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data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--star"></span> <span>Watch</span> </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the country that forms part of the modern-day United Kingdom, see <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><p>The <b>Kingdom of England</b> was a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> from the late 9th century, when it was unified from various <a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a>, until 1 May 1707, when it united with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>, which would later become the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>. The Kingdom of England was among the most powerful states in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern</a> periods. </p><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of England</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Englalonde Rīce</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>)</span><br><span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">Realme d'Engleterre</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a>)</span><br><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Kingdom of Engelond</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Middle_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle English language">Middle English</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">886–1707<br>(1649–1660: <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_England.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of England"><img alt="Flag of England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/125px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/188px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/250px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480"></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Banner_of_England.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Royal_Banner_of_England.svg/125px-Royal_Banner_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Royal_Banner_of_England.svg/188px-Royal_Banner_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Royal_Banner_of_England.svg/250px-Royal_Banner_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="861"></a></span></div> <div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Top: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_England" title="Flag of England">Flag</a> (from <span class="nowrap">the 16th century)</span></li><li>Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Banner_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Banner of England">Royal Banner</a> (from the 12th century)</li></ul></div></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_arms_of_England.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal Arms (from the 12th century) of England"><img alt="Royal Arms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Royal_arms_of_England.svg/90px-Royal_arms_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Royal_arms_of_England.svg/135px-Royal_arms_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Royal_arms_of_England.svg/180px-Royal_arms_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478"></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Royal_Arms_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Arms of England">Royal Arms</a> <span class="nowrap">(from the 12th century)</span></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Dieu_et_mon_droit" title="Dieu et mon droit">Dieu et mon droit</a>"</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span><br> "God and my right"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="nowrap">(from the 15th century)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of the Kingdom, 1558–1707 (green)"><img alt="Location of the Kingdom, 1558–1707 (green)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg/220px-Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg/330px-Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg/440px-Location_map_of_England_in_1700.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="367" data-file-height="367"></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption"><div style="text-align:center;line-height:1.15em;">Location of the Kingdom, 1558–1707 (green)</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png" class="mw-file-description" title="English overseas possessions in 1700"><img alt="English overseas possessions in 1700" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png/325px-English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png" decoding="async" width="325" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png/488px-English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png/650px-English_overseas_possessions_in_1700.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625"></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">English overseas possessions in 1700</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> (until 1066)</li><li><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> (1066–1707)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Norman French">Anglo-Norman French</a> <span class="nowrap">(1066 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1430)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Wright_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Regional languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a> <span class="nowrap">(until the 12th century)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">Catholic Church</a> <span class="nowrap">(until 1534; 1553–1558)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> <span class="nowrap">(1534–1553; 1558–1707)</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey201141_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey201141-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective monarchy</a> <span class="nowrap">(until 1066)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">Feudal</a> hereditary absolute monarchy <span class="nowrap">(1066–1295)</span></li> <li>Feudal semi-constitutional monarchy <span class="nowrap">(1295–1649)</span></li> <li>Unitary parliamentary semi-constitutional monarchy <span class="nowrap">(1660–1707)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">Monarch</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 886–899 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1702–1707 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Adoption of the title King of the Anglo-Saxons by Alfred the Great </div></th><td class="infobox-data">886<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Unification of the Angles, Saxons and Danes </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12 July 927<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">14 October 1066</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" title="Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland">Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">May 1169 – May 1177</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">15 June 1215</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Model_Parliament" title="Model Parliament">Model Parliament</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 September 1295</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Incorporation of Wales</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1535–1542</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24 March 1603</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">11 December 1688</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with Scotland</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 May 1707</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600"></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <p>Beginning in the year 886<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> reoccupied <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> from the Danish <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> and after this event he declared himself <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Anglo-Saxons" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Anglo-Saxons">King of the Anglo-Saxons</a>, until his death in 899. During the course of the early tenth century, the various <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> kingdoms were united by Alfred's descendants <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Elder" title="Edward the Elder">Edward the Elder</a> (reigned 899–924) and <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan" title="Æthelstan">Æthelstan</a> (reigned 924–939) to form the Kingdom of the English. In 927, Æthelstan conquered the last remaining Viking kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">York</a>, making him the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of the whole of England. In 1016, the kingdom became part of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great">Cnut the Great</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> between England, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Norway_(872%E2%80%931397)" title="Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)">Norway</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one at <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> to <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">City of London</a> quickly established itself as England's largest and principal commercial centre.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Histories of the Kingdom of England from the Norman Conquest of 1066 conventionally distinguish periods named after successive ruling dynasties: <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">Norman/Angevin</a> 1066–1216, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="England in the late Middle Ages">Plantagenet</a> 1216–1485, <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor</a> 1485–1603 and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart</a> 1603–1707 (interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a> of 1649–1660). All English monarchs after 1066 ultimately descend from the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, and the distinction of the Plantagenets is conventional—beginning with <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> (reigned 1154–1189) as from that time, the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin kings</a> became "more English in nature"; the houses of <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a> are both Plantagenet cadet branches, the Tudor dynasty claimed descent from <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a> via <a href="/wiki/John_Beaufort,_1st_Earl_of_Somerset" title="John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset">John Beaufort</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James VI and I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a> claimed descent from <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> via <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Tudor" title="Margaret Tudor">Margaret Tudor</a>. </p><p>The completion of the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Wales">conquest of Wales</a> by <a href="/wiki/Edward_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward I">Edward I</a> in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown. Edward III (reigned 1327–1377) transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government—in particular the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/English_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="English Parliament">English Parliament</a>. From the 1340s, <a href="/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne" title="English claims to the French throne">English claims to the French throne</a> were held in pretense, but after the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> and the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> in 1455, the English were no longer in any position to pursue their French claims and lost all their land on the continent, except for <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Calais" title="Pale of Calais">Calais</a>. After the turmoils of the Wars of the Roses, the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a> ruled during the <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a> and again extended English monarchical power beyond England proper, achieving the full union of England and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%E2%80%931542" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542</a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> oversaw the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>, and his daughter <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> (reigned 1558–1603) the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan Religious Settlement</a>, meanwhile establishing England as a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> and laying the foundations of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> via <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">colonization of the Americas</a>. </p><p>The accession of <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James VI and I</a> in 1603 resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Stuart_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Stuart dynasty">Stuart dynasty</a> ruling the kingdoms of England, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a>. Under the Stuarts, England plunged into <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">civil war</a>, which culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">execution of Charles I</a> in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament. This concept became legally established as part of the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its successor state the United Kingdom, functioned in effect as a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a>, the parliaments, and therefore Kingdoms, of both England and Scotland were mutually abolished. Their assets and estates united 'for ever, into the Kingdom by the name of Great Britain', forming the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Name</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Anglo-Saxon_England"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Anglo-Saxon England</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Norman_Conquest"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Norman Conquest</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#High_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">High Middle Ages</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Conquest_of_Wales"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Conquest of Wales</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Late_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Late Middle Ages</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Tudor_period"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Tudor period</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Early_modern_history"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Early modern history</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Civil_War_and_Interregnum"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Civil War and Interregnum</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Restoration_and_Glorious_Revolution"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Restoration and Glorious Revolution</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Union_with_Scotland"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Union with Scotland</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Government"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Government</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Territorial_divisions"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Territorial divisions</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Taxation"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Taxation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Military"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Military</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Cited_works"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cited works</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Name_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of England">Name of England</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> referred to themselves as the <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Engle</i></span> or the <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Angelcynn</i></span>, originally names of the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>. They called their land <i>Engla land</i>, meaning "land of the English", by <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelweard_(historian)" title="Æthelweard (historian)">Æthelweard</a> Latinized <i>Anglia</i>, from an original <i><a href="/wiki/Angeln" title="Angeln">Anglia vetus</a></i>, the purported homeland of the Angles (called <i>Angulus</i> by <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name <i>Engla land</i> became <i>England</i> by <a href="/wiki/Haplology" title="Haplology">haplology</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> period (<i>Engle-land</i>, <i>Engelond</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Latin" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Latin">Latin</a> name was <i>Anglia</i> or <i>Anglorum terra</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> one <i>Engleterre</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The standard title for monarchs from <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan" title="Æthelstan">Æthelstan</a> until <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John</a> was <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Rex Anglorum</i></span> ("King of the English"). <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a>, a Dane, was the first to call himself "King of England". During the <a href="/wiki/Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman England">Norman period</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Rex Anglorum</i></span></i> remained standard, with occasional use of <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Rex Anglie</i></span></i> ("King of England"). From John's reign onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Rex</i></span></i> or <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Regina Anglie</i></span></i>. In 1604 <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I</a>, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin) <i>King of Great Britain</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anglo-Saxon_England">Anglo-Saxon England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anglo-Saxon England" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg/220px-Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="1233"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 273px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg/220px-Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="273" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg/330px-Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg/440px-Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple <a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">petty kingdoms</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval <a href="/wiki/Heptarchy#List_of_Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms" title="Heptarchy">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Heptarchy</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">East Anglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Essex" title="Kingdom of Essex">Essex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sussex" title="Kingdom of Sussex">Sussex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Viking_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking invasions">Viking invasions</a> of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general. The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by 927.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as <a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a>, a <a href="/wiki/High_king" title="High king">high king</a> over the other kings. The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful, absorbing the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Wessex" title="List of monarchs of Wessex">kings of Wessex</a> increasingly dominated the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to <a href="/wiki/Egbert_of_Wessex" class="mw-redirect" title="Egbert of Wessex">Egbert of Wessex</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dore,_South_Yorkshire" title="Dore, South Yorkshire">Dore</a>, briefly making Egbert the first king to reign over a united England.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 886, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i> says that "all of the English people (<i>all Angelcyn</i>) not <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">subject to the Danes</a> submitted themselves to King Alfred."<sup id="cite_ref-aschron_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aschron-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asser added that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the <a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">city of London</a> splendidly ... and made it habitable once more."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alfred's restoration entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building <a href="/wiki/Wharf" title="Wharf">quays</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Thames" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames">Thames</a>, and laying a new city street plan.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at <a href="/wiki/Eamont" class="mw-redirect" title="Eamont">Eamont</a> in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title "King of the English" or <i>Rex Anglorum</i> in Latin, was first used to describe Æthelstan in <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan_A" title="Æthelstan A">one of his charters</a> in 928. The standard title for monarchs from Æthelstan until <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John</a> was "King of the English". During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders, but was definitively brought under English control by <a href="/wiki/Eadred" title="Eadred">Eadred</a> in 954, completing the unification of England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStenton1971361_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStenton1971361-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At about this time, <a href="/wiki/Lothian" title="Lothian">Lothian</a>, a portion of the northern half of Northumbria <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a> was ceded to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERollason2003275_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERollason2003275-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cnut_1014_1035.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cnut_1014_1035.jpg/220px-Cnut_1014_1035.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="731"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 210px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cnut_1014_1035.jpg/220px-Cnut_1014_1035.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cnut_1014_1035.jpg/330px-Cnut_1014_1035.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cnut_1014_1035.jpg/440px-Cnut_1014_1035.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>The dominions of <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a> (1014–1035)</figcaption></figure> <p>England has remained in political unity ever since. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a> (978–1016), a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_I_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweyn I of Denmark">Sweyn I of Denmark</a>, culminating after a quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013. But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014, and Æthelred was restored to the throne. In 1015, Sweyn's son <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a> (commonly known as Canute) launched a new invasion. The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred's successor, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ironside" title="Edmund Ironside">Edmund Ironside</a>, to divide England between them, but Edmund's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule. This continued for 26 years until the death of <a href="/wiki/Harthacnut" title="Harthacnut">Harthacnut</a> in June 1042. He was the son of Canute and <a href="/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy" title="Emma of Normandy">Emma of Normandy</a> (the widow of Æthelred the Unready) and had no heirs of his own; he was succeeded by his half-brother, Æthelred's son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles1914114_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1914114-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norman_Conquest">Norman Conquest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Norman Conquest" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></div> <p>The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066. His brother-in-law was crowned <a href="/wiki/Harold_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold II of England">King Harold</a>, but his cousin <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, Duke of Normandy, immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed in <a href="/wiki/Sussex" title="Sussex">Sussex</a> on 28 September 1066. Harold and his army were in <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> following their victory against the Norwegians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Battle of Stamford Bridge</a> (25 September 1066) when the news reached him. He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once, despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians. The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> (14 October 1066), in which the English army, or <i><a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">Fyrd</a></i>, was defeated, Harold and his two brothers were slain, and William emerged as victor. William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not, however, planning to absorb the Kingdom into the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>. As a mere duke, William owed allegiance to <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_France" title="Philip I of France">Philip I of France</a>, whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference. He was crowned on 25 December 1066 in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas1964204–205_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas1964204%E2%80%93205-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">England in the High Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion of Wales</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Conquest of Wales by Edward I</a></div> <p>In 1092, <a href="/wiki/William_II_of_England" title="William II of England">William II</a> led an invasion of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Strathclyde</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria. In doing so, he annexed what is now the county of <a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a> to England. In 1124, <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a> ceded what is now southeast Scotland (called <a href="/wiki/Lothian" title="Lothian">Lothian</a>) to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a>, in return for the King of Scotland's loyalty. This final cession established what would become the traditional <a href="/wiki/England-Scotland_border" class="mw-redirect" title="England-Scotland border">borders</a> of England which have remained largely unchanged since then (except for occasional and temporary changes). This area of land had previously been a part of the Anglian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Kingdom of Northumbria</a>. Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital, <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>. This arrangement was later finalized in 1237 by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_York" title="Treaty of York">Treaty of York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsay190882–83_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsay190882%E2%80%9383-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_(Magna_Carta)_by_English_School.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/220px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 308px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/220px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png" data-width="220" data-height="308" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/330px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/440px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>King John signs <i><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Runnymede" title="Runnymede">Runnymede</a> in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from <i>Cassell's History of England</i>, 1902.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" title="Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland">Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland</a> took place during the late 12th century, when <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Normans</a> gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the Papal bull <i><a href="/wiki/Laudabiliter" title="Laudabiliter">Laudabiliter</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a> was made up of several kingdoms, with a <a href="/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland" title="High King of Ireland">High King</a> claiming lordship over most of the other kings.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aquitaine" title="Duchy of Aquitaine">Duchy of Aquitaine</a> came into <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">personal union</a> with England upon the accession of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a>, who had married <a href="/wiki/Eleanor,_Duchess_of_Aquitaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine">Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine</a>. They remained united until <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John Lackland</a>, Henry II's son and fourth-generation descendant of William the Conqueror, lost the continental possessions to <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II of France</a> decisively after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines" title="Battle of Bouvines">Battle of Bouvines</a> in 1214. A few remnants of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Normandy</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>, remained in John's possession, together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2009103_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2009103-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Wales">Conquest of Wales</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Conquest of Wales" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Up until the Norman Conquest of England, Wales had remained for the most part independent of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon kingdoms">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a>, although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the <a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a>. Soon after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Conquest of England">Norman Conquest of England</a>, however, some Norman lords began to attack Wales. They conquered and ruled parts of it, acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence. Over many years these "<a href="/wiki/Marcher_Lords" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcher Lords">Marcher Lords</a>" conquered more and more of Wales, against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes, who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a>, and so effectively conquered Wales, in 1282. He created the title <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a> for his heir, the future <a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a>, in 1301. Edward I's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable, as the magnificent Welsh <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Conwy_Castle" title="Conwy Castle">Conwy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harlech_Castle" title="Harlech Castle">Harlech</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon_Castle" title="Caernarfon Castle">Caernarfon</a> attest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrestwich1997206_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrestwich1997206-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Middle_Ages">Late Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">England in the Late Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Great_Slump_(15th_century)" title="Great Slump (15th century)">Great Slump (15th century)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Agincourt,_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1249"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 183px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="183" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Agincourt%2C_St._Alban%27s_Chronicle_by_Thomas_Walsingham.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Battle of Agincourt</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> was the first English king to have a <a href="/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne" title="English claims to the French throne">claim to the throne of France</a>. His pursuit of the claim resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (1337–1453), which pitted five kings of England of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a> against five kings of France of the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_House_of_Valois" class="mw-redirect" title="Capetian House of Valois">Capetian House of Valois</a>. Extensive naval raiding was carried out by all sides during the war, often involving <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateers</a> such as John Hawley of Dartmouth or the Castilian <a href="/wiki/Pero_Ni%C3%B1o" title="Pero Niño">Pero Niño</a>. Though the English won numerous victories, they were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French and their strategic use of gunpowder weapons. England was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Formigny" title="Battle of Formigny">Battle of Formigny</a> in 1450 and finally at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castillon" title="Battle of Castillon">Battle of Castillon</a> in 1453, retaining only a single town in France, <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeward1978260_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward1978260-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Hundred Years' War an <a href="/wiki/English_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="English identity">English identity</a> began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and their <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> subjects. This was a consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French, whose kings and other leaders (notably the charismatic <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a>) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMock2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailssymbolsofdefeati0000mockpage145_145]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMock2011%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailssymbolsofdefeati0000mockpage145_145%5D-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kingdom had little time to recover before entering the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> (1455–1487), a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a> (whose heraldic symbol was the red rose) and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a> (whose symbol was the white rose), each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III. The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster, married to the eldest daughter of the House of York: <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tudor_period">Tudor period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tudor period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Tudor conquest of Ireland">Tudor conquest of Ireland</a></div> <p>Wales retained a separate legal and administrative system, which had been established by <a href="/wiki/Edward_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward I">Edward I</a> in the late 13th century. The country was divided between the <a href="/wiki/Marcher_Lords" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcher Lords">Marcher Lords</a>, who gave feudal allegiance to the crown, and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a>. Under the Tudor monarchy, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> replaced the laws of Wales with those of England (under the <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%E2%80%931542" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542</a>). Wales was incorporated into England, and henceforth was represented in <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">the Parliament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1993124_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1993124-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_(Armada_Portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg/330px-Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg/440px-Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Portrait of Elizabeth I made to commemorate the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> (1588), depicted in the background. Elizabeth's international power is symbolised by the hand resting on the globe.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1530s, Henry overthrew the power of the Catholic Church within the kingdom, <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">replacing</a> the pope as head of his own English Church and seizing the Catholic Church's lands, thereby facilitating the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">variation</a> of Catholicism that became more Protestant over time. This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland, which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion, whereas the most important continental powers, France and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a>, remained Catholic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton1977185_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1977185-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Tudor conquest of Ireland">Tudor conquest</a>" (or <i>reconquest</i>) of Ireland' took place under the Tudor dynasty. Following a <a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_10th_Earl_of_Kildare#Kildare_rebellion_(1534%E2%80%931535)" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare">failed rebellion</a> against the crown by <a href="/wiki/Silken_Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Silken Thomas">Silken Thomas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Kildare" class="mw-redirect" title="Earl of Kildare">Earl of Kildare</a>, in the 1530s, Henry VIII was declared <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Ireland">King of Ireland</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542" title="Crown of Ireland Act 1542">1542</a> by statute of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Parliament of Ireland</a>, with the aim of restoring such central authority as had been lost throughout the country during the previous two centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Calais" title="Pale of Calais">Calais</a>, the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom, was lost in 1558, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary I</a>. Their successor, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>, consolidated the new and increasingly Protestant <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. She also began to build up the kingdom's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">naval strength</a>, on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down. By 1588, her new navy was strong enough to defeat the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, which had sought to invade England to halt English support for the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Dutch rebels</a> and to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_history">Early modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early modern history" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Early modern Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a></div> <p>The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603. <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I</a> ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland. Despite the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a>, the kingdoms remained separate and independent states: a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_War_and_Interregnum">Civil War and Interregnum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Civil War and Interregnum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Interregnum" class="mw-redirect" title="English Interregnum">English Interregnum</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="English Commonwealth">English Commonwealth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="English Protectorate">English Protectorate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/220px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1244"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 178px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/220px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/330px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/440px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Cromwell_at_Dunbar" title="Cromwell at Dunbar">Cromwell at Dunbar</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> united the whole of the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> by force and created the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy, and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688. In the first instance, <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>'s introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> (1641–1645), in which the king was defeated, and to the abolition of the monarchy under <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> during the <a href="/wiki/English_Interregnum" class="mw-redirect" title="English Interregnum">Interregnum</a> of 1649–1660.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice_for_the_trial_of_Charles_I" class="mw-redirect" title="High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I">trial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">execution of Charles I</a> in January 1649, the <a href="/wiki/Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a> passed an <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Act_declaring_England_to_be_a_Commonwealth" class="extiw" title="s:Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth">act declaring England to be a Commonwealth</a> on 19 May 1649. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished, and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (England)">Council of State</a> becoming the executive. However the Army remained the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>. The Commonwealth fought <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">wars in Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Scotland</a> which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBullSeed1998100_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBullSeed1998100-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, relations with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> had deteriorated. Despite initial English support during the Dutch War of Independence against the Spanish, tensions arose as the Dutch Republic emerged as England's principal commercial and naval rival. By the mid-17th century, it had become the foremost trading nation. In response the English, alarmed by their waning competitiveness, implemented stricter trading policies to curb Dutch dominance. The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a> which followed, however, failed to resolve the commercial issues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer200739–40_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer200739%E2%80%9340-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989a207–213_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989a207%E2%80%93213-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1653 Cromwell and the other <i><a href="/wiki/Grandee_(New_Model_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grandee (New Model Army)">Grandees</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a>, frustrated with the members of the <a href="/wiki/Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a> who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow a new more representative parliament to be elected, stopped the Rump's session and declared the Rump dissolved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobisonFritze1996147_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobisonFritze1996147-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After an experiment with a Nominated Assembly (<a href="/wiki/Barebone%27s_Parliament" title="Barebone's Parliament">Barebone's Parliament</a>), the Grandees in the Army, through the Council of State imposed a new constitutional arrangement under a written constitution called the <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a>. Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with a <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector_(Protectorate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Protector (Protectorate)">Lord Protector</a> (an office to be held for the life of the incumbent) and there were to be triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months. Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector. The <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a> was replaced by a second constitution (the <a href="/wiki/Humble_Petition_and_Advice" title="Humble Petition and Advice">Humble Petition and Advice</a>) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor. Cromwell nominated his son <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard</a> who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaunt1996204_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaunt1996204-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restoration_and_Glorious_Revolution">Restoration and Glorious Revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Restoration and Glorious Revolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration (England)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam,_may_24_1660_(Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier,_1665).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg/220px-The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1951" data-file-height="1037"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 117px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg/220px-The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="117" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg/330px-The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg/440px-The_arrival_of_King_Charles_II_of_England_in_Rotterdam%2C_may_24_1660_%28Lieve_Pietersz._Verschuier%2C_1665%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Lieve_Verschuier" title="Lieve Verschuier">Lieve Verschuier</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Richard proved to be ineffectual and was unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Rump Parliament was recalled and there was a second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state. But this restoration of Commonwealth rule, similar to that before the Protectorate, proved to be unstable, and the exiled claimant, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">restored</a> to the throne in 1660.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris200547_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris200547-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1665 the unresolved commercial issues with the Dutch led to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Second Anglo-Dutch War">Second Anglo-Dutch War</a>, which culminated in the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_the_Medway" title="Raid on the Medway">Raid on the Medway</a> and forced the humiliated Charles in to an <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Breda_(1667)" title="Treaty of Breda (1667)">unfavourable peace treaty</a>. The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a>. In the short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Third Anglo-Dutch War">Third Anglo-Dutch War</a> in 1672. Despite attaining French support this time, Dutch naval successes made Parliament unwilling to support Charles' war effort any further, and he was again forced to make peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer200759–60_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer200759%E2%80%9360-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, an attempt by <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a> to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, in which he was exiled by the Dutch prince <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a>. William and his wife <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary</a> were subsequently crowned by Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETroost2005219_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETroost2005219-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William reoriented England's foreign policy to support the Dutch Republic in its wars against Louis XIV of France.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989b37-38_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989b37-38-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Union_with_Scotland">Union with Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Union with Scotland" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>In the Scottish case, the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the <a href="/wiki/Alien_Act_1705" title="Alien Act 1705">Alien Act 1705</a>. The English were more anxious about the royal succession. The death of <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III</a> in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-law <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a> to the thrones of England and Scotland, but her only surviving child had died in 1700, and the English <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701" title="Act of Settlement 1701">Act of Settlement 1701</a> had given the succession to the English crown to the Protestant <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hanover" title="House of Hanover">House of Hanover</a>. Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland. By 1704, the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a> was in crisis, with the Scottish <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Security_1704" title="Act of Security 1704">Act of Security</a> allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch, which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1992311_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1992311-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a> was agreed on 22 July 1706, and following the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union of 1707</a>, which created the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>, the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707. The Acts of Union created a <a href="/wiki/Customs_union" title="Customs union">customs union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monetary_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary union">monetary union</a> and provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Acts would "cease and become void".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Westminster</a>, London. At this point England ceased to exist as a separate political entity, and since then has had no national <a href="/wiki/Government_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of England">government</a>. The laws of England were unaffected, with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>, while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts. This continued after the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">1801 union</a> between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, forming the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a>. In 1922 the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being <a href="/wiki/Royal_and_Parliamentary_Titles_Act_1927" title="Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927">renamed</a> the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Government">Government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Government in medieval England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_government" title="Elizabethan government">Elizabethan government</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_monarchy" title="History of the English monarchy">History of the English monarchy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_divisions">Territorial divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Territorial divisions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">Historic counties of England</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_earldoms" title="List of earldoms">List of earldoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_palatine" title="County palatine">County palatine</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_county_histories" title="English county histories">English county histories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_feudal_barony" title="English feudal barony">English feudal barony</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">counties of England</a> were established for administration by the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, in most cases based on earlier <a href="/wiki/Shire" title="Shire">shires</a> established by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>. They ceased to be used for administration only with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_counties_of_England" title="Administrative counties of England">administrative counties</a> in 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the partly self-governing <a href="/wiki/Ancient_borough" title="Ancient borough">boroughs</a> that covered urban areas, the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power, enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originally <a href="/wiki/High_sheriff" title="High sheriff">sheriffs</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Lord-lieutenant" title="Lord-lieutenant">lord-lieutenants</a> – and their subordinate <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">justices of the peace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Counties were used initially for the <a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">administration of justice</a>, collection of taxes and organisation of the military, and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hackwood_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hackwood-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some outlying counties were from time to time accorded <a href="/wiki/County_palatine" title="County palatine">palatine</a> status with some military and central government functions vested in a local noble or bishop. The last such, the <a href="/wiki/County_Palatine_of_Durham" title="County Palatine of Durham">County Palatine of Durham</a>, did not lose this special status until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman Conquest, some counties were formed considerably later, up to the 16th century. Because of their differing origins the counties <a href="/wiki/List_of_counties_of_England_by_area_in_1831" title="List of counties of England by area in 1831">varied considerably in size</a>. The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th century <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535-1542" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Laws in Wales acts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1888" title="Local Government Act 1888">Local Government Act 1888</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vob_census_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vob_census-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government; for local defence; and for justice, through <a href="/wiki/Assize_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="Assize courts">assize courts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-winchester_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-winchester-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The power of the <a href="/wiki/English_feudal_barony" title="English feudal barony">feudal barons</a> to control their landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute of <i><a href="/wiki/Quia_Emptores" title="Quia Emptores">Quia Emptores</a></i>. Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete (but not extinct) on the abolition of feudal tenure during the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a>, as confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/Tenures_Abolition_Act_1660" title="Tenures Abolition Act 1660">Tenures Abolition Act 1660</a> passed under the <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a> which took away knight-service and other legal rights. Tenure by <a href="/wiki/Knight-service" title="Knight-service">knight-service</a> was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures, including once-feudal baronies, were henceforth held by <a href="/wiki/Socage" title="Socage">socage</a> (<i>i.e.</i>, in exchange for monetary rents). The English <i>Fitzwalter Case</i> in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to a <a href="/wiki/Peerage" title="Peerage">peerage</a> on such basis, meaning a right to sit in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>, were not to be revived, nor any right of succession based on them.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a> in 1284 followed the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">conquest of Wales</a> by <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a>. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "<a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a>" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Marcher Lords</a> were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a>, administered from <a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Castle" title="Ludlow Castle">Ludlow Castle</a>, was initially established by <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV of England</a> to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales in 1472.<sup id="cite_ref-EnglishLaw_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EnglishLaw-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time the Council of Wales was created in 1472, a <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_North" title="Council of the North">Council of the North</a> was set up for the <a href="/wiki/North_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="North of England">northern counties</a> of England. After falling into disuse, it was re-established in 1537 and abolished in 1641. A very short-lived <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_West" title="Council of the West">Council of the West</a> also existed for the <a href="/wiki/West_Country" title="West Country">West Country</a> between 1537 and 1540.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation">Taxation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Taxation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>In the Anglo-Saxon period, the <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">geld</a> or property tax was first levied in response to Danish invasions but later became a regular tax. The majority of the king's income derived from the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">royal demesne</a> and the annual "<a href="/wiki/Farm_(revenue_leasing)" title="Farm (revenue leasing)">farm</a>" from each shire (the fixed sum paid by sheriffs for the privilege of administering and profiting from royal lands). Kings also made income from judicial fines and regulation of trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201629–30_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201629%E2%80%9330-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People owed the king service in the form of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Trinoda_necessitas" title="Trinoda necessitas">trinoda necessitas</a></i></span>—<a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a> service, <a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">burh</a> building, and bridge building.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196152_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196152-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Conquest of 1066, the Normans continued collecting the geld regularly. They also introduced new sources of revenue based on concepts of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism_in_England" title="Feudalism in England">feudalism</a>. The king was entitled to collect a <a href="/wiki/Feudal_aid" title="Feudal aid">feudal aid</a> when his eldest son was knighted, his eldest daughter married, or if the king needed to pay his own ransom. The heir to a <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a> was also required to pay the king a <a href="/wiki/Feudal_relief" title="Feudal relief">feudal relief</a> before he could take possession of his inheritance. The king was also entitled to his vassals military service, but vassals could pay <a href="/wiki/Scutage" title="Scutage">scutage</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201690_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201690-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Military" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/English_Army" title="English Army">English Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)">History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)</a></div> <p>In the Anglo-Saxon period, England had no standing army. The king and magnates retained professional household troops (<i>see</i> <a href="/wiki/Housecarl" title="Housecarl">housecarl</a>), and all free men were obligated to perform military service in the <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a>. In addition, holders of <a href="/wiki/Bookland_(law)" title="Bookland (law)">bookland</a> were obligated to provide a certain number of men based on the number of <a href="/wiki/Hide_(unit)" title="Hide (unit)">hides</a> they owned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Norman Conquest, the king's household troops remained central to any royal army. The Anglo-Saxon fyrd also remained in use. But the Normans also introduced a new feudal element to the English military. The king's <a href="/wiki/Tenants-in-chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenants-in-chief">tenants-in-chief</a> (his <a href="/wiki/Feudal_baron" title="Feudal baron">feudal barons</a>) were obligated to provide mounted knights for service in the royal army or to garrison <a href="/wiki/Castles_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Castles in Great Britain and Ireland">royal castles</a>. The total number of knights owed was called the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">servitium debitum</i></span> (Latin: "service owed"), and historian Richard Huscroft estimates this number was around 5,000. In reality, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">servitium debitum</i></span> was greater than any king would actually need in wartime. Its main purpose was for assessing how much scutage the king was owed. Scutage was used to pay for <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a>, which were an important part of any Norman army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Jewels_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom">Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom</a> – British royal regalia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English overseas possessions</a> – Territories ruled by Kingdom of England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">List of English monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England" title="Privy Council of England">Privy Council of England</a> – Body of advisers to the sovereign of the Kingdom of England</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution of the United Kingdom</a> is <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">uncodified</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English and Scot, James insisted, should "join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union, as two twins bred in one belly, to love one another as no more two but one estate".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillson1963250_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillson1963250-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.royal.uk/coats-arms">"The Royal Coat of Arms"</a>. <i>The Royal Family</i>. 15 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Royal+Family&rft.atitle=The+Royal+Coat+of+Arms&rft.date=2016-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.royal.uk%2Fcoats-arms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wright_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright,_L.2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wright, L. (2012). "About the evolution of Standard English". <i>Studies in English Language and Literature</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 99ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138006935" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138006935"><bdi>978-1138006935</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=About+the+evolution+of+Standard+English&rft.btitle=Studies+in+English+Language+and+Literature&rft.pages=99ff&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1138006935&rft.au=Wright%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey201141-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey201141_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarey2011">Carey 2011</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes199823-24_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeynes1998">Keynes 1998</a>, p. 23-24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014534-536_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeynes2014">Keynes 2014</a>, p. 534-536.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bkGpFhiPtIEC&dq=History%20of%20London&pg=PA363"><i>London, 800–1216: The Shaping of a City</i></a>, "<i>...rivalry between City and government, between a commercial capital in the City and the political capital of quite a different empire in Westminster.</i>", accessed November 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/">Acts of Union 1707</a>", UK Parliament, accessed 27 January 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511140052/http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/vli/visitingHolyrood/union_exhibition.pdf">"Making the Act of Union 1707"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Scottish Parliament</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/vli/visitingHolyrood/union_exhibition.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scottish+Parliament&rft.atitle=Making+the+Act+of+Union+1707&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scottish.parliament.uk%2Fvli%2FvisitingHolyrood%2Funion_exhibition.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Harris, <i>Race and Ethnicity in Anglo-Saxon Literature</i>, Studies in Medieval History and Culture, Routledge, 2004, 139f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. L. Mayhew and Walter W. Skeat, (1888), <i> A Concise Dictionary of Middle English From A.D. 1150 To 1580</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" Anglia " (par L. Favre, 1883–1887), dans du Cange, et al., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/ANGLIA"><i>Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200206100228/http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/ANGLIA">Archived</a> 6 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, éd. augm., Niort : L. Favre, 1883–1887, t. 1, col. 251c.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillson1963250-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillson1963250_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillson1963">Willson 1963</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Extract from the <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i>. Translations available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sunsite3.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/">Berkeley Digital Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050325211939/http://sunsite3.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/">Archived</a> 25 March 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/etext/657">Project Gutenberg</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aschron-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aschron_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt">The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701234404/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt">Archived</a> 1 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Freely licensed version at Gutenberg Project. Note: This electronic edition is a collation of material from nine diverse extant versions of the Chronicle. It contains primarily the translation of Rev. James Ingram, as published in the Everyman edition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asser's <i>Life of King Alfred</i>, ch. 83, trans. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, <i>Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred & Other Contemporary Sources</i> (Penguin Classics) (1984), pp. 97–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Vince" title="Alan Vince">Vince, Alan</a>, <i>Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation</i>, The Archaeology of London series (1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStenton1971361-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStenton1971361_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStenton1971">Stenton 1971</a>, p. 361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERollason2003275-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERollason2003275_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRollason2003">Rollason 2003</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1914114-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles1914114_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiles1914">Giles 1914</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas1964204–205-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas1964204%E2%80%93205_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDouglas1964">Douglas 1964</a>, p. 204–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsay190882–83-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsay190882%E2%80%9383_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRamsay1908">Ramsay 1908</a>, p. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston" class="citation news cs1">Johnston, Elva. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/the-irish-church-its-reform-and-the-english-invasion-review-1.3164152">"The Irish Church, Its Reform and the English Invasion review"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=The+Irish+Church%2C+Its+Reform+and+the+English+Invasion+review&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Elva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fculture%2Fbooks%2Fthe-irish-church-its-reform-and-the-english-invasion-review-1.3164152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne1973" class="citation book cs1">Byrne, Francis John (1973). <i>Irish Kings and High Kings</i>. London. pp. <span class="nowrap">40–</span>47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+Kings+and+High+Kings&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Francis+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2009103-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2009103_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner2009">Turner 2009</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nelson (1966), chapter 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrestwich1997206-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrestwich1997206_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrestwich1997">Prestwich 1997</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward1978260-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeward1978260_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeward1978">Seward 1978</a>, p. 260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMock2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailssymbolsofdefeati0000mockpage145_145]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMock2011%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailssymbolsofdefeati0000mockpage145_145%5D_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMock2011">Mock 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/symbolsofdefeati0000mock/page/145">145</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1973">Williams 1973</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1993124-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1993124_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1993">Williams 1993</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1977185-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton1977185_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElton1977">Elton 1977</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrattan1822" class="citation book cs1">Grattan, Henry (1822). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WdU9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114">"Regency: Feb. 11, 1789"</a>. <i>The Speeches of the Right Honourable Henry Grattan in the Irish, and in the Imperial Parliament</i>. Vol. II. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. p. 114<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2016</span>. <q>The act of Henry VIII., commonly called the act of annexation, proves and ascertains what the member's arguments would deny, the existence, properties, and prerogatives of the Irish crown.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Regency%3A+Feb.+11%2C+1789&rft.btitle=The+Speeches+of+the+Right+Honourable+Henry+Grattan+in+the+Irish%2C+and+in+the+Imperial+Parliament&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Hurst%2C+Rees%2C+Orme+and+Brown&rft.date=1822&rft.aulast=Grattan&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWdU9AAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly p. 401: "the defeat of the Spanish armada really was decisive"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker & Martin p. 5: "an unmitigated disaster"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vego p. 148: "the decisive defeat of the Spanish armada"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Daniel_McVey" class="citation web cs1">John Daniel McVey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uotc.scran.ac.uk">"The Union of The Crowns 1603 – 2003"</a>. Uotc.scran.ac.uk<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Union+of+The+Crowns+1603+%E2%80%93+2003&rft.pub=Uotc.scran.ac.uk&rft.au=John+Daniel+McVey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuotc.scran.ac.uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHMSO1911" class="citation cs2">"March 1649: An Act for the abolishing the Kingly Office in England and Ireland, and the Dominions thereunto belonging", <i>Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642–1660.</i>, London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1911, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british%E2%80%93history.ac.uk/no%E2%80%93series/acts%E2%80%93ordinances%E2%80%93interregnum/pp18%E2%80%9320">18–20</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=March+1649%3A+An+Act+for+the+abolishing+the+Kingly+Office+in+England+and+Ireland%2C+and+the+Dominions+thereunto+belonging&rft.btitle=Acts+and+Ordinances+of+the+Interregnum%2C+1642%E2%80%931660.&rft.place=London&rft.pages=18-20&rft.pub=His+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBullSeed1998100-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBullSeed1998100_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBullSeed1998">Bull & Seed 1998</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer200739–40-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer200739%E2%80%9340_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPalmer2007">Palmer 2007</a>, p. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989a207–213-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989a207%E2%80%93213_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1989a">Israel 1989a</a>, pp. 207–213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobisonFritze1996147-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobisonFritze1996147_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobisonFritze1996">Robison & Fritze 1996</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaunt1996204-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaunt1996204_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaunt1996">Gaunt 1996</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris200547-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris200547_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2005">Harris 2005</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer200759–60-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer200759%E2%80%9360_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPalmer2007">Palmer 2007</a>, p. 59–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETroost2005219-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETroost2005219_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTroost2005">Troost 2005</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989b37-38-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1989b37-38_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1989b">Israel 1989b</a>, p. 37-38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1992311-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1992311_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1992">Lynch 1992</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619224036/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_union.html">"1 May 1707 – the Union comes into effect"</a>. UK Parliament website. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_union.html">the original</a> on 19 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1+May+1707+%E2%80%93+the+Union+comes+into+effect&rft.pub=UK+Parliament+website&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Factofunion%2F08_union.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview/">"The Irish War of Independence – A Brief Overview – The Irish Story"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210901001503/https://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Irish+War+of+Independence+%E2%80%93+A+Brief+Overview+%E2%80%93+The+Irish+Story&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theirishstory.com%2F2012%2F09%2F18%2Fthe-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/types/type_page.jsp?unit_type=ANC_CNTY">Vision of Britain</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170416220749/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/types/type_page.jsp?unit_type=ANC_CNTY">Archived</a> 16 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Type details for ancient county. Retrieved 19 October 2006.; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungs1979" class="citation book cs1">Youngs, Frederic A Jr. (1979). <i>Guide to the Local Administrative Units of England, Vol.I: Southern England</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Historical_Society" title="Royal Historical Society">Royal Historical Society</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">xii–</span>xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901050-67-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901050-67-0"><bdi>978-0-901050-67-0</bdi></a>. <q><i>Ancient County</i>: Counties are geographic entities whose origins reach back into the pre-Conquest period. They were derived either from Anglo-Saxon kingdoms whose size made them suitable administrative units when England was unified in the tenth century, or as artificial creations formed from larger kingdoms. The number of 'shires' (the Anglo-Saxon term) or 'counties' (Norman term) varied in the medieval period, particularly in the north of England.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+the+Local+Administrative+Units+of+England%2C+Vol.I%3A+Southern+England&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Exii-%3C%2Fspan%3Exiii&rft.pub=Royal+Historical+Society&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-901050-67-0&rft.aulast=Youngs&rft.aufirst=Frederic+A+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler2007" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, J. A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b0glBHiU9oAC&pg=PA2">"Local government before 1832"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b0glBHiU9oAC"><i>Explaining Local Government: Local Government in Britain Since 1800</i></a>. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6706-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6706-8"><bdi>978-0-7190-6706-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Local+government+before+1832&rft.btitle=Explaining+Local+Government%3A+Local+Government+in+Britain+Since+1800&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-6706-8&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db0glBHiU9oAC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hackwood-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hackwood_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHackwood1920" class="citation book cs1">Hackwood, Frederick William (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/storyofshirebein00hackuoft/storyofshirebein00hackuoft_bw.pdf"><i>The Story of the Shire, being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: Heath Cranton Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+Shire%2C+being+the+Lore%2C+History+and+Evolution+of+English+County+Institutions&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Heath+Cranton+Limited&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Hackwood&rft.aufirst=Frederick+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2Fstoryofshirebein00hackuoft%2Fstoryofshirebein00hackuoft_bw.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne1994" class="citation book cs1">Byrne, Tony (1994). <i>Local Government in Britain</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harmondsworth" title="Harmondsworth">Harmondsworth</a>: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-017663-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-017663-6"><bdi>978-0-14-017663-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Local+Government+in+Britain&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-14-017663-6&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will 4 c 19)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vob_census-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vob_census_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Cen_Guide&c_id=19&show=ALL">Vision of Britain</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170416194539/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Cen_Guide&c_id=19&show=ALL">Archived</a> 16 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Census Geographies. Retrieved 19 October 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-winchester-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-winchester_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester1990" class="citation book cs1">Winchester, Angus J L (1990). <i>Discovering Parish Boundaries</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Shire_Books" title="Shire Books">Shire Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0060-6"><bdi>978-0-7478-0060-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+Parish+Boundaries&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Shire+Publications&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0060-6&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Angus+J+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Complete_Peerage_Ed_1_Vol_3.djvu/375">"The Complete Peerage, Edition 1, Volume 3, page 375"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Peerage%2C+Edition+1%2C+Volume+3%2C+page+375&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FPage%3AThe_Complete_Peerage_Ed_1_Vol_3.djvu%2F375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EnglishLaw-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EnglishLaw_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Searle Holdsworth, "A History of English Law", Little, Brown, and Company, 1912, p. 502</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYouings1960" class="citation journal cs1">Youings, Joyce A. (1960). "The Council of the West". <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i>. <b>10</b>: <span class="nowrap">41–</span>59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3678773">10.2307/3678773</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3678773">3678773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Council+of+the+West&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E59&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3678773&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3678773%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Youings&rft.aufirst=Joyce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201629–30-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201629%E2%80%9330_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196152-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196152_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJolliffe1961">Jolliffe 1961</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201690-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201690_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201697_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_works">Cited works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cited works" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullSeed1998" class="citation book cs1">Bull, Stephen; Seed, Mike (1998). <i>Bloody Preston: The Battle of Preston, 1648</i>. Lancaster: Carnegie Publishing Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85936-041-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85936-041-6"><bdi>1-85936-041-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloody+Preston%3A+The+Battle+of+Preston%2C+1648&rft.place=Lancaster&rft.pub=Carnegie+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-85936-041-6&rft.aulast=Bull&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Seed%2C+Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Carey" title="Hilary Carey">Carey, Hilary M.</a> (2011) [2010]. <i>God's Empire: Religion and Colonialism in the British World, c. 1801–1908</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49409-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49409-0"><bdi>978-1-139-49409-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Empire%3A+Religion+and+Colonialism+in+the+British+World%2C+c.+1801%E2%80%931908&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49409-0&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=Hilary+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Douglas" title="David C. Douglas">Douglas, David C.</a> (1964). <i>William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/399137">399137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+the+Conqueror%3A+The+Norman+Impact+Upon+England&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F399137&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Elton" title="Geoffrey Elton">Elton, Geoffrey R.</a> (1977). <i>Reform and Reformation: England, 1509–1558</i>. Edward Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-5952-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7131-5952-9"><bdi>0-7131-5952-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reform+and+Reformation%3A+England%2C+1509%E2%80%931558&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-7131-5952-9&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaunt1996" class="citation book cs1">Gaunt, Peter (1996). <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18356-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18356-6"><bdi>0-631-18356-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-631-18356-6&rft.aulast=Gaunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1914" class="citation cs1">Giles, J.A. (1914). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Giles)"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle_(Giles)"><i>The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> </a></span>. London: G. Bell and Sonson. p. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Giles)#114"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle_(Giles)#114">114 </a></span> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+Chronicle&rft.place=London&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=G.+Bell+and+Sonson&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Giles&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2005" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Tim (2005). <i>Restoration:Charles II and His Kingdoms 1660–1685</i>. Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0713991918" title="Special:BookSources/978-0713991918"><bdi>978-0713991918</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restoration%3ACharles+II+and+His+Kingdoms+1660%E2%80%931685&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0713991918&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuscroft2016" class="citation book cs1">Huscroft, Richard (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tKNYCwAAQBAJ"><i>Ruling England, 1042–1217</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138786554" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138786554"><bdi>978-1138786554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruling+England%2C+1042%E2%80%931217&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138786554&rft.aulast=Huscroft&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtKNYCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1989a" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan (1989a). <i>Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740</i> (E-book ed.). Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191591822" title="Special:BookSources/9780191591822"><bdi>9780191591822</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dutch+Primacy+in+World+Trade%2C+1585-1740&rft.edition=E-book&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780191591822&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1989b" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan (1989b). <i>The Dutch Republic and the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688/89 in England</i>. Greenwich: Trustees National Maritime Museum. pp. <span class="nowrap">31–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0948065033" title="Special:BookSources/978-0948065033"><bdi>978-0948065033</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Republic+and+the+%27Glorious+Revolution%27+of+1688%2F89+in+England&rft.place=Greenwich&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.pub=Trustees+National+Maritime+Museum&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0948065033&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolliffe1961" class="citation book cs1">Jolliffe, J. E. A. (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalhi0000joll"><i>The Constitutional History of Medieval England from the English Settlement to 1485</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Adams and Charles Black.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+History+of+Medieval+England+from+the+English+Settlement+to+1485&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Adams+and+Charles+Black&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Jolliffe&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionalhi0000joll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1998" class="citation cs1">Keynes, Simon (1998). "Alfred and the Mercians". In Blackburn, Mark A.S.; Dumville, David N. (eds.). <i>Kings, currency, and alliances: history and coinage of southern England in the ninth century</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8511-5598-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8511-5598-2"><bdi>978-0-8511-5598-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alfred+and+the+Mercians&rft.btitle=Kings%2C+currency%2C+and+alliances%3A+history+and+coinage+of+southern+England+in+the+ninth+century&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8511-5598-2&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Keynes, Simon (2014) [1st edition 1999]. "Appendix I: Rulers of the English, c. 450–1066". In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald (eds.). <i>The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England</i> (Second ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">521–</span>538. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4706-5632-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4706-5632-7"><bdi>978-0-4706-5632-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+I%3A+Rulers+of+the+English%2C+c.+450%E2%80%931066&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E521-%3C%2Fspan%3E538&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-4706-5632-7&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1992" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, Michael (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scotlandnewhisto0000lync/page/311"><i>Scotland: A New History</i></a>. Pimlico. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scotlandnewhisto0000lync/page/311">311</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7126-9893-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7126-9893-0"><bdi>0-7126-9893-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scotland%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7126-9893-0&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscotlandnewhisto0000lync%2Fpage%2F311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMock2011" class="citation book cs1">Mock, Steven (2011). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/symbolsofdefeati0000mock"><i>Symbols of Defeat in the Construction of National Identity</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107013360" title="Special:BookSources/9781107013360"><bdi>9781107013360</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1097164619">1097164619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symbols+of+Defeat+in+the+Construction+of+National+Identity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1097164619&rft.isbn=9781107013360&rft.aulast=Mock&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsymbolsofdefeati0000mock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="nelson" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, Lynn H. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ku.edu/carrie/texts/carrie_books/nelson/index.html"><i>The Normans in South Wales, 1070–1171</i></a>. Austin and London: University of Texas Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+in+South+Wales%2C+1070%E2%80%931171&rft.place=Austin+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Lynn+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ku.edu%2Fcarrie%2Ftexts%2Fcarrie_books%2Fnelson%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2007" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, M. A.J. (2007). <i>Command at Sea: Naval Command and Control since the Sixteenth Century</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674041912" title="Special:BookSources/9780674041912"><bdi>9780674041912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Command+at+Sea%3A+Naval+Command+and+Control+since+the+Sixteenth+Century&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780674041912&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=M.+A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrestwich1997" class="citation book cs1">Prestwich, Michael (1997). <i>Edward I</i>. English Monarchs (Revised Second ed.). Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-7209-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-7209-9"><bdi>978-0-3000-7209-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL704063M">704063M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+I&rft.series=English+Monarchs&rft.edition=Revised+Second&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL704063M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-7209-9&rft.aulast=Prestwich&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsay1908" class="citation book cs1">Ramsay, James Hill (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJwgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA82">"Henry III, A.D. 1237–1241"</a>. <i>The Dawn of the Constitution or The Reigns of Henry III and Edward I (A.D. 1216 – 1307)</i>. The Scholar's History of England: Volume IV. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">82–</span>83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Henry+III%2C+A.D.+1237%E2%80%931241&rft.btitle=The+Dawn+of+the+Constitution+or+The+Reigns+of+Henry+III+and+Edward+I+%28A.D.+1216+%E2%80%93+1307%29&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+Scholar%27s+History+of+England%3A+Volume+IV&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E82-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.pub=Swan+Sonnenschein+%26+Co.&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Ramsay&rft.aufirst=James+Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFJwgAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobisonFritze1996" class="citation book cs1">Robison, William; Fritze, Ronald H. (1996). <i>Historical Dictionary of Stuart England, 1603–1689</i>. Greenwood Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313283918" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313283918"><bdi>978-0313283918</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Stuart+England%2C+1603%E2%80%931689&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0313283918&rft.aulast=Robison&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Fritze%2C+Ronald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollason2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Rollason" title="David Rollason">Rollason, David W.</a> (2003). <i>Northumbria, 500 – 1100: Creation and Destruction of a Kingdom</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81335-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81335-2"><bdi>0-521-81335-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northumbria%2C+500+%E2%80%93+1100%3A+Creation+and+Destruction+of+a+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-81335-2&rft.aulast=Rollason&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeward1978" class="citation book cs1">Seward, Desmond (1978). <i>The Hundred Years War: The English in France, 1337–1453</i>. New York: Atheneum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hundred+Years+War%3A+The+English+in+France%2C+1337%E2%80%931453&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atheneum&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Seward&rft.aufirst=Desmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStenton1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Stenton" title="Frank Stenton">Stenton, Frank</a> (1971). <i>Anglo-Saxon England</i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280139-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280139-5"><bdi>978-0-19-280139-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280139-5&rft.aulast=Stenton&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTroost2005" class="citation book cs1">Troost, Wout (2005). <i>William III, The Stadholder-king: A Political Biography</i>. Translated by J. C. Grayson. Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-5071-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-5071-5"><bdi>0-7546-5071-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+III%2C+The+Stadholder-king%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7546-5071-5&rft.aulast=Troost&rft.aufirst=Wout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2009" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Ralph V. (2009). <i>King John: England's Evil King?</i>. Stroud, UK: History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4850-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4850-3"><bdi>978-0-7524-4850-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+John%3A+England%27s+Evil+King%3F&rft.place=Stroud%2C+UK&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-4850-3&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Ralph+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glanmor_Williams" title="Glanmor Williams">Williams, Glanmor</a> (1993). <i>Renewal and reformation : Wales, c.1415–1642</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192852779" title="Special:BookSources/0192852779"><bdi>0192852779</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renewal+and+reformation+%3A+Wales%2C+c.1415%E2%80%931642&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0192852779&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Glanmor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1973" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Neville (1973). <i>The Life and Times of Henry VII</i>. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-76517-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-76517-2"><bdi>978-0-297-76517-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+Henry+VII&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-297-76517-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Neville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillson1963" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Harris_Willson" title="David Harris Willson">Willson, David Harris</a> (1963) [1956], <i>King James VI & I</i>, London: Jonathan Cape, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2246-0572-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2246-0572-4"><bdi>978-0-2246-0572-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+James+VI+%26+I&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-2246-0572-4&rft.aulast=Willson&rft.aufirst=David+Harris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bartlett_(historian)" title="Robert Bartlett (historian)">Bartlett, Robert</a> (2002). <i>England under the Norman and Angevin kings: 1075–1225</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+under+the+Norman+and+Angevin+kings%3A+1075%E2%80%931225&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack1936" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._B._Black" title="J. B. Black">Black, J.B.</a> (1936). <i>The Reign of Elizabeth, 1558–1603</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reign+of+Elizabeth%2C+1558%E2%80%931603&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorman2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tracy_Borman" title="Tracy Borman">Borman, Tracy</a> (2015). <i>Thomas Cromwell: The Untold Story of Henry VIII's Most Faithful Servant</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas+Cromwell%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+Henry+VIII%27s+Most+Faithful+Servant&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Borman&rft.aufirst=Tracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaytonBisson2016" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, F. David Roberts; Bisson, Douglas (2016). <i>A History of England, Volume 1: Prehistory to 1714</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+England%2C+Volume+1%3A+Prehistory+to+1714&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=F.+David+Roberts&rft.au=Bisson%2C+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Elton" title="Geoffrey Elton">Elton, G. R.</a> (1955). <i>England under the Tudors</i>. Methuen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+under+the+Tudors&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=G.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis2014" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Steven G. (2014). <i>Ireland in the age of the Tudors, 1447–1603: English expansion and the end of Gaelic rule</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland+in+the+age+of+the+Tudors%2C+1447%E2%80%931603%3A+English+expansion+and+the+end+of+Gaelic+rule&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Steven+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Guy_(historian)" title="John Guy (historian)">Guy, John</a> (2013). <i>The Tudors: a very short introduction</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tudors%3A+a+very+short+introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Guy&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarriss2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._L._Harriss" title="G. L. Harriss">Harriss, G.L.</a> (2005). <i>Shaping the nation: England 1360–1461</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaping+the+nation%3A+England+1360%E2%80%931461&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Harriss&rft.aufirst=G.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._F._Jacob" title="E. F. Jacob">Jacob, E.F.</a> (1961). <i>The Fifteenth Century, 1399–1485</i>. Oxford History of England.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fifteenth+Century%2C+1399%E2%80%931485&rft.pub=Oxford+History+of+England&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=E.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jenkins_(writer)" title="Elizabeth Jenkins (writer)">Jenkins, Elizabeth</a> (1964). <i>Elizabeth the Great</i>. Time Incorporated.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elizabeth+the+Great&rft.pub=Time+Incorporated&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1989" class="citation book cs1">Jones, J. Gwynfor (1989). <i>Wales and the Tudor state: government, religious change and the social order, 1534–1603</i>. University of Wales Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales+and+the+Tudor+state%3A+government%2C+religious+change+and+the+social+order%2C+1534%E2%80%931603&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=J.+Gwynfor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2013" class="citation book cs1">Levin, Carole (2013). <i>The heart and stomach of a king: Elizabeth I and the politics of sex and power</i>. 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Wiley-Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+nation%3A+England+1450%E2%80%931660&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Loades&rft.aufirst=David+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoades1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Michael_Loades" class="mw-redirect" title="David Michael Loades">Loades, David Michael</a> (1997). <i>Power in Tudor England</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+in+Tudor+England&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Loades&rft.aufirst=David+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCaffrey" class="citation book cs1">McCaffrey, Wallace. <i>Elizabeth I</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elizabeth+I&rft.aulast=McCaffrey&rft.aufirst=Wallace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKisack1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/May_McKisack" title="May McKisack">McKisack, May</a> (1959). <i>The Fourteenth Century, 1307–1399</i>. Oxford History of England.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fourteenth+Century%2C+1307%E2%80%931399&rft.pub=Oxford+History+of+England&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=McKisack&rft.aufirst=May&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeale1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.E._Neale" class="mw-redirect" title="J.E. Neale">Neale, J.E.</a> (1957). <i>Queen Elizabeth I: a biography</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queen+Elizabeth+I%3A+a+biography&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Neale&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenn2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Penn" title="Thomas Penn">Penn, Thomas</a> (2012). <i>Winter king: Henry VII and the dawn of Tudor England</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Winter+king%3A+Henry+VII+and+the+dawn+of+Tudor+England&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Penn&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowicke1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Powicke" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice Powicke">Powicke, Maurice</a> (1962). <i>The Thirteenth Century, 1216–1307</i>. Oxford History of England.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirteenth+Century%2C+1216%E2%80%931307&rft.pub=Oxford+History+of+England&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Powicke&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley1985" class="citation book cs1">Ridley, Jasper G. (1985). <i>Henry VIII</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henry+VIII&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Jasper+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson2014" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, John A.F. (2014). <i>The Transformation of Medieval England 1370–1529</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transformation+of+Medieval+England+1370%E2%80%931529&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=John+A.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Penry_Williams" title="Penry Williams">Williams, Penry</a> (1995). <i>The Later Tudors: England, 1547–1603</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Later+Tudors%3A+England%2C+1547%E2%80%931603&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Penry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+England" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a><br>c. 519–886</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Kingdom of England </b><br>886 – 1649 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/English_Interregnum" class="mw-redirect" title="English Interregnum">English Interregnum</a><br>1649–1660</div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/English_Interregnum" class="mw-redirect" title="English Interregnum">English Interregnum</a><br>1649–1660</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Kingdom of England </b><br>1660–1707 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a><br>1707–1800</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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2025, at 21:08</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkryk_van_Engeland" title="Koninkryk van Engeland – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koninkryk van Engeland" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_England" title="Königreich England – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Königreich England" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0_%D0%90%D2%B3%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Англиа Аҳра – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Англиа Аҳра" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="مملكة إنجلترا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة إنجلترا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_d%27Anglaterra" title="Reino d'Anglaterra – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Reino d'Anglaterra" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_d%27Inglaterra" title="Reinu d'Inglaterra – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu d'Inglaterra" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngilt%C9%99r%C9%99_krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="İngiltərə krallığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İngiltərə krallığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="اینگیلیس شاهلیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اینگیلیس شاهلیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ইংল্যান্ড রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইংল্যান্ড রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eng-l%C3%A2n_%C3%94ng-kok" title="Eng-lân Ông-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Eng-lân Ông-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Каралеўства Англія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каралеўства Англія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Кралство Англия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кралство Англия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouantelezh_Bro-Saoz" title="Rouantelezh Bro-Saoz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouantelezh Bro-Saoz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_d%27Anglaterra" title="Regne d'Anglaterra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne d'Anglaterra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%C4%95%D1%85%C4%95" title="Англи короллĕхĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Англи короллĕхĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglick%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD" title="Anglické království – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anglické království" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyrnas_Lloegr" title="Teyrnas Lloegr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teyrnas Lloegr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriget_England" title="Kongeriget England – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kongeriget England" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_England" title="Königreich England – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Königreich England" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglismaa_kuningriik" title="Inglismaa kuningriik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Inglismaa kuningriik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Βασίλειο της Αγγλίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βασίλειο της Αγγλίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Inglaterra" title="Reino de Inglaterra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Inglaterra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C4%9Dlando_Anglio" title="Reĝlando Anglio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reĝlando Anglio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingalaterrako_Erresuma" title="Ingalaterrako Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingalaterrako Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پادشاهی انگلستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی انگلستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_d%27Angleterre" title="Royaume d'Angleterre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume d'Angleterre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keninkryk_Ingel%C3%A2n" title="Keninkryk Ingelân – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Keninkryk Ingelân" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADocht_Shasana" title="Ríocht Shasana – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríocht Shasana" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reeriaght_Hostyn" title="Reeriaght Hostyn – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Reeriaght Hostyn" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Inglaterra" title="Reino de Inglaterra – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reino de Inglaterra" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%89%EA%B8%80%EB%9E%9C%EB%93%9C_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="잉글랜드 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="잉글랜드 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Անգլիայի թագավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անգլիայի թագավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="इंग्लैण्ड राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इंग्लैण्ड राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Engleska" title="Kraljevina Engleska – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kraljevina Engleska" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Inggris" title="Kerajaan Inggris – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Inggris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konungsr%C3%ADki%C3%B0_England" title="Konungsríkið England – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Konungsríkið England" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_d%27Inghilterra" title="Regno d'Inghilterra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno d'Inghilterra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="ממלכת אנגליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממלכת אנגליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="ინგლისის სამეფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინგლისის სამეფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Англия Патшалығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Англия Патшалығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way%C3%B2m_Anglet%C3%A8" title="Wayòm Angletè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Wayòm Angletè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyaniya_%C3%8Englistan%C3%AA" title="Keyaniya Înglistanê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Keyaniya Înglistanê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnum_Angliae" title="Regnum Angliae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Regnum Angliae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglijas_Karaliste" title="Anglijas Karaliste – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Anglijas Karaliste" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglijos_karalyst%C4%97" title="Anglijos karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Anglijos karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angol_Kir%C3%A1lys%C3%A1g" title="Angol Királyság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Angol Királyság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Кралство Англија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кралство Англија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94" title="ინგლისიშ ომაფე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ინგლისიშ ომაფე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="مملكة انجلترا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مملكة انجلترا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_beraja_England" title="Kerajaan beraja England – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan beraja England" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Английн Вант улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Английн Вант улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkrijk_Engeland" title="Koninkrijk Engeland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koninkrijk Engeland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keuninkriek_Engelaand" title="Keuninkriek Engelaand – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Keuninkriek Engelaand" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="イングランド王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イングランド王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriket_England" title="Kongeriket England – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongeriket England" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriket_England" title="Kongeriket England – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kongeriket England" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%87%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1" title="ਕਿੰਗਡਮ ਆਫ਼ ਇੰਗਲੈਂਡ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਿੰਗਡਮ ਆਫ਼ ਇੰਗਲੈਂਡ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%AA" title="انگلستان بادشاہت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انگلستان بادشاہت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B3lestwo_Anglii" title="Królestwo Anglii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Królestwo Anglii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_da_Inglaterra" title="Reino da Inglaterra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reino da Inglaterra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regatul_Angliei" title="Regatul Angliei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regatul Angliei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Англицке кральовство – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Англицке кральовство" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Королевство Англия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Королевство Англия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinrick_o_Ingland" title="Kinrick o Ingland – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Kinrick o Ingland" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbret%C3%ABria_e_Anglis%C3%AB" title="Mbretëria e Anglisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mbretëria e Anglisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kingdom of England" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%8A_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AA" title="انگلينڊ جي بادشاهت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="انگلينڊ جي بادشاهت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglick%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1%C4%BEovstvo" title="Anglické kráľovstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Anglické kráľovstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Anglija" title="Kraljevina Anglija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kraljevina Anglija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="شانشینی ئینگلتەرا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شانشینی ئینگلتەرا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Краљевство Енглеска – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Краљевство Енглеска" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Engleska" title="Kraljevina Engleska – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kraljevina Engleska" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englannin_kuningaskunta" title="Englannin kuningaskunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Englannin kuningaskunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungariket_England" title="Kungariket England – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kungariket England" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaharian_ng_Inglatera" title="Kaharian ng Inglatera – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kaharian ng Inglatera" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இங்கிலாந்து இராச்சியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இங்கிலாந்து இராச்சியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9" title="ราชอาณาจักรอังกฤษ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชอาณาจักรอังกฤษ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%88%D0%BE%D2%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Подшоҳии Ингилистон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Подшоҳии Ингилистон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngiltere_Krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="İngiltere Krallığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İngiltere Krallığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Королівство Англія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Королівство Англія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مملکت انگلستان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مملکت انگلستان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_d%27Inghiltera" title="Regno d'Inghiltera – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Regno d'Inghiltera" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Anh" title="Vương quốc Anh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương quốc Anh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%A0%BC%E5%85%B0%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="英格兰王国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="英格兰王国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93" title="קעניגרייך פון ענגלאנד – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קעניגרייך פון ענגלאנד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%E1%BA%B9%CC%80-%E1%BB%8Cba_Il%E1%BA%B9%CC%80g%E1%BA%B9%CC%80%E1%BA%B9%CC%81s%C3%AC" title="Ilẹ̀-Ọba Ilẹ̀gẹ̀ẹ́sì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ilẹ̀-Ọba Ilẹ̀gẹ̀ẹ́sì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%80%AB%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="英倫王國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="英倫王國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%A0%BC%E8%98%AD%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="英格蘭王國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英格蘭王國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 February 2025, at 21:08<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li 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13.83% 222.409 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.81% 222.159 53 Template:Cite_book"," 9.88% 158.958 34 Template:Sfn"," 7.29% 117.206 4 Template:Native_name"," 6.19% 99.529 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.84% 93.952 1 Template:History_of_England"," 5.80% 93.250 6 Template:Cite_web"," 5.66% 91.014 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.929","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19741423,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBartlett2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBullSeed1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaytonBisson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglas1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElton1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElton1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaunt1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiles1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrattan1822\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuy2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHMSO1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHackwood1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarriss2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuscroft2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael1989a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael1989b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Daniel_McVey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnston\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJolliffe1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoades1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoades1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCaffrey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKisack1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMock2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeale1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenn2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowicke1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrestwich1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsay1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidley1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobisonFritze1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRollason2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeward1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStenton1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTroost2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillson1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinchester1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright,_L.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYouings1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungs1979\"] = 1,\n [\"nelson\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"-\"] = 1,\n [\"Also\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 4,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"British Isles\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:England, Kingdom Of\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Germanic peoples\"] = 1,\n [\"History of England\"] = 1,\n [\"Indented plainlist\"] = 4,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Kingdom of England\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 10,\n [\"Main\"] = 11,\n [\"Map_caption\"] = 1,\n [\"Middle Ages\"] = 1,\n [\"Native name\"] = 4,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 11,\n [\"Pp-move-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 2,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 2,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 34,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"Spaced ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list/end\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-589ccc94d5-44558","timestamp":"20250219210817","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Kingdom of England","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kingdom_of_England","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q179876","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q179876","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-12-19T13:00:28Z","dateModified":"2025-02-19T21:08:15Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/b\/be\/Flag_of_England.svg","headline":"historic kingdom on the British Isles (927\u20131649; 1660\u20131707)"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var 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