mw-redirect" title="William F. Giauque">William F. Giauque</a> (1949 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> (1951 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> (1960 Nobel Prize), <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> (1961 Nobel Prize).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to his efforts, the college of chemistry at Berkeley became one of the top chemistry centers in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While at Berkeley he also refused entry to women, including preventing <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Melhase" title="Margaret Melhase">Margaret Melhase</a> from conducting graduate studies.<sup id="cite_ref-SFGATE_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFGATE-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PattonArticle_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PattonArticle-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melhase had previously co-discovered <a href="/wiki/Cesium-137" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesium-137">Cesium-137</a> with Seaborg as an undergraduate. In 1913, he was elected to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He resigned in 1934, refusing to state the cause for his resignation; it has been speculated that it was due to a dispute over the internal politics of that institution or to the failure of those he had nominated to be elected. His decision to resign may also have been sparked by his resentment over the award of the 1934 Nobel Prize for chemistry to his student, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a>, for his 1931 isolation of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and the confirmation of its <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectrum</a>. This was a prize Lewis almost certainly felt he should have shared for his efforts to purify and characterize <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div> <p>On 23 March 1946,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a graduate student found Lewis's lifeless body under a laboratory workbench at Berkeley. Lewis had been working on an experiment with liquid <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">hydrogen cyanide</a>, and deadly fumes from a broken line had leaked into the laboratory. The coroner ruled that the cause of death was <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>, because of a lack of any signs of cyanosis,<sup id="cite_ref-Coffey_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coffey-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some believe that it may have been a suicide. Berkeley Emeritus Professor William Jolly, who reported the various views on Lewis's death in his 1987 history of UC Berkeley's College of Chemistry, <i>From Retorts to Lasers</i>, wrote that a higher-up in the department believed that Lewis had committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If Lewis's death was indeed a suicide, a possible explanation was depression brought on by a lunch with <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a>. Langmuir and Lewis had a long rivalry, dating back to Langmuir's extensions of Lewis's theory of the chemical bond. Langmuir had been awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work on <a href="/wiki/Surface_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface chemistry">surface chemistry</a>, while Lewis had not received the Prize despite having been nominated 41 times.<sup id="cite_ref-NobelPrize_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NobelPrize-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the day of Lewis's death, Langmuir and Lewis had met for lunch at Berkeley, a meeting that Michael Kasha recalled only years later.<sup id="cite_ref-Coffey_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coffey-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Associates reported that Lewis came back from lunch in a dark mood, played a morose game of bridge with some colleagues, then went back to work in his lab. An hour later, he was found dead. Langmuir's papers at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> confirm that he had been on the Berkeley campus that day to receive an honorary degree. </p><p>Lewis Hall at Berkeley, built in 1948, is named in his honor.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_achievements">Scientific achievements</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This sect includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this sect by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</h3></div> <p>Most of Lewis’ lasting interests originated during his Harvard years. The most important was thermodynamics, a subject in which Richards was very active at that time. Although most of the important thermodynamic relations were known by 1895, they were seen as isolated equations, and had not yet been rationalized as a logical system, from which, given one relation, the rest could be derived. Moreover, these relations were inexact, applying only to ideal chemical systems. These were two outstanding problems of theoretical thermodynamics. In two long and ambitious theoretical papers in 1900 and 1901, Lewis tried to provide a solution. Lewis introduced the thermodynamic concept of <a href="/wiki/Activity_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity (chemistry)">activity</a> and coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Fugacity" title="Fugacity">fugacity</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His new idea of fugacity, or "escaping tendency",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a function with the dimensions of <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> which expressed the tendency of a substance to pass from one chemical phase to another. Lewis believed that fugacity was the fundamental principle from which a system of real thermodynamic relations could be derived. This hope was not realized, though fugacity did find a lasting place in the description of real gases. </p><p>Lewis’ early papers also reveal an unusually advanced awareness of <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">J. W. Gibbs's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">P. Duhem's</a> ideas of free energy and <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">thermodynamic potential</a>. These ideas were well known to physicists and mathematicians, but not to most practical chemists, who regarded them as abstruse and inapplicable to chemical systems. Most chemists relied on the familiar thermodynamics of heat (enthalpy) of <a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Berthelot" title="Marcellin Berthelot">Berthelot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Ostwald</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Van ’t Hoff</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">calorimetric</a> school. Heat of reaction is not, of course, a measure of the tendency of chemical changes to occur, and Lewis realized that only free energy and entropy could provide an exact chemical thermodynamics. He derived free energy from fugacity; he tried, without success, to obtain an exact expression for the <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> function, which in 1901 had not been defined at low temperatures. Richards too tried and failed, and not until Nernst succeeded in 1907 was it possible to calculate entropies unambiguously. Although Lewis’ fugacity-based system did not last, his early interest in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> and entropy proved most fruitful, and much of his career was devoted to making these useful concepts accessible to practical chemists. </p><p>At Harvard, Lewis also wrote a theoretical paper on the thermodynamics of <a href="/wiki/Blackbody_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody radiation">blackbody radiation</a> in which he postulated that light has a pressure. He later revealed that he had been discouraged from pursuing this idea by his older, more conservative colleagues, who were unaware that <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wilhelm Wien</a> and others were successfully pursuing the same line of thought. Lewis’ paper remained unpublished; but his interest in radiation and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a>, and (later) in <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, sprang from this early, aborted effort. From the start of his career, Lewis regarded himself as both chemist and physicist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valence_theory">Valence theory</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg/300px-Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg/450px-Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg/600px-Lewis-cubic-notes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="1322" /></a><figcaption>Lewis' <b><a href="/wiki/Cubical_atom" title="Cubical atom">cubical atoms</a></b> (as drawn in 1902)</figcaption></figure> <p>About 1902 Lewis started to use unpublished drawings of <a href="/wiki/Cubical_atom" title="Cubical atom">cubical atoms</a> in his lecture notes, in which the corners of the cube represented possible <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> positions. Lewis later cited these notes in his classic 1916 paper on chemical bonding, as being the first expression of his ideas. </p><p>A third major interest that originated during Lewis’ Harvard years was his valence theory. In 1902, while trying to explain the laws of valence to his students, Lewis conceived the idea that atoms were built up of a concentric series of cubes with electrons at each corner. This “cubic atom” explained the cycle of eight elements in the periodic table and was in accord with the widely accepted belief that chemical bonds were formed by transfer of electrons to give each atom a complete set of eight. This electrochemical theory of valence found its most elaborate expression in the work of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Abegg" title="Richard Abegg">Richard Abegg</a> in 1904,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Lewis’ version of this theory was the only one to be embodied in a concrete atomic model. Again Lewis’ theory did not interest his Harvard mentors, who, like most American chemists of that time, had no taste for such speculation. Lewis did not publish his theory of the cubic atom, but in 1916 it became an important part of his theory of the shared electron pair bond. </p><p>In 1916, he published his classic paper on chemical bonding "<i>The Atom and the Molecule</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which he formulated the idea of what would become known as the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a>, consisting of a <a href="/wiki/Shared_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared pair">shared pair</a> of electrons, and he defined the term odd molecule (the modern term is <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radical</a>) when an electron is not shared. He included what became known as <a href="/wiki/Lewis_structure" title="Lewis structure">Lewis dot structures</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Cubical_atom" title="Cubical atom">cubical atom</a> model. These ideas on <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonding</a> were expanded upon by <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> and became the inspiration for the studies on the nature of the chemical bond by <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acids_and_bases">Acids and bases</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lewis_acids_and_bases" title="Lewis acids and bases">Lewis acids and bases</a></div> <p>In 1923, he formulated the electron-pair theory of <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">acid–base reactions</a>. In this theory of <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a>, a "Lewis acid" is an <i>electron-pair acceptor</i> and a "Lewis base" is an <i>electron-pair donor</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This year he also published a monograph on his theories of the chemical bond.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on work by <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">J. Willard Gibbs</a>, it was known that chemical reactions proceeded to an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> determined by the <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> of the substances taking part. Lewis spent 25 years determining free energies of various substances. In 1923 he and <a href="/wiki/Merle_Randall" title="Merle Randall">Merle Randall</a> published the results of this study,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which helped formalize modern <a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">chemical thermodynamics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heavy_water">Heavy water</h3></div> <p>Lewis was the first to produce a pure sample of deuterium oxide (<a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>) in 1933<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first to study survival and growth of life forms in heavy water.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By accelerating <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuterons</a> (deuterium <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence's</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>, he was able to study many of the properties of atomic nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1930s, he was mentor to <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, who was retained for post-doctoral work as Lewis' personal research assistant. Seaborg went on to win the 1951 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Chemistry and have the element <a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">seaborgium</a> named in his honor while he was still alive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="O4_Tetraoxygen">O<sub>4</sub> Tetraoxygen</h3></div> <p>In 1924, by studying the <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetic</a> properties of solutions of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, Lewis found that O<sub>4</sub> molecules were formed.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first evidence for <a href="/wiki/Tetraoxygen" title="Tetraoxygen">tetratomic oxygen</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relativity_and_quantum_physics">Relativity and quantum physics</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tolman-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dedication to Lewis by Richard C. Tolman a 1934 copy of Tolman's Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tolman-3.jpg/150px-Tolman-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tolman-3.jpg/225px-Tolman-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tolman-3.jpg/300px-Tolman-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2729" data-file-height="4242" /></a><figcaption>Dedication to Lewis by <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a> a 1934 copy of Tolman's <i>Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1908 he published the first of several papers on <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, in which he derived the <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>-<a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> relationship in a different way from <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s derivation.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1909, he and <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a> combined his methods with <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">special relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1912 Lewis and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Bidwell_Wilson" title="Edwin Bidwell Wilson">Edwin Bidwell Wilson</a> presented a major work in mathematical physics that not only applied <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_geometry" title="Synthetic geometry">synthetic geometry</a> to the study of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, but also noted the identity of a spacetime <a href="/wiki/Squeeze_mapping" title="Squeeze mapping">squeeze mapping</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1926, he coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>" for the smallest unit of radiant energy (light). Actually, the outcome of his letter to <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> was not what he had intended.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the letter, he proposed a photon being a structural element, not <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>. He insisted on the need for a new variable, <i>the number of photons</i>. Although his theory differed from the <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">quantum theory of light</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> in 1905, his name was adopted for what Einstein had called a <b>light quantum</b> (Lichtquant in German). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_achievements">Other achievements</h3></div> <p>In 1921, Lewis was the first to propose an empirical equation describing the failure of <a href="/wiki/Strong_electrolyte" title="Strong electrolyte">strong electrolytes</a> to obey the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_mass_action" title="Law of mass action">law of mass action</a>, a problem that had perplexed physical chemists for twenty years.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His empirical equations for what he called <a href="/wiki/Ionic_strength" title="Ionic strength">ionic strength</a> were later confirmed to be in accord with the <a href="/wiki/Debye%E2%80%93H%C3%BCckel_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Debye–Hückel equation">Debye–Hückel equation</a> for strong electrolytes, published in 1923. </p><p>Over the course of his career, Lewis published on many other subjects besides those mentioned in this entry, ranging from the nature of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> quanta to the <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> of price stabilization. In the last years of his life, Lewis and graduate student <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kasha" title="Michael Kasha">Michael Kasha</a>, his last research associate, established that <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescence" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a> molecules involves emission of light from one electron in an excited <a href="/wiki/Triplet_state" title="Triplet state">triplet state</a> (a state in which two electrons have their <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin vectors</a> oriented in the <i>same</i> direction, but in different orbitals) and measured the <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">paramagnetism</a> of this triplet state.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Gilbert Newton Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">History of molecular theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-frs-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHildebrand1947" class="citation journal cs1">Hildebrand, J. H. (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1947.0014">"Gilbert Newton Lewis. 1875-1946"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Obituary_Notices_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society">Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>5</b> (15): 491–506. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1947.0014">10.1098/rsbm.1947.0014</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Obituary+Notices+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Gilbert+Newton+Lewis.+1875-1946&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=491-506&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1947.0014&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.1947.0014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Jensen" title="William B. 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Lewis, American chemist"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gilbert+N.+Lewis%2C+American+chemist&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2021-03-19&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FGilbert-N-Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://texts.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb300004ss;NAAN=13030&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=div00006&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=calisphere">"University of California: In Memoriam, 1946"</a>. <i>texts.cdlib.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Lewis"</a>. <i>Atomic Heritage Foundation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atomic+Heritage+Foundation&rft.atitle=Gilbert+N.+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicheritage.org%2Fprofile%2Fgilbert-n-lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/lewis-gilbert-n.pdf">GILBERT NEWTON LEWIS 1875—1946 A Biographical Memoir</a> by <a href="/wiki/Joel_H._Hildebrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Joel H. Hildebrand">Joel H. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lindau+Nobel+Mediatheque&rft.atitle=Research+Profile+-+Willard+Frank+Libby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org%2Fresearch-profile%2Flaureate-libby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200411010110/https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/gilbert-newton-lewis">"Gilbert Newton Lewis | Lemelson-MIT Program"</a>. <i>lemelson.mit.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/gilbert-newton-lewis">the original</a> on April 11, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lemelson.mit.edu&rft.atitle=Gilbert+Newton+Lewis+%7C+Lemelson-MIT+Program&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flemelson.mit.edu%2Fresources%2Fgilbert-newton-lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1999" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Reviewed By Harold H. (November 1, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed076p1487">"A Biography of Distinguished Scientist Gilbert Newton Lewis (by Edward S. Lewis)"</a>. <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i>. <b>76</b> (11): 1487. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JChEd..76.1487H">1999JChEd..76.1487H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed076p1487">10.1021/ed076p1487</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9584">0021-9584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=A+Biography+of+Distinguished+Scientist+Gilbert+Newton+Lewis+%28by+Edward+S.+Lewis%29&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1487&rft.date=1999-11-01&rft.issn=0021-9584&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed076p1487&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JChEd..76.1487H&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Reviewed+By+Harold+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Fed076p1487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHildebrand1958" class="citation book cs1">Hildebrand, Joel H. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/lewis-gilbert-n.pdf">"Gilbert Newton Lewis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. Vol. 31. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: National Academy of Sciences. pp. 209–235.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gilbert+Newton+Lewis&rft.btitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=209-235&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=Joel+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Flewis-gilbert-n.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span>; see p. 210. Lewis's Ph.D. thesis was titled "Some electrochemical and thermochemical relations of zinc and cadmium amalgams". He published the results jointly with his supervisor T.W. Richards.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardsLewis1898" class="citation journal cs1">Richards, Theodore William; Lewis, Gilbert Newton (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050586039;view=1up;seq=97">"Some electrochemical and thermochemical relations of zinc and cadmium amalgams"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>34</b> (4): 87–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20020864">10.2307/20020864</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20020864">20020864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=Some+electrochemical+and+thermochemical+relations+of+zinc+and+cadmium+amalgams&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=87-99&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20020864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20020864%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Theodore+William&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Gilbert+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101050586039%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdsall1974" class="citation journal cs1">Edsall, J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 6,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Notes+and+Projects&rft.atitle=Today+in+Science+History+-+March+23+-+Gilbert+Lewis&rft.date=2018-03-22&rft.aulast=Helmenstine&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsciencenotes.org%2Ftoday-in-science-history-march-23-gilbert-lewis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coffey-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coffey_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coffey_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coffey (2008): 310-15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1901" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert Newton (June 1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050586062;view=1up;seq=57">"The law of physico-chemical change"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>37</b> (3): 49–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20021635">10.2307/20021635</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20021635">20021635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+law+of+physico-chemical+change&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=49-69&rft.date=1901-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20021635&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20021635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101050586062%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span> ; the term "fugacity" is coined on p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1907" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert Newton (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050586120;view=1up;seq=275">"Outlines of a new system of thermodynamic chemistry"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>43</b> (7): 259–293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20022322">10.2307/20022322</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20022322">20022322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=Outlines+of+a+new+system+of+thermodynamic+chemistry&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=259-293&rft.date=1907&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20022322&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20022322%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101050586120%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span> ; the term "activity" is defined on p. 262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitzer1984" class="citation journal cs1">Pitzer, Kenneth S. (February 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt4x23w27c/qt4x23w27c.pdf?t=p0fw58">"Gilbert N. Lewis and the thermodynamics of strong electrolytes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i>. <b>61</b> (2): 104–107. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JChEd..61..104P">1984JChEd..61..104P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed061p104">10.1021/ed061p104</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=Gilbert+N.+Lewis+and+the+thermodynamics+of+strong+electrolytes&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=104-107&rft.date=1984-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed061p104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984JChEd..61..104P&rft.aulast=Pitzer&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt4x23w27c%2Fqt4x23w27c.pdf%3Ft%3Dp0fw58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1900" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert Newton (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050586054;view=1up;seq=165">"A new conception of thermal pressure and a theory of solutions"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>36</b> (9): 145–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20020988">10.2307/20020988</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20020988">20020988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+new+conception+of+thermal+pressure+and+a+theory+of+solutions&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=145-168&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20020988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20020988%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101050586054%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span> The term "escaping tendency" is introduced on p. 148, where it is represented by the Greek letter <i>ψ</i> ; <i>ψ</i> is defined for ideal gases on p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbegg1904" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abegg, R. (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3959087;view=1up;seq=344">"Die Valenz und das periodische System. Versuch einer Theorie der Molekularverbindungen"</a> [Valency and the periodic table. Attempt at a theory of molecular compounds]. <i>Zeitschrift für Anorganische Chemie</i> (in German). <b>39</b> (1): 330–380. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fzaac.19040390125">10.1002/zaac.19040390125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Anorganische+Chemie&rft.atitle=Die+Valenz+und+das+periodische+System.+Versuch+einer+Theorie+der+Molekularverbindungen&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=330-380&rft.date=1904&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fzaac.19040390125&rft.aulast=Abegg&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b3959087%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1916" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert N. (April 1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hs1t2w;view=1up;seq=772">"The atom and the molecule"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>38</b> (4): 762–785. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002">10.1021/ja02261a002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95865413">95865413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+atom+and+the+molecule&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=762-785&rft.date=1916-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja02261a002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A95865413%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.hs1t2w%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1923" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Gilbert Newton (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3219599;view=1up;seq=148"><i>Valence and the Structure of Atoms and Molecules</i></a>. New York: Chemical Catalog Company. p. 142. <q>We are inclined to think of substances as possessing acid or basic properties, without having a particular solvent in mind. It seems to me that with complete generality we may say that <i>a basic substance is one which has a lone pair of electrons which may be used to complete the stable group of another atom</i>, and that <i>an acid substance is one which can employ a lone pair from another molecule</i> in completing the stable group of one of its own atoms. In other words, the basic substance furnishes a pair of electrons for a chemical bond, the acid substance accepts such a pair.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Valence+and+the+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Chemical+Catalog+Company&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b3219599%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, G. N. (1926) <i>Valence and the Nature of the Chemical Bond</i>. Chemical Catalog Company.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, G. N. and <a href="/wiki/Merle_Randall" title="Merle Randall">Merle Randall</a> (1923) <i>Thermodynamics and the Free Energies of Chemical Substances</i>. McGraw-Hill.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisMacDonald1933" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, G. N.; MacDonald, R. T. (1933). "Concentration of H<sub>2</sub> Isotope". <i>The Journal of Chemical Physics</i>. <b>1</b> (6): 341. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933JChPh...1..341L">1933JChPh...1..341L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1749300">10.1063/1.1749300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.atitle=Concentration+of+H%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+Isotope&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=341&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1749300&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933JChPh...1..341L&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=G.+N.&rft.au=MacDonald%2C+R.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1933" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, G. N. (1933). "The biochemistry of water containing hydrogen isotope". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>55</b> (8): 3503–3504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01335a509">10.1021/ja01335a509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+biochemistry+of+water+containing+hydrogen+isotope&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=3503-3504&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01335a509&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=G.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1934" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, G. N. (1934). "The biology of heavy water". <i>Science</i>. <b>79</b> (2042): 151–153. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934Sci....79..151L">1934Sci....79..151L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.79.2042.151">10.1126/science.79.2042.151</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17788137">17788137</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4106325">4106325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+biology+of+heavy+water&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2042&rft.pages=151-153&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.79.2042.151&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4106325%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17788137&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934Sci....79..151L&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=G.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/deuteron">"Deuteron - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deuteron+-+an+overview+%26%23124%3B+ScienceDirect+Topics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fearth-and-planetary-sciences%2Fdeuteron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1924" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert N. (September 1, 1924). "The magnetism of oxygen and the molecule O<sub>4</sub>". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>46</b> (9): 2027–2032. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01674a008">10.1021/ja01674a008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7863">0002-7863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+magnetism+of+oxygen+and+the+molecule+O%3Csub%3E4%3C%2Fsub%3E&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2027-2032&rft.date=1924-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01674a008&rft.issn=0002-7863&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis,_G._N._&_Richard_C._Tolman1909" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, G. N. & <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a> (1909). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Principle_of_Relativity,_and_Non-Newtonian_Mechanics">"The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics" </a></span>. <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>44</b> (25): 709–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20022495">10.2307/20022495</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20022495">20022495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Principle+of+Relativity%2C+and+Non-Newtonian+Mechanics&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=709-26&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20022495&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20022495%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Lewis%2C+G.+N.+%26+Richard+C.+Tolman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonLewis1912" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Edwin B.; Lewis, Gilbert N. (1912). "The Space-time Manifold of Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics". <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>48</b> (11): 387–507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20022840">10.2307/20022840</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20022840">20022840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Space-time+Manifold+of+Relativity.+The+Non-Euclidean+Geometry+of+Mechanics+and+Electromagnetics&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=387-507&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20022840&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20022840%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Edwin+B.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Gilbert+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091027012400/http://ca.geocities.com/cocklebio/synsptm.html">Synthetic Spacetime</a>, a digest of the axioms used, and theorems proved, by Wilson and Lewis. Archived by <a href="/wiki/WebCite" title="WebCite">WebCite</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis,_G.N.1926" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, G.N. (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/118874a0">"The conservation of photons"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>118</b> (2981): 874–875. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926Natur.118..874L">1926Natur.118..874L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F118874a0">10.1038/118874a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4110026">4110026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+conservation+of+photons&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=2981&rft.pages=874-875&rft.date=1926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4110026%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F118874a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1926Natur.118..874L&rft.au=Lewis%2C+G.N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F118874a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisRandall1921" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015018181431;view=1up;seq=1144">"The activity coefficient of strong electrolytes"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>43</b> (5): 1112–1154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01438a014">10.1021/ja01438a014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+activity+coefficient+of+strong+electrolytes&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1112-1154&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01438a014&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+N.&rft.au=Randall%2C+Merle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015018181431%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D1144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span> The term "ionic strength" is introduced on p. 1140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisKasha1944" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Gilbert N.; Kasha, M. (1944). "Phosphorescence and the Triplet State". <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>66</b> (12): 2100–2116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01240a030">10.1021/ja01240a030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Phosphorescence+and+the+Triplet+State&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2100-2116&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01240a030&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+N.&rft.au=Kasha%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGilbert+N.+Lewis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Coffey, Patrick (2008) <i>Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532134-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532134-0">978-0-19-532134-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Gilbert Newton Lewis">Gilbert Newton Lewis</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/people/lewis.html">Key Participants: G. N. Lewis</a> - <i>Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History</i></li> <li>Eric Scerri, <i>The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance</i>, Oxford University Press, 2007, see chapter 8 especially</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/lewis-gilbert-n.pdf">National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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