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Pons-Sanz |title=Norse-derived Vocabulary in late Old English Texts: Wulfstan's Works. A Case Study |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=2007 |isbn=978-87-7674-196-9 |location=Amsterdam |page=71}}</ref> was the part of [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|England]] between the early tenth century and the [[Norman Conquest]] under Anglo-Saxon rule in which [[Danes (tribe)|Danish]] laws applied.<ref>"The [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''Dene'' ("Danes") usually refers to [[Scandinavia]]ns of any kind; most of the invaders were indeed Danish (East [[Old Norse|Norse]] speakers), but there were Norwegians (West Norse ''[speakers]'') among them as well."&nbsp;Lass, Roger, ''Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion'', p. 187, n. 12. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref> The Danelaw originated in the conquest and occupation of large parts of eastern and northern England by Danish Vikings in the late ninth century. The term applies to the areas in which English kings allowed the Danes to keep their own laws following the tenth-century English conquest in return for the Danish settlers' loyalty to the English crown. "Danelaw" is first recorded in the early 11th century as ''Dena lage''.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=N. J.|editor1-last= Higham |editor2-first=D. H.|editor2-last= Hill|title=Edward the Elder 899–924|first=Lesley |last=Abrams|chapter=Edward the Elder's Danelaw|page=128|location=Abingdon, UK|publisher= Routledge|year=2001|isbn=0-415-21497-1}}</ref> The Danelaw originated from the invasion of the [[Great Heathen Army]] into England in 865, but the term was not used to describe a geographic area until the 11th century. With the increase in population and productivity in [[Scandinavia]], Viking warriors, having sought treasure and glory in the nearby [[British Isles]], "proceeded to plough and support themselves", in the words of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' for 876.<ref>Quoted by Richard Hall, ''Viking Age Archaeology'' (series [[Shire Archaeology]]), 2010:22; Gwyn Jones, ''A History of the Vikings''. Revised ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984: 221.</ref> Danelaw can describe the set of legal terms and definitions created in the treaties between [[Alfred the Great]], the king of Wessex, and [[Guthrum]], the Danish warlord, written following Guthrum's defeat at the [[Battle of Edington]] in 878. In 886, the [[Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum]] was formalised, defining the boundaries of their kingdoms, with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the [[Vikings]]. The language spoken in England was affected by this clash of cultures, with the emergence of Anglo-Norse dialects.<ref name="e-heritage-danelaw">{{cite web|url= http://www.viking.no/e/england/danelaw/e-heritage-danelaw.htm?showall=1|title= Danelaw Heritage|publisher= The Viking Network|access-date= 25 September 2014|archive-date= 26 February 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210226015801/http://www.viking.no/e/england/danelaw/e-heritage-danelaw.htm?showall=1|url-status= live}}</ref> The Danelaw roughly comprised these contemporary 16 [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]] and [[shire]]s: [[Greater London]], [[Leicestershire|Leicester]], [[Yorkshire|York]], [[Nottinghamshire|Nottingham]], [[Derbyshire|Derby]], [[Lincolnshire|Lincoln]], [[Essex]], [[Cambridgeshire|Cambridge]], [[Suffolk]], [[Norfolk]], [[Northamptonshire|Northampton]], [[Huntingdonshire|Huntingdon]], [[Bedfordshire|Bedford]], [[Hertfordshire|Hertford]], [[Middlesex]], and [[Buckinghamshire|Buckingham]].<ref> S. Thomason, T. Kaufman, ''Language Contact, Creolisation and Genetic Linguistics,'' (1988) p. 362 </ref><ref> K. Holman, ''The Northern Conquest: Vikings in Britain and Ireland,'' (2007) p. 157 </ref><ref> ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England,'' ed. Michael Lapidge (2008), p. 136 </ref> ==Background== [[File:England Grosses Heer 892.jpg|thumb|left|Map of England showing the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and Danish districts – from ''Cassell's History of England,'' Vol. I – anonymous author and artists]] ===Scandinavian York=== {{main|Scandinavian York}} From around 800, there had been waves of [[Norsemen|Norse]] raids on the coastlines of Britain and Ireland. In 865, instead of raiding, the Danes landed a large army in [[East Anglia]], with the intention of conquering the four Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. The armies of various Danish leaders had collaborated to make one combined force under a leadership that included [[Halfdan Ragnarsson]] and [[Ivar the Boneless]], the sons of the legendary Viking leader [[Ragnar Lodbrok]].<ref name=sawyer52>Sawyer. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings.'' pp. 52–55 {{ISBN?}}</ref> The combined army was described in the annals as the [[Great Heathen Army]].<ref name=asc865>ASC 865&nbsp;– English translation at [http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.html project Gutenberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005201716/http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.html/ |date=5 October 2020 }}. Retrieved 16 January 2013</ref> After making peace with the [[Kingdom of East Anglia|local East Anglian king]] in return for horses,{{Citation needed|date=October 2024|reason=reference in third paragraph of this section states the EA King (Edmund) was defeated two years later, and article on Edmund does not mention an initial peace or providing horses to the Norse}} the Great Heathen Army moved north. In 867 they captured Northumbria and its capital, [[York]] ("Jórvík"), defeating both the recently deposed King [[Osberht of Northumbria]] and the usurper [[Ælla of Northumbria]]. The Danes then placed an Englishman, [[Ecgberht I of Northumbria]], on the throne of Northumbria as a [[puppet state|puppet]] ruler.<ref>Flores Historiarum: Rogeri de Wendover, ''Chronica sive flores historiarum'', pp. 298–299. ed. H. Coxe, [[Rolls Series]], 84 (4 vols, 1841–42)</ref> King [[Æthelred of Wessex]] and his brother, [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]], led their army against the Danes at [[Nottingham]], but the Danes refused to leave their fortifications. King [[Burgred of Mercia]] negotiated peace with Ivar, with the Danes keeping Nottingham in exchange for leaving the rest of Mercia alone. Under Ivar the Boneless, the Danes continued their invasion in 869 by defeating King [[Edmund the Martyr|Edmund of East Anglia]] at [[Hoxne]] and conquering East Anglia.<ref>Haywood, John. ''The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings'', p. 62. Penguin Books. 1995. {{ISBN?}}</ref> Once again, the brothers Æthelred and Alfred attempted to stop Ivar by attacking the Danes at [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]]. They were repelled with heavy losses. The Danes pursued, and on 7 January 871, Æthelred and Alfred defeated the Danes at the [[Battle of Ashdown]]. The Danes retreated to [[Old Basing|Basing]] (in [[Hampshire]]), where Æthelred attacked and was, in turn, defeated. Ivar was able to follow up this victory with another in March at [[Battle of Marton|Meretum]] (now Marton, [[Wiltshire]]). On 23 April 871, King Æthelred died and Alfred succeeded him as King of Wessex. His army was weak and he was forced to pay tribute to Ivar in order to make peace with the Danes. During this peace, the Danes turned to the north and attacked Mercia, a campaign that lasted until 874. The Danish leader Ivar died during this campaign. Ivar was succeeded by Guthrum, who finished the campaign against Mercia. In ten years, the Danes had gained control over East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia, leaving just Wessex resisting.<ref>Carr, Michael. "Alfred the Great Strikes Back", p. 65. ''Military History Journal''. June 2001.</ref> Guthrum and the Danes brokered peace with Wessex in 876, when they captured the fortresses of [[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]] and [[Exeter]]. Alfred laid siege to the Danes, who were forced to surrender after reinforcements were lost in a storm. Two years later, Guthrum again attacked Alfred, surprising him by attacking his forces wintering in [[Chippenham]]. King Alfred was saved when the Danish army coming from his rear was destroyed by inferior forces at the [[Battle of Cynuit]].<ref name=abels153>{{Cite book|last=Abels|first=Richard|title=Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon|year=1998|isbn=0-582-04047-7 |pages=153–154}}</ref><ref name=asc878>ASC 878&nbsp;– English translation at [http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.html project Gutenberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005201716/http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.html/ |date=5 October 2020 }}. Retrieved 9 June 2014</ref> The modern location of ''Cynuit'' is disputed but suggestions include Countisbury Hill, near [[Lynmouth]], [[Devon]], or Kenwith Castle, [[Bideford]], Devon, or [[Cannington, Somerset|Cannington]], near [[Bridgwater]], [[Somerset]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kendrick|first=T.D.|title= A History of the Vikings|location=New York|publisher= Charles Scribner's Sons|year= 1930|page=238|oclc=314512470}}</ref> Alfred was forced into hiding for a time, before returning in early 878 to gather an army and attack Guthrum at [[Battle of Edington|Edington]]. The Danes were defeated and retreated to Chippenham, where King Alfred laid siege and soon forced them to surrender. As a term of surrender, King Alfred demanded that Guthrum be [[Baptism|baptised]] a Christian; King Alfred served as his [[Godparent|godfather]].<ref>Hadley, D. M. ''The Northern Danelaw: Its Social Structure, c. 800–1100''. p. 310. Leicester University Press. 2000. {{ISBN?}}</ref> [[Edward the Elder]] and his sister, [[Æthelflæd]], the Lady of the Mercians, conquered Danish territories in the [[The Midlands|Midlands]] and East Anglia in a series of campaigns in the 910s, and some Danish [[Earl|jarls]] who submitted were allowed to keep their lands.<ref>Lesley Abrams, 'Edward the Elder's Danelaw', in N. J. Higham & D. H. Hill eds, ''Edward the Elder 899–924'', Routledge, 2001, pp. 138–139</ref> Viking rule ended when [[Eric Bloodaxe]] was driven out of Northumbria in 954. The reasons for the waves of immigration were complex and bound to the political situation in Scandinavia at that time; they occurred when Viking settlers were also establishing their presence in the [[Hebrides]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Ireland]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]], [[L'Anse aux Meadows]], France ([[Normandy]]), the Baltics, Russia and Ukraine (see [[Kievan Rus']]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://viking.hgo.se/Files/VikHeri/Viking_Age/expansion.html|title=The Viking expansion|website=hgo.se|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512165332/http://viking.hgo.se/Files/VikHeri/Viking_Age/expansion.html|archive-date=12 May 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Cnut and his successors== [[File:Cnut lands.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|right|[[Cnut the Great]]'s domains]] The Danes did not give up their designs on England. From 1016 to 1035, [[Cnut the Great]] ruled over a unified English kingdom, itself the product of a resurgent Wessex, as part of his [[North Sea Empire]], together with Denmark, Norway and part of Sweden. Cnut was succeeded in England on his death by his son [[Harold Harefoot]], until he died in 1040, after which another of Cnut's sons, [[Harthacnut (1020–1042)|Harthacnut]], took the throne. Since Harthacnut was already on the Danish throne, this reunited the North Sea Empire. Harthacnut lived only another two years, and from his death in 1042 until 1066 the monarchy reverted to the English line in the form of [[Edward the Confessor]]. Edward died in January 1066 without an obvious successor, and an English nobleman, [[Harold II of England|Harold Godwinson]], took the throne. Later that year, two rival claimants to the throne led invasions of England in short succession. First, [[Harald III of Norway|Harald Hardrada]] of Norway took York in September, but was defeated by Harold at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]], in [[Yorkshire]]. Then, three weeks later, [[William I of England|William of Normandy]] defeated Harold at the [[Battle of Hastings]], in [[Sussex]], and in December he accepted the submission of [[Edgar the Ætheling]], last in the line of Anglo-Saxon royal succession, at [[Berkhamsted]]. The Danelaw appeared in legislation as late as the early 12th century with the ''[[Leges Henrici Primi]]'', where it is referred to as one of the laws together with those of Wessex and Mercia into which England was divided. ==Chronology== '''793''' − Viking raid on Lindisfarne<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Viking Raid on Lindisfarne |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/lindisfarne-priory/History/viking-raid/ |url-status=live |website=English Heritage |access-date=13 April 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408053931/https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/lindisfarne-priory/History/viking-raid/ }}</ref> '''800''' − Waves of Danish assaults on the coastlines of the British Isles. '''865''' − Danish raiders first began to settle in England. Led by the brothers Halfdan and Ivar the Boneless, they wintered in East Anglia, where they demanded and received tribute in exchange for a temporary peace. From there, they moved north and attacked Northumbria, which was in the midst of a civil war between the deposed king Osberht and a usurper Ælla. The Danes used the civil turmoil as an opportunity to capture York, which they sacked and burned. '''867''' − Following the loss of York, Osberht and Ælla formed an alliance against the Danes. They launched a counter-attack, but the Danes killed both Osberht and Ælla and set up a puppet king on the Northumbrian throne. In response, King Æthelred of Wessex, along with his brother Alfred, marched against the Danes, who were positioned behind fortifications in Nottingham, but were unable to draw them into battle. In order to effect peace, King Burgred of Mercia ceded Nottingham to the Danes in exchange for leaving the rest of Mercia undisturbed. '''868''' − Danes captured [[Nottingham]]. '''869''' − Ivar the Boneless returned and demanded tribute from King Edmund of East Anglia. '''870''' − King Edmund refused Ivar's demand. Ivar defeated and captured Edmund at Hoxne, adding East Anglia to the area controlled by the invading Danes. King Æthelred and Alfred attacked the Danes at Reading, but were repulsed with heavy losses. The Danes pursued them. '''871''' − On 7 January, Æthelred and Alfred made their stand at Ashdown (on what is the Berkshire/North Wessex Downs now in Oxfordshire). Æthelred could not be found at the start of battle, as he was busy praying in his tent, so Alfred led the army into battle. Æthelred and Alfred defeated the Danes, who counted among their losses five [[Jarl (title)|jarls]] (nobles). The Danes retreated and set up fortifications at [[Old Basing|Basing]] ([[Basingstoke]]) in Hampshire, a mere {{convert|14|mi|km}} from Reading. Æthelred attacked the Danish fortifications and was routed. The Danes followed up with another victory in March at Meretum (now Marton, Wiltshire). King Æthelred died on 23 April 871 and Alfred took the throne of Wessex. For the rest of the year Alfred concentrated on attacking with small bands against isolated groups of Danes. He was moderately successful in this endeavour and was able to score minor victories against the Danes, but his army was on the verge of collapse. Alfred responded by paying off the Danes for a promise of peace. During the peace, the Danes turned north and attacked Mercia, which they finished off in short order, and captured London in the process. King Burgred of Mercia fought in vain against Ivar the Boneless and his Danish invaders for three years until 874, when he fled to Europe. During Ivar's campaign against Mercia, he died and was succeeded by Guthrum the Old. Guthrum quickly defeated Burgred and placed a puppet on the throne of Mercia. The Danes now controlled East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia, with only Wessex continuing to resist. '''875''' − The Danes settled in [[Dorset]], well inside Alfred's Kingdom of Wessex, but Alfred quickly made peace with them. '''876''' − The Danes broke the peace when they captured the fortress of Wareham, followed by a similar capture of Exeter in 877. '''877''' − Alfred laid in a siege, while the Danes waited for reinforcements from Scandinavia. Unfortunately for the Danes, the fleet of reinforcements encountered a storm and lost more than 100 ships, and the Danes were forced to return to East Mercia in the north. '''878''' − In January, Guthrum led an attack against Wessex that sought to capture Alfred while he wintered in Chippenham. Another Danish army [[Viking expansion#Wales|landed in south Wales]] arrived and moved south with the intent of intercepting Alfred should he flee from Guthrum's forces. However, they stopped during their march to capture a small fortress at Countisbury Hill, held by a Wessex [[ealdorman]] named [[Odda, Ealdorman of Devon|Odda]]. The Saxons, led by Odda, attacked the Danes while they slept and defeated their superior forces, saving Alfred from being trapped between the two armies. Alfred was forced to go into hiding for the rest of the winter and spring of 878 in the Somerset marshes in order to avoid the superior Danish forces. In the spring, Alfred was able to gather an army and attacked Guthrum and the Danes at Edington. The Danes were defeated and retreated to Chippenham, where the English pursued and laid siege to Guthrum's forces. The Danes were unable to hold out without relief and soon surrendered. Alfred demanded, as a term of the surrender, that Guthrum become baptised as a Christian, which Guthrum agreed to do, with Alfred acting as his godfather. Guthrum was true to his word and settled in East Anglia, at least for a while. '''884''' − Guthrum attacked Kent, but was defeated by the English. This led to the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, which established the boundaries of the Danelaw and allowed for Danish self-rule in the region.<ref name=attenbborough96>{{Cite book|editor-last=Attenborough|editor-first=F.L. Tr.|title=The laws of the earliest English kings|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=1922|url=https://archive.org/stream/lawsofearliesten00grea#page/96/mode/2up|access-date=31 July 2013|pages=96–101|isbn=9780404565459}}</ref> '''902''' − [[Essex]] submitted to [[Æthelwold of Wessex|Æthelwald]]. '''903''' − Æthelwald incited the East Anglian Danes into breaking the peace. They ravaged Mercia before winning a [[pyrrhic victory]] that saw the death of Æthelwald and the Danish King Eohric; this allowed [[Edward the Elder]] to consolidate power. '''911''' − The English defeated the Danes at the [[Battle of Tettenhall]]. The Northumbrians ravaged Mercia but were trapped by Edward and forced to fight. '''917''' − In return for peace and protection, the Kingdoms of Essex and East Anglia accepted Edward the Elder as their [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] overlord. Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, took the [[borough]] of Derby. '''918''' − The borough of Leicester submitted peaceably to Æthelflæd's rule. The people of York promised to accept her as their overlord, but she died before this could come to fruition. She was succeeded by her brother, the Kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex united in the person of King Edward. '''919''' − Norwegian Vikings under King Ragnvald Sygtryggsson of [[Dublin]] took York. '''920''' − Edward was accepted as father and lord by the King of the Scots, by Rægnold, the sons of [[Eadulf I of Bernicia|Eadulf]], the English, Norwegians, Danes and others all of whom dwelt in Northumbria and the King and people of the [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]] Welsh. '''954''' − King Eric was driven out of Northumbria, his death marking the end of the prospect of a Northern Viking Kingdom stretching from York to Dublin and the Isles. '''1002''' – [[St. Brice's Day massacre]] of the Danes '''1066''' − [[Harald Hardrada]] landed with an army, hoping to take control of York and the English crown. He was defeated and killed at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]]. This event is often cited as the end of the Viking era. The same year, [[William the Conqueror]], himself a descendant of Vikings, successfully took the English throne and became the first Norman king of England. '''1069''' − [[Sweyn II of Denmark]] landed with an army, in much the same way as Harald Hardrada. He took control of York after defeating the Norman garrison and inciting a local uprising. King William eventually defeated his forces and devastated the region in the [[Harrying of the North]]. '''1075''' − One of Sweyn's sons, [[Canute IV of Denmark|Knut]], set sail for England to support an English rebellion, but it had been crushed before he arrived, so he settled for plundering the city of York and surrounding area, before returning home.<ref name=sawyer17>{{Cite book|last=Sawyer|first=Peter |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings |location=Oxford|year=2001|edition=3rd|publisher= OUP|isbn=0-19-285434-8|pages=17–18}}</ref> '''1085''' − Knut, now king, assembles a fleet for a major invasion against England. Informed of his planned crossing, William hurries back to England with a northern French army, and the Danish expedition is called off.{{sfn|Housseau|1767|p=xcix}} Other than [[Eystein II of Norway]] taking advantage of the [[The Anarchy|civil war]] during [[King Stephen of England|Stephen's reign]], to plunder the east coast of England,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Forte|first=Angello|title=Viking Empires|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2005|isbn=0521829925|page=216}}</ref>&nbsp;there were no serious invasions or raids of England by the Danes after this.<ref name=sawyer17 /> ==Geography== {{See also|Five Boroughs of the Danelaw}} [[File:Midland Map - 5 Boroughs 912 Ad.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The Five Boroughs and the English Midlands in the early 10th century<ref>Falkus & Gillingham and Hill</ref>]] The area occupied by the Danelaw was roughly the area to the north of a line drawn between [[London]] and [[Chester]], excluding the portion of Northumbria to the east of the [[Pennines]]. Five fortified towns became particularly important in the Danelaw: Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, Stamford and Lincoln, broadly delineating the area now called the [[East Midlands]]. These strongholds became known as the ''Five Boroughs''. ''Borough'' derives from the Old English word {{lang|ang|burh}} ([[cognate]] with German {{lang|de|Burg}}, meaning castle), meaning a fortified and walled enclosure containing several households, anything from a large stockade to a fortified town. The meaning has since developed further. ==Legal concepts== The Danelaw was an important factor in the establishment of a civilian peace in the neighbouring Anglo-Saxon and Viking communities. It established, for example, equivalences in areas of legal contentiousness, such as the amount of reparation that should be payable in ''[[weregild|wergild]]''. Many of the legalistic concepts were compatible; for example, the Viking ''wapentake'', the standard for land division in the Danelaw, was effectively interchangeable with the [[hundred (country subdivision)|hundred]]. The use of the execution site and cemetery at [[Walkington Wold Burials|Walkington Wold]] in east Yorkshire suggests a continuity of judicial practice.<ref>{{citation |first1=J.L. |last1=Buckberry |first2=D.M. |last2=Hadley |author-link2=Dawn Hadley |title=An Anglo-Saxon Execution Cemetery at Walkington Wold, Yorkshire |journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology |volume=26 |number=3 |year=2007 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/3398/ |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0092.2007.00287.x |page=325 |hdl=10454/677 |hdl-access=free |access-date=30 August 2020 |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026215418/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/3398/ |url-status=live }} {{open access}}</ref> Under the Danelaw, between 30% and 50% of the population in the countryside had the legal status of '[[sokeman]]', occupying an intermediate position between the [[free tenant]]s and the [[Villein (feudal)|bond tenants]].<ref>Emma Day (2011), [https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/239350/Emma_Day_Thesis.pdf;sequence=1 Sokemen and Freemen in Late Anglo-Saxon East Anglia in Comparative Context] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301115903/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/239350/Emma_Day_Thesis.pdf;sequence=1 |date=1 March 2022 }} cam.ac.uk</ref> This tended to provide more autonomy for the peasants. A sokeman was a free man within the lord's ''soke'', or jurisdiction.<ref>[http://www.mercedesrochelle.com/wordpress/?p=1062 What is Sac and Soke in Anglo-Saxon England?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110160246/http://www.mercedesrochelle.com/wordpress/?p=1062 |date=10 November 2018 }} (2015)</ref> According to many scholars, "... the Danelaw was an especially ‘free’ area of Britain because the rank and file of the Danish armies, from whom sokemen were descended, had settled in the area and imported their own social system."<ref>Emma Day (2011), [https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/239350/Emma_Day_Thesis.pdf;sequence=1 Sokemen and Freemen in Late Anglo-Saxon East Anglia in Comparative Context] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301115903/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/239350/Emma_Day_Thesis.pdf;sequence=1 |date=1 March 2022 }} p. 21, cam.ac.uk</ref> ==Legacy== [[File:South Yorkshire Place Names.png|thumb|[[Toponymy]] within present day South Yorkshire, the former Kingdom of Jorvik, showing the lasting legacy of Danish settlement]] The influence of this period of Scandinavian settlement can still be seen in the [[Northern England|North of England]] and the [[East Midlands]], and is particularly evident in [[Toponymy of England|place-names]]: name endings such as ''-howe'', ''-by'' (meaning "village") or ''-thorp'' ("hamlet") having Norse origins. There seems to be a remarkable number of ''Kirby/Kirkby'' names, some with remains of Anglo-Saxon building<ref>Taylor, H.M. & Taylor, Joan, ''Anglo-Saxon Architecture''. Cambridge, 1965.</ref> indicating both a Norse origin and early church building.<ref>introduction, Biddulph, Joseph ''Old Danish of the Old Danelaw''. Pontypridd, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-897999-48-6}}.</ref> Scandinavian names blended with the English ''-ton'' give rise to typical hybrid place-names.<ref>The "Grimston hybrids", noted by Richard Hall, ''Viking Age Archaeology'' (series Shire Archaeology) 2010:22.</ref> [[Old East Norse]] and [[Old English]] were still somewhat mutually comprehensible. The contact between these languages in the Danelaw caused the incorporation of many Norse words into the [[English language]], including the word [[law]] itself, ''sky'' and ''window,'' and the [[Grammatical person|third person]] [[pronoun]]s ''they'', ''them'' and ''their''.<ref>Henry Loyn,'' The Vikings in Britain'' (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1995), 85.</ref> Many Old Norse words still survive in the dialects of Northern England.<ref>Joan Beal, "English Dialects in the North of England: Morphology and Syntax," in ''A Handbook of Varieties of English'' vol. 2, ed. Bernd Kortmann et al. (New York: Martin De Gruyter, 2004) 137.</ref><ref>Katie Wales,'' Northern English: A Social and Cultural History'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 55.</ref><ref>G.H. Cowling, ''The Dialect of Hackness:Northeast Yorkshire'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1915), xxi–xxii.</ref> Four of the five boroughs became [[county town]]s—of the counties of [[Leicestershire]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[Nottinghamshire]] and [[Derbyshire]]. Stamford failed to gain such status—perhaps because of the nearby autonomous territory of [[Rutland]]. ==Genetic heritage== {{See also|Genetic history of the British Isles|Scandinavian migration to the United Kingdom}} In 2000, the [[BBC]] commissioned a genetic survey of the British Isles by a team from [[University College London]] led by Professor [[David B. Goldstein (geneticist)|David Goldstein]] for its programme '[[Blood of the Vikings]]'. It concluded that Norse (Norwegian) invaders settled sporadically throughout the British Isles with a particular concentration in certain areas, such as [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1689955.stm |title=ENGLAND &#124; Viking blood still flowing |work=BBC News |date=3 December 2001 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=1 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101073532/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1689955.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The study did not set out to genetically distinguish descendants of Danish Vikings from descendants of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] settlers. That was decided on the basis that the latter two groups originated from areas that overlap each other on the continental North Sea coast (ranging from the [[Jutland Peninsula]] to [[Belgium]]) and were therefore considered too difficult to genetically distinguish.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geneticarchaeology.com/research/Blood_Of_The_Vikings.asp |title=Blood of the Vikings |work=Genetic Archaeology |year=2014 |access-date=7 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606235749/http://www.geneticarchaeology.com/research/Blood_Of_The_Vikings.asp |archive-date=6 June 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A 10-year genetic study published in 2020 found evidence of a major influx of Danish settlers into England during the Viking period.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2688-8|title=Population genomics of the Viking world|first=Margaryan|last=Willerslev|journal=Nature|date=16 September 2020|volume=585|issue=7825|pages=390–396|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2688-8|pmid=32939067|bibcode=2020Natur.585..390M|s2cid=221769227|access-date=17 September 2020|via=www.nature. com|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326025602/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2688-8|url-status=live|hdl=10852/83989|hdl-access=free}}</ref> ==Archaeology== Major archaeological sites that bear testimony to the Danelaw are few. The most famous is the site at York. Another Danelaw site is the cremation site at Heath Wood, [[Ingleby, Derbyshire|Ingleby]], [[Derbyshire]]. Archaeological sites do not bear out the historically defined area as being a real demographic or trade boundary. This could be due to misallocation of the items and features on which this judgement is based as being indicative of either Anglo-Saxon or Norse presence. Otherwise, it could indicate that there was considerable population movement between the areas, or simply that after the treaty was made, it was ignored by one or both sides. [[Thynghowe]] was an important Danelaw meeting place, today located in [[Sherwood Forest]], in Nottinghamshire. The word ''howe'' often indicates a prehistoric [[burial mound]]. Howe is derived from the [[Old Norse]] word {{lang|non|haugr}} meaning mound.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/docs/ebooks/guide-to-scandinavian-origins-of-place-names.pdf |first=Anke-Beate |last=Stahl |title=Guide to Scandinavian origins of place names in Britain |work=[[Ordnance Survey]] |date=May 2004 |access-date=7 August 2014 |archive-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311091259/https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/docs/ebooks/guide-to-scandinavian-origins-of-place-names.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The site's rediscovery was made by Lynda Mallett, Stuart Reddish and John Wood. The site had vanished from modern maps and was essentially lost to history until the local history enthusiasts made their discoveries. Experts think the rediscovered site, which lies amidst the old oaks of an area known as the [[Birklands]] in Sherwood Forest, may also yield clues as to the boundary of the ancient [[Anglo Saxon]] kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. [[English Heritage]] recently inspected the site and believes it is a national rarity. [[Thynghowe]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=1461548&search=all&criteria=thynghowe |title=Detailed Result: Thynghowe |publisher=Pastscape |date=22 November 2007 |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727170304/http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=1461548&search=all&criteria=thynghowe |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}</ref> was a place where people came to resolve disputes and settle issues. It is a [[Old Norse|Norse]] word, although the site may be older still, perhaps even from the [[Bronze Age]]. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[List of generic forms in British place names]] * [[Longhouse]] * [[Mjölnir]] * [[Norse–Gaels]] * [[Raven banner]] * [[Runestone]] * [[Stave church]] * {{lang|la|[[Subpoena ad testificandum]]}} * [[Valknut]] * [[Anglo-Scandinavian]] * [[Scandinavian Scotland]] * [[Scandinavian York]] * [[List of monarchs of Northumbria]] * [[Kingdom of Dublin]] * [[Kingdom of the Isles]] * [[English language in Northern England]] * [[Viking activity in the British Isles]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} *{{cite book|last=Housseau|first=Dom|year=1767|title=Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France|url=https://archive.org/details/RecueilDesHistoriensDesGaules111818|volume=XI|publisher=[[Congregation of Saint Maur]]}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book|editor1-first=N. J.|editor1-last= Higham |editor2-first=D. H.|editor2-last= Hill|title=Edward the Elder 899–924|first=Lesley |last=Abrams|chapter=Edward the Elder's Danelaw|pages=128–143|location=Abingdon, UK|publisher= Routledge|year=2001|isbn=0-415-21497-1}} Discusses definitions of "Danelaw". * ''Types of Manorial Structure in the Northern Danelaw'', [[Frank M. Stenton]], London, 1910. * ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles'', Tiger Books International version translated and collated by Anne Savage, 1995. * ''Community archaeology at Thynghowe, Birklands, Sherwood Forest'' by Lynda Mallett, Stuart Reddish, John Baker, Stuart Brookes and Andy Gaunt; Transactions of the Thoroton Society of Nottinghamshire, Volume 116 (2012) * {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Danelagh |volume=7 |pages=803–804 |last=Mawer |first=Allen |author-link=Allen Mawer}} *{{cite journal |last1=Heen-Pettersen |first1=Aina Margrethe |date=2021 |title=Evidence of Viking trade and 'Danelaw' connections? Inset lead weights from Norway and the western Viking World |url=https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue56/10/index.html |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=56 |doi=10.11141/ia.56.10 |doi-access=free|hdl=11250/2825187 |hdl-access=free }} *Stattel, Jake A. (2019). "[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/anglo-saxon-england/article/abs/legal-culture-in-the-danelaw-a-study-of-iii-aethelred/80EEB3ACC0E6E9A9800D066C42182789 Legal culture in the Danelaw: a study of III Æthelred]". ''Anglo-Saxon England''. '''48''': 163–203. ==External links== {{Sister project links}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1689955.stm News Item: BBC Blood of the Vikings] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/index.shtml BBC Viking History Links] * [http://issuu.com/piro.co.uk/docs/according_to_ancient_custom_-_thynghowe?mode=window&backgroundColor=%23222222 According to Ancient Custom: Research on the possible Origins and Purpose of Thynghowe Sherwood Forest] {{Scandinavian England}} {{Viking}} {{Heptarchy}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|54|N|1|W|region:GB_type:landmark_dim:100km|display=title}} [[Category:9th-century establishments in England]] [[Category:Anglo-Norse England]] [[Category:Denmark–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Invasions of England]] [[Category:Northern England]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a 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