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<li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discontented_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discontented_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Discontented groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discontented_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tobacco_protest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tobacco_protest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Tobacco protest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tobacco_protest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mozaffar_ad-Din" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mozaffar_ad-Din"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Mozaffar ad-Din</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mozaffar_ad-Din-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_protests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_protests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>First protests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_protests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Creation of the constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>The constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mohammad_Ali_Shah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mohammad_Ali_Shah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Mohammad Ali Shah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mohammad_Ali_Shah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Minor_Tyranny_and_the_civil_war_of_1908–1909" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Minor_Tyranny_and_the_civil_war_of_1908–1909"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>The Minor Tyranny and the civil war of 1908–1909</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Minor_Tyranny_and_the_civil_war_of_1908–1909-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_end" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_end"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>The end</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_end-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Religious debate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_debate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious debate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Important_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Important events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Important_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leading_clerical_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leading_clerical_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Leading clerical figures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leading_clerical_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouri's_execution_and_celebration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouri's_execution_and_celebration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Nouri's execution and celebration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouri's_execution_and_celebration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_participants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_participants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable participants</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_participants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable participants subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_participants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitutionalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutionalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Constitutionalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutionalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monarchists_(Anti-Constitutionalists)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monarchists_(Anti-Constitutionalists)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Monarchists (Anti-Constitutionalists)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monarchists_(Anti-Constitutionalists)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Religious leaders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Persian Constitutional Revolution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الثورة الدستورية الفارسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة الدستورية الفارسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_constitucional_iranina" title="Revolución constitucional iranina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución constitucional iranina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ran_M%C9%99%C5%9Frut%C9%99_inqilab%C4%B1" title="İran Məşrutə inqilabı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İran Məşrutə inqilabı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="مشروطه اینقیلابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مشروطه اینقیلابی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Персийска конституционна революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Персийска конституционна революция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persk%C3%A1_revoluce" title="Perská revoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Perská revoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstitutionelle_Revolution" title="Konstitutionelle Revolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konstitutionelle Revolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_constitucional_iran%C3%AD" title="Revolución constitucional iraní – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución constitucional iraní" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persa_Konstitucia_Revolucio" title="Persa Konstitucia Revolucio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Persa Konstitucia Revolucio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge, featured article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%87" title="انقلاب مشروطه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب مشروطه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_constitutionnelle_persane" title="Révolution constitutionnelle persane – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution constitutionnelle persane" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%9E%80_%EC%9E%85%ED%97%8C_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="이란 입헌 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이란 입헌 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իրանի սահմանադրական հեղափոխություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իրանի սահմանադրական հեղափոխություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_costituzionale_persiana" title="Rivoluzione costituzionale persiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione costituzionale persiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1" title="המהפכה החוקתית בפרס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המהפכה החוקתית בפרס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Иран конституциялық революциясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иран конституциялық революциясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B_(1905-11)" title="Иран революциясы (1905-11) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Иран революциясы (1905-11)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurihanga_Kaupapa_Ture_Irana" title="Hurihanga Kaupapa Ture Irana – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Hurihanga Kaupapa Ture Irana" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%87_%D8%AD%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA" title="ایران مشروطه حرکت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ایران مشروطه حرکت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E7%AB%8B%E6%86%B2%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="イラン立憲革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イラン立憲革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ایران دا جمہوری انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایران دا جمہوری انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Constitucional_Persa" title="Revolução Constitucional Persa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução 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searchaux" style="display:none">1909 Iranian uprising against monarch Mohammad Ali Shah</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the 1905–1911 Iranian revolution. For the revolution that took place in 1979, see <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>. For the series of reforms launched in 1963, see <a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution</a>. For similarly named revolutions, see <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Revolution_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Constitutional Revolution (disambiguation)">Constitutional Revolution</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_language plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice skin-invert-image" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/50px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/75px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/100px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="font-size:100%; padding: 0px;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; padding-right: 3em; font-weight: normal; text-align: left">You can help <b>expand this article with text translated from <a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%87" class="extiw" title="fa:انقلاب مشروطه">the corresponding article</a> in Persian</b>.  <i><small>(March 2021)</small></i> <small>Click [show] for important translation instructions.</small></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>Machine translation, like <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepl.com">DeepL</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/">Google Translate</a>, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.</li> <li>Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.</li> <li>You <b>must</b> provide <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Copying_within_Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia:Copying within Wikipedia">copyright attribution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Help:Edit_summary" title="Help:Edit summary">edit summary</a> accompanying your translation by providing an <a href="/wiki/Help:Interlanguage_links" title="Help:Interlanguage links">interlanguage link</a> to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is <code>Content in this edit is translated from the existing Persian Wikipedia article at [[:fa:انقلاب مشروطه]]; see its history for attribution.</code></li> <li>You may also add the template <code>{{Translated|fa|انقلاب مشروطه}}</code> to the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Talk:Persian Constitutional Revolution">talk page</a>.</li> <li>For more guidance, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation" title="Wikipedia:Translation">Wikipedia:Translation</a>.</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing: 2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Persian Constitutional Revolution</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#eeeeee;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalization_attempts_in_Iran" title="Constitutionalization attempts in Iran">constitutionalization attempts in Iran</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg/300px-Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="449" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg/450px-Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg/600px-Farmane_e_mashrutiyat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Royal proclamation by <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar</a> which established the constitutional monarchy on August 5, 1906</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">1905–1911</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Persia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Resulted in</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Revolutionary victory <div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Persian Constitution of 1906">Persian Constitution of 1906</a> promulgated</li><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Consultative_Assembly" title="National Consultative Assembly">Parliament</a> instituted</li><li><a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">Triumph of Tehran</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;">Parties</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><table style="width:100%; border-spacing:0; margin:0; text-align:left; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width:50%;"><div> <p><em>Revolution: June 1905 – August 1906</em> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secret_Center" title="Secret Center">Secret Center</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Persia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Democratic Party (Persia)">Social Democratic Party</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Humanity" title="Society of Humanity">Society of Humanity</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Committee_(Persia)" title="Revolutionary Committee (Persia)">Revolutionary Committee</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Secret_Society_(Persia)" title="Secret Society (Persia)">Secret Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div> <p><em>Semi-organized groups:</em> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a> and seminary students<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Committee of Merchants<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198281_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198281-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Committee of Guild Elders<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Students of <a href="/wiki/Dar_ul-Funun_(Persia)" title="Dar ul-Funun (Persia)">Dar ul-Funun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tehran_School_of_Political_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehran School of Political Science">School of Political Science</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mozaffari_School_of_Agriculture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mozaffari School of Agriculture (page does not exist)">School of Agriculture</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></div></td> <td style="width:50%; padding-left:0.25em; border-left:1px dotted #aaa"><div> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg/20px-Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg/31px-Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg/40px-Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahrbani" title="Shahrbani">Nazmiyeh</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Cossack Brigade</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr> <td style="width:50%;border-top:1px dotted #aaa"> <div> <p><em>Civil war: August 1906 – July 1909</em> </p><p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Civil_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg/23px-Civil_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Civil_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg/35px-Civil_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Civil_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg/46px-Civil_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/1st_Iranian_Majlis" title="1st Iranian Majlis">Parliament</a> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Azerbaijan_Provincial_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Azerbaijan Provincial Council (page does not exist)">Tabriz Council</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_of_Azerbaijanis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society of Azerbaijanis (page does not exist)">Society of Azerbaijanis</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Society" title="Central Society">Central Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198291_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198291-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Revolutionary_Federation_in_Iran" title="Armenian Revolutionary Federation in Iran">Dashnak</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Society of Guilds<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Society of College graduates<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></div></td> <td style="width:50%; padding-left:0.25em; border-left:1px dotted #aaa; border-top:1px dotted #aaa"> <div> <p>Qajar dynasty </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Cossack Brigade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shahsevan" title="Shahsevan">Shahsevans</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;">Lead figures</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244901718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-columns-text-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div{box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-3>div{width:33.33%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-4>div{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div:not(:first-child){border-left:1px dotted #aaa;padding-left:5px}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist infobox-columns infobox-columns-2 infobox-columns-text-left"> <div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Sayyed_Mohammad_Tabatabai" title="Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai">Mohammad Tabatabai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Abdollah_Behbahani" title="Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani">Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Hossein_Naini" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Hossein Naini">Muhammad Hossein Naini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haydar_Khan_Amo-oghli" title="Haydar Khan Amo-oghli">Haydar Khan Amo-oghli Tariverdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a>  (<a href="/wiki/Wounded_in_action" title="Wounded in action"><abbr title="Wounded in action">WIA</abbr></a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqir_Khan" title="Baqir Khan">Baqir Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeprem_Khan" title="Yeprem Khan">Yeprem Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Qoli_Khan_Bakhtiari" title="Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari">Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najaf-Qoli_Khan_Bakhtiari" title="Najaf-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari">Najaf-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Vali_Khan_Tonekaboni" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni">Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni</a></li></ul> </div> </div> <div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg/20px-Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg/31px-Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg/40px-Early_20th_Century_Qajar_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozafaredin Shah</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah</a>  <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdol_Majid_Mirza" title="Abdol Majid Mirza">Eyn-ed-Dowleh</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Liakhov" title="Vladimir Liakhov">Vladimir Liakhov</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahimkhan_Chalabianloo" title="Rahimkhan Chalabianloo">Rahim Khan</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li></ul> </div> </div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Persian Constitutional Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Persian Constitutional Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Persian Constitutional Revolution</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">Majlis Bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tabriz_(1908%E2%80%931909)" title="Siege of Tabriz (1908–1909)">1st Tabriz</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ana_Khatun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Ana Khatun (page does not exist)">Ana Khatun</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Sari_Dagh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Sari Dagh (page does not exist)">Sari Dagh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Hokmavar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Hokmavar (page does not exist)">Hokmavar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shanb_Ghazan_Resistance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shanb Ghazan Resistance (page does not exist)">Shanb Ghazan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rasht" title="Battle of Rasht">Rasht</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Astarabad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Astarabad (page does not exist)">Astarabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">2nd Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Isfahan" title="Recapture of Isfahan">Isfahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atabak_Park_Incident" title="Atabak Park Incident">Atabak Park</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Associated articles</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Russian involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution">Russian Empire involvement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Persian Constitutional Revolution</b> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">مشروطیت</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian" title="Romanization of Persian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Mashrūtiyyat</i></span>, or <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">انقلاب مشروطه</span></span><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Enghelāb-e Mashrūteh</i>), also known as the <b>Constitutional Revolution of Iran</b>, took place between 1905 and 1911<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>. The revolution led to the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Majlis_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Majlis of Iran">parliament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Persia (Iran)</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been called an "epoch-making episode in the modern history of Persia".<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The revolution was "the first of its kind in the Islamic world, earlier than the revolution of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">1908</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It opened the way for the modern era in Persia, and debate in a burgeoning press. Many groups fought to shape the course of the revolution. The old order, which Shah <a href="/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Naser al-Din Shah Qajar">Naser al-Din Shah Qajar</a> had struggled for so long to sustain, was finally replaced by new institutions. </p><p>Shah <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar</a> signed <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Persian Constitution of 1906">the 1906 constitution</a> shortly before his death. He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Ali Shah">Mohammad Ali Shah</a>, who abolished the constitution and <a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">bombarded the parliament in 1908</a> with Russian and British support. This led to a second effort with constitutionalist forces marching to Tehran, forced Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication in favor of his young son <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar" title="Ahmad Shah Qajar">Ahmad Shah Qajar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">re-established the constitution</a> in 1909. </p><p>The revolution ended in December 1911 when the Shah's ministers oversaw the expulsion of the deputies of the Second Majlis from the parliament "with the support of 12,000 Russian troops".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">کودتای ۳ اسفند ۱۲۹۹</span>), Iran's parliament amended the constitution on December 12, 1925, replacing the 1797–1925 Qajar dynasty with the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty</a> as the legitimate sovereigns of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1906–1907 constitution, though not adhered to, remained until after the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Islamic Revolution</a> a new constitution was approved on 2 and 3 December 1979 establishing an Islamic Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Davari2004_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davari2004-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Constitutional Revolution began in 1905 with protest against a foreign director of customs (a Belgian) enforcing "with bureaucratic rigidity" the tariff collections to pay for a loan to another foreign source (Russians) that financed the shah's (<a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar</a>) extravagant tour of Europe. The revolutionaries – mainly bazaar merchants, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a></i>, and a small group of radical reformers – argued that Iran's oil industry was being sold to the British, while tax breaks on imports, exports and manufactured textiles were destroying Iran's economy (which had been supported by the bazaar merchants), and that the shah was selling assets to pay interest on the fortune in foreign debt he had accumulated. </p><p>It ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from the Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the shah's cabinet, backed by 12,000 Russian troops".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In between there were two different <i>majles</i> (parliaments), a deposed shah and a 1907 division of the country by Britain and Russia capitalizing on Iran's weak government. A new <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Persian Constitution of 1906">fundamental law</a> created a parliament, giving it final approval of all loans and the budget. The majles was endorsed by the leading clerics of <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a> – <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kazim_Khurasani" title="Muhammad Kazim Khurasani">Akhund Khurasani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani" title="Mirza Husayn Tehrani">Mirza Husayn Tehrani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaikh_Abdallah_Mazandarani" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh Abdallah Mazandarani">Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background"><span id="Context"></span>Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 19th century, like most of the Muslim world, Iran suffered from foreign intrusion and exploitation, military weakness, lack of cohesion, and corruption. </p><p>In the 1813 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 1828 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iran lost "Georgia, Armenia, and their Caspian navy" to Russia, "gave up its claims to Afghanistan, and paid an indemnity of three million pounds to the tsar".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1857)" title="Treaty of Paris (1857)">Treaty of Paris (1857)</a>, it agreed to withdraw from <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> (formerly part of Iran) and signed a commercial treaty with Britain. The lack of a standing Iranian army was part of the problem because the forces that were raised to fight the Russians (for example) were "faction-ridden tribal contingents" and lacked modern artillery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To compensate for his lack of an army, the Qajar Shah would use "loyal tribes", putting down a rebellion by declaring a rebellious city or region "open booty" for the tribe, who would then appear to rape and pillage – a far more destructive means of discipline than arresting and punishing rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198246–47_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198246–47-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major roads between cities that might have appeared to be investments in improving transportation, provided opportunities not for greater trade and prosperity, but for tax collectors to fleece towns along the road, and thus "encouraged the local peasants to settle in more distant regions". A survey for the British Foreign Office reported: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>'There are large tracts of fertile land which remain waste owing to their proximity to the main roads, as no village having cultivators on such spots can possibly prosper or enjoy the least immunity from the pestering visits of Government officials, and thefts and robberies committed by the tribes.'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198214_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198214-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Perhaps worst of all the indignities Iran suffered from the superior militaries of European powers were "a series of commercial capitulations."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198251-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the sales by the shah of titles, patents, privileges, concessions, monopolies, lands, ... high offices" paid for some improvements, such as a telegraph network and in Tehran a regular police force, a municipal civil service, etc., they were also spent on consumption by the shah's court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198257_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198257-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), foreign (Western) mass-manufactured products, "especially textiles, undermined the traditional handicrafts, and consequently presented for many bazaars a mutual enemy – the foreigner." In <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> at least, 10% of "the guilds in this city were weavers; not even 1/5 of those survived" competition with imported textiles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198259_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198259-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Widows and orphans were hurt, and farmers suffered: by 1894 the price they were paid for wheat harvest dropped to 1/6 what it had been in 1871;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198259_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198259-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> irrigation systems had fallen into ruin, "turning fields and villages into desert".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996143_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996143-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1872, Nasir al-Din Shah negotiated a concession granting a British citizen control over Persian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, and other public works in exchange for a fixed sum and 60% of net revenue. This concession was rolled back after bitter local opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambton1988223Keddie19665_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambton1988223Keddie19665-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other concessions to the British included giving the new Imperial Bank of Persia exclusive rights to issue banknotes, and opening up the Karun River to navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia.com-tobacco_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia.com-tobacco-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nikki R. Keddie points out that </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 and the Russian revolution of 1905 gave impetus to an Iranian opposition movement that had been growing since 1901. After a century of successive defeats, an Asian power had defeated a European power, an event that bolstered pride throughout Asia. This feeling was particularly strong in those countries, like Iran, that had experienced Russian penetration and oppression. Many considered it significant that the only Asian power with a constitution had defeated the only Western power without one, and constitutions came to be looked upon as the "secret of strength" of Western governments.<sup id="cite_ref-Keddie-83-comparative_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keddie-83-comparative-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discontented_groups">Discontented groups</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Discontented groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The political base of the constitutionalist movement to control the power of the shah was an alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>, liberal and radical intellectuals, and the <a href="/wiki/Bazaar" title="Bazaar">bazaar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keddie-83-comparative_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keddie-83-comparative-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the alliance was based on common enemies rather than common goals. The ulama sought "to extend their own power and to have Shi'i Islam more strictly enforced"; the liberals and radicals desired "greater political and social democracy and economic development"; and the bazaaris "to restrict favored foreign economic status and competition".<sup id="cite_ref-Keddie-83-comparative_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keddie-83-comparative-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The intellectuals were a "small but growing" group, many of whom learned of Western ways while travelling abroad and "were generally struck by Western economic development, comparative justice, and lack of arbitrary rule". In their writings these intellectuals criticized Iran's "autocratic rulers, petty officials, venal clerics, and arbitrary courts, and of the low status of women."<sup id="cite_ref-Keddie-83-comparative_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keddie-83-comparative-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "mercantile class" or <a href="/wiki/Bazaari" title="Bazaari">bazaari</a> became convinced that "law and order, security of property, and immunity from arbitrary power could all be achieved by importing parliamentary democracy" from Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198948–49_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198948–49-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ulama (i.e. Islamic scholars) had less to gain and a less direct incentive to support a constitution, but were convinced (at least for a time) that their "hierocracy vis-a-vis the monarchy" would not be weakened.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198948–49_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198948–49-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tobacco_protest">Tobacco protest</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tobacco protest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_Protest" title="Tobacco Protest">Tobacco Protest</a></div> <p>The tobacco protest of 1891–1892 was "the first mass nationwide popular movement in Iran",<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia.com-tobacco_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia.com-tobacco-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and described as a "dress rehearsal for the...Constitutional Revolution",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198273_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198273-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formed from an anti-imperialist and antimonarchist coalition of "clerics, mercantile interests, and dissident intellectuals".<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1890, <a href="/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Naser al-Din Shah Qajar">Naser al-Din Shah</a> granted a concession to an Englishman, Baron <a href="/wiki/Paul_Julius_Reuter" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Julius Reuter">Paul Julius Reuter</a>, for a 50-year monopoly over the distribution and exportation of tobacco in exchange for £25,000 to the Shah personally and £15,000 a year to the state. Iranians cultivated a variety of tobacco "much prized in foreign markets" that was not grown elsewhere,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the arrangement threatened the job security of a significant portion of the Iranian population – hundreds of thousands of workers in agriculture and the bazaars.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This led to unprecedented nationwide protest erupting first among the <a href="/wiki/Bazaari" title="Bazaari">bazaari</a>, and then the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1891, the most important religious authority in Iran, <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marja'</a>-e taqlid <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Shirazi" title="Mirza Shirazi">Mirza Hasan Shirazi</a>, issued a fatwa declaring the use of tobacco to be tantamount to war against the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Mahdi" title="Muhammad al-Mahdi">Hidden Imam</a>, using the strongest possible language to oppose the <i>Régie</i> (tobacco monopoly). Bazaars shut down, and Iranians stopped smoking tobacco,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambton1988248_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambton1988248-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the popularity of tobacco – which Iranians were said to be less likely to forego than bread<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – the religious ban was so successful that it was said that women in the shah's harem quit smoking.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia.com-tobacco_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia.com-tobacco-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The protest demonstrated to the Iranians "for the first time that it was possible to win out against the Shah and foreign interests… there is a direct line from the coalition which participated in the tobacco movement… culminating in the Constitutional Revolution" and arguably the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> as well, according to Historian <a href="/wiki/Nikki_Keddie" title="Nikki Keddie">Nikki Keddie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeddie1966131_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeddie1966131-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mozaffar_ad-Din">Mozaffar ad-Din</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mozaffar ad-Din"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BastBritishEmbassy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Group of people outdoors" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/BastBritishEmbassy.jpg/220px-BastBritishEmbassy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/BastBritishEmbassy.jpg/330px-BastBritishEmbassy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/BastBritishEmbassy.jpg/440px-BastBritishEmbassy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">Sanctuary</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_Kingdom,_Tehran" title="Embassy of the United Kingdom, Tehran">British Embassy</a>, 1906</figcaption></figure> <p>The fourth Qajar monarch, <a href="/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Naser al-Din Shah Qajar">Naser al-Din Shah</a> was assassinated on 1 May 1896 by <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Reza_Kermani" title="Mirza Reza Kermani">Mirza Reza Kermani</a>, a follower of <a href="/wiki/Jam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī">Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī</a>, when he was visiting and praying in the <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abdol-Azim_Shrine" title="Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine">Shah Abdul-Azim Shrine</a>. At <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar al-Din Shah</a>'s accession Persia faced a financial crisis, with annual governmental expenditures far in excess of revenues as a result of the policies of his father. The monarch, <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah</a> signed <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Persian Constitution of 1906">the 1906 constitution</a> shortly before his death. Weakness and extravagance continued during the brief reign of <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar</a> (1896–1907), who often relied on his chancellor to manage his decentralized state. His dire financial straits caused him to sign many <a href="/wiki/Concession_(contract)" title="Concession (contract)">concessions</a> to foreign powers on trade items ranging from weapons to tobacco. The aristocracy, religious authorities, and educated elite began demanding a curb on royal authority and the establishment of the rule of law as their concern about foreign (especially Russian) influence grew.<sup id="cite_ref-Shuster_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shuster-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qajars had taken large loans from Russia and Britain to pay for the Shah's extravagant lifestyle and the cost of the government; the shah financed a royal tour of Europe in 1900 by borrowing ₽22 million from Russia, using Iranian customs receipts as collateral.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_protests">First protests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First protests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TabrizRevolutionaries.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Large group of men with rifles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/TabrizRevolutionaries.JPG/220px-TabrizRevolutionaries.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/TabrizRevolutionaries.JPG/330px-TabrizRevolutionaries.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/TabrizRevolutionaries.JPG 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption>Revolutionary fighters in <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bagher_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagher Khan">Bagher Khan</a> are in the center.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Majlis_MPs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Large group of individual photographs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/First_Majlis_MPs.jpg/220px-First_Majlis_MPs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="385" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/First_Majlis_MPs.jpg/330px-First_Majlis_MPs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/First_Majlis_MPs.jpg/440px-First_Majlis_MPs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption>The first Majlis (October 7, 1906 – June 23, 1908); chairman Mortezā Qoli Khan Sani od-Dauleh, who had been finance minister for seven months when he was assassinated on 6 February 1911 by two <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a> in Tehran, is in the center.<sup id="cite_ref-Shuster_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shuster-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1905, protests erupted about the imposition of Persian tariffs to repay the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> loan for Mozaffar ad-Din Shah's royal tour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December of that year, two merchants in Tehran were <a href="/wiki/Foot_whipping" title="Foot whipping">bastinadoed</a> for price-gouging. The city's merchants rebelled, closing its bazaar. The clergy followed suit as a result of the alliance formed during the <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_Protest" title="Tobacco Protest">Tobacco Protest</a>. The two protesting groups sought sanctuary in a Tehran mosque, but the government entered the mosque and dispersed them. The dispersal triggered a larger movement that sought refuge at a shrine outside Tehran. The shah yielded to the demonstrators on January 12, 1906, agreeing to dismiss his prime minister and transfer power to a "house of justice" (forerunner of the Iranian parliament). The <i>basti</i> protesters returned from the shrine in triumph, riding royal carriages and hailed by a jubilant crowd.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During a fight in early 1906, government forces killed a <i><a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">sayyid</a></i> (a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>). In a skirmish shortly afterwards, <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> killed 22 protesters and injured 100.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bazaar again closed and the <i>ulama</i> went on strike, a large number taking sanctuary in the holy city of <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>. Many merchants went to the <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_Kingdom,_Tehran" title="Embassy of the United Kingdom, Tehran">British embassy in Tehran</a>, which agreed to shelter the <i>basti</i> on the grounds of the embassy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_the_constitution">Creation of the constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Creation of the constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliamenttehran1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Large hall with two balconies, filled with men" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Parliamenttehran1906.jpg/220px-Parliamenttehran1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Parliamenttehran1906.jpg/330px-Parliamenttehran1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Parliamenttehran1906.jpg/440px-Parliamenttehran1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2088" data-file-height="1383" /></a><figcaption>Parliament in 1906</figcaption></figure> <p>During the summer of 1906, about 12,000 men camped in the gardens of the <a href="/wiki/British_embassy_in_Tehran" class="mw-redirect" title="British embassy in Tehran">British embassy</a> in what has been called a "vast open-air school of political science".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demand for a <a href="/wiki/National_Consultative_Assembly" title="National Consultative Assembly">parliament</a> (<i>majlis</i>) began, with the goal of limiting the power of the shah. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah agreed on a parliament in August 1906, and the first elections were held that fall. One hundred fifty-six members were elected, the overwhelming majority from Tehran and the merchant class. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Consultative_Assembly" title="National Consultative Assembly">National Consultative Assembly</a> first met in October 1906. The shah was old and frail, and attending the inauguration of parliament was one of his last official acts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mozaffar ad-Din Shah's son, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar</a>, was unsympathetic to constitutionalism; the shah signed the constitution (modeled on the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium" title="Constitution of Belgium">Belgian constitution</a>) by December 31, 1906, making his power contingent on the will of the people, and died three days later. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_constitution">The constitution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Doctor treating an injured man, with a crowd of standing men behind them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg/220px-%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg/330px-%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg/440px-%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amir_Khan_Amir_al-Alam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amir Khan Amir al-Alam (page does not exist)">Amir Khan Amir al-Alam</a> treats an injured man after the <a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">Triumph of Tehran</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Iran_Constitution_of_1906" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Iran Constitution of 1906">Iran Constitution of 1906</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Persian Constitution of 1906">Persian Constitution of 1906</a></div> <p>The constitution itself was created by the royal proclamation on August 5, 1906 by Mozzafar al-Din Shah on "for the peace and tranquility of all the people of Persia." The Quran was the foundation of this constitution while the Belgian constitution served as a partial model for the document. </p><p>The electoral law of September 9, 1906 defined the regulations for the Elections to the Majlis. (No women, foreigners, men under 25, "persons notorious for mischievous opinions," those with a criminal record, active military personnel, etc. were allowed to vote. Members of the parliament were required to be fully literate in Persian, "Iranian subjects of Iranian extraction," "locally known," "not be in government employment," between the ages of 30 and 70, and "have some insight into affairs of State." </p><p>The fundamental laws of December 30, 1906 defined the role of the Majlis as a bicameral legislature: the National Consultative Assembly was to be based "on justice." and there was to be "another Assembly, entitled the Senate." The Constitutional Amendment of 1907 declared <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a> to be the state religion, and called for a council of five high ranking Twelver Shia clerics to ensure that the laws passed by the parliament were not against the laws of Islam. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mohammad_Ali_Shah">Mohammad Ali Shah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mohammad Ali Shah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar</a>, the sixth Qajar shah, came to power in January 1907. He opposed the constitution. The British switched their support to the shah, abandoning the constitutionalists. In August of that year, taking advantage of Iran's weakness, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a> was signed, dividing Iran into a Russian zone in the north and a British zone in the south; the center of the country was neutral.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Minor_Tyranny_and_the_civil_war_of_1908–1909"><span id="The_Minor_Tyranny_and_the_civil_war_of_1908.E2.80.931909"></span>The Minor Tyranny and the civil war of 1908–1909</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Minor Tyranny and the civil war of 1908–1909"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1908, the shah moved to "exploit the divisions within the ranks of the reformers" and <a href="/wiki/1908_Tehran_bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="1908 Tehran bombardment">eliminate the <i>majlis</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> staging a coup d'état and creating a period in Iranian history called the <a href="/wiki/Minor_Tyranny" title="Minor Tyranny">Minor Tyranny</a>. It was at this point that <a href="/wiki/Fazlullah_Nouri" title="Fazlullah Nouri">Fazlollah Nori</a> defected from the constitutionalists, helping the shah kill some revolutionaries and bomb the parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-KEA1993:92_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KEA1993:92-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persia tried to remain free of Russian influence through resistance (via the <i>majlis</i>) to the shah's policies. Parliament appointed American lawyer <a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_Shuster" title="William Morgan Shuster">William Morgan Shuster</a> as Persia's treasurer-general. In response, Russia issued an ultimatum to expel Shuster and suspend the parliament, <a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">occupying Tabriz</a>. </p><p>After shelling the Majles (parliament) of Iran in the capital Tehran, 40,000 of Mohammad Ali Shah's soldiers were ordered to attack Tabriz, where Constitutional rebels were holding out. <a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a> was appointed the commander in chief of High Council, i.e. commander of the constitutionalist forces. By April 1909, the Tabriz rebels had lost large numbers of fighters, but succeeded in driving out royalist forces from the city, and Sattar Khan and his lieutenant Bagher Khan had distinguished themselves as heroes. Inspired by this victory, constitutionalists across Iran set up special committees in Tehran, Rasht, Qazvin, Isfahan and other cities, and the powerful Bakhtiyari tribal leaders threw their support to the Tabriz rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constitutionalist forces marched to Tehran, forced Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication in favor of his young son <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar" title="Ahmad Shah Qajar">Ahmad Shah Qajar</a>, and re-established the constitution in 1909. </p><p>A further split in the revolutionary movement occurred in 1910 when "a group of guerrilla fighters headed by Sattar Khan, refused to obey a government order to disarm." After a "brief but violent confrontation" in which Sattar Khan was wounded, Yeprem Khan, the recently appointed police chief of Tehran "succeeded in disarming them".<sup id="cite_ref-KEA1993:93_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KEA1993:93-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_end">The end</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The end"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The revolution ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from the Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the shah's cabinet, backed by 12,000 Russian troops".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_debate">Religious debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Religious debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_Protest#Shirazi's_fatwa_and_the_repudiation_of_the_concession" title="Tobacco Protest">1891 fatwa</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Hasan_Shirazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirza Hasan Shirazi">Mirza Hasan Shirazi</a> that effectively shut down tobacco use in Iran and reversed the monopoly agreement on tobacco, showed the enormous influence of the <a href="/wiki/Usuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Usuli">Usuli</a> <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver Shi'i">Twelver Shi'i</a> clergy among the Iranian people that went beyond issues directly involved with religion. (Usuli Shi'i consider it obligatory for a Muslim not trained in the religious sciences to obey a <a href="/wiki/Mujtahid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujtahid">mujtahid</a>, i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marja'</a>, when seeking to determine Islamically correct behavior.) After this debacle, the new Shah, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Qajar</a>, understood that he could not use royal prestige and tradition to fight constitutional government. Instead, he would find religious allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198948–49_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198948–49-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were clergy on both sides of the dispute. On the side of constitutional government were three of the highest level clerics (<a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marja'</a>) at the time – <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kazim_Khurasani" title="Muhammad Kazim Khurasani">Akhund Khurasani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani" title="Mirza Husayn Tehrani">Mirza Husayn Tehrani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaikh_Abdallah_Mazandarani" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh Abdallah Mazandarani">Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani</a> – who telegraphed fatwa in favor of the constitution from their schools in <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a>, Iraq; of the three, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kazim_Khurasani" title="Muhammad Kazim Khurasani">Muhammad Kazim Khurasani</a>, (aka Akhund Khurasani) was the most involved in the issue, he and his student <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Hossein_Naini" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Hossein Naini">Muhammad Hossein Naini</a> argued that while complete justice was impossible until the return of the Hidden Imam, "human experience and careful reflection" shows "that democracy reduces the tyranny of state" making it a "lesser evil" in governance and something Shi'i must support until the return of the Imam;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015162_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015162-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also supporting constitutionalism was <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ali_Aqa_Tabrizi" title="Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi">Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi</a>, who argued that only the sources of emulation (highest level clerics) should be heeded when it comes to matters of faith.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013438_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013438-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The leader of those opposing constitutional government was <a href="/wiki/Fazlullah_Nouri" title="Fazlullah Nouri">Fazlullah Nouri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013430_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013430-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other opponents included Mullah Qurban Ali Zanjani. Nouri maintained that sharia was a complete code of life, not just for religious ritual, and any other codes were both unnecessary and against Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1986183_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1986183-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he ranked below Marja' religious leaders, he told Shi'i Muslims to ignore the Marja' they followed if that marja' supported democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1986191_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1986191-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Important_events">Important events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Important events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Akhund_Khurasani,_Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani,_and_Abdullah_Mazandarani.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Akhund_Khurasani%2C_Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani%2C_and_Abdullah_Mazandarani.jpg" decoding="async" width="203" height="152" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="152" /></a><figcaption>The trio: (left to right) Akhund Khurasani, Mirza Husayn Tehrani and Abdullah Mazandarani</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Early fatwa by marja'</dt></dl> <p>After the parliament was formed, its members stayed in touch with Akhund Khurasani. Whenever legislative bills were discussed, he was telegraphed with the details for a juristic opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015173–174_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015173–174-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter dated June 3, 1907, the parliament told Akhund about a group of anti-constitutionalists who were trying to undermine legitimacy of democracy in the name of religious law. Akhund Khurasani and the other two members of the trio (<a href="/wiki/Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani" title="Mirza Husayn Tehrani">Mirza Husayn Tehrani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaikh_Abdallah_Mazandarani" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh Abdallah Mazandarani">Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani</a>) replied: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><div lang="fa" dir="rtl"> <p>اساس این مجلس محترم مقدس بر امور مذکور مبتنی است. بر هر مسلمی سعی و اهتمام در استحکام و تشیید این اساس قویم لازم، و اقدام در موجبات اختلال آن محاده و معانده با صاحب شریعت مطهره علی الصادع بها و آله الطاهرین افضل الصلاه و السلام، و خیانت به دولت قوی شوکت است. </p> الاحقر نجل المرحوم الحاج میرزا خلیل قدس سره محمد حسین، حررّہ الاحقر الجانی محمد کاظم الخراسانی، من الاحقر عبدالله المازندرانی <sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td> <td>"Because we are aware of the intended reasons for this institution, it is therefore incumbent on every Muslim to support its foundation, and those who try to defeat it, and their action against it, are considered contrary to shari'a." —Mirza Husayn Tehrani, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, Abdallah Mazandaran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015173–174Bayat1991181_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015173–174Bayat1991181-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dt>Fazlollah Nouri and the anti-constitutionalists</dt></dl> <p>At the beginning of the constitutional movement, Sheikh <a href="/wiki/Fazlullah_Nouri" title="Fazlullah Nouri">Fazlullah Nouri</a> made speeches and distributed tracts in support of the sources of emulation (Shi'i marja' religious leadership) in Najaf and their position on constitutionalism. They all agreed that the people must counter autocracy and injustice with a constitution that limited the powers of the state and a legislature that represented the country. However, when monarch <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar</a> made clear his desire to roll back democracy and reestablish his authority by military and foreign support (in 1908), Shaikh Fazlullah reversed his position and sided with the shah and his court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198950–52_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198950–52-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a rich and high-ranking Qajar court official responsible for conducting marriages and contracts, handling the wills of wealthy men and collected religious funds, <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015195_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015195-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nouri had a powerful vested interest in maintaining the status quo of Iran's political structure. His professions of opposition to foreign influence were also put in question by a number of actions – his close connection to the Russians, his refusal to support the early bazaari protests against the Europeans in collecting customs dues, his endorsement of the sale of a cemetery to Russians for the construction of a (Russian) bank, leading to the unplanned exhuming of bodies, and the financing of an anti-constitutionalist rally with funds from that Russian bank.<sup id="cite_ref-KEA1993:95_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KEA1993:95-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his fight against the institution of parliament, he led a large group of followers and began a round-the-clock sit-in in the <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abdol-Azim_Shrine" title="Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine">Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine</a> on June 21, 1907 which lasted till September 16, 1907. </p><p>The anti-democracy clerics incited violence and one such cleric said that getting in the proximity of the parliament was a bigger sin than adultery, robbery and murder.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015193_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015193-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Zanjan, Mulla Qurban Ali Zanjani mobilized a force of six hundred thugs who looted shops of pro-democracy merchants, took hold of the city for several days, and killed the representative Sa'd al-Saltanih.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015160_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015160-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nouri himself recruited mercenaries from criminal gangs to harass supporters of democracy. On December 22, 1907, Nouri led a mob towards <a href="/wiki/Toopkhaneh" title="Toopkhaneh">Tupkhanih Square</a> and attacked merchants and looted stores.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015205_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015205-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nouri's ties to the court of the shah and landlords reinforced his fanaticism. He even contacted the Russian embassy for support and his men delivered sermons against democracy in mosques, resulting in chaos.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayat1991182_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayat1991182-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Fatwas for the Constitution</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sheikh_Fazlollah_Noori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Sheikh_Fazlollah_Noori.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="173" data-file-height="244" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Fazlollah_Nouri" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri">Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri</a> (d. 1909), a cleric who supported the coup d'état of <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar</a> in 1908. He was hanged by the constitutional revolutionaries on 31 July 1909 (in <a href="/wiki/Toopkhaneh" title="Toopkhaneh">Toopkhaneh</a>) as a traitor.</figcaption></figure> <p>Notified about Nouri's activities, Akhund Khurasani consulted the other Marja' and in a letter dated December 30, 1907, they issued a statement: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><div lang="fa" dir="rtl"> <p>چون نوری مخل آسائش و مفسد است، تصرفش در امور حرام است. </p> محمد حسین (نجل) میرزا خلیل، محمد کاظم خراسانی، عبدالله مازندرانی <sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td> <td>"Because Nouri is causing trouble and sedition, his interfering in any affair is forbidden." —Mirza Husayn Tehrani, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, Abdallah Mazandaran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015212_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015212-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, Nouri continued his activities and a few weeks later Akhund Khurasani and his fellow Marja's argued for his expulsion from Tehran: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><div lang="fa" dir="rtl"> <p>رفع اغتشاشات حادثه و تبعید نوری را عاجلاً اعلام. </p> الداعی محمد حسین نجل المرحوم میرزا خلیل، الداعی محمد کاظم الخراسانی، عبدالله المازندرانی <sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td> <td>"Restore peace and expel Nouri as quickly as possible." – Mirza Husayn Tehrani, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, Abdallah Mazandaran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013437_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013437-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015212_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015212-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leading_clerical_figures">Leading clerical figures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Leading clerical figures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri</dt></dl> <p>He argued Islam contained a complete code of life, whereas democracy would allow for "teaching of chemistry, physics and foreign languages", which would cause the spread of <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015196_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015196-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He propagandized against <a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">female education</a> claiming girls' schools were brothels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015199_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015199-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nouri also opposed freedom of the press, modern ways of governance, allocation of funds for modern industry and equal rights for all citizens irrespective of their religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198951_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198951-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He bought a printing press and launched a newspaper of his own, "Ruznamih-i-Shaikh Fazlullah", and published leaflets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015197_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015197-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that the ruler was accountable to no institution other than God and people had no right to limit the powers or question the conduct of the shah; those who supported democratic form of government were corrupt and <a href="/wiki/Takfir" title="Takfir">apostates from Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015198_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015198-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like Islamists later in the 20th century, Nouri preached the idea of sharia as a complete code of social life, not just religious ritual, and any other codes were both unnecessary and against Islam. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Shari'a covers all regulations of government, and specifies all obligations and duties, so the needs of the people of Iran in matters of law are limited to the business of government, which, by reason of universal accidents, has become separated from Shari'a. ... Now the people have thrown out the law of the Prophet and have set up their own law instead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1986183_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1986183-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>And if the Marja' religious leader that a Shi'i Muslim followed supported democracy, that Muslim should not: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If a thousand jurists write that this parliament is founded on the command to do good and prohibit evil ... then you are witness that this is not the case and they have erred ... (exactly as if they were to say) this animal is a sheep, and you know it is a dog, you have to say, 'You are mistaken, it is unclean'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1986191_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1986191-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Unlike Islamists, he saw the king as the "executive of the Islamic government", and a debilitation of the power of the king as "a derogation of religion".<sup id="cite_ref-Naderi-2017_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naderi-2017-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Three marja'</dt></dl> <p>The three of the highest level clerics (<a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marja'</a>) at the time – <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kazim_Khurasani" title="Muhammad Kazim Khurasani">Akhund Khurasani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani" title="Mirza Husayn Tehrani">Mirza Husayn Tehrani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaikh_Abdallah_Mazandarani" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh Abdallah Mazandarani">Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani</a> – defended the parliament when it came under attack from the cleric of the shah's court, Nouri. They acted as a legitimising force,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayat1991181_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayat1991181-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> invoking the Quranic command of '<a href="/wiki/Enjoining_good_and_forbidding_wrong" title="Enjoining good and forbidding wrong">enjoining good and forbidding wrong</a>' to justify democracy in the period of <a href="/wiki/Occultation_(Islam)" title="Occultation (Islam)">occultation</a>, and linked opposition to the constitutional movement to 'a war against the <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Imam of the Age</a>',<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013435_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013435-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (essential the worst condemnation possible in Shi'i Islam). In so doing they established a model of religious secularity in government in the absence of Imam, that still prevails in (some) Shi'i seminaries.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi</dt></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ali_Aqa_Tabrizi" title="Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi">Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi</a>, the Thiqa tul-islam from Tabriz, opposed Nuri saying that only the opinion of the sources of emulation is worthy of consideration in the matters of faith.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013438_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013438-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He who wins his own soul, protects his religion, is against following his desires and is obedient to the command of his Master; that is the person whom the people should take as their model.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013439_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013439-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seqat-ol-Eslam_Tabrizi.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Seqat-ol-Eslam_Tabrizi.PNG/220px-Seqat-ol-Eslam_Tabrizi.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Seqat-ol-Eslam_Tabrizi.PNG/330px-Seqat-ol-Eslam_Tabrizi.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Seqat-ol-Eslam_Tabrizi.PNG 2x" data-file-width="367" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>Thiqa tul-Islam Tabrizi(<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl"><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">ثقة الاسلام میرزا علی آقا تبریزی</span></span>; January 19, 1861 – December 31, 1911)</figcaption></figure> <p>and </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Let us consider the idea that the constitution is against Sharia law: all oppositions of this kind are in vain because the <i>hujjaj al-islam</i> of the <i>atabat</i>, who are today the models (<i>marja'</i>) and the refuge (<i>malija</i>) of all Shiites, have issued clear fatwas that uphold the necessity of the Constitution. Aside from their words, they have also shown this by their actions. They see in Constitution the support for splendour of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013439_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013439-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>He firmly opposed the idea of a supervisory committee of Tehran's clerics censoring the conduct of the parliament, and said that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>this delicate subject shall be submitted to the <i>atabat</i>, … we don't have the right to entrust government to a group of four or five <i>mullahs</i> from Tehran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013439_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013439-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <dl><dt>Muhammad Kazim Khurasani</dt></dl> <p>Responding to Nouri's arguments<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015203_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015203-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Akhund <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kazim_Khurasani" title="Muhammad Kazim Khurasani">Muhammad Kazim Khurasani</a> replied: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><div lang="fa" dir="rtl"> سلطنت مشروعه آن است کہ متصدی امور عامه ی ناس و رتق و فتق کارهای قاطبه ی مسلمین و فیصل کافه ی مهام به دست ‏شخص معصوم و موید و منصوب و منصوص و مأمور مِن الله باشد مانند انبیاء و اولیاء و مثل خلافت ‏امیرالمومنین و ایام ظهور و رجعت حضرت حجت، و اگر حاکم مطلق معصوم نباشد، آن سلطنت غیرمشروعه است، ‏چنان‌ کہ در زمان غیبت است و سلطنت غیرمشروعه دو قسم است، عادله، نظیر مشروطه کہ مباشر امور عامه، عقلا و متدینین ‏باشند و ظالمه و جابره است، مثل آنکه حاکم مطلق یک نفر مطلق‌ العنان خودسر باشد. البته به صریح حکم عقل و به فصیح ‏منصوصات شرع «غیر مشروعه ی عادله» مقدم است بر «غیرمشروعه ی جابره». و به تجربه و تدقیقات صحیحه و غور ‏رسی‌ های شافیه مبرهن شده که نُه عشر تعدیات دوره ی استبداد در دوره ی مشروطیت کمتر می‌شود و دفع افسد و اقبح به ‏فاسد و به قبیح واجب است.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td> <td>"According to Shia doctrine, only the infallible Imam has the right to govern, to run the affairs of the people, to solve the problems of the Muslim society and to make important decisions. As it was in the time of the prophets or in the time of the caliphate of the commander of the faithful, and as it will be in the time of the reappearance and return of the <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a>. If the absolute guardianship is not with the infallible then it will be a non-islamic government. Since this is a time of occultation, there can be two types of non-islamic regimes: the first is a just democracy in which the affairs of the people are in the hands of faithful and educated men, and the second is a government of tyranny in which a dictator has absolute powers. Therefore, both in the eyes of the Sharia and reason what is just prevails over the unjust. From human experience and careful reflection it has become clear that democracy reduces the tyranny of state and it is obligatory to give precedence to the lesser evil." —Muhammad Kazim Khurasani<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015162_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015162-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As "sanctioned by sacred law and religion", Akhund believes, a theocratic government can only be formed by the infallible Imam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013434_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013434-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Nouri interpreted Sharia as equivalent to and in competition with written constitutions of modern society,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015201_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015201-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> unlike Akhund Khurasani who (in addition to being a higher ranking cleric), viewed the adherence to religion in a society as beyond one person or one interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015200_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015200-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_Kazem_Tabataba%27i_Yazdi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Mohammad_Kazem_Tabataba%27i_Yazdi.jpg/220px-Mohammad_Kazem_Tabataba%27i_Yazdi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Mohammad_Kazem_Tabataba%27i_Yazdi.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>Kazim Yazdi: the apolitical Marja of Najaf at times of democratic revolution</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Mohammed Kazem Yazdi</dt></dl> <p>Nouri tried to get support from <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Kazem_Yazdi" title="Mohammed Kazem Yazdi">Mohammed Kazem Yazdi</a>, another prominent Marja of Najaf. Both Mohammad Kazem and Khorasani led a great Shia school in Najaf although they had different views in politics at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-google4_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google4-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Akhund Khorasani was an eminent <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">Marja'</a> in <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a>, many imitators (followers) prayed behind Kazem Yazdi too, as his lessons on legal rulings (<a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a>) were famous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMottahedeh2014118_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottahedeh2014118-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yazdi was apolitical, holding that <a href="/wiki/Usuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Usuli">Usulism</a> did not offer the liberty to support constitutional politics. In his view, politics was beyond his expertise and therefore he avoided taking part in it. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015214_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015214-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, he stayed neutral most of the times and seldom issued any political statement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198952_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198952-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This did not mean he supported Fazlullah Nouri and Mohammad Ali Shah. When parliament asked him to review the final draft of constitution, he suggested some changes and signed the document.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015215_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015215-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He said that modern industries were permissible unless explicitly prohibited by Sharia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also agreed with teaching of modern sciences, and added that the state should not intervene the centers of religious learning (Hawza). He wasn't against formation of organizations and societies that do not create chaos, and in this regard there was no difference between religious and non-religious organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In law-making, unlike Nouri, he separated the religious (Sharia) and public law (Urfiya). His opinion was that the personal and family matters should be settled in religious courts by jurists, and the governmental affaris and matters of state should be taken care of by modern judiciary. Parliament added article 71 and 72 into the constitution based on his opinions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015217_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015217-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ayatullah Yazdi said that as long as modern constitution did not force people to do what was forbidden by Sharia and refrain from religious duties, there was no reason to oppose democratic rule and the government had the right to prosecute wrongdoers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015218_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015218-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Sayyed Moḥammad Ṭabāṭabāʾī</dt></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Sayyed_Mohammad_Tabatabai" title="Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai">Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai</a> was "a well-known figure" and one of "the two most widely recognized clerical leaders of the Revolution" (the other being Sayyed ʿAbd-Allāh Behbahānī). Both were from "old and powerful clerical families" whose authority over the religious community was "beginning to be threatened by rival mojtaheds". Ṭabāṭabāʾī had "demonstrated liberal proclivities since the late period of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah".<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a "famous letter" to the prime minister at the time, ʿAyn-al-Dawla in 1323/1905, he attacked "opposition to creation of a national assembly (majles-e mellatī)": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Shiʿite state is confined to Persia, and their [i.e., the Shiʿites'] prestige and prosperity depended upon it. Why have you permitted the ruin of Persia and the utter humiliation of the Shiʿite state? ... You may reply that the mullahs did not allow [Persia to be saved]. This is not credible. ... I can foresee that my country (<i>waṭan</i>), my stature and prestige, my service to Islam are about to fall into the hands of enemies and all my stature gone. As long as I breathe, therefore, I will strive for the preservation of this country, be it at the cost of my life" <sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouri's_execution_and_celebration"><span id="Nouri.27s_execution_and_celebration"></span>Nouri's execution and celebration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nouri's execution and celebration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibrahim_Zanjani.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Ibrahim_Zanjani.jpg/220px-Ibrahim_Zanjani.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Ibrahim_Zanjani.jpg/330px-Ibrahim_Zanjani.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Ibrahim_Zanjani.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Shaykh Ibrahim Zanjani was head of the tribunal who sentenced Fazlullah Nouri to death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013440_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013440-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Nouri allied himself with the new Shah, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Ali Shah">Mohammad Ali Shah</a>, who, with the assistance of Russian troops staged a coup against the Majlis (parliament) in 1907. In 1909, however, constitutionalists marched onto Tehran, ending the Minor Tyranny. Nouri was arrested. </p><p>The Revolutionary Tribunal declared Nouri guilty of inciting mobs against the constitutionalists and issuing fatwas declaring parliamentary leaders "apostates", "atheists," "secret Freemasons" and <i><a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">koffar</a> al-harbi</i> (warlike pagans) whose blood ought to be shed by the faithful.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was found guilty of "sowing corruption and sedition on earth,"<sup id="cite_ref-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in July 1909, Nouri was hanged as a traitor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The legacy of the revolution in Iran is mixed. </p><p>Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution</a>, (who was a child at the time of the Constitutional Revolution) and theorized that until the return of the Hidden Imam, Islamic jurists should rule Iran, asserted that decades after the collapse of the revolution, that the constitution of 1906 was the work of (Iranian) agents of imperialist Britain, conspiring against Islam who "were instructed by their masters to take advantage of the idea of constitutionalism in order to deceive the people and conceal the true nature of their political crimes". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At the beginning of the constitutional movement, when people wanted to write laws and draw up a constitution, a copy of the Belgian legal code was borrowed from the Belgian embassy and a handful of individuals (whose names I do not wish to mention here) used it as the basis for the constitution they then wrote, supplementing its deficiencies with borrowings from the French and British legal codes. True, they added some of the ordinances of Islam in order to deceive the people, but the basis of the laws that were now thrust upon the people was alien and borrowed. <sup id="cite_ref-Khomeini-Al-Islam-intro_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khomeini-Al-Islam-intro-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution</a>, Nouri, as the leader of the Constitutional Revolution's opponents, was celebrated enough in the Islamic Republic to have <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Fazl-allah_Nouri_Expressway" title="Sheikh Fazl-allah Nouri Expressway">an expressway</a> named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013430_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013430-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was despite the fact that Nouri was defending the monarchy against the constitution, and the Islamic Revolution (before Khomeini consolidated power) had been all about the overthrow of the shah. </p> <dl><dt>Reza Aslan</dt></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Reza_Aslan" title="Reza Aslan">Reza Aslan</a> argues that a major lesson of the Revolution is that what separates the "countless uprisings and popular protests" throughout the last hundred odd year of Iranian history from those in 1906, in 1953 and in 1979 that "ultimately resulted in radical change" is the ability to bring together a coalition of "the educated middle class", the mid-level clerics and the seminary students who "maintain an enormous amount of control and power over the pious masses", and "most crucially, the business class – the merchant class – the bazaari merchants".<sup id="cite_ref-Mohammad-similar-2022_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mohammad-similar-2022-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_participants"><span id="Notable_individuals"></span>Notable participants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notable participants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutionalists">Constitutionalists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Constitutionalists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquerors_of_Tehran_(Constitutional_Movement).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Conquerors_of_Tehran_%28Constitutional_Movement%29.jpg/220px-Conquerors_of_Tehran_%28Constitutional_Movement%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Conquerors_of_Tehran_%28Constitutional_Movement%29.jpg/330px-Conquerors_of_Tehran_%28Constitutional_Movement%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Conquerors_of_Tehran_%28Constitutional_Movement%29.jpg/440px-Conquerors_of_Tehran_%28Constitutional_Movement%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption>Poster commemorating the July 1909 <a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">Triumph of Tehran</a>. The men on horseback are <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Vali_Khan_Tonekaboni" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni">Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ali-Qoli_Khan_Bakhtiari" title="Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari">Sardar Asad</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two seated men" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg/220px-Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg/330px-Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg/440px-Sattar_khan_and_Bagir_khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Baqir_Khan" title="Baqir Khan">Baqir Khan</a> <i>(left)</i> and <a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keri_Yeprem_Khetcho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three stanidn men with rifles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Keri_Yeprem_Khetcho.jpg/220px-Keri_Yeprem_Khetcho.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Keri_Yeprem_Khetcho.jpg/330px-Keri_Yeprem_Khetcho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Keri_Yeprem_Khetcho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption><i>(left to right)</i> <a href="/wiki/Arshak_Gafavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arshak Gafavian">Arshak Gafavian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yeprem_Khan" title="Yeprem Khan">Yeprem Khan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khetcho" title="Khetcho">Khetcho</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalimi_mashrutiat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Large gathering of men" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kalimi_mashrutiat.JPG/220px-Kalimi_mashrutiat.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kalimi_mashrutiat.JPG/330px-Kalimi_mashrutiat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Kalimi_mashrutiat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Second anniversary of the revolution</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Nasrullah_Khan" title="Mirza Nasrullah Khan">Mirza Nasrullah Khan</a> – First elected Prime Minister of Iran</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Jahangir_Khan" title="Mirza Jahangir Khan">Mirza Jahangir Khan</a> – Founder and editor of the <i>Sur-e Esrafil</i> newspaper</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Aqa_Khan_Kermani" title="Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani">Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani</a> – Nationalist writer and literary critic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Sayyed_Mohammad_Tabatabai" title="Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai">Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mohamad_Vakil_Altodj%C3%A2r_Yazdi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mohamad Vakil Altodjâr Yazdi (page does not exist)">Mohamad Vakil Altodjâr Yazdi</a> – Deputy <a href="/wiki/Rasht" title="Rasht">Rasht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikol_Duman" title="Nikol Duman">Nikol Duman</a> – Participated in the defense of Tabriz</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Jamal_al-Din_Va%27iz" title="Sayyid Jamal al-Din Va'iz">Seyed Jamal Vaez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hossein_Ardabili" title="Hossein Ardabili">Hossein Ardabili</a> – Active in <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aref_Ghazvini" class="mw-redirect" title="Aref Ghazvini">Aref Ghazvini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Zorian" title="Stepan Zorian">Stepan Zorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Akbar_Dehkhoda" title="Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda">Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mehdi_Cont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mehdi Cont (page does not exist)">Mehdi Cont</a> – Activist in <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a> – Revolutionary leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagher_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagher Khan">Bagher Khan</a> – Sālār-e Melli (national chieftain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Kuchak_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirza Kuchak Khan">Mirza Kuchak Khan</a> – Founder of a revolutionary movement based in the forests of <a href="/wiki/Gilan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan Province">Gilan Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Malkom_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirza Malkom Khan">Mirza Malkom Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khetcho" title="Khetcho">Khetcho</a> – Armenian revolutionary leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeprem_Khan" title="Yeprem Khan">Yeprem Khan</a> – Armenian Iranian revolutionary leader. Wounded <a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a> while disarming the revolutionaries in Tehran as commander of Tehran's police force during the interim constitutionalist government.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arshak_Gafavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arshak Gafavian">Arshak Gafavian</a> – Armenian revolutionary leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardar_Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardar Assad">Sardar Assad</a> – Bakhtiari tribal leader whose forces captured Tehran in 1909</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibi_Khanoom_Astarabadi" title="Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi">Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi</a> – Satirist, writer and pioneer of the Iranian women's movement</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Pirnia" title="Hassan Pirnia">Hassan Pirnia</a></li> <li>Heydar Latifiyan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Kasravi" title="Ahmad Kasravi">Ahmad Kasravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanollah_Khan_Zia%27_os-Soltan" title="Amanollah Khan Zia' os-Soltan">Amanollah Khan Zia' os-Soltan</a> – Aristocrat and landowner who was accused of a bomb attack on Mohammad Ali Shah and freed by British troops</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Taqi_Bahar" title="Mohammad-Taqi Bahar">Mohammad-Taqi Bahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevkaretsi_Sako" title="Sevkaretsi Sako">Sevkaretsi Sako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Taqizadeh" title="Hassan Taqizadeh">Hassan Taqizadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Abdul%27Rahim_Talibov_Tabrizi" title="Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov Tabrizi">Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov Tabrizi</a> – Intellectual and social reformer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolhossein_Teymourtash" title="Abdolhossein Teymourtash">Abdolhossein Teymourtash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdol-Hossein_Farman_Farma" title="Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma">Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Vali_Khan_Tonekaboni" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni">Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni</a> – Leader of revolutionary forces from the northern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Gilan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan Province">Gilan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran Province">Mazandaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Baskerville" title="Howard Baskerville">Howard Baskerville</a> – American teacher who fought with the constitutionalists and was killed</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Mosaddeq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Mosaddeq">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> – Liberal nationalist and future prime minister</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morteza_Gholi_Khan_Hedayat" title="Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat">Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monarchists_(Anti-Constitutionalists)"><span id="Monarchists_.28Anti-Constitutionalists.29"></span>Monarchists (Anti-Constitutionalists)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Monarchists (Anti-Constitutionalists)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdol_Majid_Mirza" title="Abdol Majid Mirza">Abdol Majid Mirza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Fazlollah_Nouri" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri">Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri</a> – Cleric who was hanged after the revolution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Liakhov" title="Vladimir Liakhov">Vladimir Liakhov</a> – Russian colonel and commander of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Persian Cossack Brigade</a> during the rule of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar who shelled and besieged Parliament</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskandar_Khan_Davidkhanian" title="Eskandar Khan Davidkhanian">Eskandar Khan Davidkhanian</a> – Deputy Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Cossack_Brigade" title="Persian Cossack Brigade">Cossack Brigade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Khan_Setkhanian" title="Alexander Khan Setkhanian">Alexander Khan Setkhanian –</a> Second in command to <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Liakhov" title="Vladimir Liakhov">Vladimir Liakhov</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_leaders">Religious leaders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Religious leaders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Kazem_Khorasani" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad-Kazem Khorasani">Mohammad-Kazem Khorasani</a>, constitutionalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Jamal_al-Din_Va%27iz" title="Sayyid Jamal al-Din Va'iz">Sayyed Jamal ad-Din Esfahani</a>, constitutionalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Abdollah_Behbahani" title="Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani">Sayyed Abdullah Behbahani</a>, constitutionalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Sayyed_Mohammad_Tabatabai" title="Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai">Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai</a>, constitutionalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayatollah_Mirza_Hussein_Naini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatollah Mirza Hussein Naini">Mirza Hussein Naini</a>, constitutionalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Kazem_Yazdi" title="Mohammed Kazem Yazdi">Mohammed Kazem Yazdi</a>, neutral</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Fazlollah_Nouri" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri">Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri</a>, anti-constitutionalist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Abutaleb_Zanjani" title="Mirza Abutaleb Zanjani">Mirza Abutaleb Zanjani</a>, anti-constitutionalist</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of Iran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Iranian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution">History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Kasravi" title="Ahmad Kasravi">Ahmad Kasravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kazim_Khurasani" title="Muhammad Kazim Khurasani">Muhammad Kazim Khurasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Husayn_Tehrani" title="Mirza Husayn Tehrani">Mirza Husayn Tehrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_Mazandarani" title="Abdallah Mazandarani">Abdallah Mazandarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ali_Aqa_Tabrizi" title="Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi">Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Sayyed_Mohammad_Tabatabai" title="Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai">Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Abdollah_Behbahani" title="Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani">Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution of 1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_Protest" title="Tobacco Protest">Tobacco Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">Triumph of Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iran" title="Secularism in Iran">Secularism in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Sheikh" title="Ibn al-Sheikh">Ibn al-Sheikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Iranian_Constitutional_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution">Women in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_Persia_(1906)" title="Ottoman invasion of Persia (1906)">Ottoman invasion of Persia (1906)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198276–77_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, pp. 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198283_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198281-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198281_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198284_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198297_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198295_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198291-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahamian198291_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahamian1982">Abrahamian 1982</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBerberian2001" class="citation book cs1">Berberian, Houri (2001). <i>Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911</i>. Westview Press. pp. 116–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3817-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3817-0"><bdi>978-0-8133-3817-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armenians+and+the+Iranian+Constitutional+Revolution+of+1905%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-3817-0&rft.aulast=Berberian&rft.aufirst=Houri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack A. Goldstone. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gre5CAAAQBAJ&dq=persian+constitutional+revolution+russian+involvement&pg=PT289"><i>The Encyclopedia of Political Revolutions</i></a> Routledge, 2015 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-135-93758-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-135-93758-3">1-135-93758-3</a> p. 245</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tilmann J. Röder, "The Separation of Powers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives" in Rainer Grote and Tilmann J. Röder, <i>Constitutionalism in Islamic Countries</i> (Oxford University Press 2012), pp. 321–372. The article includes an English translation of the following documents: <i>The Fundamental Law (Qanun-e Asasi-e Mashruteh) of the Iranian Empire of 14th Dhu-‘l-Qa’dah 1324</i> (December 30, 1906); <i>The Amendment of the Fundamental Law of the Iranian Empire of 29th Sha’ban 1325</i> (October 7, 1907).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat1992163–176_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmanat1992">Amanat 1992</a>, pp. 163–176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iranicaonline-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Constitutional Revolution". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/constitutional-revolution-index"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2</i></a>. 1992. pp. 163–216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Revolution&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+VI%2C+Fasc.+2&rft.pages=163-216&rft.date=1992&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fconstitutional-revolution-index&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey1996150–155_13-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackey1996">Mackey 1996</a>, pp. 150–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-2587300329/pahlavi-dynasty.html">"Pahlavi Dynasty – Dictionary definition of Pahlavi Dynasty – Encyclopedia.com"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pahlavi+Dynasty+%E2%80%93+Dictionary+definition+of+Pahlavi+Dynasty+%E2%80%93+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Farticle-1G2-2587300329%2Fpahlavi-dynasty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davari2004-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davari2004_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahmood_T._Davari2004" class="citation book cs1">Mahmood T. 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The Russian consular authorities promptly refused to allow these men to be tried by the Persian Government, and took them out of the country under Russian protection, claiming that they would be suitably punished."<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammad-Reza_Nazari" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mohammad-Reza Nazari. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090427045644/http://www.mardomsalari.com/template1/News.aspx?NID=20301">"The retreat by the Parliament in overseeing the financial matters is a retreat of democracy"</a> (in Persian). Mardom-Salari, No. 1734, 20 Bahman 1386 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian calendar">AH</a> (9 February 2008). 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(2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-9RNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA292"><i>Iraq: The ancient sites and Iraqi Kurdistan</i></a>. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-488-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-488-4"><bdi>978-1-84162-488-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq%3A+The+ancient+sites+and+Iraqi+Kurdistan&rft.pages=292&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-84162-488-4&rft.au=Hann%2C+G.&rft.au=Dabrowska%2C+K.&rft.au=Greaves%2C+T.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-9RNCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottahedeh2014118-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMottahedeh2014118_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMottahedeh2014">Mottahedeh 2014</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015214-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015214_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarzaneh2015">Farzaneh 2015</a>, p. 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArjomand198952-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArjomand198952_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArjomand1989">Arjomand 1989</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015215-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015215_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarzaneh2015">Farzaneh 2015</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015216_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarzaneh2015">Farzaneh 2015</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015217-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015217_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarzaneh2015">Farzaneh 2015</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015218-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarzaneh2015218_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarzaneh2015">Farzaneh 2015</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Šarīf Kāšānī, I, pp. 61–63; cf. <i>Tārīḵ-e bīdārī</i> I, pp. 390–391; quoted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Constitutional Revolution". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/constitutional-revolution-index"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2</i></a>. 1992. pp. 163–216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Revolution&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+VI%2C+Fasc.+2&rft.pages=163-216&rft.date=1992&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fconstitutional-revolution-index&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermann2013440-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermann2013440_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHermann2013">Hermann 2013</a>, p. 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taheri, Amir, <i>The Spirit of Allah</i> by Amir Adler and Adler (1985), pp. 45–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abrahamian,_Ervand_p.24_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abrahamian, Ervand, <i>Tortured Confessions</i>, University of California Press, 1999 p. 24 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khomeini-Al-Islam-intro-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khomeini-Al-Islam-intro_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhomeini2012" class="citation book cs1">Khomeini, Sayyid Ruhullah Musawi (October 4, 2012). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-islam.org/islamic-government-governance-jurist-sayyid-ruhullah-musawi-khomeini/introduction"><i>Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist</i></a>. Al-Islam.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Islamic+Government%3A+Governance+of+the+Jurist&rft.pub=Al-Islam.org&rft.date=2012-10-04&rft.aulast=Khomeini&rft.aufirst=Sayyid+Ruhullah+Musawi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fislamic-government-governance-jurist-sayyid-ruhullah-musawi-khomeini%2Fintroduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mohammad-similar-2022-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mohammad-similar-2022_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammadKeninKellyAslan2022" class="citation news cs1">Mohammad, Linah; Kenin, Justine; Kelly, Mary Louise; Aslan, Reza (October 14, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2022/10/14/1129223029/how-protests-in-iran-are-similar-to-the-constitutional-revolution-of-1906">"How protests in Iran are similar to the Constitutional Revolution of 1906"</a>. NPR<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+protests+in+Iran+are+similar+to+the+Constitutional+Revolution+of+1906&rft.date=2022-10-14&rft.aulast=Mohammad&rft.aufirst=Linah&rft.au=Kenin%2C+Justine&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Mary+Louise&rft.au=Aslan%2C+Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2022%2F10%2F14%2F1129223029%2Fhow-protests-in-iran-are-similar-to-the-constitutional-revolution-of-1906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamian1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ervand_Abrahamian" title="Ervand Abrahamian">Abrahamian, Ervand</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iranbetweentwore00abra_0"><i>Iran Between Two Revolutions</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-10134-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-10134-5"><bdi>0-691-10134-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran+Between+Two+Revolutions&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-691-10134-5&rft.aulast=Abrahamian&rft.aufirst=Ervand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firanbetweentwore00abra_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="KEA1993" class="citation book cs1">Abrahamian, Ervand (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/khomeinismessays00erva"><i>Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic</i></a></span>. California: University of California Press. pp. 92–97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520081730" title="Special:BookSources/0520081730"><bdi>0520081730</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khomeinism%3A+Essays+on+the+Islamic+Republic&rft.place=California&rft.pages=92-97&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0520081730&rft.aulast=Abrahamian&rft.aufirst=Ervand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkhomeinismessays00erva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmanat1992" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Amanat, Abbas (1992). "Constitutional Revolution i. Intellectual background". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/constitutional-revolution-i"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2</i></a>. pp. 163–176.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Revolution+i.+Intellectual+background&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+VI%2C+Fasc.+2&rft.pages=163-176&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Amanat&rft.aufirst=Abbas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fconstitutional-revolution-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArjomand1989" class="citation book cs1">Arjomand, Said Amir (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQci1YIffjYC"><i>The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504258-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504258-0"><bdi>978-0-19-504258-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Turban+for+the+Crown%3A+The+Islamic+Revolution+in+Iran&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504258-0&rft.aulast=Arjomand&rft.aufirst=Said+Amir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQci1YIffjYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayat1991" class="citation book cs1">Bayat, Mangol (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/irans-first-revolution-9780195068221"><i>Iran's first revolution: Shi'ism and the constitutional revolution of 1905–1909</i></a>. Studies in Middle Eastern history. Oxford & New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506822-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506822-1"><bdi>978-0-19-506822-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1051306470">1051306470</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%27s+first+revolution%3A+Shi%27ism+and+the+constitutional+revolution+of+1905%E2%80%931909&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.series=Studies+in+Middle+Eastern+history&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1051306470&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506822-1&rft.aulast=Bayat&rft.aufirst=Mangol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Firans-first-revolution-9780195068221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarzaneh2015" class="citation book cs1">Farzaneh, Mateo Mohammad (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/467"><i>Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani</i></a>. Syracuse, NY: <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3388-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3388-4"><bdi>978-0-8156-3388-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/931494838">931494838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iranian+Constitutional+Revolution+and+the+Clerical+Leadership+of+Khurasani&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+NY&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F931494838&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-3388-4&rft.aulast=Farzaneh&rft.aufirst=Mateo+Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.syr.edu%2Fsupressbooks%2F467&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermann2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hermann, Denis (May 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2013.783828">"Akhund Khurasani and the Iranian Constitutional Movement"</a>. <i>Middle Eastern Studies</i>. <b>49</b> (3): 430–453. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263206.2013.783828">10.1080/00263206.2013.783828</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-3206">0026-3206</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23471080">23471080</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143672216">143672216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Akhund+Khurasani+and+the+Iranian+Constitutional+Movement&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=430-453&rft.date=2013-05-01&rft.issn=0026-3206&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143672216%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23471080%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263206.2013.783828&rft.aulast=Hermann&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00263206.2013.783828&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasravi2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Kasravi" title="Ahmad Kasravi">Kasravi, Ahmad</a> (2003). <i>Tārikh-e Mashruteh-ye Iran</i> <bdi lang="fa">تاریخ مشروطهٔ ایران)</bdi> [<i>History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution</i>] (in Persian). Tehran: Negāh Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/964-351-138-3" title="Special:BookSources/964-351-138-3"><bdi>964-351-138-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C4%81rikh-e+Mashruteh-ye+Iran+%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE+%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%87%D9%94+%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%29&rft.place=Tehran&rft.pub=Neg%C4%81h+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=964-351-138-3&rft.aulast=Kasravi&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> This book is also available in two volumes, published by Amir Kabir Publications in 1984. <i>Amir Kabir's</i> 1961 edition is in one 934-page volume.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasravi2006" class="citation book cs1">Kasravi, Ahmad (2006). <i>History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Tarikh-e Mashrute-ye Iran</i>. Vol. I. Translated by Evan Siegel. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56859-197-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56859-197-7"><bdi>1-56859-197-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Iranian+Constitutional+Revolution%3A+Tarikh-e+Mashrute-ye+Iran&rft.place=Costa+Mesa%2C+California&rft.pub=Mazda+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-56859-197-7&rft.aulast=Kasravi&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeddie1966" class="citation book cs1">Keddie, Nikki R. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cRUnYs6UuVwC"><i>Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1892</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-1971-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-1971-2"><bdi>978-0-7146-1971-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Rebellion+in+Iran%3A+The+Tobacco+Protest+of+1891-1892&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-1971-2&rft.aulast=Keddie&rft.aufirst=Nikki+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcRUnYs6UuVwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambton1988" class="citation book cs1">Lambton, Ann K. S. (1988). <i>Qājār Persia: eleven studies</i> (1st University of Texas Press ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0292769007" title="Special:BookSources/978-0292769007"><bdi>978-0292769007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Q%C4%81j%C4%81r+Persia%3A+eleven+studies&rft.place=Austin&rft.edition=1st+University+of+Texas+Press&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0292769007&rft.aulast=Lambton&rft.aufirst=Ann+K.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackey1996" class="citation book cs1">Mackey, Sandra (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AMRtAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the Soul of a Nation</i></a>. Dutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-94005-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-94005-0"><bdi>978-0-525-94005-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iranians%3A+Persia%2C+Islam%2C+and+the+Soul+of+a+Nation&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-525-94005-0&rft.aulast=Mackey&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAMRtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalekzādeh2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mehdi_Malekzadeh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mehdi Malekzadeh (page does not exist)">Malekzādeh, Mehdi</a> (2004). <i>Tārikh-e Enqelāb-e Mashrutyyat-e Iran</i> <bdi lang="fa">تاريخ انقلاب مشروطيت ايران</bdi> [<i>The History of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran</i>]. Tehran: Sokhan Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/964-372-095-0" title="Special:BookSources/964-372-095-0"><bdi>964-372-095-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C4%81rikh-e+Enqel%C4%81b-e+Mashrutyyat-e+Iran+%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE+%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86&rft.place=Tehran&rft.pub=Sokhan+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=964-372-095-0&rft.aulast=Malekz%C4%81deh&rft.aufirst=Mehdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> In 7 volumes, published in 3 volumes (1697 pp.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1986" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, V. A. (April 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283111">"The Anti-Constitutionalist Arguments of Shaikh Fazlallah Nuri"</a>. <i>Middle Eastern Studies</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 181–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263208608700658">10.1080/00263208608700658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283111">4283111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Anti-Constitutionalist+Arguments+of+Shaikh+Fazlallah+Nuri&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=181-196&rft.date=1986-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263208608700658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4283111%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=V.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4283111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMottahedeh2014" class="citation book cs1">Mottahedeh, R. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YlsQBwAAQBAJ"><i>The Mantle of the Prophet</i></a>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-738-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-738-5"><bdi>978-1-78074-738-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mantle+of+the+Prophet&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-738-5&rft.aulast=Mottahedeh&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYlsQBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnsari2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ansari, Ali (2016). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/constitutional-revolution-in-iran-COM_27745?s.num=3&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Iran">"Constitutional Revolution in Iran"</a></span>. In Fleet, Kate; <a href="/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer" title="Gudrun Krämer">Krämer, Gudrun</a>; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; <a href="/wiki/Everett_K._Rowson" title="Everett K. Rowson">Rowson, Everett</a> (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (3rd ed.). Brill Online. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830">1873-9830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Revolution+in+Iran&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Brill+Online&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=1873-9830&rft.aulast=Ansari&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-3%2Fconstitutional-revolution-in-iran-COM_27745%3Fs.num%3D3%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3%26s.q%3DIran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersian+Constitutional+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Browne, Edward G., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100217331"><i>The Persian Constitutional Movement</i></a>. British Academy, 1918.</li> <li>Browne, Edward G., "The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909", Mage Publishers (1995). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-934211-45-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-934211-45-0">0-934211-45-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Afary" title="Janet Afary">Afary, Janet</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191830/http://www.janet-afary.com/books/the-iranian-constitutional-revolution-1906-1911/">The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911"</a>, Columbia University Press. 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10351-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10351-4">0-231-10351-4</a></li> <li>Foran, John. "The Strengths and Weaknesses of Iran's Populist Alliance: A Class Analysis of the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911", <i>Theory and Society</i>, Vol. 20, No. 6 (Dec 1991), pp. 795–823. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/657604">JSTOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Kasravi" title="Ahmad Kasravi">Ahmad Kasravi</a>, <i>Tārikh-e Mashruteh-ye Iran</i> (تاریخ مشروطهٔ ایران) (History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution), in Persian, 951 p. (Negāh Publications, Tehran, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/964-351-138-3" title="Special:BookSources/964-351-138-3">964-351-138-3</a>. <b>Note:</b> This book is also available in two volumes, published by <i>Amir Kabir Publications</i> in 1984. <i>Amir Kabir's</i> 1961 edition is in one volume, 934 pages.</li> <li>Ahmad Kasravi, <i>History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Tārikh-e Mashrute-ye Iran</i>, Volume I, translated into English by Evan Siegel, 347 p. (Mazda Publications, Costa Mesa, California, 2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56859-197-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56859-197-7">1-56859-197-7</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persian_Constitutional_Revolution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Constitutional_Revolution,_Iran" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Constitutional Revolution, Iran">Constitutional Revolution, Iran</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Reza Jamāli in conversation with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090428062932/http://www.yale.edu/history/faculty/amanat.html">Abbās Amānat</a>, Professor of History and International and Area Studies at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Yale">University of Yale</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radiozamaaneh.com/jamali/2008/08/print_post_17.html">in Persian, Radio Zamaneh, August 7, 2008</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002220206/http://www.zamahang.com/podcast/2008/20080805_Reza_Abas_Ashraf_Mashroteh.mp3">Audio recording</a>).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jadidonline.com/story/07082007/az/mashruteh_photos">Shokā Sahrāi, <i>Photographs of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran</i>, in Persian, Jadid Online, 2007</a>.<br /><i>Slide Show, narrated by Bāqer Āqeli</i>, Jadid Online, 2007: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jadidonline.com/images/stories/flash_multimedia/Mashrouteh_Agheli_test/Agheli_high.html">(4 min 30 sec).</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mashroutiat.com">Constitutional Revolution of Iran</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar" title="Ahmad Shah Qajar">Ahmad Shah Qajar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Authoritarians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdol_Majid_Mirza" title="Abdol Majid Mirza">Abdol Majid Mirza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%27oud_Mirza_Zell-e_Soltan" title="Mass'oud Mirza Zell-e Soltan">Mass'oud Mirza Zell-e Soltan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malek_Mansur_Mirza_Shoa_O-Saltaneh" class="mw-redirect" title="Malek Mansur Mirza Shoa O-Saltaneh">Malek Mansur Mirza Shoa O-Saltaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaz%CA%BDal_Ibn_Jabir" title="Khazʽal Ibn Jabir">Sheikh Khaz'al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Fazlollah_Noori" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Fazlollah Noori">Sheikh Fazlollah Noori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Nasrullah_Khan" title="Mirza Nasrullah Khan">Mirza Nasrullah Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdol-Hossein_Farman_Farma" title="Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma">Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ali_Asghar_Khan_Amin_al-Soltan" title="Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan">Amin al-Soltan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Liakhov" title="Vladimir Liakhov">Vladimir Liakhov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constitutionalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamran_Mirza_Nayeb_es-Saltaneh" title="Kamran Mirza Nayeb es-Saltaneh">Kamran Mirza Nayeb es-Saltaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Pirnia" title="Hassan Pirnia">Hassan Pirnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdol-Hossein_Farman_Farma" title="Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma">Abdol-Hossein Farman Farma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ali_Asghar_Khan_Amin_al-Soltan" title="Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan">Ali Asghar Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Vali_Khan_Tonekaboni" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni">Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostowfi_ol-Mamalek" title="Mostowfi ol-Mamalek">Mostowfi ol-Mamalek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Qoli_Khan_Bakhtiari" title="Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari">Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Taqi_Pessian" title="Mohammad Taqi Pessian">Colonel Pessian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeprem_Khan" title="Yeprem Khan">Yeprem Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morteza_Gholi_Khan_Hedayat" title="Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat">Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdi_Qoli_Hedayat" title="Mehdi Qoli Hedayat">Mehdi Qoli Hedayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Abdul%27Rahim_Talibov_Tabrizi" title="Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov Tabrizi">Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Malkam_Khan" title="Mirza Malkam Khan">Mirza Malkam Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Taqizadeh" title="Hassan Taqizadeh">Hassan Taqizadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Kasravi" title="Ahmad Kasravi">Ahmad Kasravi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heydar_Latifiyan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heydar Latifiyan (page does not exist)">Heydar Latifiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji-Mirza_Hassan_Roshdieh" title="Haji-Mirza Hassan Roshdieh">Haji-Mirza Hassan Roshdieh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani" title="Jamal al-Din al-Afghani">Jamal al-Din al-Afghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Sayyed_Mohammad_Tabatabai" title="Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai">Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Modarres" title="Hassan Modarres">Hassan Modarres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khiabani" title="Mohammad Khiabani">Mohammad Khiabani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Abutaleb_Zanjani" title="Mirza Abutaleb Zanjani">Mirza Abutaleb Zanjani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraj_Mirza" title="Iraj Mirza">Iraj Mirza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Akbar_Dehkhoda" title="Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda">Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rais_al-Mojahedin" title="Rais al-Mojahedin">Rais al-Mojahedin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirzadeh_Eshghi" title="Mirzadeh Eshghi">Mirzadeh Eshghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Alakbar_Sabir" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirza Alakbar Sabir">Mirza Alakbar Sabir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Tarbiat" title="Mohammad Ali Tarbiat">Mohammad Ali Tarbiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahammad_Amin_Rasulzade" title="Mahammad Amin Rasulzade">Mahammad Amin Rasulzade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aref_Qazvini" title="Aref Qazvini">Aref Qazvini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Taqi_Bahar" title="Mohammad-Taqi Bahar">Mohammad-Taqi Bahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Farrokhi_Yazdi" title="Mohammad Farrokhi Yazdi">Mohammad Farrokhi Yazdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Fatali_Akhundov" title="Mirza Fatali Akhundov">Mirza Fatali Akhundov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Jahangir_Khan" title="Mirza Jahangir Khan">Jahangir-Khan Sur-e-Esrafil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najaf-Qoli_Khan_Bakhtiari" title="Najaf-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari">Saad ad-Daula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattar_Khan" title="Sattar Khan">Sattar Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqir_Khan" title="Baqir Khan">Bāqer Khān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikol_Duman" title="Nikol Duman">Nikol Duman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haydar_Khan_Amo-oghli" title="Haydar Khan Amo-oghli">Haydar Khan Amo-oghli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Reza_Kermani" title="Mirza Reza Kermani">Mirza Reza Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamshid_Bahman_Jamshidian" title="Jamshid Bahman Jamshidian">Jamshid Bahman Jamshidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_Shuster" title="William Morgan Shuster">William Morgan Shuster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Baskerville" title="Howard Baskerville">Howard Baskerville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Granville_Browne" title="Edward Granville Browne">Edward Granville Browne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Women in the Persian Constitutional Revolution">Women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zahra_Khanom_Tadj_es-Saltaneh" title="Zahra Khanom Tadj es-Saltaneh">Zahra Khanom Tadj es-Saltaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibi_Khanoom_Astarabadi" title="Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi">Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediqeh_Dowlatabadi" title="Sediqeh Dowlatabadi">Sediqeh Dowlatabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibi_Maryam_Bakhtiari" title="Bibi Maryam Bakhtiari">Bibi Maryam Bakhtiari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainab_Pasha" title="Zainab Pasha">Zainab Pasha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Important events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_Protest" title="Tobacco Protest">Tobacco Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Persian Constitution of 1906">Persian Constitution of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tabriz_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Tabriz (1908)">Siege of Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Iranian_Majlis" title="1st Iranian Majlis">the First Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">Majlis Bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">Russian occupation of Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">Triumph of Tehran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_Movement_of_Gilan" title="Jungle Movement of Gilan">Jungle Movement of Gilan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_involvement_in_the_Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Empire involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution">Russian Empire involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Enlightenment" title="Iranian Enlightenment">Iranian Enlightenment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Category:Persian Constitutional Revolution">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Changes_in_political_power_in_Iran" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Changes_in_political_power_in_Iran" title="Template:Changes in political power in Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Changes_in_political_power_in_Iran" title="Template talk:Changes in political power in Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Changes_in_political_power_in_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Changes in political power in Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Changes_in_political_power_in_Iran" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Changes in political power in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1905–06</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">1979</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coup d'état</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nojeh_coup_plot" title="Nojeh coup plot">1980 attempt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deposition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Tehran" title="Triumph of Tehran">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">1941</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics of Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iran&#124;link=Iran_Iran–Russia_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Russia&#124;link=Russia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Template:Iran–Russia relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iran%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Template talk:Iran–Russia relations"><abbr title="Discuss this 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href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Iran–Russia relations">Iran–Russia relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Iran,_Moscow" title="Embassy of Iran, Moscow">Embassy of Iran, Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia,_Tehran" title="Embassy of Russia, Tehran">Embassy of Russia, Tehran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Russia_to_Iran" title="List of ambassadors of Russia to Iran">Ambassadors of Russia to Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Russia,_Isfahan" title="Consulate General of Russia, Isfahan">Consulate General of Russia, Isfahan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kurakchay" title="Treaty of Kurakchay">Treaty of Kurakchay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1723)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P5%2B1" title="P5+1">P5+1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Security_Belt" title="Marine Security Belt">Marine Security Belt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1651%E2%80%931653)" title="Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)">1651–1653</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">1722–1723</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">1804–1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">1826–1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasabad_(fortress)" title="Abbasabad (fortress)">Abbasabad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">Russian conquest of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persian Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Iranian famine of 1942–1943">Iranian famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1903_Isfahan_anti-Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_riots" title="1903 Isfahan anti-Baháʼí riots">1903 Isfahan anti-Baháʼí riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tabriz_(1908%E2%80%931909)" title="Siege of Tabriz (1908–1909)">Siege of Tabriz (1908–1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908 bombardment of the Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">Russian occupation of Tabriz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Individuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbas_Mirza" title="Abbas Mirza">Abbas Mirza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Taqi_Pessian" title="Mohammad Taqi Pessian">Mohammad Taqi Pessian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafi_Khan_Qajar" title="Shafi Khan Qajar">Shafi Khan Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Qulu_Mirza_Qajar" title="Ali Qulu Mirza Qajar">Ali Qulu Mirza Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amir_Kazim_Mirza_Qajar" title="Amir Kazim Mirza Qajar">Amir Kazim Mirza Qajar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_the_Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict" title="Russia and the Iran–Israel proxy conflict">Russia and the Iran–Israel proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_of_Resistance" title="Axis of Resistance">Axis of Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war">Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition" title="Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition">Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Iran and the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Iran and the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_of_Upheaval" title="Axis of Upheaval">Axis of Upheaval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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