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[o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_tastes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_tastes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Basic tastes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Basic_tastes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Basic tastes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Basic_tastes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sweetness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweetness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Sweetness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweetness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sourness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sourness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Sourness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sourness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saltiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saltiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Saltiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saltiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bitterness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bitterness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Bitterness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bitterness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Savoriness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Savoriness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Savoriness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Savoriness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perceptual_independence_from_salty_and_sweet_taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptual_independence_from_salty_and_sweet_taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Perceptual independence from salty and sweet taste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceptual_independence_from_salty_and_sweet_taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measuring_relative_tastes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_relative_tastes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Measuring relative tastes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_relative_tastes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Functional structure </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Functional_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Functional structure subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Functional_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sweetness_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweetness_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Sweetness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweetness_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saltiness_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saltiness_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Saltiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saltiness_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sourness_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sourness_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Sourness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sourness_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bitterness_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bitterness_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Bitterness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bitterness_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Savoriness_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Savoriness_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Savoriness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Savoriness_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_sensations_and_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_sensations_and_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Further sensations and transmission </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_sensations_and_transmission-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further sensations and transmission subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_sensations_and_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pungency_(also_spiciness_or_hotness)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pungency_(also_spiciness_or_hotness)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Pungency (also spiciness or hotness) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pungency_(also_spiciness_or_hotness)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coolness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coolness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Coolness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coolness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numbness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numbness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Numbness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numbness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astringency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astringency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Astringency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astringency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metallicness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metallicness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Metallicness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metallicness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fat_taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fat_taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Fat taste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fat_taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heartiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heartiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Heartiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heartiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calcium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calcium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Calcium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calcium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Temperature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Starchiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Starchiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Starchiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Starchiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerve_supply_and_neural_connections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerve_supply_and_neural_connections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Nerve supply and neural connections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerve_supply_and_neural_connections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taste_in_insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taste_in_insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Taste in insects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taste_in_insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Other concepts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other concepts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supertasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supertasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Supertasters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supertasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftertaste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftertaste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Aftertaste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftertaste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acquired_taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acquired_taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Acquired taste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acquired_taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Clinical significance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Clinical significance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disorders_of_taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders_of_taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Disorders of taste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disorders_of_taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Taste</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 101 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-101" aria-hidden="true" > 101 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smaak" title="Smaak – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Smaak" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B0%D9%88%D9%82" title="تذوق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تذوق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusto" title="Gusto – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Gusto" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9B%DC%A5%DC%A1%DC%90" title="ܛܥܡܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܛܥܡܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Համ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Համ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustu" title="Gustu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gustu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dad_orqan%C4%B1" title="Dad orqanı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dad orqanı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="داد اورقانی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="داد اورقانی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="স্বাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্বাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%99%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D1%82%D3%99%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Аҙыҡ тәме – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Аҙыҡ тәме" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Смак – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Смак" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Смак – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Смак" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangnamit" title="Pangnamit – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pangnamit" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81" title="Вкус – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вкус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okus" title="Okus – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Okus" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gust" title="Gust – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gust" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%82%C4%83-%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Тутă-маса – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тутă-маса" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu%C5%A5" title="Chuť – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chuť" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blas" title="Blas – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Blas" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smagssans" title="Smagssans – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Smagssans" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschmack_(Sinneseindruck)" title="Geschmack (Sinneseindruck) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschmack (Sinneseindruck)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maitsmine" title="Maitsmine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maitsmine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Γεύση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεύση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82" title="Раст – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Раст" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusto" title="Gusto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gusto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusto" title="Gusto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gusto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dastamen" title="Dastamen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Dastamen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B2%D9%87" title="مزه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مزه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawaad" title="Sawaad – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Sawaad" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%BBt" title="Goût – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Goût" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blas" title="Blas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Blas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusto" title="Gusto – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gusto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%9B" title="맛 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="맛" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandano" title="Dandano – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Dandano" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Համ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okus" title="Okus – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Okus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengecapan" title="Pengecapan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengecapan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusto" title="Gusto – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Gusto" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isinambitho" title="Isinambitho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isinambitho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brag%C3%B0skyn" title="Bragðskyn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bragðskyn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusto" title="Gusto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gusto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9D" title="טעם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טעם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangrasa" title="Pangrasa – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pangrasa" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%BF" title="ರುಚಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರುಚಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panlasa" title="Panlasa – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Panlasa" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D3%99%D0%BC" title="Дәм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Дәм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladha" title="Ladha – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ladha" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goute" title="Goute – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Goute" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C3%AAjtin" title="Çêjtin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Çêjtin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Даам – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Даам" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatus" title="Gustatus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gustatus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar%C5%A1a" title="Garša – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Garša" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschmaach" title="Geschmaach – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geschmaach" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skonis" title="Skonis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Skonis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dzlel%C3%A9s" title="Ízlelés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ízlelés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81" title="Вкус – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вкус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="അടിസ്ഥാന രുചികൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അടിസ്ഥാന രുചികൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B5" title="चव – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चव" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa" title="Rasa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="အရသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အရသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smaakzin" title="Smaakzin – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Smaakzin" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83" title="सवाः – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सवाः" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%91%B3%E8%A6%9A" title="味覚 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="味覚" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smak" title="Smak – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Smak" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smak" title="Smak – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Smak" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gost" title="Gost – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gost" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhamdhama" title="Dhamdhama – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Dhamdhama" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maza_bilish" title="Maza bilish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Maza bilish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A6" title="ਸੁਆਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਆਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smacksinn" title="Smacksinn – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Smacksinn" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smak_(fizjologia)" title="Smak (fizjologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Smak (fizjologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paladar" title="Paladar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Paladar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gust" title="Gust – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gust" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malliy" title="Malliy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Malliy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Смак – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Смак" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81" title="Вкус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вкус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/sanek_nu_mukan" title="sanek nu mukan – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="sanek nu mukan" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shqisa_e_shijes" title="Shqisa e shijes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shqisa e shijes" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste" title="Taste – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Taste" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu%C5%A5_(zmysel)" title="Chuť (zmysel) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chuť (zmysel)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okus" title="Okus – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Okus" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhadhan" title="Dhadhan – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dhadhan" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81" title="Укус – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Укус" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okus" title="Okus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Okus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makuaisti" title="Makuaisti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Makuaisti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smaksinne" title="Smaksinne – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Smaksinne" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_panlasa" title="Sistemang panlasa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistemang panlasa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88" title="சுவை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுவை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%BF" title="రుచి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రుచి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA" title="การรับรู้รส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การรับรู้รส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tat_alma" title="Tat alma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tat alma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Смак – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Смак" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%DB%81" title="ذائقہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ذائقہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BB%8B" title="Vị – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vị" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the sense. For the social and aesthetic aspects of "taste", see <a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste (sociology)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Taste_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Taste (disambiguation)">Taste (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taste_bud.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Taste_bud.svg/220px-Taste_bud.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Taste_bud.svg/330px-Taste_bud.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Taste_bud.svg/440px-Taste_bud.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">Taste bud</a></figcaption></figure> The gustatory system or sense of taste is the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory system</a> that is partially responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> of taste (flavor).<a href="#cite_note-Trivedi-1">[1]</a> Taste is the perception stimulated when a substance in the <a href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</a> <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">reacts chemically</a> with <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">taste receptor</a> cells located on <a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste buds</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Oral_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral cavity">oral cavity</a>, mostly on the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a>. Taste, along with <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">the sense of smell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">trigeminal nerve</a> stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines <a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">flavors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> and other substances. <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Humans</a> have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas, including the upper surface of the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Witt-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">gustatory cortex</a> is responsible for the perception of taste. The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called <a href="/wiki/Lingual_papillae" title="Lingual papillae">papillae</a>, which are visible to the <a href="/wiki/Naked_eye" title="Naked eye">naked eye</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Witt-2">[2]</a> Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds.<a href="#cite_note-Trivedi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schacter169-4">[4]</a> The exceptions to this is the <a href="/wiki/Filiform_papillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Filiform papillae">filiform papillae</a> that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000<a href="#cite_note-Boron,_W.F._2003-5">[5]</a> taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the <a href="/wiki/Throat" title="Throat">throat</a>. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells. Taste receptors in the mouth sense the five basic tastes: <a href="#Sweetness">sweetness</a>, <a href="#Sourness">sourness</a>, <a href="#Saltiness">saltiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitter_(taste)#Bitterness" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitter (taste)">bitterness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Savoriness" class="mw-redirect" title="Savoriness">savoriness</a> (also known as savory or umami).<a href="#cite_note-Trivedi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witt-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kean-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Scientific experiments have demonstrated that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to tell different tastes apart when they interact with different molecules or ions. Sweetness, savoriness, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="G protein-coupled receptors">G protein-coupled receptors</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a> of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metals</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a> meet taste buds, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth—other factors include <a href="/wiki/Odor" title="Odor">smell</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Trivedi-1">[1]</a> detected by the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">olfactory epithelium</a> of the nose;<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Texture_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Texture (food)">texture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> detected through a variety of <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">mechanoreceptors</a>, muscle nerves, etc.;<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> temperature, detected by <a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">temperature receptors</a>; and "coolness" (such as of <a href="/wiki/Menthol" title="Menthol">menthol</a>) and "hotness" (<a href="/wiki/Pungency" title="Pungency">pungency</a>), by <a href="/wiki/Chemesthesis" title="Chemesthesis">chemesthesis</a>. As the gustatory system senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes bring either caution or craving depending upon the effect the things they sense have on the body.<a href="#cite_note-aa-13">[13]</a> Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness warns people of poisons.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Among humans, taste perception begins to fade during <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">ageing</a>, tongue papillae are lost, and <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a> production slowly decreases.<a href="#cite_note-SeidelBall2010-15">[15]</a> Humans can also have distortion of tastes (<a href="/wiki/Dysgeusia" title="Dysgeusia">dysgeusia</a>). Not all <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> share the same tastes: some <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a> can taste <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> (which humans cannot), <a href="/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">cats</a> cannot taste sweetness, and several other <a href="/wiki/Carnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivores">carnivores</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hyena" title="Hyena">hyenas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_lion" title="Sea lion">sea lions</a>, have lost the ability to sense up to four of their ancestral five basic tastes.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_tastes">Basic tastes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basic tastes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Taste" title="Special:EditPage/Taste">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The gustatory system allows animals to distinguish between safe and harmful food and to gauge different foods' nutritional value. <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">Digestive enzymes</a> in saliva begin to dissolve food into base chemicals that are washed over the papillae and detected as tastes by the taste buds. The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called <a href="/wiki/Lingual_papillae" title="Lingual papillae">papillae</a>, which are visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds.<a href="#cite_note-Schacter169-4">[4]</a> The exception to this are the <a href="/wiki/Filiform_papillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Filiform papillae">filiform papillae</a>, which do not contain taste buds. There are between 2,000 and 5,000<a href="#cite_note-Boron,_W.F._2003-5">[5]</a> taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste-receptor cells. The five specific tastes received by <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">taste receptors</a> are saltiness, <a href="/wiki/Sweetness" title="Sweetness">sweetness</a>, bitterness, sourness, and <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">savoriness</a> (often known by its Japanese name umami, which translates to 'deliciousness'). As of the early 20th century, Western physiologists and psychologists believed that there were four basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness. The concept of a "savory" taste was not present in Western science at that time, but was postulated in Japanese research.<a href="#cite_note-Ikeda1909-17">[17]</a> One study found that salt and sour taste mechanisms both detect, in different ways, the presence of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (salt) in the mouth. Acids are also detected and perceived as sour.<a href="#cite_note-auto-18">[18]</a> The detection of salt is important to many organisms, but especially mammals, as it serves a critical role in ion and water <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> in the body. It is specifically needed in the <a href="/wiki/Mammalian_kidney" title="Mammalian kidney">mammalian kidney</a> as an osmotically active compound that facilitates passive re-uptake of water into the blood.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Because of this, salt elicits a pleasant taste in most humans. Sour and salt tastes can be pleasant in small quantities, but in larger quantities become more and more unpleasant to taste. For sour taste, this presumably is because the sour taste can signal under-ripe fruit, rotten meat, and other spoiled foods, which can be dangerous to the body because of bacteria that grow in such media. Additionally, sour taste signals <a href="/wiki/Acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Acids">acids</a>, which can cause serious tissue damage. Sweet taste signals the presence of <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a> in solution.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Since carbohydrates have a very high <a href="/wiki/Calorie" title="Calorie">calorie</a> count (saccharides have many bonds, therefore much energy),[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] they are desirable to the human body, which evolved to seek out the highest-calorie-intake foods.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] They are used as direct energy (<a href="/wiki/Sugars" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugars">sugars</a>) and storage of energy (<a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>). Many non-carbohydrate molecules trigger a sweet response, leading to the development of many artificial sweeteners, including <a href="/wiki/Saccharin" title="Saccharin">saccharin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sucralose" title="Sucralose">sucralose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aspartame" title="Aspartame">aspartame</a>. It is still unclear how these substances activate the sweet receptors and what adaptative significance this has had. The savory taste (known in Japanese as umami), identified by Japanese chemist <a href="/wiki/Kikunae_Ikeda" title="Kikunae Ikeda">Kikunae Ikeda</a>, signals the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/L-glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="L-glutamate">L-glutamate</a>. The amino acids in proteins are used in the body to build muscles and organs, and to transport molecules (<a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>), <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a>, and the organic catalysts known as <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a>. These are all critical molecules, and it is important to have a steady supply of amino acids; consequently, savory tastes trigger a pleasurable response, encouraging the intake of <a href="/wiki/Peptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptides">peptides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pungency" title="Pungency">Pungency</a> (piquancy or hotness) had traditionally been considered a sixth basic taste.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-19">[19]</a> In 2015, researchers suggested a new basic taste of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> called "fat taste",<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> although "oleogustus" and "pinguis" have both been proposed as alternate terms.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reed_353S–360S-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweetness">Sweetness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sweetness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sweetness" title="Sweetness">Sweetness</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg/220px-Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg/330px-Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg/440px-Signal_Transaction_of_the_Sweet_Taste.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The diagram above depicts the signal transduction pathway of the sweet taste. Object A is a taste bud, object B is one taste cell of the taste bud, and object C is the neuron attached to the taste cell. I. Part I shows the reception of a molecule. 1. Sugar, the first messenger, binds to a protein receptor on the cell membrane. II. Part II shows the transduction of the relay molecules. 2. G Protein-coupled receptors, second messengers, are activated. 3. G Proteins activate adenylate cyclase, an enzyme, which increases the cAMP concentration. Depolarization occurs. 4. The energy, from step 3, is given to activate the K+, potassium, protein channels.III. Part III shows the response of the taste cell. 5. Ca+, calcium, protein channels is activated.6. The increased Ca+ concentration activates neurotransmitter vesicles. 7. The neuron connected to the taste bud is stimulated by the neurotransmitters.</figcaption></figure> Sweetness, usually regarded as a pleasurable sensation, is produced by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a> and substances that mimic sugar. Sweetness may be connected to <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketones</a>, which contain a <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_group" title="Carbonyl group">carbonyl group</a>. Sweetness is detected by a variety of <a href="/wiki/G_protein_coupled_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="G protein coupled receptor">G protein coupled receptors</a> (GPCR) coupled to the <a href="/wiki/G_protein" title="G protein">G protein</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustducin" title="Gustducin">gustducin</a> found on the <a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste buds</a>. At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" must be activated for the brain to register sweetness. Compounds the brain senses as sweet are compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to two different sweetness receptors. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which account for all sweet sensing in humans and animals.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Taste_detection_threshold" title="Taste detection threshold">Taste detection thresholds</a> for sweet substances are rated relative to <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>, which has an index of 1.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> The average human detection threshold for sucrose is 10 millimoles per liter. For <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a> it is 30 millimoles per liter, with a sweetness index of 0.3,<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a> and <a href="/wiki/5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline" title="5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline">5-nitro-2-propoxyaniline</a> 0.002 millimoles per liter. "Natural" sweeteners such as <a href="/wiki/Saccharide" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccharide">saccharides</a> activate the GPCR, which releases <a href="/wiki/Gustducin" title="Gustducin">gustducin</a>. The gustducin then activates the molecule <a href="/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenylate cyclase">adenylate cyclase</a>, which catalyzes the production of the molecule <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a>, or adenosine 3', 5'-cyclic monophosphate. This molecule closes potassium ion channels, leading to depolarization and neurotransmitter release. Synthetic sweeteners such as <a href="/wiki/Saccharin" title="Saccharin">saccharin</a> activate different GPCRs and induce taste receptor cell depolarization by an alternate pathway. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sourness">Sourness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sourness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sour" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sour_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sour (disambiguation)">Sour (disambiguation)</a>.</div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signal_Transaction_of_Taste;_Sour_%26_Salty.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Sour_%26_Salty.svg/220px-Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Sour_%26_Salty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Sour_%26_Salty.svg/330px-Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Sour_%26_Salty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Sour_%26_Salty.svg/440px-Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Sour_%26_Salty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>The diagram depicts the signal transduction pathway of the sour or salty taste. Object A is a taste bud, object B is a taste receptor cell within object A, and object C is the neuron attached to object B. I. Part I is the reception of hydrogen ions or sodium ions. 1. If the taste is sour, H+ ions, from acidic substances, pass through H+ channels. Depolarization takes place II. Part II is the transduction pathway of the relay molecules. 2. Cation, such as K+, channels are opened. III. Part III is the response of the cell. 3. An influx of Ca+ ions is activated. 4. The Ca+ activates neurotransmitters. 5. A signal is sent to the neuron attached to the taste bud.</figcaption></figure> Sourness is the taste that detects <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidity</a>. The sourness of substances is rated relative to dilute <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>, which has a sourness index of 1. By comparison, <a href="/wiki/Tartaric_acid" title="Tartaric acid">tartaric acid</a> has a sourness index of 0.7, <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a> an index of 0.46, and <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> an index of 0.06.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> Sour taste is detected by a small subset of cells that are distributed across all taste buds called Type III taste receptor cells. H+ ions (<a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>) that are abundant in sour substances can directly enter the Type III taste cells through a proton channel.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> This channel was identified in 2018 as <a href="/wiki/Otopetrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Otopetrin">otopetrin 1 (OTOP1)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The transfer of positive charge into the cell can itself trigger an electrical response. Some weak acids such as acetic acid can also penetrate taste cells; intracellular hydrogen ions inhibit potassium channels, which normally function to hyperpolarize the cell. By a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions through OTOP1 ion channels (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire action potentials and release neurotransmitter.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The most common foods with natural <a href="/wiki/Sourness" class="mw-redirect" title="Sourness">sourness</a> are <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Lemon" title="Lemon">lemon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lime_(fruit)" title="Lime (fruit)">lime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">orange</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamarind" title="Tamarind">tamarind</a>, and bitter <a href="/wiki/Melon" title="Melon">melon</a>. Fermented foods, such as <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">yogurt</a>, may have sour taste. Children show a greater enjoyment of sour flavors than adults,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sour_sanding" title="Sour sanding">sour candy</a> containing citric acid or <a href="/wiki/Malic_acid" title="Malic acid">malic acid</a> is common. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saltiness">Saltiness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Saltiness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Saltiness" redirects here. For saltiness in water, see <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">Salinity</a>.</div> Saltiness taste seems to have two components: a low-salt signal and a high-salt signal. The low-salt signal causes a sensation of deliciousness, while the high-salt signal typically causes the sensation of "too salty".<a href="#cite_note-Taruno2023-30">[30]</a> The low-salt signal is understood to be caused by the <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_sodium_channel" title="Epithelial sodium channel">epithelial sodium channel</a> (ENaC), which is composed of three subunits. ENaC in the taste cells allow sodium <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> to enter the cell. This on its own depolarizes the cell, and opens <a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">voltage-dependent calcium channels</a>, flooding the cell with positive calcium ions and leading to <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> release. ENaC can be blocked by the drug <a href="/wiki/Amiloride" title="Amiloride">amiloride</a> in many mammals, especially rats. The sensitivity of the low-salt taste to amiloride in humans is much less pronounced, leading to conjecture that there may be additional low-salt receptors besides ENaC to be discovered.<a href="#cite_note-Taruno2023-30">[30]</a> A number of similar cations also trigger the low salt signal. The size of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl), which has an index of 1.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> Potassium, as <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a> (KCl), is the principal ingredient in <a href="/wiki/Salt_substitute" title="Salt substitute">salt substitutes</a> and has a saltiness index of 0.6.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">monovalent</a> <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">cations</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> (NH4+), and <a href="/wiki/Divalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Divalent">divalent</a> cations of the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_earth_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali earth metal">alkali earth metal</a> group of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, e.g. calcium (Ca2+), ions generally elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they, too, can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue, generating an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a>. But the chloride of calcium is saltier and less bitter than potassium chloride, and is commonly used in pickle brine instead of KCl.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The high-salt signal is still very poorly understood as of 2023. Even in rodents, this signal is not blocked by amiloride. Sour and bitter cells trigger on high chloride levels, but the specific receptor is still being identified.<a href="#cite_note-Taruno2023-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bitterness">Bitterness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bitterness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bitter_taste_evolution" title="Bitter taste evolution">Bitter taste evolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signal_Transaction_of_Taste;_Bitter.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Bitter.svg/220px-Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Bitter.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Bitter.svg/330px-Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Bitter.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Bitter.svg/440px-Signal_Transaction_of_Taste%3B_Bitter.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>The diagram depicted above shows the signal transduction pathway of the bitter taste. Bitter taste has many different receptors and signal transduction pathways. Bitter indicates poison to animals. It is most similar to sweet. Object A is a taste bud, object B is one taste cell, and object C is a neuron attached to object B. I. Part I is the reception of a molecule.1. A bitter substance such as quinine, is consumed and binds to G Protein-coupled receptors.II. Part II is the transduction pathway 2. Gustducin, a G protein second messenger, is activated. 3. Phosphodiesterase, an enzyme, is then activated. 4. Cyclic nucleotide, cNMP, is used, lowering the concentration 5. Channels such as the K+, potassium, channels, close. III. Part III is the response of the taste cell. 6. This leads to increased levels of Ca+. 7. The neurotransmitters are activated. 8. The signal is sent to the neuron.</figcaption></figure> Bitterness is one of the most sensitive of the tastes, and many perceive it as unpleasant, sharp, or disagreeable, but it is sometimes desirable and intentionally added via various <a href="/wiki/Bittering_agent" title="Bittering agent">bittering agents</a>. Common bitter foods and beverages include <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, unsweetened <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_solids" title="Cocoa solids">cocoa</a>, South American <a href="/wiki/Mate_(beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mate (beverage)">mate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coca_tea" title="Coca tea">coca tea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitter_gourd" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitter gourd">bitter gourd</a>, uncured <a href="/wiki/Olive_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive (fruit)">olives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peel_(fruit)" title="Peel (fruit)">citrus peel</a>, some varieties of <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, many plants in the family <a href="/wiki/Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dandelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dandelion">dandelion</a> greens, <a href="/wiki/Marrubium_vulgare" title="Marrubium vulgare">horehound</a>, wild <a href="/wiki/Chicory" title="Chicory">chicory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Escarole" class="mw-redirect" title="Escarole">escarole</a>. The ethanol in <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic beverages">alcoholic beverages</a> tastes bitter,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> as do the additional bitter ingredients found in some alcoholic beverages including <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">hops</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gentiana_lutea" title="Gentiana lutea">gentian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bitters" title="Bitters">bitters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">Quinine</a> is also known for its bitter taste and is found in <a href="/wiki/Tonic_water" title="Tonic water">tonic water</a>. Bitterness is of interest to those who study <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, as well as various health researchers<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-psychologyofeating&drinking-32">[32]</a> since a large number of natural bitter compounds are known to be toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting, toxic compounds at low thresholds is considered to provide an important protective function.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-psychologyofeating&drinking-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds, and among <a href="/wiki/Leaf-eating" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf-eating">leaf-eating</a> primates there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, which tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves.<a href="#cite_note-encylopediahumanevolution-34">[34]</a> Amongst humans, various <a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">food processing</a> techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Furthermore, the use of fire, changes in diet, and avoidance of toxins has led to neutral evolution in human bitter sensitivity. This has allowed several loss of function mutations that has led to a reduced sensory capacity towards bitterness in humans when compared to other species.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The threshold for stimulation of bitter taste by quinine averages a concentration of 8 μ<a href="/wiki/Molarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Molarity">M</a> (8 micromolar).<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a> The taste thresholds of other bitter substances are rated relative to quinine, which is thus given a reference index of 1.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Brucine" title="Brucine">brucine</a> has an index of 11, is thus perceived as intensely more bitter than quinine, and is detected at a much lower solution threshold.<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a> The most bitter natural substance is <a href="/wiki/Amarogentin" title="Amarogentin">amarogentin</a>, a compound present in the roots of the plant <a href="/wiki/Gentiana_lutea" title="Gentiana lutea">Gentiana lutea</a>, and the most bitter substance known is the synthetic chemical <a href="/wiki/Denatonium" title="Denatonium">denatonium</a>, which has an index of 1,000.<a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> It is used as an <a href="/wiki/Aversive_agent" title="Aversive agent">aversive agent</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Bitterant" title="Bitterant">bitterant</a>) that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion. It was discovered accidentally in 1958 during research on a local anesthetic by <a href="/wiki/T._%26_H._Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="T. & H. Smith">T. & H. Smith</a> of <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2, also known as T2Rs) such as <a href="/wiki/TAS2R38" title="TAS2R38">TAS2R38</a> coupled to the <a href="/wiki/G_protein" title="G protein">G protein</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustducin" title="Gustducin">gustducin</a> are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> They are identified not only by their ability to taste for certain "bitter" <a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">ligands</a>, but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric).<a href="#cite_note-auto-18">[18]</a> The TAS2R family in humans is thought to comprise about 25 different taste receptors, some of which can recognize a wide variety of bitter-tasting compounds.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Over 670 bitter-tasting compounds have been identified, on a <a href="/wiki/BitterDB" title="BitterDB">bitter database</a>, of which over 200 have been assigned to one or more specific receptors.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> It is speculated that the selective constraints on the TAS2R family have been weakened due to the relatively high rate of mutation and pseudogenization.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Researchers use two synthetic substances, <a href="/wiki/Phenylthiocarbamide" title="Phenylthiocarbamide">phenylthiocarbamide</a> (PTC) and <a href="/wiki/Propylthiouracil" title="Propylthiouracil">6-n-propylthiouracil</a> (PROP) to study the <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people, but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters, some are so-called "<a href="/wiki/Supertaster" title="Supertaster">supertasters</a>" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. The variation in sensitivity is determined by two common alleles at the TAS2R38 locus.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics. Gustducin is made of three subunits. When it is activated by the GPCR, its subunits break apart and activate <a href="/wiki/Phosphodiesterase" title="Phosphodiesterase">phosphodiesterase</a>, a nearby enzyme, which in turn converts a precursor within the cell into a secondary messenger, which closes potassium ion channels.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Also, this secondary messenger can stimulate the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> to release Ca2+ which contributes to depolarization. This leads to a build-up of potassium ions in the cell, depolarization, and neurotransmitter release. It is also possible for some bitter tastants to interact directly with the G protein, because of a structural similarity to the relevant GPCR. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Savoriness">Savoriness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Savoriness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">Umami</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_flavoring" title="Glutamate flavoring">Glutamate flavoring</a></div> Savoriness, or umami, is an <a href="/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetitive</a> taste.<a href="#cite_note-aa-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ikeda1909-17">[17]</a> It can be tasted in <a href="/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dashi" title="Dashi">dashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consomm%C3%A9" title="Consommé">consomme</a>. Umami, a <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanword</a> from <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> meaning "good flavor" or "good taste",<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> umami (旨味) is considered fundamental to many <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cuisine">East Asian cuisines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Japanese_cuisine" title="Japanese cuisine">Japanese cuisine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jmin-46">[46]</a> It dates back to the use of fermented <a href="/wiki/Fish_sauce" title="Fish sauce">fish sauce</a>: <a href="/wiki/Garum" title="Garum">garum</a> in ancient Rome<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> and ge-thcup or <a href="/wiki/Ketchup#Etymology" title="Ketchup">koe-cheup</a> in ancient China.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Umami was first studied in 1907 by <a href="/wiki/Kikunae_Ikeda" title="Kikunae Ikeda">Ikeda</a> isolating <a href="/wiki/Dashi" title="Dashi">dashi</a> taste, which he identified as the chemical <a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">monosodium glutamate</a> (MSG).<a href="#cite_note-Ikeda1909-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> MSG is a sodium salt that produces a strong savory taste, especially combined with foods rich in <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> such as meats, fish, nuts, and mushrooms.<a href="#cite_note-times-50">[50]</a> Some savory taste buds respond specifically to glutamate in the same way that "sweet" ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of <a href="/wiki/G_protein_coupled_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="G protein coupled receptor">G protein coupled glutamate receptors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lindemann_B_99–100-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaud-52">[52]</a> L-glutamate may bond to a type of GPCR known as a metabotropic glutamate receptor (<a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_4" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4">mGluR4</a>) which causes the G-protein complex to activate the sensation of umami.<a href="#cite_note-Chaud-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perceptual_independence_from_salty_and_sweet_taste">Perceptual independence from salty and sweet taste</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Perceptual independence from salty and sweet taste">edit</a>]</div> There are doubts regarding whether umami is different from salty taste, as standalone glutamate(glutamic acid) without table salt ions(Na+), is perceived as sour, salt taste blockers reduce discrimination between monosodium glutamate and sucrose in rodents, since sweet and umami tastes share a taste receptor subunit; and part of the human population cannot tell apart umami from salty.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> If umami doesn't have perceptual independence, it could be classified with other tastes like fat, carbohydrate, metallic, and calcium, which can be perceived at high concentrations but may not offer a prominent taste experience.<a href="#cite_note-:042-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_relative_tastes">Measuring relative tastes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Measuring relative tastes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Taste_confusion_matrix" title="Taste confusion matrix">Taste confusion matrix</a></div> Measuring the degree to which a substance presents one basic taste can be achieved in a subjective way by comparing its taste to a reference substance. Sweetness is subjectively measured by comparing the threshold values, or level at which the presence of a dilute substance can be detected by a human taster, of different sweet substances.<a href="#cite_note-Tsai2007-55">[55]</a> Substances are usually measured relative to <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Walters-56">[56]</a> which is usually given an arbitrary index of 1<a href="#cite_note-JoestenEal2007-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Coultate-58">[58]</a> or 100.<a href="#cite_note-Mehta2005-59">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rebaudioside_A" title="Rebaudioside A">Rebaudioside A</a> is 100 times sweeter than sucrose; <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a> is about 1.4 times sweeter; <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, a sugar found in honey and vegetables, is about three-quarters as sweet; and <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>, a milk sugar, is one-half as sweet.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_bnone">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tsai2007-55">[55]</a> The sourness of a substance can be rated by comparing it to very dilute <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> (HCl).<a href="#cite_note-Guyton&Hall2006-60">[60]</a> Relative saltiness can be rated by comparison to a dilute salt solution.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">Quinine</a>, a bitter medicinal found in <a href="/wiki/Tonic_water" title="Tonic water">tonic water</a>, can be used to subjectively rate the bitterness of a substance.<a href="#cite_note-qn-62">[62]</a> Units of dilute quinine hydrochloride (1 g in 2000 mL of water) can be used to measure the threshold bitterness concentration, the level at which the presence of a dilute bitter substance can be detected by a human taster, of other compounds.<a href="#cite_note-qn-62">[62]</a> More formal chemical analysis, while possible, is difficult.<a href="#cite_note-qn-62">[62]</a> There may not be an absolute measure for pungency, though there are tests for measuring the subjective presence of a given pungent substance in food, such as the <a href="/wiki/Scoville_scale" title="Scoville scale">Scoville scale</a> for capsaicine in peppers or the <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_scale" title="Pyruvate scale">Pyruvate scale</a> for <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyruvate">pyruvates</a> in garlics and onions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functional_structure">Functional structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Functional structure">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1402_The_Tongue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/1402_The_Tongue.jpg/350px-1402_The_Tongue.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/1402_The_Tongue.jpg/525px-1402_The_Tongue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/1402_The_Tongue.jpg/700px-1402_The_Tongue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2229" data-file-height="1875" /></a><figcaption>Taste buds and papillae of the human tongue</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg/220px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg/330px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg/440px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3575" data-file-height="1872" /></a><figcaption>Taste receptors of the human tongue</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg/220px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg/330px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg/440px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3570" data-file-height="2909" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">Signal transduction</a> of taste receptors</figcaption></figure> Taste is a form of <a href="/wiki/Chemoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoreception">chemoreception</a> which occurs in the specialised <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">taste receptors</a> in the mouth. To date, there are five different types of taste these receptors can detect which are recognized: salt, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami. Each type of receptor has a different manner of <a href="/wiki/Sensory_transduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory transduction">sensory transduction</a>: that is, of detecting the presence of a certain compound and starting an action potential which alerts the brain. It is a matter of debate whether each taste cell is tuned to one specific tastant or to several; Smith and Margolskee claim that "gustatory neurons typically respond to more than one kind of stimulus, [a]lthough each neuron responds most strongly to one tastant". Researchers believe that the brain interprets complex tastes by examining patterns from a large set of neuron responses. This enables the body to make "keep or spit out" decisions when there is more than one tastant present. "No single neuron type alone is capable of discriminating among stimuli or different qualities, because a given cell can respond the same way to disparate stimuli."<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> As well, <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> is thought to act as an intermediary hormone which communicates with taste cells within a taste bud, mediating the signals being sent to the brain. Receptor molecules are found on the top of <a href="/wiki/Microvilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvilli">microvilli</a> of the taste cells. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweetness_2">Sweetness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sweetness">edit</a>]</div> Sweetness is produced by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>, some proteins, and other substances such as alcohols like <a href="/wiki/Anethol" class="mw-redirect" title="Anethol">anethol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Propylene_glycol" title="Propylene glycol">propylene glycol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saponins" class="mw-redirect" title="Saponins">saponins</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Glycyrrhizin" title="Glycyrrhizin">glycyrrhizin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_sweetener" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial sweetener">artificial sweeteners</a> (organic compounds with a variety of structures), and <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate" title="Lead(II) acetate">lead acetate</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It is often connected to <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketones</a>, which contain a <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_group" title="Carbonyl group">carbonyl group</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many foods can be perceived as sweet regardless of their actual sugar content. For example, some plants such as <a href="/wiki/Liquorice" title="Liquorice">liquorice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anise" title="Anise">anise</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stevia" title="Stevia">stevia</a> can be used as sweeteners. <a href="/wiki/Rebaudioside_A" title="Rebaudioside A">Rebaudioside A</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Steviol_glycoside" title="Steviol glycoside">steviol glycoside</a> coming from stevia that is 200 times sweeter than sugar. Lead acetate and other lead compounds were used as sweeteners, mostly for wine, until <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a> became known. Romans used to deliberately boil the must inside of lead vessels to make a sweeter wine. Sweetness is detected by a variety of <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a> coupled to a <a href="/wiki/G_protein" title="G protein">G protein</a> that acts as an intermediary in the communication between taste bud and brain, <a href="/wiki/Gustducin" title="Gustducin">gustducin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which account for sweet sensing in humans and other animals.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saltiness_2">Saltiness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Saltiness">edit</a>]</div> Saltiness is a taste produced best by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">cations</a> (such as Na+ , K+ or Li+ )<a href="#cite_note-ion-66">[66]</a> and is directly detected by cation influx into glial like cells via leak channels causing depolarisation of the cell.<a href="#cite_note-ion-66">[66]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">monovalent</a> cations, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a>, NH+ 4, and <a href="/wiki/Divalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Divalent">divalent</a> cations of the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_earth_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali earth metal">alkali earth metal</a> group of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, e.g., calcium, Ca2+ , ions, in general, elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they, too, can pass directly through <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a> in the tongue.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sourness_2">Sourness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sourness">edit</a>]</div> Sourness is <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> and, like salt, it is a taste sensed using <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ion-66">[66]</a> Undissociated acid diffuses across the plasma membrane of a presynaptic cell, where it dissociates in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Le_Chatelier%27s_principle" title="Le Chatelier's principle">Le Chatelier's principle</a>. The protons that are released then block potassium channels, which depolarise the cell and cause calcium influx. In addition, the taste receptor PKD2L1 has been found to be involved in tasting sour.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily24Aug06Sour-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bitterness_2">Bitterness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bitterness">edit</a>]</div> Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2, also known as T2Rs) such as <a href="/wiki/TAS2R38" title="TAS2R38">TAS2R38</a> are responsible for the ability to taste bitter substances in vertebrates.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> They are identified not only by their ability to taste certain bitter ligands, but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric).<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Savoriness_2">Savoriness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Savoriness">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamic acid</a> is responsible for savoriness,<a href="#cite_note-umami2-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChandrashekarHoonEtal2006-73">[73]</a> but some <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Inosinic_acid" title="Inosinic acid">inosinic acid</a><a href="#cite_note-jmin-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-umami3-74">[74]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guanylic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Guanylic acid">guanylic acid</a><a href="#cite_note-umami2-72">[72]</a>) can act as complements, enhancing the taste.<a href="#cite_note-jmin-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-umami3-74">[74]</a> Glutamic acid binds to a variant of the G protein-coupled receptor, producing a <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">savory</a> taste.<a href="#cite_note-Lindemann_B_99–100-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaud-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_sensations_and_transmission">Further sensations and transmission</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further sensations and transmission">edit</a>]</div> The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory">somatosensory</a> system. In humans, the sense of taste is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. The <a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">facial nerve</a> (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">glossopharyngeal nerve</a> (IX) carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a> (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity. The <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">trigeminal nerve</a> (cranial nerve V) provides information concerning the general texture of food as well as the taste-related sensations of peppery or hot (from <a href="/wiki/Spices" class="mw-redirect" title="Spices">spices</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pungency_(also_spiciness_or_hotness)">Pungency (also spiciness or hotness)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pungency (also spiciness or hotness)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pungency" title="Pungency">Pungency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoville_scale" title="Scoville scale">Scoville scale</a></div> Substances such as <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capsaicin" title="Capsaicin">capsaicin</a> cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express <a href="/wiki/TRPV1" title="TRPV1">TRPV1</a> and <a href="/wiki/TRPA1" title="TRPA1">TRPA1</a> receptors. Some such plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili peppers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piperine" title="Piperine">piperine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gingerol" title="Gingerol">gingerol</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ginger_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginger root">ginger root</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allyl_isothiocyanate" title="Allyl isothiocyanate">allyl isothiocyanate</a> from <a href="/wiki/Horseradish" title="Horseradish">horseradish</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pungency" title="Pungency">piquant</a> ("hot" or "spicy") sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_cuisine" title="Peruvian cuisine">Peruvian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_cuisine" title="Hungarian cuisine">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Korea">Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Laos">Lao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_cuisine" title="Malaysian cuisine">Malaysian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexican_cuisine" title="Mexican cuisine">Mexican</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexican_cuisine" title="New Mexican cuisine">New Mexican</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistani_cuisine" title="Pakistani cuisine">Pakistani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singaporean_cuisine" title="Singaporean cuisine">Singaporean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">Southwest Chinese</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine">Sichuan cuisine</a>), <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_cuisine" title="Vietnamese cuisine">Vietnamese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Thailand">Thai</a> cuisines. This particular sensation, called <a href="/wiki/Chemesthesis" title="Chemesthesis">chemesthesis</a>, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as "hot" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">surface of the eye</a> or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coolness">Coolness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Coolness">edit</a>]</div> Some substances activate cold <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigeminal">trigeminal</a> receptors even when not at low temperatures. This "fresh" or "minty" sensation can be tasted in <a href="/wiki/Peppermint" title="Peppermint">peppermint</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spearmint" title="Spearmint">spearmint</a> and is triggered by substances such as <a href="/wiki/Menthol" title="Menthol">menthol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anethol" class="mw-redirect" title="Anethol">anethol</a>, ethanol, and <a href="/wiki/Camphor" title="Camphor">camphor</a>. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, <a href="/wiki/TRPM8" title="TRPM8">TRPM8</a> ion channels on <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">nerve cells</a>, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numbness">Numbness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Numbness">edit</a>]</div> Both Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Toba_Batak_people" title="Toba Batak people">Batak Toba</a> cooking include the idea of 麻 (má or mati rasa), a tingling numbness caused by spices such as <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_pepper" title="Sichuan pepper">Sichuan pepper</a>. The cuisines of <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine">Sichuan</a> province in China and of the Indonesian province of <a href="/wiki/North_Sumatra" title="North Sumatra">North Sumatra</a> often combine this with <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili pepper</a> to produce a 麻辣 málà, "numbing-and-hot", or "mati rasa" flavor.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Typical in northern Brazilian cuisine, <a href="/wiki/Acmella_oleracea" title="Acmella oleracea">jambu</a> is an herb used in dishes like <a href="/wiki/Tacac%C3%A1" title="Tacacá">tacacá</a>. These sensations, although not taste, fall into a category of <a href="/wiki/Chemesthesis" title="Chemesthesis">chemesthesis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astringency">Astringency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Astringency">edit</a>]</div> Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain <a href="/wiki/Tannins" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannins">tannins</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxalate" title="Calcium oxalate">calcium oxalate</a> that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">red wine</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Rhubarb" title="Rhubarb">rhubarb</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Other terms for the astringent sensation are "dry", "rough", "harsh" (especially for wine), "tart" (normally referring to sourness), "rubbery", "hard" or "styptic".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallicness">Metallicness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Metallicness">edit</a>]</div> A metallic taste may be caused by food and drink, certain medicines or <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(dentistry)" title="Amalgam (dentistry)">amalgam</a> dental fillings. It is generally considered an off flavor when present in food and drink. A metallic taste may be caused by <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic</a> reactions in the mouth. In the case where it is caused by dental work, the dissimilar metals used may produce a measurable current.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Some artificial sweeteners are perceived to have a metallic taste, which is detected by the <a href="/wiki/TRPV1" title="TRPV1">TRPV1</a> receptors.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Many people consider <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> to have a metallic taste.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> A metallic taste in the mouth is also a symptom of various medical conditions, in which case it may be classified under the symptoms <a href="/wiki/Dysgeusia" title="Dysgeusia">dysgeusia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">parageusia</a>, referring to distortions of the sense of taste,<a href="#cite_note-goldstein-81">[81]</a> and can be caused by medication, including <a href="/wiki/Saquinavir" title="Saquinavir">saquinavir</a>,<a href="#cite_note-goldstein-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">zonisamide</a>,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> and various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> as well as occupational hazards, such as working with <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fat_taste">Fat taste</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fat taste">edit</a>]</div> Recent research reveals a potential <a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">taste receptor</a> called the <a href="/wiki/CD36" title="CD36">CD36 receptor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> CD36 was targeted as a possible lipid taste receptor because it binds to <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a> molecules (more specifically, long-chain <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>),<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> and it has been localized to <a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste bud</a> cells (specifically, the circumvallate and foliate <a href="/wiki/Lingual_papillae" title="Lingual papillae">papillae</a>).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> There is a debate over whether we can truly taste fats, and supporters of human ability to taste free fatty acids (FFAs) have based the argument on a few main points: there is an evolutionary advantage to oral fat detection; a potential fat receptor has been located on taste bud cells; fatty acids evoke specific responses that activate <a href="/wiki/Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">gustatory</a> neurons, similar to other currently accepted tastes; and, there is a physiological response to the presence of oral fat.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21557960-90">[90]</a> Although CD36 has been studied primarily in <a href="/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">mice</a>, research examining human subjects' ability to taste fats found that those with high levels of CD36 <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> were more sensitive to tasting fat than were those with low levels of CD36 expression;<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> this study points to a clear association between CD36 receptor quantity and the ability to taste fat. Other possible fat taste receptors have been identified. <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor_4" title="Free fatty acid receptor 4">free fatty acid receptor 4</a> (also termed GPR120) and to a much lesser extent <a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid_receptor_1" title="Free fatty acid receptor 1">Free fatty acid receptor 1</a> (also termed GPR40)<a href="#cite_note-pmid31487233-92">[92]</a> have been linked to fat taste, because their absence resulted in reduced preference to two types of fatty acid (<a href="/wiki/Linoleic_acid" title="Linoleic acid">linoleic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oleic_acid" title="Oleic acid">oleic acid</a>), as well as decreased neuronal response to oral fatty acids.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Monovalent cation channel <a href="/wiki/TRPM5" title="TRPM5">TRPM5</a> has been implicated in fat taste as well,<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> but it is thought to be involved primarily in downstream processing of the taste rather than primary reception, as it is with other tastes such as bitter, sweet, and savory.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21557960-90">[90]</a> Proposed alternate names to fat taste include oleogustus<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> and pinguis,<a href="#cite_note-Reed_353S–360S-22">[22]</a> although these terms are not widely accepted. The main form of fat that is commonly ingested is <a href="/wiki/Triglycerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Triglycerides">triglycerides</a>, which are composed of three fatty acids bound together. In this state, triglycerides are able to give fatty foods unique textures that are often described as creaminess. But this texture is not an actual taste. It is only during ingestion that the fatty acids that make up triglycerides are hydrolysed into fatty acids via lipases. The taste is commonly related to other, more negative, tastes such as bitter and sour due to how unpleasant the taste is for humans. Richard Mattes, a co-author of the study, explained that low concentrations of these fatty acids can create an overall better flavor in a food, much like how small uses of bitterness can make certain foods more rounded. A high concentration of fatty acids in certain foods is generally considered inedible.<a href="#cite_note-Purdue-96">[96]</a> To demonstrate that individuals can distinguish fat taste from other tastes, the researchers separated volunteers into groups and had them try samples that also contained the other basic tastes. Volunteers were able to separate the taste of fatty acids into their own category, with some overlap with savory samples, which the researchers hypothesized was due to poor familiarity with both. The researchers note that the usual "creaminess and viscosity we associate with fatty foods is largely due to triglycerides", unrelated to the taste; while the actual taste of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">fatty acids</a> is not pleasant. Mattes described the taste as "more of a warning system" that a certain food should not be eaten.<a href="#cite_note-oleogustus-97">[97]</a> There are few regularly consumed foods rich in fat taste, due to the negative flavor that is evoked in large quantities. Foods whose flavor to which fat taste makes a small contribution include olive oil and fresh butter, along with various kinds of vegetable and nut oils.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heartiness">Heartiness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Heartiness">edit</a>]</div> Kokumi (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/koʊkuːmi/</a>, Japanese: kokumi (コク味)<a href="#cite_note-Nishimura2016-99">[99]</a> from koku (こく)<a href="#cite_note-Nishimura2016-99">[99]</a>) is translated as "heartiness", "full flavor" or "rich" and describes compounds in food that do not have their own taste, but enhance the characteristics when combined. Alongside the five basic tastes of sweet, sour, salt, bitter and savory, kokumi has been described as something that may enhance the other five tastes by magnifying and lengthening the other tastes, or "mouthfulness".<a href="#cite_note-foodprot-100">[100]</a>: 290 <a href="#cite_note-:0-101">[101]</a> Garlic is a common ingredient to add flavor used to help define the characteristic kokumi flavors.<a href="#cite_note-:0-101">[101]</a> Calcium-sensing receptors (CaSR) are receptors for kokumi substances which, applied around taste pores, induce an increase in the intracellular Ca concentration in a subset of cells.<a href="#cite_note-foodprot-100">[100]</a> This subset of CaSR-expressing taste cells are independent from the influenced basic taste receptor cells.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> CaSR agonists directly activate the CaSR on the surface of taste cells and integrated in the brain via the central nervous system. A basal level of calcium, corresponding to the physiological concentration, is necessary for activation of the CaSR to develop the kokumi sensation.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calcium">Calcium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Calcium">edit</a>]</div> The distinctive taste of chalk has been identified as the calcium component of that substance.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In 2008, geneticists discovered a <a href="/wiki/Calcium_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium receptor">calcium receptor</a> on the tongues of <a href="/wiki/Mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Mice">mice</a>. The CaSR receptor is commonly found in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidneys" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidneys">kidneys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. Along with the "sweet" T1R3 receptor, the CaSR receptor can detect calcium as a taste. Whether the perception exists or not in humans is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily21Aug08Calcium-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Temperature">edit</a>]</div> Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Heat can accentuate some flavors and decrease others by varying the density and phase equilibrium of a substance. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are <a href="/wiki/Soft_drinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft drinks">soft drinks</a>. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Starchiness">Starchiness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Starchiness">edit</a>]</div> A 2016 study suggested that humans can taste <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> (specifically, a <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> <a href="/wiki/Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomer</a>) independently of other tastes such as sweetness, without suggesting an associated chemical receptor.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nerve_supply_and_neural_connections">Nerve supply and neural connections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Nerve supply and neural connections">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg/220px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg/330px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg/440px-Jaime_Lara_2023_PMID_36409650_Figure_8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>Active brain areas in taste perception</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png/220px-Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png/330px-Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png/440px-Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Gustatory_System.png 2x" data-file-width="1553" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption>This diagram linearly (unless otherwise mentioned) tracks the projections of all known structures that allow for taste to their relevant endpoints in the human brain.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve#Overview_of_special_sensory_component" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">glossopharyngeal nerve</a> innervates a third of the tongue including the circumvallate papillae. The <a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">facial nerve</a> innervates the other two thirds of the tongue and the <a href="/wiki/Cheek" title="Cheek">cheek</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Chorda_tympani" title="Chorda tympani">chorda tympani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pterygopalatine_ganglion" title="Pterygopalatine ganglion">pterygopalatine ganglia</a> are ganglia (one on each side) of the <a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">soft palate</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Greater_petrosal_nerve" title="Greater petrosal nerve">greater petrosal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_palatine_nerve" title="Lesser palatine nerve">lesser palatine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_nerve" title="Zygomatic nerve">zygomatic nerves</a> all synapse here. The greater petrosal carries soft palate taste signals to the facial nerve. The lesser palatine sends signals to the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_cavity" title="Nasal cavity">nasal cavity</a>, which is why spicy foods cause nasal drip. The zygomatic sends signals to the <a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_nerve" title="Lacrimal nerve">lacrimal nerve</a> that activate the <a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_gland" title="Lacrimal gland">lacrimal gland</a>, which is the reason that spicy foods can cause tears. Both the lesser palatine and the zygomatic are <a href="/wiki/Maxillary_nerve" title="Maxillary nerve">maxillary nerves</a> (from the <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">trigeminal nerve</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral afferent">special visceral afferents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a> carry taste from the <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottal</a> region of the tongue. The lingual nerve (trigeminal, not shown in diagram) is deeply interconnected with the chorda tympani in that it provides all other sensory info from the anterior ⅔ of the tongue.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> This info is processed separately (nearby) in the rostral lateral subdivision of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NST). The NST receives input from the amygdala (regulates oculomotor nuclei output), <a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis#Bed_nucleus_of_the_stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">bed nuclei of stria terminalis</a>, hypothalamus, and prefrontal cortex. The NST is the topographical map that processes gustatory and sensory (temp, texture, etc.) info.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The reticular formation (includes Raphe nuclei responsible for serotonin production) is signaled to release serotonin during and after a meal to suppress appetite.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Similarly, salivary nuclei are signaled to decrease saliva secretion. <a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_nerve" title="Hypoglossal nerve">Hypoglossal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamic</a> connections aid in oral-related movements. Hypothalamus connections hormonally regulate hunger and the digestive system. <a href="/wiki/Substantia_innominata" title="Substantia innominata">Substantia innominata</a> connects the thalamus, temporal lobe, and insula. <a href="/wiki/Edinger%E2%80%93Westphal_nucleus" title="Edinger–Westphal nucleus">Edinger-Westphal nucleus</a> reacts to taste stimuli by dilating and constricting the pupils.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Spinal ganglia are involved in movement. The <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">frontal operculum</a> is speculated to be the memory and association hub for taste.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Insula_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Insula cortex">insula cortex</a> aids in swallowing and gastric motility.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taste_in_insects">Taste in insects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Taste in insects">edit</a>]</div> Insects taste using small hair-like structures called taste sensilla, specialized sensory organs located on various body parts such as the mouthparts, legs, and wings. These sensilla contain gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) sensitive to a wide range of chemical stimuli. Insects respond to sugar, bitter, acid, and salt tastes. However, their taste spectrum extends to include water, fatty acids, metals, carbonation, RNA, ATP, and pheromones. Detecting these substances is vital for behaviors like feeding, mating, and oviposition. Invertebrates' ability to taste these compounds is fundamental to their survival and provides insights into the evolution of sensory systems. This knowledge is crucial for understanding insect behavior and has applications in pest control and pollination biology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_concepts">Other concepts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Other concepts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supertasters">Supertasters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Supertasters">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supertaster" title="Supertaster">Supertaster</a></div> A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is significantly more sensitive than most. The cause of this heightened response is likely, at least in part, due to an increased number of <a href="/wiki/Fungiform_papillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungiform papillae">fungiform papillae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Studies have shown that supertasters require less fat and sugar in their food to get the same satisfying effects. These people tend to consume more salt than others. This is due to their heightened sense of the taste of bitterness, and the presence of salt drowns out the taste of bitterness.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftertaste">Aftertaste</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Aftertaste">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aftertaste" title="Aftertaste">Aftertaste</a></div> Aftertastes arise after food has been swallowed. An aftertaste can differ from the food it follows. <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicines</a> and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Aspartame" title="Aspartame">aspartame</a> (artificial sweetener). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acquired_taste">Acquired taste</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Acquired taste">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Acquired_taste" title="Acquired taste">Acquired taste</a></div> An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Clinical significance">edit</a>]</div> Patients with <a href="/wiki/Addison%27s_disease" title="Addison's disease">Addison's disease</a>, pituitary insufficiency, or <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a> sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the five primary tastes.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disorders_of_taste">Disorders of taste</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Disorders of taste">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageusia" title="Ageusia">ageusia</a> (complete loss of taste)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">hypogeusia</a> (reduced sense of taste)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgeusia" title="Dysgeusia">dysgeusia</a> (distortion in sense of taste)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">hypergeusia</a> (abnormally heightened sense of taste)</li></ul> Viruses can also cause loss of taste. About 50% of patients with <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes" title="Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes">SARS-CoV-2</a> (causing COVID-19) experience some type of <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes" title="Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes">disorder associated with their sense of smell or taste</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ageusia" title="Ageusia">ageusia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysgeusia" title="Dysgeusia">dysgeusia</a>. <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-1" title="SARS-CoV-1">SARS-CoV-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome%E2%80%93related_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle East respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus">MERS-CoV</a> and even the flu (<a href="/wiki/Orthomyxoviridae" title="Orthomyxoviridae">influenza virus</a>) can also disrupt olfaction.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/The_Western_world" class="mw-redirect" title="The Western world">the West</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> postulated in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 350 <a href="/wiki/Before_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Before Christ">BC</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> that the two most basic tastes were sweet and bitter.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> He was one of the first persons to develop a list of basic tastes.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> for the basic tastes of bitter, sweet and savory have been identified. They are <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bach-125">[125]</a> The cells that detect sourness have been identified as a subpopulation that express the protein <a href="/wiki/PKD2L1" title="PKD2L1">PKD2L1</a>, and The responses are mediated by an influx of protons into the cells.<a href="#cite_note-bach-125">[125]</a> As of 2019, molecular mechanisms for each taste appear to be different, although all taste perception relies on activation of <a href="/wiki/P2X_purinoreceptor" title="P2X purinoreceptor">P2X purinoreceptors</a> on <a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">sensory nerves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kinn-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/48px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/64px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></li></ul> <div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beefy_meaty_peptide" title="Beefy meaty peptide">Beefy meaty peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_lollipop" title="Digital lollipop">Digital lollipop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustatory_nucleus" title="Gustatory nucleus">Gustatory nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatability" title="Palatability">Palatability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouthfeel" title="Mouthfeel">Mouthfeel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomeronasal_organ" title="Vomeronasal organ">Vomeronasal organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_analysis" title="Sensory analysis">Sensory analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_tasting" title="Tea tasting">Tea tasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting" title="Wine tasting">Wine tasting</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> a. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_anone">^</a> It has been known for some time that these categories may not be comprehensive. In Guyton's 1976 edition of Textbook of Medical Physiology, he wrote:<blockquote>On the basis of physiologic studies, there are generally believed to be at least four primary sensations of taste: sour, salty, sweet, and bitter. Yet we know that a person can perceive literally hundreds of different tastes. These are all supposed to be combinations of the four primary sensations...However, there might be other less conspicuous classes or subclasses of primary sensations",<a href="#cite_note-Guyton1976-127">[127]</a></blockquote> b. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_bnone">^</a> Some variation in values is not uncommon between various studies. Such variations may arise from a range of methodological variables, from sampling to analysis and interpretation. In fact there is a "plethora of methods"<a href="#cite_note-Macbeth&MacClancy2004-128">[128]</a> Indeed, the taste index of 1, assigned to reference substances such as sucrose (for sweetness), hydrochloric acid (for sourness), quinine (for bitterness), and sodium chloride (for saltiness), is itself arbitrary for practical purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Guyton&Hall2006-60">[60]</a> Some values, such as those for maltose and glucose, vary little. Others, such as aspartame and sodium saccharin, have much larger variation. Regardless of variation, the perceived intensity of substances relative to each reference substance remains consistent for taste ranking purposes. The indices table for McLaughlin & Margolskee (1994) for example,<a href="#cite_note-textbookofmedicalphysiology8thed-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin&Margolskee-25">[25]</a> is essentially the same as that of Svrivastava & Rastogi (2003),<a href="#cite_note-Svrivastava&Rastogi2003-129">[129]</a> Guyton & Hall (2006),<a href="#cite_note-Guyton&Hall2006-60">[60]</a> and Joesten et al. (2007).<a href="#cite_note-JoestenEal2007-57">[57]</a> The rankings are all the same, with any differences, where they exist, being in the values assigned from the studies from which they derive. As for the assignment of 1 or 100 to the index substances, this makes no difference to the rankings themselves, only to whether the values are displayed as whole numbers or decimal points. Glucose remains about three-quarters as sweet as sucrose whether displayed as 75 or 0.75. </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Trivedi-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trivedi_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivedi_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivedi_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivedi_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTrivedi2012" class="citation journal cs1">Trivedi, Bijal P. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F486s2a">"Gustatory system: The finer points of taste"</a>. 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Saunders, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textbookofmedica0005guyt/page/839">839</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-4393-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-4393-9"><bdi>978-0-7216-4393-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Medical+Physiology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=839&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=W.B.+Saunders&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-7216-4393-9&rft.aulast=Guyton&rft.aufirst=Arthur+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftextbookofmedica0005guyt%2Fpage%2F839&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaste" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macbeth&MacClancy2004-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Macbeth&MacClancy2004_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacbeth,_Helen_M.MacClancy,_Jeremy2004" class="citation cs2">Macbeth, Helen M.; MacClancy, Jeremy, eds. 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C. & Rastogi, R. P. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hIyM_o4YFZ4C&pg=PA274">"Relative taste indices of some substances"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hIyM_o4YFZ4C">Transport Mediated by Electrical Interfaces</a>. Studies in interface science 18. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51453-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51453-0"><bdi>978-0-444-51453-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relative+taste+indices+of+some+substances&rft.btitle=Transport+Mediated+by+Electrical+Interfaces&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+Netherlands&rft.series=Studies+in+interface+science+18&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-444-51453-0&rft.au=Svrivastava%2C+R.+C.&rft.au=Rastogi%2C+R.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhIyM_o4YFZ4C%26pg%3DPA274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaste" class="Z3988"> Taste indices of table 9, p. 274 are select sample taken from table in Guyton's Textbook of Medical Physiology (present in all editions. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandrashekarHoonRybaNicholas2006" class="citation journal cs1">Chandrashekar, Jayaram; Hoon, Mark A.; Ryba; Nicholas, J. P. & Zuker, Charles S. (16 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722041026/https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/download/attachments/1444406/nature05401.pdf">"The receptors and cells for mammalian taste"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 444 (7117): 288–294. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.444..288C">2006Natur.444..288C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05401">10.1038/nature05401</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17108952">17108952</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4431221">4431221</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/download/attachments/1444406/nature05401.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+receptors+and+cells+for+mammalian+taste&rft.volume=444&rft.issue=7117&rft.pages=288-294&rft.date=2006-11-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature05401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4431221%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17108952&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.444..288C&rft.aulast=Chandrashekar&rft.aufirst=Jayaram&rft.au=Hoon%2C+Mark+A.&rft.au=Ryba&rft.au=Nicholas%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Zuker%2C+Charles+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwiki.brown.edu%2Fconfluence%2Fdownload%2Fattachments%2F1444406%2Fnature05401.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaste" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudhari,_NirupaRoper,_Stephen_D.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chaudhari, Nirupa & Roper, Stephen D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2922655">"The cell biology of taste"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Cell_Biology" title="Journal of Cell Biology">Journal of Cell Biology</a>. 190 (3): 285–296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1083%2Fjcb.201003144">10.1083/jcb.201003144</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2922655">2922655</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20696704">20696704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=The+cell+biology+of+taste&rft.volume=190&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=285-296&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2922655%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20696704&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1083%2Fjcb.201003144&rft.au=Chaudhari%2C+Nirupa&rft.au=Roper%2C+Stephen+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2922655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaste" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taste&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" 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selflink">Taste</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Basic_tastes">Basic tastes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Bitterness">Bitterness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltiness">Saltiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sourness" class="mw-redirect" title="Sourness">Sourness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweetness" title="Sweetness">Sweetness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">Umami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">Epiglottis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_pharynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Human pharynx">Pharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">Soft palate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gustology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgeusia" title="Dysgeusia">Dysgeusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftertaste" title="Aftertaste">Aftertaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acquired_taste" title="Acquired taste">Acquired taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pungency" title="Pungency">Pungency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoville_scale" title="Scoville scale">Scoville scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supertaster" title="Supertaster">Supertaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue_map" title="Tongue map">Tongue map</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Sight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Smell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Touch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sensation_and_perception" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sensation_and_perception" title="Template:Sensation and perception"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sensation_and_perception" title="Template talk:Sensation and perception"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sensation_and_perception" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sensation and perception"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sensation_and_perception" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">Processes and concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Stimulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">Transduction (physiology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing" title="Sensory processing">Sensory processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Active sensory system">Active sensory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multimodal_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal integration">Multimodal integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">Motion perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exteroception" class="mw-redirect" title="Exteroception">External</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">Sensory organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system (sense of vision)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system (sense of hearing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">Vestibular system (sense of balance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system (sense of smell)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">Gustatory system (sense of taste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system (sense of touch)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic (II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear (VIII)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory (I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial (VII)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal (IX)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal (V)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">Cerebral cortices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">Olfactory cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">Gustatory cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">Somatosensory cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception (vision)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">Auditory perception (hearing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Equilibrioception (balance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Olfaction (smell)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gustation (taste or flavor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception (pain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoception" title="Thermoception">thermoception</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interoception" title="Interoception">Internal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirst" title="Thirst">Thirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">Suffocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visceral_pain" title="Visceral pain">Visceral pain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonhuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman">Nonhuman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">Magnetoreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Echolocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">Infrared sensing in vampire bats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toad vision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_perception" title="Machine perception">Artificial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">Robotic sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine hearing">Machine hearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Lamellar corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Tactile corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Bulbous corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaniform_sensilla" title="Campaniform sensilla">Campaniform sensilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slit_sensilla" title="Slit sensilla">Slit sensilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretch_receptor" title="Stretch receptor">Stretch receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photoreceptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">Cone cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">Rod cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IpRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IpRGC">ipRGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">Photopigment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aureochromes" title="Aureochromes">Aureochrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">Chemoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmoreceptor" title="Osmoreceptor">Osmoreceptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">Thermoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilium#Sensing_the_extracellular_environment" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRP_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="TRP channels">TRP channels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin_receptor#Pain_circuitry" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juxtacapillary_receptors" title="Juxtacapillary receptors">Juxtacapillary receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amaurosis" title="Amaurosis">Amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photopsia" title="Photopsia">Photopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_polyopia" title="Cerebral polyopia">Polyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyaudia" title="Amblyaudia">Amblyaudia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_agnosia" title="Auditory agnosia">Auditory agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_verbal_agnosia" title="Auditory verbal agnosia">Auditory verbal agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortical_deafness" title="Cortical deafness">Cortical deafness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_auditory_effect" title="Microwave auditory effect">Microwave auditory effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_hearing_loss" title="Spatial hearing loss">Spatial hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">Vestibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertigo" title="Vertigo">Vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BPPV" class="mw-redirect" title="BPPV">BPPV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labyrinthine_fistula" title="Labyrinthine fistula">Labyrinthine fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">Labyrinthitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re%27s_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Olfaction#Disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anosmia" title="Anosmia">Anosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysosmia" title="Dysosmia">Dysosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperosmia" title="Hyperosmia">Hyperosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyposmia" title="Hyposmia">Hyposmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_reference_syndrome" title="Olfactory reference syndrome">Olfactory reference syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parosmia" title="Parosmia">Parosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantosmia" title="Phantosmia">Phantosmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taste_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste disorder">Gustatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">Parageusia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_disorder" title="Somatosensory disorder">Tactile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astereognosis" title="Astereognosis">Astereognosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcot%E2%80%93Marie%E2%80%93Tooth_disease" title="Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease">CMT disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formication" title="Formication">Formication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">Hyperesthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoesthesia" title="Hypoesthesia">Hypoesthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_hallucination" title="Tactile hallucination">Tactile hallucination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nociception (pain)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">Hyperalgesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoalgesia" title="Hypoalgesia">Hypoalgesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain dissociation">Pain dissociation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_pain" title="Phantom pain">Phantom pain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprioception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomatognosia" title="Asomatognosia">Asomatognosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_limb" title="Phantom limb">Phantom limb syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatoparaphrenia" title="Somatoparaphrenia">Somatoparaphrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernumerary_phantom_limb" title="Supernumerary phantom limb">Supernumerary phantom limb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimodal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aura_(symptom)" title="Aura (symptom)">Aura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allochiria" title="Allochiria">Allochiria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derealization" title="Derealization">Derealization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HSAN" class="mw-redirect" title="HSAN">HSAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a 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