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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, the <b>fundamental interactions</b> or <b>fundamental forces</b> are interactions in nature that appear not to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a></li></ul> <p>The gravitational and electromagnetic interactions produce long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life. The strong and weak interactions produce forces at <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_scale" title="Subatomic scale">subatomic scales</a> and govern nuclear interactions inside <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. </p><p>Some scientists hypothesize that a <a href="/wiki/Fifth_force" title="Fifth force">fifth force</a> might exist, but these hypotheses remain speculative. </p><p>Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a <i><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">field</a></i>. The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, described by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein's</a> <a href="/wiki/General_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General theory of relativity">general theory of relativity</a>. The other three are discrete <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum fields</a>, and their interactions are mediated by <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> described by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluon</a> and is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> binding together to form <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. As a residual effect, it creates the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> that binds the latter particles to form <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a>. The weak interaction is carried by particles called <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>, and also acts on the nucleus of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, mediating <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>. The electromagnetic force, carried by the <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>, creates <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>, which are responsible for the attraction between orbital <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and atomic nuclei which holds atoms together, as well as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical bonding">chemical bonding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic waves</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>, and forms the basis for electrical technology. Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over large (astronomical) distances gravity tends to be the dominant force, and is responsible for holding together the large scale structures in the universe, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. </p><p>Many theoretical physicists believe these fundamental forces to be related and to become unified into a single force at very high energies on a minuscule scale, the <a href="/wiki/Planck_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck scale">Planck scale</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> cannot produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this. Devising a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces in a single theory is perhaps the greatest goal of today's <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicists</a>. The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">electroweak theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Sheldon Glashow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a>, for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some physicists seek to unite the electroweak and strong fields within what is called a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a> (GUT). An even bigger challenge is to find a way to <a href="/wiki/Quantization_(physics)" title="Quantization (physics)">quantize</a> the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces. Some theories, notably <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with <a href="/wiki/Mass_generation" title="Mass generation">mass generation</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">theory of everything</a> (ToE). </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Classical_theory"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Classical theory</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Standard_Model"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Standard Model</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Overview_of_the_fundamental_interactions"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Overview of the fundamental interactions</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Interactions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Interactions</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Gravity"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gravity</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Electroweak_interaction"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Electroweak interaction</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Electromagnetism"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Electromagnetism</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Weak_interaction"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Weak interaction</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Strong_interaction"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Strong interaction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Higgs_interaction"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Higgs interaction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Beyond_the_Standard_Model"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Beyond the Standard Model</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_theory">Classical theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical theory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>In his 1687 theory, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus <a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">absolute space and time</a>. Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force. His <a href="/wiki/Law_of_universal_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of universal gravitation">law of universal gravitation</a> implied there to be instant interaction among all objects.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As conventionally interpreted, Newton's theory of motion modelled a <i><a href="/wiki/Central_force" title="Central force">central force</a></i> without a communicating medium.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus Newton's theory violated the tradition, going back to <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, that there should be no <a href="/wiki/Action_at_a_distance" title="Action at a distance">action at a distance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> inferred a <i>field</i> filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1873, <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in vacuum. If his <a href="/wiki/Classical_electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical electrodynamics">electromagnetic field theory</a> held true in all <a href="/wiki/Inertial_frames_of_reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial frames of reference">inertial frames of reference</a>, this would contradict Newton's theory of motion, which relied on <a href="/wiki/Galilean_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Galilean relativity">Galilean relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If, instead, his field theory only applied to reference frames at rest relative to a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a>—presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field—then it could be reconciled with Galilean relativity and Newton's laws. (However, such a "Maxwell aether" was later disproven; Newton's laws did, in fact, have to be replaced.)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_Model">Standard Model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Standard Model" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model_(mathematical_formulation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Model (mathematical formulation)">Standard Model (mathematical formulation)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/350px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="335" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1330"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 335px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/350px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png" data-width="350" data-height="335" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/525px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/700px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of elementary particles, with the <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a> in the first three columns, the <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a> in the fourth column, and the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> in the fifth column</figcaption></figure> <p>The Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century. In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementary particles">elementary particles</a>, whose behaviours are modelled in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> (QM). For predictive success with QM's <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probabilistic</a> outcomes, <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> conventionally models QM <a href="/wiki/Event_(particle_physics)" title="Event (particle physics)">events</a> across a field set to <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Special theory of relativity">special relativity</a>, altogether relativistic quantum field theory (QFT).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Force particles, called <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a>—<i>force carriers</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Messenger_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Messenger particles">messenger particles</a></i> of underlying fields—interact with matter particles, called <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">Everyday matter</a> is atoms, composed of three fermion types: <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">up-quarks and down-quarks</a> constituting, as well as electrons orbiting, the atom's nucleus. Atoms interact, form <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting photons, the electromagnetic field's force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance. Electromagnetism's QFT is <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a> (QED). </p><p>The force carriers of the weak interaction are the massive <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>. Electroweak theory (EWT) covers both electromagnetism and the weak interaction. At the high temperatures shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, the weak interaction, the electromagnetic interaction, and the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> were originally mixed components of a different set of ancient pre-symmetry-breaking fields. As the early universe cooled, these fields <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_breaking" title="Symmetry breaking">split</a> into the long-range electromagnetic interaction, the short-range weak interaction, and the Higgs boson. In the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a>, the Higgs field manifests Higgs bosons that interact with some quantum particles in a way that endows those particles with mass. The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluon</a>, traversing minuscule distance among quarks, is modeled in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">quantum chromodynamics</a> (QCD). EWT, QCD, and the Higgs mechanism comprise <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>' <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> (SM). Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)">perturbation theory</a> is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance <a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">bound states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">solitons</a>). Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science's most experimentally confirmed theory. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Beyond_the_Standard_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Beyond the Standard Model">Beyond the Standard Model</a>, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong</a> interactions within a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize "shadow" particles, such that every known <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">matter particle</a> associates with an undiscovered <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">force particle</a>, and vice versa, altogether <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a> (SUSY). Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the <a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">graviton</a> and achieve quantum gravity (QG). One approach to QG is <a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">loop quantum gravity</a> (LQG). Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Everything" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Everything">Theory of Everything</a> (ToE). The most prevalent aim at a ToE is <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>, although to model <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">matter particles</a>, it added <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">SUSY</a> to <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">force particles</a>—and so, strictly speaking, became <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">superstring theory</a>. Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone, <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a>. Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Overview_of_the_fundamental_interactions">Overview of the fundamental interactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Overview of the fundamental interactions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Particle_overview.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Particle_overview.svg/400px-Particle_overview.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="232" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="743"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 232px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Particle_overview.svg/400px-Particle_overview.svg.png" data-width="400" data-height="232" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Particle_overview.svg/600px-Particle_overview.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Particle_overview.svg/800px-Particle_overview.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>An overview of the various families of elementary and composite particles, and the theories describing their interactions. Fermions are on the left, and Bosons are on the right.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Model_(abstract)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (abstract)">conceptual model</a> of fundamental interactions, <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>, which carry <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">properties</a> called <a href="/wiki/Charge_(physics)" title="Charge (physics)">charges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> ±<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> (intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> ±<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num"><i>ħ</i></span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>, where ħ is the <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Planck constant">reduced Planck constant</a>). They attract or repel each other by exchanging <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosons</a>. </p><p>The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modelled thus: </p> <dl><dd>Two fermions go in → <i>interaction</i> by boson exchange → two changed fermions go out.</dd></dl> <p>The exchange of bosons always carries <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction. The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another). Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermion's spin direction will flip from +<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> to −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> (or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Planck constant">reduced Planck constant</a>). Since such interactions result in a change in momentum, they can give rise to classical Newtonian <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">forces</a>. In quantum mechanics, physicists often use the terms "force" and "interaction" interchangeably; for example, the weak interaction is sometimes referred to as the "weak force". </p><p>According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces: <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a>, electromagnetism, the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>, and the strong interaction. Their magnitude and behaviour vary greatly, as described in the table below. Modern physics attempts to explain every observed <a href="/wiki/Natural_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural phenomenon">physical phenomenon</a> by these fundamental interactions. Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable. Two cases in point are the <a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory" title="Unified field theory">unification</a> of: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric force">Electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic force">magnetic force</a> into electromagnetism;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic interaction">electromagnetic interaction</a> and the weak interaction into the electroweak interaction; see below.</li></ul> <p>Both magnitude ("relative strength") and "range" of the associated potential, as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework. The table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that remains the subject of ongoing research. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Interaction</th> <th>Current theory</th> <th>Mediators</th> <th>Relative strength<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Long-distance behavior (potential)</th> <th>Range (m)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Weak</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroweak theory">Electroweak theory</a> (EWT)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></td> <td>10<sup>33</sup></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r}}\ e^{-m_{\rm {W,Z}}\ r}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>r</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Z</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r}}\ e^{-m_{\rm {W,Z}}\ r}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/50b0167faa7e990081b53d9fd82148b2e664ddb9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.661ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r}}\ e^{-m_{\rm {W,Z}}\ r}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 10.661ex;height: 5.176ex;vertical-align: -1.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/50b0167faa7e990081b53d9fd82148b2e664ddb9" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r}}\ e^{-m_{\rm {W,Z}}\ r}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span></td> <td>10<sup>−18</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Strong</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics</a> <br>(QCD)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a></td> <td>10<sup>38</sup></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sim r}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sim r}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cff9c23d9722391f9e44fc078fe25e76a82db03e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.502ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sim r}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.502ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cff9c23d9722391f9e44fc078fe25e76a82db03e" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\sim r}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span><br> (<a href="/wiki/Color_confinement" title="Color confinement">Color confinement</a>, <a href="#Strong_interaction">see discussion below</a>)</td> <td>10<sup>−15</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">Gravitation</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a><br>(GR)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">gravitons</a> (hypothetical)</td> <td>1</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/666de2acbcfe406e29ed189c3a8a5ea2c1a5870d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:2.939ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.939ex;height: 5.509ex;vertical-align: -2.171ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/666de2acbcfe406e29ed189c3a8a5ea2c1a5870d" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span></td> <td><span class="texhtml texhtml-big" style="font-size:150%;">∞</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Electromagnetic</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a> <br>(QED)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a></td> <td>10<sup>36</sup></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/666de2acbcfe406e29ed189c3a8a5ea2c1a5870d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:2.939ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.939ex;height: 5.509ex;vertical-align: -2.171ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/666de2acbcfe406e29ed189c3a8a5ea2c1a5870d" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span></td> <td><span class="texhtml texhtml-big" style="font-size:150%;">∞</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The modern (perturbative) <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanical</a> view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter (<a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual particles">virtual particles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a>), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators. For example, photons mediate the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a>, and gluons mediate the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">color charges</a>. The full theory includes perturbations beyond simply fermions exchanging bosons; these additional perturbations can involve bosons that exchange fermions, as well as the creation or destruction of particles: see <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman diagrams">Feynman diagrams</a> for examples. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Interactions">Interactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Interactions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravity">Gravity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Gravity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></div> <p><i>Gravitation</i> is the weakest of the four interactions at the atomic scale, where electromagnetic interactions dominate. </p><p>Gravitation is the most important of the four fundamental forces for astronomical objects over astronomical distances for two reasons. First, gravitation has an infinite effective range, like electromagnetism but unlike the strong and weak interactions. Second, gravity always attracts and never repels; in contrast, astronomical bodies tend toward a near-neutral net electric charge, such that the attraction to one type of charge and the repulsion from the opposite charge mostly cancel each other out.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing "cancels" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe. </p><p>The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> and, being only attractive, it retards the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a>. Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planetary</a> <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbits</a>, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high. </p><p>Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> experimentally determined that this hypothesis was wrong under certain circumstances—neglecting the friction due to air resistance and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air-filled balloon vs a water-filled balloon), all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. Isaac Newton's <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Universal_Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Universal Gravitation">law of Universal Gravitation</a> (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Present-day understanding of gravitation stems from Einstein's <a href="/wiki/General_Theory_of_Relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General Theory of Relativity">General Theory of Relativity</a> of 1915, a more accurate (especially for <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>. </p><p>Merging general relativity and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>) into a more general theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)#Fermions_and_bosons" title="Spin (physics)">spin-2 particle</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">graviton</a>. </p><p>Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields, i.e. not black holes) on all but the smallest scales, there are <a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_general_relativity" title="Alternatives to general relativity">alternatives to general relativity</a>. These theories must reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limits on what deviations from general relativity are possible. </p><p>Proposed <a href="/wiki/Extra_dimensions" title="Extra dimensions">extra dimensions</a> could explain why the gravity force is so weak.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electroweak_interaction">Electroweak interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Electroweak interaction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak interaction</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a> and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modeled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 <a href="/wiki/GeV" class="mw-redirect" title="GeV">GeV</a>, they would merge into a single electroweak force. </p><p>The electroweak theory is very important for modern <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, particularly on how the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> evolved. This is because shortly after the Big Bang, when the temperature was still above approximately 10<sup>15</sup> <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>, the electromagnetic force and the weak force were still merged as a combined electroweak force. </p><p>For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">elementary particles</a>, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Electromagnetism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></div> <p>Electromagnetism is the force that acts between <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electrically charged</a> particles. This phenomenon includes the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic force">electrostatic force</a> acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of electric and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetic</a> forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other. </p><p>Electromagnetism has an infinite range, as gravity does, but is vastly stronger. It is the force that binds electrons to atoms, and it <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">holds molecules together</a>. It is responsible for everyday phenomena like <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">magnets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic-level, properties of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>. </p><p>In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water, there is </p> <div class="center"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 4000\ {\mbox{g}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {{O}\cdot {\frac {1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {O}}}}}{18\ {\mbox{g}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {10\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {96,000\ {\mbox{C}}\,}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}}=2.1\times 10^{8}C\ \,\ }}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>4000</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>g</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">O</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>mol</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">O</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>18</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>g</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">O</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>10</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>mol</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>mol</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">O</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>96</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>000</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>mol</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2.1</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>8</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <mtext> </mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 4000\ {\mbox{g}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {{O}\cdot {\frac {1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {O}}}}}{18\ {\mbox{g}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {10\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {96,000\ {\mbox{C}}\,}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}}=2.1\times 10^{8}C\ \,\ }}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2016dd4d95ebbc8f1073dd99b2a1909ab298e69b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:64.901ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 4000\ {\mbox{g}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {{O}\cdot {\frac {1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {O}}}}}{18\ {\mbox{g}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {10\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {96,000\ {\mbox{C}}\,}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}}=2.1\times 10^{8}C\ \,\ }}}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 64.901ex;height: 6.009ex;vertical-align: -2.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2016dd4d95ebbc8f1073dd99b2a1909ab298e69b" data-alt="{\displaystyle 4000\ {\mbox{g}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {{O}\cdot {\frac {1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {O}}}}}{18\ {\mbox{g}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {10\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {96,000\ {\mbox{C}}\,}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}}=2.1\times 10^{8}C\ \,\ }}}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span></div> <p>of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of </p> <div class="center"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{\frac {(2.1\times 10^{8}\mathrm {C} )^{2}}{(1m)^{2}}}=4.1\times 10^{26}\mathrm {N} .}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2.1</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>8</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mi>m</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>4.1</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>26</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">N</mi> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{\frac {(2.1\times 10^{8}\mathrm {C} )^{2}}{(1m)^{2}}}=4.1\times 10^{26}\mathrm {N} .}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6bdb301a79d5afa6eb79d50491460d7236afd221" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:35.539ex; height:6.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{\frac {(2.1\times 10^{8}\mathrm {C} )^{2}}{(1m)^{2}}}=4.1\times 10^{26}\mathrm {N} .}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 35.539ex;height: 6.676ex;vertical-align: -2.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6bdb301a79d5afa6eb79d50491460d7236afd221" data-alt="{\displaystyle {1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{\frac {(2.1\times 10^{8}\mathrm {C} )^{2}}{(1m)^{2}}}=4.1\times 10^{26}\mathrm {N} .}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span></div> <p>This force is many times larger than the weight of the planet Earth. The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a> in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force. However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force. Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity, but tend to cancel out so that for astronomical-scale bodies, gravity dominates. </p><p>Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a> had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. Maxwell's theory, restated using <a href="/wiki/Vector_calculus" title="Vector calculus">vector calculus</a>, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes. </p><p>The constant <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> in vacuum (customarily denoted with a lowercase letter <i><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span></i>) can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s 1905 theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, however, which follows from the observation that the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space. </p><p>In another work that departed from classical electro-magnetism, Einstein also explained the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> by utilizing Max Planck's discovery that light was transmitted in 'quanta' of specific energy content based on the frequency, which we now call <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>. Starting around 1927, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> combined <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> with the relativistic theory of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. Further work in the 1940s, by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sin-Itiro_Tomonaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-Itiro Tomonaga">Sin-Itiro Tomonaga</a>, completed this theory, which is now called <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>, the revised theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a>, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as <a href="/wiki/Transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistors">transistors</a> to function. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weak_interaction">Weak interaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Weak interaction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak interaction</a></div> <p>The <i>weak interaction</i> or <i>weak nuclear force</i> is responsible for some nuclear phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>. Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">electroweak interaction</a> — this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>. In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a> called the <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>. The weak interaction is the only known interaction that does not conserve <a href="/wiki/Parity_(physics)" title="Parity (physics)">parity</a>; it is left–right asymmetric. The weak interaction even <a href="/wiki/CP-violation" class="mw-redirect" title="CP-violation">violates CP symmetry</a> but does <a href="/wiki/CPT_symmetry" title="CPT symmetry">conserve CPT</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strong_interaction">Strong interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Strong interaction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">Strong interaction</a></div> <p>The <i>strong interaction</i>, or <i>strong nuclear force</i>, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 10<sup>−15</sup> metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive. This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei, since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows. </p><p>After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the nuclear force, was needed to overcome the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatic repulsion</a>, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons. Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist. Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume whose diameter is about 10<sup>−15</sup> <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">m</a>, much smaller than that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force, <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a> predicted that it was associated with a massive force particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV. </p><p>The 1947 discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an <a href="/wiki/Regge_theory" title="Regge theory">extremely complicated theory</a> of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably: </p> <ul><li>The pions were understood to be oscillations of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_expectation_value" title="Vacuum expectation value">vacuum condensates</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun_John_Sakurai" class="mw-redirect" title="Jun John Sakurai">Jun John Sakurai</a> proposed the rho and omega <a href="/wiki/Vector_boson" title="Vector boson">vector bosons</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">force carrying particles</a> for approximate symmetries of <a href="/wiki/Isospin" title="Isospin">isospin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypercharge" title="Hypercharge">hypercharge</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chew" title="Geoffrey Chew">Geoffrey Chew</a>, Edward K. Burdett and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Frautschi" title="Steven Frautschi">Steven Frautschi</a> grouped the heavier hadrons into families that could be understood as vibrational and rotational excitations of <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">strings</a>.</li></ul> <p>While each of these approaches offered insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a> along with <a href="/wiki/George_Zweig" title="George Zweig">George Zweig</a> first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">quantum chromodynamics (QCD)</a> as simple models for the interactions of quarks. The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were <a href="/wiki/Moo-Young_Han" title="Moo-Young Han">Moo-Young Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a>, who introduced the <a href="/wiki/Quark_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Quark color">quark color</a> charge. Han and Nambu hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-carrying field. At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined. </p><p>In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and <a href="/wiki/Harald_Fritzsch" title="Harald Fritzsch">Harald Fritzsch</a> proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later, <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">David Gross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Frank Wilczek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Politzer" class="mw-redirect" title="David Politzer">David Politzer</a> discovered that this theory had the property of <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom" title="Asymptotic freedom">asymptotic freedom</a>, allowing them to make contact with <a href="/wiki/Deep_inelastic_scattering" title="Deep inelastic scattering">experimental evidence</a>. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently <a href="/wiki/Color_confinement" title="Color confinement">confined</a>: the strong force increases indefinitely with distance, trapping quarks inside the hadrons. </p><p>Assuming that quarks are confined, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Shifman" title="Mikhail Shifman">Mikhail Shifman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arkady_Vainshtein" title="Arkady Vainshtein">Arkady Vainshtein</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Valentine_Zakharov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valentine Zakharov (page does not exist)">Valentine Zakharov</a> were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">Kenneth G. Wilson</a> published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks. Since then, QCD has been the established theory of strong interactions. </p><p>QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles called gluons. The gluons also interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings, loosely modeled by a linear potential, a constant attractive force. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string-like behavior, discovered by Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Higgs_interaction">Higgs interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Higgs interaction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Conventionally, the Higgs interaction is not counted among the four fundamental forces.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, although not a <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">gauge</a> interaction nor generated by any <a href="/wiki/Diffeomorphism" title="Diffeomorphism">diffeomorphism</a> symmetry, the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Higgs field">Higgs field</a>'s cubic <a href="/wiki/Yukawa_interaction" title="Yukawa interaction">Yukawa coupling</a> produces a weakly attractive fifth interaction. After <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">spontaneous symmetry breaking</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a>, Yukawa terms remain of the form </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda _{i}}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi ={\frac {m_{i}}{\nu }}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msqrt> <mn>2</mn> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>ψ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mi>ψ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ν</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>ψ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mi>ψ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda _{i}}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi ={\frac {m_{i}}{\nu }}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7b667c2e5c34a77b2ad921c28198de07e769fe8a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:21.067ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda _{i}}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi ={\frac {m_{i}}{\nu }}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21.067ex;height: 6.343ex;vertical-align: -2.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7b667c2e5c34a77b2ad921c28198de07e769fe8a" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda _{i}}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi ={\frac {m_{i}}{\nu }}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>,</dd></dl> <p>with Yukawa coupling <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda _{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda _{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/72fde940918edf84caf3d406cc7d31949166820f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.155ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda _{i}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.155ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/72fde940918edf84caf3d406cc7d31949166820f" data-alt="{\displaystyle \lambda _{i}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, particle mass <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95ec8e804f69706d3f5ad235f4f983220c8df7c2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{i}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.84ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95ec8e804f69706d3f5ad235f4f983220c8df7c2" data-alt="{\displaystyle m_{i}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> (in <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>), and Higgs <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_expectation_value" title="Vacuum expectation value">vacuum expectation value</a> <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6992394487894629140♠"></span>246.22 GeV</span>. Hence coupled particles can exchange a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">virtual</a> Higgs boson, yielding <a href="/wiki/Yukawa_interaction#Classical_potential" title="Yukawa interaction">classical potentials</a> of the form </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V(r)=-{\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{m_{\rm {H}}^{2}}}{\frac {1}{4\pi r}}e^{-m_{\rm {H}}\,c\,r/\hbar }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msubsup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <mi>c</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V(r)=-{\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{m_{\rm {H}}^{2}}}{\frac {1}{4\pi r}}e^{-m_{\rm {H}}\,c\,r/\hbar }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c9e3457ac16703cc8641a255b9f194d66eb2063" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:29.733ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V(r)=-{\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{m_{\rm {H}}^{2}}}{\frac {1}{4\pi r}}e^{-m_{\rm {H}}\,c\,r/\hbar }}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 29.733ex;height: 6.343ex;vertical-align: -3.005ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c9e3457ac16703cc8641a255b9f194d66eb2063" data-alt="{\displaystyle V(r)=-{\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{m_{\rm {H}}^{2}}}{\frac {1}{4\pi r}}e^{-m_{\rm {H}}\,c\,r/\hbar }}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>,</dd></dl> <p>with Higgs mass <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6992200560452642660♠"></span>125.18 GeV</span>. Because the <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Compton_wavelength" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Compton wavelength">reduced Compton wavelength</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> is so small (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6982157600000000000♠"></span>1.576<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−18</sup> m</span>, comparable to the <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>), this potential has an effective range of a few <a href="/wiki/Attometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Attometer">attometers</a>. Between two electrons, it begins roughly 10<sup>11</sup> times weaker than the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>, and grows exponentially weaker at non-zero distances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beyond_the_Standard_Model">Beyond the Standard Model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Beyond the Standard Model" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Physics beyond the Standard Model">Physics beyond the Standard Model</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle#Beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particle § Beyond the Standard Model</a></div> <p>Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification. </p><p>Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that the three fundamental interactions described by the Standard Model are all different manifestations of a single interaction with <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(physics)" title="Symmetry (physics)">symmetries</a> that break down and create separate interactions below some extremely high level of energy. GUTs are also expected to predict some of the relationships between constants of nature that the Standard Model treats as unrelated, as well as predicting <a href="/wiki/Gauge_coupling_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge coupling unification">gauge coupling unification</a> for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (this was, for example, verified at the <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">Large Electron–Positron Collider</a> in 1991 for <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">supersymmetric</a> theories).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Statement needs to be more specific about the content to which it refers. (April 2020)">specify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">loop quantum gravity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twistor_theory" title="Twistor theory">twistor theory</a>, have secured wide acceptance. Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force-carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time-space itself may have a quantum aspect to it. </p><p>Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Fifth_force" title="Fifth force">fifth force</a>, and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental physics research. In <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersymmetric">supersymmetric</a> theories, some particles acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as <a href="/wiki/Moduli_(physics)" title="Moduli (physics)">moduli</a>, can mediate new forces. Another reason to look for new forces is the discovery that the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a> is accelerating (also known as <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">cosmological constant</a>, and possibly to other modifications of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>. Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Charge_parity" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge parity">CP</a> violations, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dark_flow" title="Dark flow">dark flow</a>. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <style 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</section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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.citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400724631" title="Special:BookSources/9789400724631"><bdi>9789400724631</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Fundamental+Interactions%3A+An+Introduction+to+Particle+Physics&rft.pages=109&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789400724631&rft.aulast=Braibant&rft.aufirst=Sylvie&rft.au=Giacomelli%2C+Giorgio&rft.au=Spurio%2C+Maurizio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Pp-f0G9_9sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Pp-f0G9_9sC&pg=PA109">Extract of page 109</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/standard-model/">"The Standard Model of Particle Physics | symmetry magazine"</a>. <i>www.symmetrymagazine.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Experimental Researches in Electricity". <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139383165.018">10.1017/cbo9781139383165.018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Experimental+Researches+in+Electricity&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139383165.018&rft.aulast=Faraday&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldinShtelen2001" class="citation journal cs1">Goldin, Gerald A.; Shtelen, Vladimir M. (February 2001). "On Galilean invariance and nonlinearity in electrodynamics and quantum mechanics". <i>Physics Letters A</i>. <b>279</b> (5–6): 321–326. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0006067">quant-ph/0006067</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PhLA..279..321G">2001PhLA..279..321G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0375-9601%2801%2900017-2">10.1016/S0375-9601(01)00017-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5398578">5398578</a>. <q>no fully Galilean-covariant theory of a coupled Schrödinger-Maxwell system (where the density and current of the Schrödinger field act as source of the nonrelativistic Maxwell field) is possible</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+A&rft.atitle=On+Galilean+invariance+and+nonlinearity+in+electrodynamics+and+quantum+mechanics&rft.volume=279&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=321-326&rft.date=2001-02&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fquant-ph%2F0006067&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5398578%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0375-9601%2801%2900017-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PhLA..279..321G&rft.aulast=Goldin&rft.aufirst=Gerald+A.&rft.au=Shtelen%2C+Vladimir+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarhoudiYousefian2016" class="citation journal cs1">Farhoudi, Mehrdad; Yousefian, Maysam (May 2016). "Ether and Relativity". <i>International Journal of Theoretical Physics</i>. <b>55</b> (5): 2436–2454. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.07795">1511.07795</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016IJTP...55.2436F">2016IJTP...55.2436F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10773-015-2881-y">10.1007/s10773-015-2881-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119258859">119258859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Theoretical+Physics&rft.atitle=Ether+and+Relativity&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=2436-2454&rft.date=2016-05&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1511.07795&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119258859%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10773-015-2881-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016IJTP...55.2436F&rft.aulast=Farhoudi&rft.aufirst=Mehrdad&rft.au=Yousefian%2C+Maysam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meinard Kuhlmann, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=physicists-debate-whether-world-made-of-particles-fields-or-something-else">"Physicists debate whether the world is made of particles or fields—or something else entirely"</a>, <i>Scientific American</i>, 24 Jul 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauss2017" class="citation journal cs1">Krauss, Lawrence M. (2017-03-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nautil.us/issue/46/balance/a-brief-history-of-the-grand-unified-theory-of-physics">"A Brief History of the Grand Unified Theory of Physics"</a>. <i>Nautilus</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nautilus&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Grand+Unified+Theory+of+Physics&rft.date=2017-03-16&rft.aulast=Krauss&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnautil.us%2Fissue%2F46%2Fbalance%2Fa-brief-history-of-the-grand-unified-theory-of-physics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Approximate. See <a href="/wiki/Coupling_constant" title="Coupling constant">Coupling constant</a> for more exact strengths, depending on the particles and energies involved.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalam2020" class="citation journal cs1">Salam, Abdus (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessscience.com/content/fundamental-interaction/275600">"Fundamental interaction"</a>. <i>Access Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1036%2F1097-8542.275600">10.1036/1097-8542.275600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Access+Science&rft.atitle=Fundamental+interaction&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1036%2F1097-8542.275600&rft.aulast=Salam&rft.aufirst=Abdus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessscience.com%2Fcontent%2Ffundamental-interaction%2F275600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2016" class="citation news cs1">Siegel, Ethan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2016/04/26/what-is-the-strongest-force-in-the-universe/">"What Is The Strongest Force In The Universe?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Starts_With_a_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Starts With a Bang">Starts With a Bang</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Starts+With+a+Bang&rft.atitle=What+Is+The+Strongest+Force+In+The+Universe%3F&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Ethan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fstartswithabang%2F2016%2F04%2F26%2Fwhat-is-the-strongest-force-in-the-universe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCERN2012" class="citation web cs1">CERN (20 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/extra-dimensions-gravitons-and-tiny-black-holes">"Extra dimensions, gravitons, and tiny black holes"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Extra+dimensions%2C+gravitons%2C+and+tiny+black+holes&rft.date=2012-01-20&rft.au=CERN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.web.cern.ch%2Fabout%2Fphysics%2Fextra-dimensions-gravitons-and-tiny-black-holes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBais2005" class="citation cs2">Bais, Sander (2005), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/veryspecialrelat0000bais"><i>The Equations. Icons of knowledge</i></a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01967-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01967-6"><bdi>978-0-674-01967-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Equations.+Icons+of+knowledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01967-6&rft.aulast=Bais&rft.aufirst=Sander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fveryspecialrelat0000bais&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span> p.84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979"</a>. The Nobel Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-12-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1979&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1979%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fundamental-interaction">"fundamental force | Definition, List, & Facts"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=fundamental+force+%7C+Definition%2C+List%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Ffundamental-interaction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model">"The Standard Model"</a>. <i>CERN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CERN&rft.atitle=The+Standard+Model&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhome.cern%2Fscience%2Fphysics%2Fstandard-model&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_interaction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davies" title="Paul Davies">Davies, Paul</a> (1986), <i>The Forces of Nature</i>, Cambridge Univ. Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forces+of+Nature&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span> 2nd ed.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1967" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman, Richard</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" title="The Character of Physical Law"><i>The Character of Physical Law</i></a>, MIT Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-56003-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-56003-0"><bdi>978-0-262-56003-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Character+of+Physical+Law&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-262-56003-0&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumm2004" class="citation cs2">Schumm, Bruce A. (2004), <i>Deep Down Things</i>, Johns Hopkins University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deep+Down+Things&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Schumm&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span> While all interactions are discussed, discussion is especially thorough on the weak.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, Steven</a> (1993), <a href="/wiki/The_First_Three_Minutes:_A_Modern_View_of_the_Origin_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe"><i>The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe</i></a>, Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02437-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02437-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02437-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Three+Minutes%3A+A+Modern+View+of+the+Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02437-7&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1994" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, Steven</a> (1994), <i>Dreams of a Final Theory</i>, Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-74408-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-74408-5"><bdi>978-0-679-74408-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+of+a+Final+Theory&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-679-74408-5&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadmanabhan1998" class="citation cs2">Padmanabhan, T. (1998), <i>After The First Three Minutes: The Story of Our Universe</i>, Cambridge Univ. Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62972-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62972-0"><bdi>978-0-521-62972-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+The+First+Three+Minutes%3A+The+Story+of+Our+Universe&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62972-0&rft.aulast=Padmanabhan&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2000" class="citation cs2">Perkins, Donald H. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/396126"><i>Introduction to High Energy Physics</i></a> (4th ed.), Cambridge Univ. Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62196-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62196-0"><bdi>978-0-521-62196-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+High+Energy+Physics&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62196-0&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Donald+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F396126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiazuddin2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Riazuddin_(physicist)" title="Riazuddin (physicist)">Riazuddin</a> (December 29, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233425/http://www.ncp.edu.pk/docs/snwm/Riazuddin_Non_Standartd_Interaction.pdf">"Non-standard interactions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NCP 5th Particle Physics Sypnoisis</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 1–25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncp.edu.pk/docs/snwm/Riazuddin_Non_Standartd_Interaction.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NCP+5th+Particle+Physics+Sypnoisis&rft.atitle=Non-standard+interactions&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-25&rft.date=2009-12-29&rft.au=Riazuddin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncp.edu.pk%2Fdocs%2Fsnwm%2FRiazuddin_Non_Standartd_Interaction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFundamental+interaction" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentele_wisselwerking" title="Fundamentele wisselwerking – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fundamentele wisselwerking" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentale_Wechselwirkung" title="Fundamentale Wechselwirkung – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Fundamentale Wechselwirkung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قوة أساسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قوة أساسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaiciones_fundamentales" title="Interaiciones fundamentales – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Interaiciones fundamentales" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_qar%C5%9F%C4%B1l%C4%B1ql%C4%B1_t%C9%99sirl%C9%99r" title="Fundamental qarşılıqlı təsirlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fundamental qarşılıqlı təsirlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2" title="মৌলিক বল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মৌলিক বল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki-p%C3%BAn-la%CC%8Dt" title="Ki-pún-la̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ki-pún-la̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%9E%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Фундаментальныя ўзаемадзеянні – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фундаментальныя ўзаемадзеянні" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Фундаментално взаимодействие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фундаментално взаимодействие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundkroft" title="Grundkroft – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Grundkroft" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalne_interakcije" title="Fundamentalne interakcije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fundamentalne interakcije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forces_fonamentals" title="Forces fonamentals – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Forces fonamentals" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%95%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5_%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5-%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%C4%95%C3%A7_%D0%B2%C4%83%D0%B9%C4%83%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Никĕсле хире-хирĕç вăйăмсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Никĕсле хире-хирĕç вăйăмсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kladn%C3%AD_interakce" title="Základní interakce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Základní interakce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturkr%C3%A6fter" title="Naturkræfter – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturkræfter" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentale_Wechselwirkung" title="Fundamentale Wechselwirkung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fundamentale Wechselwirkung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentaalne_vastastikm%C3%B5ju" title="Fundamentaalne vastastikmõju – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Fundamentaalne vastastikmõju" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%B4%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Θεμελιώδης αλληλεπίδραση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θεμελιώδης αλληλεπίδραση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interacciones_fundamentales" title="Interacciones fundamentales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Interacciones fundamentales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamenta_forto" title="Fundamenta forto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fundamenta forto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oinarrizko_elkarrekintza" title="Oinarrizko elkarrekintza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Oinarrizko elkarrekintza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="نیروهای بنیادی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیروهای بنیادی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire" title="Interaction élémentaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Interaction élémentaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%B3%B8_%EC%83%81%ED%98%B8%EC%9E%91%EC%9A%A9" title="기본 상호작용 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기본 상호작용" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%80_%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հիմնարար փոխազդեցություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հիմնարար փոխազդեցություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मूलभूत अन्योन्य क्रिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मूलभूत अन्योन्य क्रिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalne_interakcije" title="Fundamentalne interakcije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fundamentalne interakcije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaksi_dasar" title="Interaksi dasar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Interaksi dasar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumkraftur" title="Frumkraftur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumkraftur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interazioni_fondamentali" title="Interazioni fondamentali – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Interazioni fondamentali" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%97%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%93" title="כוחות היסוד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כוחות היסוד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ფუნდამენტური ურთიერთქმედება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფუნდამენტური ურთიერთქმედება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D3%99%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83" title="Фундаменталды әсерлесу – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фундаменталды әсерлесу" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ent%C3%A8raksyon_elemant%C3%A8" title="Entèraksyon elemantè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Entèraksyon elemantè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundament%C4%81l%C4%81_mijiedarb%C4%ABba" title="Fundamentālā mijiedarbība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fundamentālā mijiedarbība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalioji_s%C4%85veika" title="Fundamentalioji sąveika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fundamentalioji sąveika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interassiun_fundamentaj" title="Interassiun fundamentaj – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Interassiun fundamentaj" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alapvet%C5%91_k%C3%B6lcs%C3%B6nhat%C3%A1sok" title="Alapvető kölcsönhatások – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alapvető kölcsönhatások" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="അടിസ്ഥാനബലങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അടിസ്ഥാനബലങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Үндсэн харилцан үйлчлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Үндсэн харилцан үйлчлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%81%E1%80%B6_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8" title="အခြေခံ သက်ရောက်မှုကြီး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အခြေခံ သက်ရောက်မှုကြီး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentele_natuurkracht" title="Fundamentele natuurkracht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fundamentele natuurkracht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="आधारभूत अन्तर्क्रिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आधारभूत अन्तर्क्रिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="基本相互作用 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="基本相互作用" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%BCnjkr%C3%A4%C3%A4ft" title="Grünjkrääft – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Grünjkrääft" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalkraft" title="Fundamentalkraft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fundamentalkraft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_kraft" title="Fundamental kraft – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fundamental kraft" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A2%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B2-%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2" title="ਮੁਢਲਾ ਮੇਲ-ਜੋਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੁਢਲਾ ਮੇਲ-ਜੋਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundkr%C3%A4ft_vun_de_Physik" title="Grundkräft vun de Physik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Grundkräft vun de Physik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddzia%C5%82ywania_podstawowe" title="Oddziaływania podstawowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oddziaływania podstawowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%C3%A7a_fundamental" title="Força fundamental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Força fundamental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interac%C8%9Biune_fundamental%C4%83" title="Interacțiune fundamentală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Interacțiune fundamentală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фундаментальные взаимодействия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фундаментальные взаимодействия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Fundamental interaction" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_force" title="Fundamental force – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Fundamental force" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kladn%C3%A1_interakcia" title="Základná interakcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Základná interakcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osnovna_sila" title="Osnovna sila – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Osnovna sila" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Фундаменталне силе – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фундаменталне силе" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osnovne_sile" title="Osnovne sile – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Osnovne sile" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perusvuorovaikutus" title="Perusvuorovaikutus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Perusvuorovaikutus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_v%C3%A4xelverkan" title="Fundamental växelverkan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fundamental växelverkan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaksyong_pundamental" title="Interaksyong pundamental – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Interaksyong pundamental" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="அடிப்படை விசைகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அடிப்படை விசைகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D2%AF%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Фундаменталь тәэсир итешүләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фундаменталь тәэсир итешүләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="నాలుగు ప్రాథమిక బలాలు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నాలుగు ప్రాథమిక బలాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="อันตรกิริยาพื้นฐาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อันตรกิริยาพื้นฐาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temel_kuvvet" title="Temel kuvvet – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Temel kuvvet" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D3%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8A%D1%91%D1%81" title="Фундаментальной герӟаськонъёс – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Фундаментальной герӟаськонъёс" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%94%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97" title="Фундаментальні взаємодії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фундаментальні взаємодії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84" title="بنیادی تفاعل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بنیادی تفاعل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_t%C3%A1c_c%C6%A1_b%E1%BA%A3n" title="Tương tác cơ bản – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tương tác cơ bản" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="基本相互作用 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="基本相互作用" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="基本相互作用 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="基本相互作用" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="基本相互作用 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基本相互作用" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 November 2024, at 19:52<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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