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Régime</i></span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Crisis_of_the_Ancien_Régime-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Crisis of the <i>Ancien Régime</i> subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Crisis_of_the_Ancien_Régime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Financial_and_political_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_and_political_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Financial and political crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_and_political_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estates-General_of_1789" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estates-General_of_1789"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Estates-General of 1789</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estates-General_of_1789-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy_(July_1789_–_September_1792)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_monarchy_(July_1789_–_September_1792)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Constitutional monarchy (July 1789 – September 1792)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Constitutional_monarchy_(July_1789_–_September_1792)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Constitutional monarchy (July 1789 – September 1792) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy_(July_1789_–_September_1792)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_the_Ancien_Régime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_the_Ancien_Régime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Abolition of the <i>Ancien Régime</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_the_Ancien_Régime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creating_a_new_constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creating_a_new_constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Creating a new constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creating_a_new_constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Revolution_and_the_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Revolution_and_the_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The Revolution and the Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Revolution_and_the_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Political divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Varennes_and_after" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varennes_and_after"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Varennes and after</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varennes_and_after-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Fall of the monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Republic_(1792–1795)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Republic_(1792–1795)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>First Republic (1792–1795)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_Republic_(1792–1795)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First Republic (1792–1795) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_Republic_(1792–1795)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_First_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proclamation_of_the_First_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Proclamation of the First Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_First_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_crisis_and_fall_of_the_Girondins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_crisis_and_fall_of_the_Girondins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Political crisis and fall of the Girondins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_crisis_and_fall_of_the_Girondins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Terror" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Terror"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Reign of Terror</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Terror-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermidorian_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermidorian_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Thermidorian reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermidorian_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Directory_(1795–1799)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Directory_(1795–1799)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Directory (1795–1799)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Directory_(1795–1799)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_ideology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_ideology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Role of ideology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_ideology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Revolutionary_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>French Revolutionary Wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Revolutionary_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_and_the_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_and_the_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Slavery and the colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_and_the_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_and_symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_and_symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Media and symbolism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Media_and_symbolism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Media and symbolism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Media_and_symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Newspapers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newspapers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Newspapers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newspapers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Revolutionary symbols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-La_Marseillaise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#La_Marseillaise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>La Marseillaise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-La_Marseillaise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guillotine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guillotine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Guillotine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guillotine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cockade,_tricolore,_and_liberty_cap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cockade,_tricolore,_and_liberty_cap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.3</span> <span>Cockade, <i>tricolore</i>, and liberty cap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cockade,_tricolore,_and_liberty_cap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Role of women</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Role of women subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prominent_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Prominent women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Economic policies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_outside_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_outside_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Europe outside France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_outside_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">French Revolution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 161 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-161" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">161 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franse_Rewolusie" title="Franse Rewolusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Franse Rewolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%C3%B6sische_Revolution" title="Französische Revolution – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Französische Revolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8D%88%E1%88%A8%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD_%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%A5%E1%8B%AE%E1%89%B5" title="የፈረንሳይ አብዮት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የፈረንሳይ አብዮት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="फ़्रांसिसी क्रांति – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="फ़्रांसिसी क्रांति" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenciscu_Onwendung" title="Frenciscu Onwendung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Frenciscu Onwendung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الثورة الفرنسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة الفرنسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_francesa" title="Revolución francesa – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Revolución francesa" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B1" title="ফৰাচী বিপ্লৱ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ফৰাচী বিপ্লৱ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Francesa" title="Revolución Francesa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución Francesa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hy%C3%A3sia_%C3%91epu%27%C3%A3" title="Hyãsia Ñepu'ã – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Hyãsia Ñepu'ã" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Паранс революция – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Паранс революция" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Fransa_inqilab%C4%B1" title="Böyük Fransa inqilabı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük Fransa inqilabı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="بؤیوک فرانسه اینقیلابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بؤیوک فرانسه اینقیلابی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC" title="ফরাসি বিপ্লব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফরাসি বিপ্লব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-kok_Kek-b%C4%93ng" title="Hoat-kok Kek-bēng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-kok Kek-bēng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B9%D3%A9%D0%BA_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D2%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Бөйөк француз инҡилабы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бөйөк француз инҡилабы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Вялікая французская рэвалюцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікая французская рэвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Француская рэвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Француская рэвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="फ्रांसीसी क्रांति – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="फ्रांसीसी क्रांति" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Френска революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Френска революция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franzesische_Revolution" title="Franzesische Revolution – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Franzesische Revolution" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuska_revolucija" title="Francuska revolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Francuska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispac%27h_Gall" title="Dispac'h Gall – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Dispac'h Gall" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Франциин хубисхал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Франциин хубисхал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_Francesa" title="Revolució Francesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució Francesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Францин Аслă революцийĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Францин Аслă революцийĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyong_Pranses" title="Rebolusyong Pranses – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Rebolusyong Pranses" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velk%C3%A1_francouzsk%C3%A1_revoluce" title="Velká francouzská revoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Velká francouzská revoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Chwyldro_Ffrengig" title="Y Chwyldro Ffrengig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Chwyldro Ffrengig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_Franske_Revolution" title="Den Franske Revolution – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den Franske Revolution" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="التورة لفرانساوية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="التورة لفرانساوية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%C3%B6sische_Revolution" title="Französische Revolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Französische Revolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prantsuse_revolutsioon" title="Prantsuse revolutsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Prantsuse revolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Γαλλική Επανάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλλική Επανάσταση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_francesa" title="Revolución francesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución francesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franca_revolucio_de_1789" title="Franca revolucio de 1789 – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Franca revolucio de 1789" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantziako_Iraultza" title="Frantziako Iraultza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Frantziako Iraultza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87" title="انقلاب فرانسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب فرانسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="French Revolution" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_Kollveltingin" title="Franska Kollveltingin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Franska Kollveltingin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Révolution française – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution française" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A2nske_Revol%C3%BAsje" title="Frânske Revolúsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Frânske Revolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzion_francese" title="Rivoluzion francese – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Rivoluzion francese" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9abhl%C3%B3id_na_Fraince" title="Réabhlóid na Fraince – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réabhlóid na Fraince" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bun-chaghlaa_yn_Rank" title="Bun-chaghlaa yn Rank – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Bun-chaghlaa yn Rank" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar-a-mach_na_Frainge" title="Ar-a-mach na Frainge – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ar-a-mach na Frainge" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Francesa" title="Revolución Francesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución Francesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ફ્રાન્સની ક્રાંતિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ફ્રાન્સની ક્રાંતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="프랑스 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프랑스 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ֆրանսիական հեղափոխություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանսիական հեղափոխություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="फ़्रान्सीसी क्रान्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ़्रान्सीसी क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuska_revolucija" title="Francuska revolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Francuska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franca_revoluciono" title="Franca revoluciono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Franca revoluciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranses_a_Rebolusion" title="Pranses a Rebolusion – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pranses a Rebolusion" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Prancis" title="Revolusi Prancis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Prancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution_francese" title="Revolution francese – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Revolution francese" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%A9s_Revolution" title="Francés Revolution – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Francés Revolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_byltingin" title="Franska byltingin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Franska byltingin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_francese" title="Rivoluzione francese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione francese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="המהפכה הצרפתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המהפכה הצרפתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Prancis" title="Revolusi Prancis – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Revolusi Prancis" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C9%A9%C9%A9_t%C9%9B_kp%C9%9Bl%C9%A9_l%C9%9Bz%CA%8A%CA%8A" title="Fransɩɩ tɛ kpɛlɩ lɛzʊʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Fransɩɩ tɛ kpɛlɩ lɛzʊʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಫ್ರೆಂಚ್ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಫ್ರೆಂಚ್ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Уллу француз революция – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Уллу француз революция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="საფრანგეთის რევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საფრანგეთის რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%90%D9%86%D9%82%D9%90%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%9B%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%9B%D8%B3" title="اِنقِلاب فرٛانٛس – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="اِنقِلاب فرٛانٛس" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D1%82%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96" title="Француз төңкерісі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Француз төңкерісі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domhwelans_Frynkek" title="Domhwelans Frynkek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Domhwelans Frynkek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapinduzi_ya_Ufaransa" title="Mapinduzi ya Ufaransa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mapinduzi ya Ufaransa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francafa_Artowara" title="Francafa Artowara – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Francafa Artowara" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolisyon_franse" title="Revolisyon franse – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Revolisyon franse" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volousyon_frans%C3%A8z" title="Révolousyon fransèz – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Révolousyon fransèz" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eore%C5%9Fa_Fransay%C3%AA" title="Şoreşa Fransayê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şoreşa Fransayê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluziun_franzeja" title="Revoluziun franzeja – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Revoluziun franzeja" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%9D%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%87" title="ການປະຕິວັດຝະລັ່ງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ການປະຕິວັດຝະລັ່ງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_novae_Francicae" title="Res novae Francicae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Res novae Francicae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C4%8Du_revol%C5%ABcija" title="Franču revolūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Franču revolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C3%A9isch_Revolutioun" title="Franséisch Revolutioun – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Franséisch Revolutioun" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D3%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1" title="ЧӀехи Француз инкъилаб – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="ЧӀехи Француз инкъилаб" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Did%C5%BEioji_Pranc%C5%ABzijos_revoliucija" title="Didžioji Prancūzijos revoliucija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Didžioji Prancūzijos revoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivolu%C3%A7ion_fran%C3%A7eize" title="Rivoluçion françeize – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Rivoluçion françeize" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franse_Rivvelutie" title="Franse Rivvelutie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Franse Rivvelutie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolui_Franses" title="Revolui Franses – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Revolui Franses" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluzion_francesa" title="Revoluzion francesa – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Revoluzion francesa" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_forradalom" title="Francia forradalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Francia forradalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Француска револуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Француска револуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%9E%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="ഫ്രഞ്ച് വിപ്ലവം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫ്രഞ്ച് വിപ്ലവം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzzjoni_Fran%C4%8Bi%C5%BCa" title="Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="फ्रेंच राज्यक्रांती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फ्रेंच राज्यक्रांती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="საფრანგეთიშ რევოლუცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="საფრანგეთიშ რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الثوره الفرنساويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الثوره الفرنساويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fer%C3%A4nse_gat_%C4%B1nq%C4%B1lab" title="Feränse gat ınqılab – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="Feränse gat ınqılab" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Perancis" title="Revolusi Perancis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Revolusi Perancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolu%C3%A7on_Francesa" title="Reboluçon Francesa – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Reboluçon Francesa" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Францын хувьсгал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Францын хувьсгал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BE%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="ပြင်သစ် တော်လှန်ရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပြင်သစ် တော်လှန်ရေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franse_Revolutie" title="Franse Revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Franse Revolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="फ्रान्सेली राज्यक्रान्ति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फ्रान्सेली राज्यक्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="फ्रेञ्च क्रान्ति – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="फ्रेञ्च क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="フランス革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フランス革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivuluzzione_franzesa" title="Rivuluzzione franzesa – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Rivuluzzione franzesa" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%8C_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Сийлахь французийн революци – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Сийлахь французийн революци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C3%B6%C3%B6sk_Rewolutsion" title="Fransöösk Rewolutsion – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Fransöösk Rewolutsion" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_franske_revolusjon" title="Den franske revolusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den franske revolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_franske_revolusjonen" title="Den franske revolusjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den franske revolusjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucion_Francesa" title="Revolucion Francesa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Revolucion Francesa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyuk_fransuz_inqilobi" title="Buyuk fransuz inqilobi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Buyuk fransuz inqilobi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="ਫ਼ਰਾਂਸੀਸੀ ਇਨਕ਼ਲਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫ਼ਰਾਂਸੀਸੀ ਇਨਕ਼ਲਾਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="انقلاب فرانس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انقلاب فرانس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolushon_Franses" title="Revolushon Franses – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Revolushon Franses" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="د فرانسې انقلاب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د فرانسې انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revaluushan" title="French Revaluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="French Revaluushan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volucion_francho%C3%A8se" title="Révolucion franchoèse – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Révolucion franchoèse" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivolussion_frans%C3%A8isa" title="Rivolussion fransèisa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Rivolussion fransèisa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%C3%B6%C3%B6sche_Revolutschoon" title="Franzöösche Revolutschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Franzöösche Revolutschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolucja_francuska" title="Rewolucja francuska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rewolucja francuska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Francesa" title="Revolução Francesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução Francesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuz_k%C3%B3terilisi" title="Francuz kóterilisi – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Francuz kóterilisi" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_frenk_inqil%C3%A2b%C4%B1" title="Büyük frenk inqilâbı – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Büyük frenk inqilâbı" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_Francez%C4%83" title="Revoluția Franceză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluția Franceză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluziun_franzosa" title="Revoluziun franzosa – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Revoluziun franzosa" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Велика французьска револуція – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Велика французьска револуція" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Великая французская революция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Великая французская революция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Франция Улуу Революцията – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Франция Улуу Революцията" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivolutzione_frantzesa" title="Rivolutzione frantzesa – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Rivolutzione frantzesa" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="French Revolution" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni_Francez" title="Revolucioni Francez – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Revolucioni Francez" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivuluzzioni_francisa" title="Rivuluzzioni francisa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Rivuluzzioni francisa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රංශ විප්ලවය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රංශ විප්ලවය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="French Revolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="فرانسيسي انقلاب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فرانسيسي انقلاب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C4%BEk%C3%A1_franc%C3%BAzska_revol%C3%BAcia" title="Veľká francúzska revolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veľká francúzska revolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francoska_revolucija" title="Francoska revolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Francoska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko_rewolucyja" title="Francusko rewolucyja – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Francusko rewolucyja" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%95%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%81%DB%95%DA%95%DB%95%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7" title="شۆڕشی فەڕەنسا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شۆڕشی فەڕەنسا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Француска револуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Француска револуција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuska_revolucija" title="Francuska revolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Francuska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranskan_suuri_vallankumous" title="Ranskan suuri vallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ranskan suuri vallankumous" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_revolutionen" title="Franska revolutionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Franska revolutionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himagsikang_Pranses" title="Himagsikang Pranses – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Himagsikang Pranses" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="பிரெஞ்சுப் புரட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரெஞ்சுப் புரட்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Бөек француз инкыйлабы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бөек француз инкыйлабы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="ఫ్రెంచ్ విప్లవం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఫ్రెంచ్ విప్లవం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%AA" title="การปฏิวัติฝรั่งเศส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิวัติฝรั่งเศส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C4%B1z_Devrimi" title="Fransız Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fransız Devrimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Французька революція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Французька революція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="انقلاب فرانس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انقلاب فرانس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazgoz_daihgwzming" title="Fazgoz daihgwzming – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Fazgoz daihgwzming" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revo%C5%82usion_franseza" title="Revołusion franseza – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Revołusion franseza" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur%27_francine_revol%C3%BCcii" title="Sur' francine revolücii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Sur' francine revolücii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BA%A1ng_Ph%C3%A1p" title="Cách mạng Pháp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cách mạng Pháp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suur_Prantsus%C3%B5_riigip%C3%B6%C3%B6req" title="Suur Prantsusõ riigipööreq – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Suur Prantsusõ riigipööreq" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucion_francesse" title="Revolucion francesse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Revolucion francesse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransche_Revoluusje" title="Fransche Revoluusje – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Fransche Revoluusje" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyon_Pranses" title="Rebolusyon Pranses – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rebolusyon Pranses" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="法國大革命 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="法國大革命" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פראנצויזישע רעוואלוציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פראנצויזישע רעוואלוציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cj%C3%ADd%C3%ACde_Fr%C3%A1ns%C3%AC" title="Ìjídìde Fránsì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìjídìde Fránsì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="法國大革命 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="法國大革命" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%97dliuoj%C4%97_Pranc%C5%ABzu_revoliuc%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Dėdliuojė Prancūzu revoliucėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Dėdliuojė Prancūzu revoliucėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="法国大革命 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="法国大革命" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Revolution in France from 1789 to 1799</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="French Revolution (disambiguation)">French Revolution (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">French Revolution</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/240px-Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/360px-Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/480px-Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8332" data-file-height="6571" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a>, 14 July 1789</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">5 May 1789 – 9 November 1799<br />(10 years, 6 months, and 4 days)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_abolition_of_the_monarchy" title="Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy">Abolition</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime">Ancien régime</a></i> and creation of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Cabinet_of_Louis_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI">constitutional monarchy</a></li> <li>Proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> in September 1792</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">execution of Louis XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a></li> <li>Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a> in November 1799</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>French Revolution</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Révolution française</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʁevɔlysjɔ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>fʁɑ̃sɛːz]</a></span>) was a period of political and societal change in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> that began with the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Estates General of 1789</a>, and ended with the <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">coup of 18 Brumaire</a> in November 1799 and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a>. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELivesey200119_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELivesey200119-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while its values and institutions remain central to modern French political discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">The causes of the revolution</a> were a combination of social, political, and economic factors which the <i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime">ancien régime</a></i> ("old regime") proved unable to manage. A financial crisis and widespread social distress led to the convocation of the Estates General in May 1789, its first meeting since 1614. The representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Third Estate</a> broke away, and re-constituted themselves as a <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> in June. The <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> on 14 July was followed by a series of radical measures by the Assembly, among them the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">abolition of feudalism</a>, state control over the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_France" title="Catholic Church in France">Catholic Church</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">declaration of rights</a>. The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, and military defeats following the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a> in April 1792 led to an <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">insurrection on 10 August</a>. The monarchy was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> in September, and <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Louis XVI was executed</a> in January 1793. </p><p>After another <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May_%E2%80%93_2_June_1793" title="Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793">revolt in June 1793</a>, the constitution was suspended, and adequate political power passed from the <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a>, led by the <a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a>. About 16,000 people were executed in what was later referred to as <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">ended in July 1794</a>. Weakened by external threats and internal opposition, the Republic was replaced in 1795 by the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a>, and four years later, in 1799, the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a> seized power in a <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">military coup</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> on 9 November. This event is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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class="fn org label">France</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG" class="mw-file-description" title="Carte de France dressée pour l'usage du Roy. Delisle Guillaume (1721)"><img alt="Carte de France dressée pour l'usage du Roy. Delisle Guillaume (1721)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/250px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/375px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/500px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="965" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_France#Ancient_history" title="History of France">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 600 BC – 49 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">   until 50 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 50 BC – 486 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> settlement</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 481–751</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 751–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 843–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1792</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Direct Capetians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1328</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois_(direct)" title="House of Valois">Valois</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1328–1498</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans" title="House of Valois">Valois-Orléans kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1498–1515</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans-Angoulême" title="House of Valois">Valois-Angoulême kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1515–1589</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1589–1792</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long 19th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1789–1799</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1791–1792</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1792–1804</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1804–1814</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1814–1830</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1830–1848</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1848–1852</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1852–1870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1871–1914</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">20th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Interwar_France" title="Interwar France">Interwar period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1939</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940–1944</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1944–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1958</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1958–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_health_care_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_France" title="Legal history of France">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_France" title="LGBTQ history in France">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_France" title="History of medicine in France">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs" title="List of French monarchs">Monarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_royal_consorts" title="List of French royal consorts">Consorts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_France" title="Political history of France">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in France">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in France">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in France">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_France" title="Territorial evolution of France">Territory</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/16px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/24px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a> <b>·</b> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Template:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes of the French Revolution</a></div> <p>The Revolution resulted from multiple long-term and short-term factors, culminating in a social, economic, financial and political crisis in the late 1780s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015100_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015100-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20154_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20154-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined with resistance to reform by the ruling <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a>, and indecisive policy by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a> and his ministers, the result was a crisis the state was unable to manage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1978279–303_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1978279–303-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan200411–12_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan200411–12-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1715 and 1789, the French population grew from 21 to 28 million, 20% of whom lived in towns or cities, Paris alone having over 600,000 inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20156–7_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20156–7-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was accompanied by a tripling in the size of the middle class, which comprised almost 10% of the population by 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay201524,_31_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay201524,_31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite increases in overall prosperity, its benefits were largely restricted to the rentier and mercantile classes, while the living standards fell for wage labourers and peasant farmers who rented their land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201332–33_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201332–33-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20158–10_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20158–10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic recession from 1785, combined with bad harvests in 1787 and 1788, led to high unemployment and food prices, causing a financial and political crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015104_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015104-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20155,_14–17_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20155,_14–17-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETilly1983337_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETilly1983337-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the state also experienced a debt crisis, the level of debt itself was not high compared with Britain's.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir198998_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir198998-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant problem was that tax rates varied widely from one region to another, were often different from the official amounts, and collected inconsistently. Its complexity meant uncertainty over the amount contributed by any authorised tax caused resentment among all taxpayers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChanel201568_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChanel201568-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts to simplify the system were blocked by the regional <i><a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parlements</a></i> which approved financial policy. The resulting impasse led to the calling of the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Estates General of 1789</a>, which became radicalised by the struggle for control of public finances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir198996_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir198996-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Louis XVI was willing to consider reforms, but often backed down when faced with opposition from conservative elements within the nobility. <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> critiques of social institutions were widely discussed among the educated French elite. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and the European revolts of the 1780s inspired public debate on issues such as patriotism, liberty, equality, and democracy. These shaped the response of the educated public to the crisis, <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJourdan201594–104_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJourdan201594–104-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while scandals such as the <a href="/wiki/Affair_of_the_Diamond_Necklace" title="Affair of the Diamond Necklace">Affair of the Diamond Necklace</a> fuelled widespread anger at the court, nobility, and church officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith201550–51_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith201550–51-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crisis_of_the_Ancien_Régime"><span id="Crisis_of_the_Ancien_R.C3.A9gime"></span>Crisis of the <i>Ancien Régime</i></h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_(fr).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_%28fr%29.png/220px-Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_%28fr%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_%28fr%29.png/330px-Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_%28fr%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_%28fr%29.png/440px-Parliaments_and_Sovereign_Councils_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_in_1789_%28fr%29.png 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption>The regional <i>Parlements</i> in 1789; note area covered by the <a href="/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris" title="Parlement of Paris">Parlement of Paris</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_and_political_crisis">Financial and political crisis</h3></div> <p>France faced a series of budgetary crises during the 18th century, as revenues failed to keep pace with expenditure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201336_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201336-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESargentVelde1995485,_490–491_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESargentVelde1995485,_490–491-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the economy grew solidly, the increase was not reflected in a proportional growth in taxes,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201336_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201336-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> their collection being contracted to <a href="/wiki/Farm_(revenue_leasing)" title="Farm (revenue leasing)">tax farmers</a> who kept much of it as personal profit. As the nobility and Church benefited from many exemptions, the tax burden fell mainly on peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESargentVelde1995483–485_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESargentVelde1995483–485-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reform was difficult because new tax laws had to be registered with regional judicial bodies or <i><a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">parlements</a></i> that were able to block them. The king could impose laws by decree, but this risked open conflict with the <i>parlements</i>, the nobility, and those subject to new taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESargentVelde1995482–483_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESargentVelde1995482–483-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France primarily funded the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">Anglo-French War</a> of 1778–1783 through loans. Following the peace, the monarchy borrowed heavily, culminating in a debt crisis. By 1788, half of state revenue was required to service its debt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201338_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201338-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1786, the French finance minister, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Calonne</a>, proposed a package of reforms including a universal land tax, the abolition of grain controls and internal tariffs, and new provincial assemblies appointed by the king. The new taxes, however, were rejected, first by a hand-picked <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Notables" title="Assembly of Notables">Assembly of Notables</a> dominated by the nobility, then by the <i>parlements</i> when submitted by Calonne's successor <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Brienne</a>. The notables and <i>parlements</i> argued that the proposed taxes could only be approved by an Estates-General, a representative body that had last met in 1614.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199069–76_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199069–76-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conflict between the Crown and the <i>parlements</i> became a national political crisis. Both sides issued a series of public statements, the government arguing that it was combating privilege and the <i>parlement</i> defending the ancient rights of the nation. Public opinion was firmly on the side of the <i>parlements</i>, and riots broke out in several towns. Brienne's attempts to raise new loans failed, and on 8 August 1788, he announced that the king would summon an Estates-General to convene the following May. Brienne resigned and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Necker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199075–85_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199075–85-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1788, the Parlement of Paris ruled that the Estates-General should convene in the same form as in 1614, meaning that the three estates (the clergy, nobility, and Third Estate or "commons") would meet and vote separately, with votes counted by estate rather than by head. As a result, the clergy and nobility could combine to outvote the Third Estate despite representing less than 5% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989115_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989115-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199088_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199088-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the relaxation of censorship and laws against political clubs, a group of liberal nobles and middle class activists, known as the Society of Thirty, launched a campaign for the doubling of Third Estate representation and individual voting. The public debate saw an average of 25 new political pamphlets published a week from 25 September 1788.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban1963135_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban1963135-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a> issued influential <a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3F" title="What Is the Third Estate?">pamphlets</a> denouncing the privilege of the clergy and nobility, and arguing the Third Estate represented the nation and should sit alone as a National Assembly. Activists such as <a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Mounier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Barnave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> organised regional meetings, petitions and literature in support of these demands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199089–96_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199089–96-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December, the king agreed to double the representation of the Third Estate, but left the question of counting votes for the Estates-General to decide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199093_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199093-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estates-General_of_1789">Estates-General of 1789</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Estates General of 1789 in France">Estates General of 1789 in France</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Troisordres.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Troisordres.jpg/180px-Troisordres.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Troisordres.jpg/270px-Troisordres.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Troisordres.jpg/360px-Troisordres.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="1424" /></a><figcaption>Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back</figcaption></figure> <p>The Estates-General contained three separate bodies, the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm#First_Estate" title="Estates of the realm">First Estate</a> representing 100,000 clergy, the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm#Second_Estate" title="Estates of the realm">Second</a> the nobility, and the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm#Third_Estate" title="Estates of the realm">Third</a> the "commons".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunt19846–10_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt19846–10-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since each met separately, and any proposals had to be approved by at least two, the First and Second Estates could outvote the Third despite representing less than 5% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989115_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989115-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_France" title="Catholic Church in France">Catholic Church in France</a> owned nearly 10% of all land, as well as receiving annual <a href="/wiki/Tithes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tithes">tithes</a> paid by peasants,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199059_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199059-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> three-quarters of the 303 clergy elected were parish priests, many of whom earned less than unskilled labourers and had more in common with their poor parishioners than with the bishops of the first estate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199099_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199099-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989350–352_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989350–352-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Second Estate elected 322 deputies, representing about 400,000 men and women, who owned about 25% of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their tenants. Most delegates were town-dwelling members of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nobles_of_the_Sword" title="Nobles of the Sword">noblesse d'épée</a></i>, or traditional aristocracy. Courtiers and representatives of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Nobles_of_the_robe" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobles of the robe">noblesse de robe</a></i></span> (those who derived rank from judicial or administrative posts) were underrepresented.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle199099–100_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle199099–100-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the 610 deputies of the Third Estate, about two-thirds held legal qualifications and almost half were venal office holders. Less than 100 were in trade or industry and none were peasants or artisans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990100–101_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990100–101-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To assist delegates, each region completed a list of grievances, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Cahiers_de_dol%C3%A9ances" title="Cahiers de doléances">Cahiers de doléances</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey20044–5_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreyFrey20044–5-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tax inequality and <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">seigneurial</a> dues (feudal payments owed to landowners) headed the grievances in the <i>cahiers de doleances</i> for the estate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201339_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201339-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 5 May 1789, the Estates-General convened at <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a>. Necker outlined the state budget and reiterated the king's decision that each estate should decide on which matters it would agree to meet and vote in common with the other estates. On the following day, each estate was to separately verify the credentials of their representatives. The Third Estate, however, voted to invite the other estates to join them in verifying all the representatives of the Estates-General in common and to agree that votes should be counted by head. Fruitless negotiations lasted to 12 June when the Third Estate began verifying its own members. On 17 June, the Third Estate declared itself to be the National Assembly of France and that all existing taxes were illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990101–105_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990101–105-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within two days, more than 100 members of the clergy had joined them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989355_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989355-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/220px-Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/330px-Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/440px-Serment_du_Jeu_de_Paume_-_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5004" data-file-height="3303" /></a><figcaption><i>Le Serment du Jeu de paume</i> by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1791</span>), depicting the <a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">Tennis Court Oath</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Shaken by this challenge to his authority, the king agreed to a reform package that he would announce at a Royal Session of the Estates-General. The <i>Salle des États</i> was closed to prepare for the joint session, but the members of the Estates-General were not informed in advance. On 20 June, when the members of the Third Estate found their meeting place closed, they moved to a nearby tennis court and <a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">swore</a> not to disperse until a new constitution had been agreed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990105–106_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990105–106-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the Royal Session the king announced a series of tax and other reforms and stated that no new taxes or loans would be implemented without the consent of the Estates-General. However, he stated that the three estates were sacrosanct and it was up to each estate to agree to end their privileges and decide on which matters they would vote in common with the other estates. At the end of the session the Third Estate refused to leave the hall and reiterated their oath not to disperse until a constitution had been agreed. Over the next days more members of the clergy joined the National Assembly. On 27 June, faced with popular demonstrations and mutinies in his <a href="/wiki/French_Guards_Regiment" title="French Guards Regiment">French Guards</a>, Louis XVI capitulated. He commanded the members of the first and second estates to join the third in the National Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990106–108_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990106–108-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitutional_monarchy_(July_1789_–_September_1792)"><span id="Constitutional_monarchy_.28July_1789_.E2.80.93_September_1792.29"></span>Constitutional monarchy (July 1789 – September 1792)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition_of_the_Ancien_Régime"><span id="Abolition_of_the_Ancien_R.C3.A9gime"></span>Abolition of the <i>Ancien Régime</i></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a></div> <p>Even the limited reforms the king had announced went too far for Marie Antoinette and Louis' younger brother the <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Comte d'Artois</a>. On their advice, Louis dismissed Necker again as chief minister on 11 July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989357–358_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989357–358-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 12 July, the Assembly went into a non-stop session after rumours circulated he was planning to use the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Guards" title="Swiss Guards">Swiss Guards</a> to force it to close. The news brought crowds of protestors into the streets, and soldiers of the elite <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Gardes_Fran%C3%A7aises" class="mw-redirect" title="Gardes Françaises">Gardes Françaises</a></i></span> regiment refused to disperse them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989380–382_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989380–382-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the 14th, many of these soldiers joined the mob in attacking the <a href="/wiki/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</a>, a royal fortress with large stores of arms and ammunition. Its governor, <a href="/wiki/Bernard-Ren%C3%A9_de_Launay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard-René de Launay">Bernard-René de Launay</a>, surrendered after several hours of fighting that cost the lives of 83 attackers. Taken to the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville,_Paris" title="Hôtel de Ville, Paris">Hôtel de Ville</a></i></span>, he was executed, his head placed on a pike and paraded around the city; the fortress was then torn down in a remarkably short time. Although rumoured to hold many prisoners, the Bastille held only seven: four forgers, a lunatic, a failed assassin, and a deviant nobleman. Nevertheless, as a potent symbol of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></span>, its destruction was viewed as a triumph and <a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a> is still celebrated every year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989404–405_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989404–405-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In French culture, some see its fall as the start of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson201629_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson201629-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/220px-Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/330px-Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/440px-Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8133" data-file-height="6181" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> on 14 July 1789; the iconic event of the Revolution, still commemorated each year as <a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Alarmed by the prospect of losing control of the capital, Louis appointed the <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Marquis de Lafayette</a> commander of the <a href="/wiki/Garde_Nationale" class="mw-redirect" title="Garde Nationale">National Guard</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Jean-Sylvain_Bailly" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Sylvain Bailly">Jean-Sylvain Bailly</a> as head of a new administrative structure known as the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune_(French_Revolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Commune (French Revolution)">Commune</a>. On 17 July, Louis visited Paris accompanied by 100 deputies, where he was greeted by Bailly and accepted a <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">tricolore</a> <a href="/wiki/Cockade" title="Cockade">cockade</a> to loud cheers. However, it was clear power had shifted from his court; he was welcomed as 'Louis XVI, father of the French and king of a free people.'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989423–424_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989423–424-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The short-lived unity enforced on the Assembly by a common threat quickly dissipated. Deputies argued over constitutional forms, while civil authority rapidly deteriorated. On 22 July, former Finance Minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Foullon_de_Dou%C3%A9" title="Joseph Foullon de Doué">Joseph Foullon</a> and his son were lynched by a Parisian mob, and neither Bailly nor Lafayette could prevent it. In rural areas, wild rumours and paranoia resulted in the formation of militia and an agrarian insurrection known as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Great_Fear" title="Great Fear">la Grande Peur</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHibbert198293_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHibbert198293-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The breakdown of law and order and frequent attacks on aristocratic property led much of the nobility to flee abroad. These <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré">émigrés</a></i> funded reactionary forces within France and urged foreign monarchs to back a <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolution">counter-revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELefebvre1962187–188_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELefebvre1962187–188-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response, the Assembly published the <a href="/wiki/August_Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="August Decrees">August Decrees</a> which <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">abolished feudalism</a>. Over 25% of French farmland was subject to <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">feudal dues</a>, providing the nobility with most of their income; these were now cancelled, along with church tithes. While their former tenants were supposed to pay them compensation, collecting it proved impossible, and the obligation was annulled in 1793.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForster196771–86_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForster196771–86-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other decrees included equality before the law, opening public office to all, freedom of worship, and cancellation of special privileges held by provinces and towns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELefebvre1962130_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELefebvre1962130-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the suspension of the 13 regional <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">parlements</i></span> in November, the key institutional pillars of the old regime had all been abolished in less than four months. From its early stages, the Revolution therefore displayed signs of its radical nature; what remained unclear was the constitutional mechanism for turning intentions into practical applications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989112_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989112-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creating_a_new_constitution">Creating a new constitution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Revolutions" title="Category:Revolutions">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Political revolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="French Revolution"><img alt="French Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/250px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/375px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/500px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5946" data-file-height="4771" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By class</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_revolution" title="Democratic revolution">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By other characteristic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_from_above" title="Revolution from above">From above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_revolution" title="Passive revolution">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_revolution" title="Permanent revolution">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">Civil disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentious_politics" title="Contentious politics">Contentious politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">Coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">Mass mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">Resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Disobedience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">Terror</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Examples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Revolution" title="English Revolution">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Revolution" title="Liège Revolution">Liège</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">1830</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_unification" title="Bulgarian unification">Bulgarian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine</a></li> <li>Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">1917–1923</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese Revolution of 1932">Siamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bureaucratic_revolution" title="Anti-bureaucratic revolution">Yogurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Bulldozer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Revolution_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_revolution" title="Tunisian revolution">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 2011">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_revolution" title="Yemeni revolution">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Arab_Spring" title="Second Arab Spring">Second Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_revolution" title="Sudanese revolution">Sudanese</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>On 9 July, the National Assembly appointed a committee to draft a constitution and statement of rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201458_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201458-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twenty drafts were submitted, which were used by a sub-committee to create a <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a> being the most prominent member.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201477–84_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201477–84-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Declaration was approved by the Assembly and published on 26 August as a statement of principle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1994154–196_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1994154–196-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Assembly now concentrated on the constitution itself. <a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Mounier</a> and his monarchist supporters advocated a <a href="/wiki/Bicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral">bicameral</a> system, with an <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">upper house</a> appointed by the king, who would also have the right to appoint ministers and veto legislation. On 10 September, the majority of the Assembly, led by Sieyès and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a>, voted in favour of a single body, and the following day approved a "<a href="/wiki/Suspensive_veto" class="mw-redirect" title="Suspensive veto">suspensive veto</a>" for the king, meaning Louis could delay implementation of a law, but not block it indefinitely. In October, the Assembly voted to restrict political rights, including voting rights, to "active citizens", defined as French males over the age of 25 who paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour. The remainder were designated "passive citizens", restricted to "civil rights", a distinction opposed by a significant minority, including the <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_club" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin club">Jacobin clubs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudwikowski1990456–457_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudwikowski1990456–457-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014106–107_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014106–107-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By mid-1790, the main elements of a constitutional monarchy were in place, although the constitution was not accepted by Louis until 1791.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014103_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014103-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Food shortages and the worsening economy caused frustration at the lack of progress, and led to popular unrest in Paris. This came to a head in late September 1789, when the Flanders Regiment arrived in Versailles to reinforce the royal bodyguard, and were welcomed with a formal banquet as was common practice. The radical press described this as a 'gluttonous orgy', and claimed the tricolour cockade had been abused, while the Assembly viewed their arrival as an attempt to intimidate them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989459–460_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989459–460-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 5 October, crowds of women assembled outside the <i><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville,_Paris" title="Hôtel de Ville, Paris">Hôtel de Ville</a></i>, agitating against high food prices and shortages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990121_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990121-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These protests quickly turned political, and after seizing weapons stored at the <i>Hôtel de Ville,</i> some 7,000 of them <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles" title="Women's March on Versailles">marched on Versailles</a>, where they entered the Assembly to present their demands. They were followed to Versailles by 15,000 members of the National Guard under Lafayette, who was virtually "a prisoner of his own troops".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989460–463_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989460–463-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the National Guard arrived later that evening, Lafayette persuaded Louis the safety of his family required their relocation to Paris. Next morning, some of the protestors broke into the royal apartments, searching for Marie Antoinette, who escaped. They ransacked the palace, killing several guards. Order was eventually restored, and the royal family and Assembly left for Paris, escorted by the National Guard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990122_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990122-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis had announced his acceptance of the August Decrees and the Declaration, and his official title changed from 'King of France' to 'King of the French'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989465,_470_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989465,_470-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Revolution_and_the_Church">The Revolution and the Church</h3></div> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/John_McManners" title="John McManners">John McManners</a> argues "in eighteenth-century France, throne and altar were commonly spoken of as in close alliance; their simultaneous collapse ... would one day provide the final proof of their interdependence." One suggestion is that after a century of persecution, some <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">French Protestants</a> actively supported an anti-Catholic regime, a resentment fuelled by Enlightenment thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECenserHunt200116_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECenserHunt200116-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, considered a philosophical founder of the revolution,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarrard201237_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrard201237-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossHoltermannBindreiter2019323_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossHoltermannBindreiter2019323-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauritsenThorup2011100_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauritsenThorup2011100-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote it was "manifestly contrary to the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">law of nature</a>... that a handful of people should gorge themselves with superfluities, while the hungry multitude goes in want of necessities."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuntMartinRosenwein2003625_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuntMartinRosenwein2003625-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg/220px-Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg/330px-Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg/440px-Decret_de_l%27Assembl%C3%A9e_National_qui_supprime_les_Ordres_Religieux_et_Religieuses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3948" data-file-height="2888" /></a><figcaption>In this caricature, monks and nuns enjoy their new freedom after the decree of 16 February 1790.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Catholic Church to the state; although the extent of religious belief has been questioned, elimination of tolerance for religious minorities meant by 1789 being French also meant being Catholic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBetros201016–21_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBetros201016–21-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The church was the largest individual landowner in France, controlling nearly 10% of all estates and levied <a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">tithes</a>, effectively a 10% tax on income, collected from peasant farmers in the form of crops. In return, it provided a minimal level of social support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECenserHunt20014_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECenserHunt20014-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The August decrees abolished tithes, and on 2 November the Assembly confiscated all church property, the value of which was used to back a new paper currency known as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Assignats" class="mw-redirect" title="Assignats">assignats</a></i></span>. In return, the state assumed responsibilities such as paying the clergy and caring for the poor, the sick and the orphaned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcManners196927_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcManners196927-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 13 February 1790, religious orders and <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a> were dissolved, while <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a> were encouraged to return to private life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECenserHunt200192_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECenserHunt200192-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">Civil Constitution of the Clergy</a> of 12 July 1790 made them employees of the state, as well as establishing rates of pay and a system for electing priests and bishops. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a> and many French Catholics objected to this since it denied the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a> over the French Church. In October, thirty <a href="/wiki/Bishop_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop (Catholic Church)">bishops</a> wrote a declaration denouncing the law, further fuelling opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman201358–87_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman201358–87-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When clergy were required to swear loyalty to the Civil Constitution in November 1790, it split the church between the 24% who complied, and the majority who refused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1989151_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1989151-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stiffened popular resistance against state interference, especially in traditionally Catholic areas such as <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brittany_(administrative_region)" title="Brittany (administrative region)">Brittany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendée</a>, where only a few priests took the oath and the civilian population turned against the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman201358–87_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman201358–87-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was state-led persecution of "<a href="/wiki/Refractory_clergy" title="Refractory clergy">Refractory clergy</a>", many of whom were forced into exile, deported, or executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECenserHunt200161_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECenserHunt200161-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_divisions">Political divisions</h3></div> <p>The period from October 1789 to spring 1791 is usually seen as one of relative tranquility, when some of the most important legislative reforms were enacted. However, conflict over the source of legitimate authority was more apparent in the provinces, where officers of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Ancien Régime</i></span> had been swept away, but not yet replaced by new structures. This was less obvious in Paris, since the National Guard made it the best policed city in Europe, but disorder in the provinces inevitably affected members of the Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1975861–863_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1975861–863-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Federation.jpg/220px-Federation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Federation.jpg/330px-Federation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Federation.jpg/440px-Federation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5090" data-file-height="3144" /></a><figcaption>The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a></i></span> on 14 July 1790 celebrated the establishment of the constitutional monarchy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Centrists led by Sieyès, Lafayette, Mirabeau and Bailly created a majority by forging consensus with <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">monarchiens</i></span> like Mounier, and independents including <a href="/wiki/Adrien_Duport" title="Adrien Duport">Adrien Duport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pierre_Joseph_Marie_Barnave" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave">Barnave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lameth" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Lameth">Alexandre Lameth</a>. At one end of the political spectrum, <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionaries</a> like <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Antoine_Marie_de_Cazal%C3%A8s" title="Jacques Antoine Marie de Cazalès">Cazalès</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Maury</a> denounced the Revolution in all its forms, with radicals like <a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a> at the other. He and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a> opposed the criteria for "active citizens", gaining them substantial support among the Parisian proletariat, many of whom had been disenfranchised by the measure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989498–499_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989498–499-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 14 July 1790, celebrations were held throughout France commemorating the fall of the Bastille, with participants swearing an oath of fidelity to "the nation, the law and the king." The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a></i></span> in Paris was attended by the royal family, with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a> performing a <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">mass</a>. Despite this show of unity, the Assembly was increasingly divided, while external players like the Paris Commune and National Guard competed for power. One of the most significant was the <a href="/wiki/Jacobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin">Jacobin</a> club; originally a forum for general debate, by August 1790 it had over 150 members, split into different factions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989527–529_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989527–529-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Assembly continued to develop new institutions; in September 1790, the regional <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parlements</i></span> were abolished and their legal functions replaced by a new independent judiciary, with <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury trials</a> for criminal cases. However, moderate deputies were uneasy at popular demands for universal suffrage, labour unions and cheap bread, and over the winter of 1790 and 1791, they passed a series of measures intended to disarm popular radicalism. These included exclusion of poorer citizens from the National Guard, limits on use of petitions and posters, and the June 1791 <a href="/wiki/Le_Chapelier_Law_1791" title="Le Chapelier Law 1791">Le Chapelier Law</a> suppressing trade guilds and any form of worker organisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETackett2003478_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETackett2003478-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional force for preserving law and order was the army, which was increasingly divided between officers, who largely came from the nobility, and ordinary soldiers. In August 1790, the loyalist General <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Claude_Amour,_marquis_de_Bouill%C3%A9" title="François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé">Bouillé</a> suppressed a serious mutiny at <a href="/wiki/Nancy,_France" title="Nancy, France">Nancy</a>; although congratulated by the Assembly, he was criticised by Jacobin radicals for the severity of his actions. Growing disorder meant many professional officers either left or became émigrés, further destabilising the institution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle2009334–336_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle2009334–336-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varennes_and_after">Varennes and after</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a></div> <p>Held in the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries_Palace" title="Tuileries Palace">Tuileries Palace</a> under virtual house arrest, Louis XVI was urged by his brother and wife to re-assert his independence by taking refuge with Bouillé, who was based at <a href="/wiki/Montm%C3%A9dy" title="Montmédy">Montmédy</a> with 10,000 soldiers considered loyal to the Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice2003170_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2003170-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The royal family left the palace in disguise on the night of 20 June 1791; late the next day, Louis was recognised as he passed through <a href="/wiki/Varennes-en-Argonne" title="Varennes-en-Argonne">Varennes</a>, arrested and taken back to Paris. The attempted escape had a profound impact on public opinion; since it was clear Louis had been seeking refuge in Austria, the Assembly now demanded oaths of loyalty to the regime, and began preparing for war, while fear of 'spies and traitors' became pervasive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETackett2003473_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETackett2003473-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg/290px-Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg/435px-Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg/580px-Retour_Varennes_1791.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5478" data-file-height="4275" /></a><figcaption>After the <a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a>; the royal family are escorted back to Paris</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite calls to replace the monarchy with a republic, Louis retained his position but was generally regarded with acute suspicion and forced to swear allegiance to the constitution. A new decree stated retracting this oath, making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would be considered abdication. However, radicals led by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Jacques Pierre Brissot</a> prepared a petition demanding his deposition, and on 17 July, an immense crowd gathered in the <a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars" title="Champ de Mars">Champ de Mars</a> to sign. Led by Lafayette, the National Guard was ordered to "preserve public order" and responded to a barrage of stones by <a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_massacre" title="Champ de Mars massacre">firing into the crowd</a>, killing between 13 and 50 people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETackett2004148–150_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETackett2004148–150-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The massacre badly damaged Lafayette's reputation: the authorities responded by closing radical clubs and newspapers, while their leaders went into exile or hiding, including Marat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner201283–85_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner201283–85-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 27 August, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a> and King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_II_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William II of Prussia">Frederick William II of Prussia</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Pillnitz" title="Declaration of Pillnitz">Declaration of Pillnitz</a> declaring their support for Louis and hinting at an invasion of France on his behalf. In reality, the meeting between Leopold and Frederick was primarily to discuss the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>; the Declaration was intended to satisfy Comte d'Artois and other French émigrés but the threat rallied popular support behind the regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoboul1975226–227_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoboul1975226–227-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on a motion proposed by Robespierre, existing deputies were barred from <a href="/wiki/1791_French_legislative_election" title="1791 French legislative election">elections</a> held in early September for the <a href="/wiki/French_Legislative_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="French Legislative Assembly">French Legislative Assembly</a>. Although Robespierre himself was one of those excluded, his support in the clubs gave him a political power base not available to Lafayette and Bailly, who resigned respectively as head of the National Guard and the Paris Commune. The new laws were gathered together in the <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">1791 Constitution</a>, and submitted to Louis XVI, who pledged to defend it "from enemies at home and abroad". On 30 September, the Constituent Assembly was dissolved, and the Legislative Assembly convened the next day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELefebvre1962212_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELefebvre1962212-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_monarchy">Fall of the monarchy</h3></div> <p>The Legislative Assembly is often dismissed by historians as an ineffective body, compromised by divisions over the role of the monarchy, an issue exacerbated when Louis attempted to prevent or reverse limitations on his powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons19755_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons19755-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, restricting the vote to those who paid a minimal amount of tax disenfranchised a significant proportion of the 6 million Frenchmen over 25, while only 10% of those able to vote actually did so. Finally, poor harvests and rising food prices led to unrest among the urban class known as <i><a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a></i>, who saw the new regime as failing to meet their demands for bread and work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989pp._581,_602–603_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989pp._581,_602–603-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This meant the new constitution was opposed by significant elements inside and outside the Assembly, itself split into three main groups. 264 members were affiliated with Barnave's <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Feuillant_(political_group)" title="Feuillant (political group)">Feuillants</a></i></span>, constitutional monarchists who considered the Revolution had gone far enough, while another 136 were Jacobin leftists who supported a republic, led by Brissot and usually referred to as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Brissotins</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989582_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989582-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining 345 belonged to <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/The_Plain" title="The Plain">La Plaine</a></i></span>, a centrist faction who switched votes depending on the issue, but many of whom shared doubts as to whether Louis was committed to the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989582_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989582-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After he officially accepted the new Constitution, one recorded response was "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Vive le roi, s'il est de bon foi!</i></span>", or "Long live the king – if he keeps his word".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson193277_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson193277-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although a minority in the Assembly, control of key committees allowed the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Brissotins</i></span> to provoke Louis into using his veto. They first managed to pass decrees confiscating émigré property and threatening them with the death penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989586–587_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989586–587-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by measures against non-juring priests, whose opposition to the Civil Constitution led to a state of near civil war in southern France, which Barnave tried to defuse by relaxing the more punitive provisions. On 29 November, the Assembly approved a decree giving refractory clergy eight days to comply, or face charges of 'conspiracy against the nation', an act opposed even by Robespierre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGershoy1933IV–VI_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGershoy1933IV–VI-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Louis vetoed both, his opponents were able to portray him as opposed to reform in general.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989585–586_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989585–586-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/220px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/330px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg/440px-Jacques_Bertaux_-_Prise_du_palais_des_Tuileries_-_1793.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1399" data-file-height="921" /></a><figcaption>The storming of the Tuileries Palace, 10 August 1792</figcaption></figure> <p>Brissot accompanied this with a campaign for war against Austria and Prussia, often interpreted as a mixture of calculation and idealism. While exploiting popular anti-Austrianism, it reflected a genuine belief in exporting the values of political liberty and popular sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELalevée201967–70_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELalevée201967–70-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simultaneously, conservatives headed by Marie Antoinette also favoured war, seeing it as a way to regain control of the military, and restore royal authority. In December 1791, Louis made a speech in the Assembly giving foreign powers a month to disband the émigrés or face war, an act greeted with enthusiasm by supporters, but suspicion from opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989586_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989586-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Barnave's inability to build a consensus in the Assembly resulted in the appointment of a new government, chiefly composed of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Brissotins</i></span>. On 20 April 1792, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a> began when French armies attacked Austrian and Prussian forces along their borders, before suffering a series of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_and_the_Legislative_Assembly#The_initial_disasters_of_war" title="Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly">disastrous defeats</a>. In an effort to mobilise popular support, the government ordered non-juring priests to swear the oath or be deported, dissolved the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Guard" title="Constitutional Guard">Constitutional Guard</a> and replaced it with 20,000 <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">fédérés</i></span>; Louis agreed to disband the Guard, but vetoed the other two proposals, while Lafayette called on the Assembly to suppress the clubs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman201388–117_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman201388–117-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Popular anger increased when details of the <a href="/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto" title="Brunswick Manifesto">Brunswick Manifesto</a> reached Paris on 1 August, threatening 'unforgettable vengeance' should any oppose the Allies in seeking to restore the power of the monarchy. <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">On the morning of 10 August</a>, a combined force of the Paris National Guard and provincial fédérés attacked the Tuileries Palace, killing many of the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Guards" title="Swiss Guards">Swiss Guards</a> protecting it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer200899–100_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer200899–100-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis and his family took refuge with the Assembly and shortly after 11:00 am, the deputies present voted to 'temporarily relieve the king', effectively suspending the monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPhee2013164–166_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPhee2013164–166-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_Republic_(1792–1795)"><span id="First_Republic_.281792.E2.80.931795.29"></span>First Republic (1792–1795)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proclamation_of_the_First_Republic">Proclamation of the First Republic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg/220px-Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg/330px-Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg/440px-Execution_of_Louis_XVI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5043" data-file-height="3016" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Execution of Louis XVI</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Place_de_la_Concorde" title="Place de la Concorde">Place de la Concorde</a>, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> previously stood</figcaption></figure> <p>In late August, <a href="/wiki/1792_French_National_Convention_election" title="1792 French National Convention election">elections</a> were held for the <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a>. New restrictions on the franchise meant the number of votes cast fell to 3.3 million, versus 4 million in 1791, while intimidation was widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrook199694_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrook199694-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Brissotins</i> now split between moderate <i><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></i> led by Brissot, and radical <i><a href="/wiki/Montagnard_(French_Revolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Montagnard (French Revolution)">Montagnards</a></i>, headed by Robespierre, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a>. While loyalties constantly shifted, voting patterns suggest roughly 160 of the 749 deputies can generally be categorised as <i>Girondists</i>, with another 200 <i>Montagnards</i>. The remainder were part of a centrist faction known as <i>La Plaine</i>, headed by <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Joseph_Cambon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Joseph Cambon">Pierre Joseph Cambon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Carnot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013223–269_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013223–269-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/September_Massacres" title="September Massacres">September Massacres</a>, between 1,100 and 1,600 prisoners held in Parisian jails were <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrajudicial killings">summarily executed</a>, the vast majority being common criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis200238_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200238-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A response to the capture of <a href="/wiki/Longwy" title="Longwy">Longwy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun_(1792)" title="Battle of Verdun (1792)">Verdun</a> by Prussia, the perpetrators were largely National Guard members and <i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9r%C3%A9s" class="mw-redirect" title="Fédérés">fédérés</a></i> on their way to the front. While responsibility is still disputed, even moderates expressed sympathy for the action, which soon spread to the provinces. One suggestion is that the killings stemmed from concern over growing lawlessness, rather than political ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETackett201154–55_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETackett201154–55-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 20 September, the French defeated the Prussians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Battle of Valmy</a>, in what was the first major victory by the army of France during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Revolutionary Wars</a>. Emboldened by this, on 22 September the Convention replaced the monarchy with the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> (1792–1804) and introduced a new <a href="/wiki/French_Republican_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="French Republican Calendar">calendar</a>, with 1792 becoming "Year One".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPas200849_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPas200849-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next few months were taken up with the trial of <i>Citoyen Louis Capet</i>, formerly Louis XVI. While evenly divided on the question of his guilt, members of the convention were increasingly influenced by radicals based within the Jacobin clubs and Paris Commune. The Brunswick Manifesto made it easy to portray Louis as a threat to the Revolution, especially when extracts from his <a href="/wiki/Armoire_de_fer" title="Armoire de fer">personal correspondence</a> showed him conspiring with Royalist exiles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarton1967146–160_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1967146–160-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 January 1793, Louis was sentenced to death for "conspiracy against public liberty and general safety". 361 deputies were in favour, 288 against, while another 72 voted to execute him, subject to delaying conditions. The sentence was <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">carried out</a> on 21 January on the <i>Place de la Révolution</i>, now the <a href="/wiki/Place_de_la_Concorde" title="Place de la Concorde">Place de la Concorde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990196_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990196-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conservatives across Europe now called for the destruction of revolutionary France, and in February the Convention responded by declaring war on <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>. Together with Austria and Prussia, these two countries were later joined by <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a> in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a> (1792–1797).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWasson2009118_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWasson2009118-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_crisis_and_fall_of_the_Girondins">Political crisis and fall of the Girondins</h3></div> <p>The Girondins hoped war would unite the people behind the government and provide an excuse for rising prices and food shortages, but found themselves the target of popular anger. Many left for the provinces. The first conscription measure or <i><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">levée en masse</a></i> on 24 February sparked riots in Paris and other regional centres. Already unsettled by changes imposed on the church, in March the traditionally conservative and royalist <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendée</a> rose in revolt. On 18th, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dumouriez" title="Charles François Dumouriez">Dumouriez</a> was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neerwinden_(1793)" title="Battle of Neerwinden (1793)">Neerwinden</a> and defected to the Austrians. Uprisings followed in <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marseilles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marseilles">Marseilles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caen" title="Caen">Caen</a>. The Republic seemed on the verge of collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013143–173_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013143–173-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crisis led to the creation on 6 April 1793 of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a>, an executive committee accountable to the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013271–312_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013271–312-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Girondins made a fatal political error by indicting Marat before the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</a> for allegedly directing the September massacres; he was quickly acquitted, further isolating the Girondins from the <i>sans-culottes</i>. When <a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Jacques Hébert</a> called for a popular revolt against the "henchmen of Louis Capet" on 24 May, he was arrested by the <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_Twelve" title="Commission of Twelve">Commission of Twelve</a>, a Girondin-dominated tribunal set up to expose 'plots'. In response to protests by the Commune, the Commission warned "if by your incessant rebellions something befalls the representatives of the nation, Paris will be obliterated".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013143–173_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShusterman2013143–173-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg/180px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg/270px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg/360px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="803" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat" title="The Death of Marat">The Death of Marat</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a> (1793)</figcaption></figure> <p>Growing discontent allowed the clubs to mobilise against the Girondins. Backed by the Commune and elements of the National Guard, on 31 May they attempted to seize power in a <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May-2_June_1793" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurrection of 31 May-2 June 1793">coup</a>. Although the coup failed, on 2 June the convention was surrounded by a crowd of up to 80,000, demanding cheap bread, unemployment pay and political reforms, including restriction of the vote to the <i>sans-culottes</i>, and the right to remove deputies at will.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989724_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989724-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ten members of the commission and another twenty-nine members of the Girondin faction were arrested, and on 10 June, the Montagnards took over the Committee of Public Safety.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989725–726_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989725–726-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, a committee led by Robespierre's close ally <a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Saint-Just</a> was tasked with preparing a new <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1793" title="French Constitution of 1793">Constitution</a>. Completed in only eight days, it was ratified by the convention on 24 June, and contained radical reforms, including <a href="/wiki/Universal_male_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal male suffrage">universal male suffrage</a>. However, normal legal processes were suspended following the assassination of Marat on 13 July by the Girondist <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a>, which the Committee of Public Safety used as an excuse to take control. The 1793 Constitution was suspended indefinitely in October.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy200053_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200053-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key areas of focus for the new government included creating a new state ideology, economic regulation and winning the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989756_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989756-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were helped by divisions among their internal opponents; while areas like the Vendée and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> wanted to restore the monarchy, most supported the Republic but opposed the regime in Paris. On 17 August, the Convention voted a second <i>levée en masse</i>; despite initial problems in equipping and supplying such large numbers, by mid-October Republican forces had re-taken Lyon, Marseilles and Bordeaux, while defeating Coalition armies at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hondschoote" title="Battle of Hondschoote">Hondschoote</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wattignies" title="Battle of Wattignies">Wattignies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989766_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989766-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new class of military leaders included a young colonel named <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>, who was appointed commander of artillery at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon_(1793)" title="Siege of Toulon (1793)">siege of Toulon</a> thanks to his friendship with <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Robespierre" title="Augustin Robespierre">Augustin Robespierre</a>. His success in that role resulted in promotion to the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Italy_(France)" title="Army of Italy (France)">Army of Italy</a> in April 1794, and the beginning of his rise to military and political power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn199776_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn199776-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Terror">Reign of Terror</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Octobre_1793,_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Octobre_1793%2C_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg/220px-Octobre_1793%2C_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Octobre_1793%2C_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg/330px-Octobre_1793%2C_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Octobre_1793%2C_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg/440px-Octobre_1793%2C_supplice_de_9_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>Nine <i><a href="/wiki/French_emigration_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="French emigration (1789–1815)">émigrés</a></i> are executed by <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotine</a>, 1793</figcaption></figure> <p>Although intended to bolster revolutionary fervour, the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> rapidly degenerated into the settlement of personal grievances. At the end of July, the Convention set <a href="/wiki/General_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="General maximum">price controls</a> on a wide range of goods, with the death penalty for hoarders. On 9 September, 'revolutionary groups' were established to enforce these controls, while the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Suspects" title="Law of Suspects">Law of Suspects</a> on 17th approved the arrest of suspected "enemies of freedom". This initiated what has become known as the "Terror". From September 1793 to July 1794, around 300,000 were arrested,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with some 16,600 people executed on charges of counter-revolutionary activity, while another 40,000 may have been summarily executed, or died awaiting trial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGough199877_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGough199877-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Price controls made farmers reluctant to sell their produce in Parisian markets, and by early September, the city was suffering acute food shortages. At the same time, the war increased public debt, which the Assembly tried to finance by selling confiscated property. However, few would buy assets that might be repossessed by their former owners, a concern that could only be achieved by military victory. This meant the financial position worsened as threats to the Republic increased, while printing <i><a href="/wiki/Assignats" class="mw-redirect" title="Assignats">assignats</a></i> to deal with the deficit further increased inflation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1995242_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1995242-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 10 October, the Convention recognised the Committee of Public Safety as the supreme <a href="/wiki/National_Convention#Revolutionary_government" title="National Convention">Revolutionary Government</a>, and suspended the Constitution until peace was achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy200053_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy200053-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mid-October, Marie Antoinette was convicted of a long list of crimes, and guillotined; two weeks later, the Girondist leaders arrested in June were also executed, along with <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe Égalité</a>. The "Terror" was not confined to Paris, with over 2,000 killed in Lyons after its recapture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989784_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989784-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_(1759-1794),_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_%281759-1794%29%2C_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/180px-Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_%281759-1794%29%2C_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_%281759-1794%29%2C_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/270px-Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_%281759-1794%29%2C_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_%281759-1794%29%2C_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/360px-Anonyme_-_Portrait_de_Georges_Danton_%281759-1794%29%2C_orateur_et_homme_politique_-_P712_-_mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3874" data-file-height="4785" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a>; Robespierre's close friend and <i>Montagnard</i> leader, executed 5 April 1794</figcaption></figure> <p>At <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Cholet" title="Second Battle of Cholet">Cholet</a> on 17 October, the Republican army won a decisive victory over the <a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Vendée rebels</a>, and the survivors escaped into Brittany. Another defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Mans_(1793)" title="Battle of Le Mans (1793)">Le Mans</a> on 23 December ended the rebellion as a major threat, although the insurgency continued until 1796. The extent of the repression that followed has been debated by <a href="/wiki/French_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="French historians">French historians</a> since the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECough1987977–988_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECough1987977–988-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between November 1793 to February 1794, over 4,000 were <a href="/wiki/Drownings_at_Nantes" title="Drownings at Nantes">drowned in the Loire at Nantes</a> under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Carrier" title="Jean-Baptiste Carrier">Jean-Baptiste Carrier</a>. Historian Reynald Secher claims that as many as 117,000 died between 1793 and 1796. Although those numbers have been challenged, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">François Furet</a> concluded it "not only revealed massacre and destruction on an unprecedented scale, but a zeal so violent that it has bestowed as its legacy much of the region's identity."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989175_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989175-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the height of the Terror, not even its supporters were immune from suspicion, leading to divisions within the <i>Montagnard</i> faction between radical <i><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists" title="Hébertists">Hébertists</a></i> and moderates led by Danton.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robespierre saw their dispute as de-stabilising the regime, and, as a <a href="/wiki/Deist" class="mw-redirect" title="Deist">deist</a>, objected to the <a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">anti-religious policies</a> advocated by the <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a> Hébert, who was arrested and executed on 24 March with 19 of his colleagues, including Carrier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989816_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989816-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To retain the loyalty of the remaining Hébertists, Danton was arrested and executed on 5 April with <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a>, after a <a href="/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">show trial</a> that arguably did more damage to Robespierre than any other act in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989819_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989819-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial" title="Law of 22 Prairial">Law of 22 Prairial</a> (10 June) denied "enemies of the people" the right to defend themselves. Those arrested in the provinces were now sent to Paris for judgement; from March to July, executions in Paris increased from five to twenty-six a day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989837_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989837-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Jacobins ridiculed the festival of the <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a> on 8 June, a lavish and expensive ceremony led by Robespierre, who was also accused of circulating claims he was a second Messiah. Relaxation of <a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">price controls</a> and rampant inflation caused increasing unrest among the <i>sans-culottes</i>, but the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries_theatre_of_the_War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition">improved military situation</a> reduced fears the Republic was in danger. Fearing their own survival depended on Robespierre's removal, on 29 June three members of the Committee of Public Safety openly accused him of being a dictator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989838_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989838-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Execution_robespierre,_saint_just....jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg/250px-Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg/375px-Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg/500px-Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg 2x" data-file-width="3490" data-file-height="2270" /></a><figcaption>The execution of Robespierre on 28 July 1794 marked the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Robespierre responded by refusing to attend Committee meetings, allowing his opponents to build a coalition against him. In a speech made to the convention on 26 July, he claimed certain members were conspiring against the Republic, an almost certain death sentence if confirmed. When he refused to provide names, the session broke up in confusion. That evening he repeated these claims at the Jacobins club, where it was greeted with demands for execution of the 'traitors'. Fearing the consequences if they did not act first, his opponents attacked <a href="/wiki/9_Thermidor_(Fall_of_Robespierre)" class="mw-redirect" title="9 Thermidor (Fall of Robespierre)">Robespierre and his allies</a> in the Convention next day. When Robespierre attempted to speak, his voice failed, one deputy crying "The blood of Danton chokes him!"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989844_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989844-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Convention authorised his arrest, he and his supporters took refuge in the <i>Hotel de Ville</i>, which was defended by elements of the National Guard. Other units loyal to the Convention stormed the building that evening and detained Robespierre, who severely injured himself attempting suicide. He was executed on 28 July with 19 colleagues, including Saint-Just and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Couthon" title="Georges Couthon">Georges Couthon</a>, followed by 83 members of the Commune.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989845_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989845-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Law of 22 Prairial was repealed, any surviving Girondists reinstated as deputies, and the Jacobin Club was closed and banned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoboul1975425–428_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoboul1975425–428-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various interpretations of the Terror and the violence with which it was conducted. <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">François Furet</a> argues that the intense ideological commitment of the revolutionaries and their utopian goals required the extermination of any opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuret1989222_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuret1989222-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A middle position suggests violence was not inevitable but the product of a series of complex internal events, exacerbated by war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2009?_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2009?-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermidorian_reaction">Thermidorian reaction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a></div> <p>The bloodshed did not end with the death of Robespierre; <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">Southern France</a> saw a wave of <a href="/wiki/First_White_Terror" title="First White Terror">revenge killings</a>, directed against alleged Jacobins, Republican officials and Protestants. Although the victors of Thermidor asserted control over the Commune by executing their leaders, some of those closely involved in the "Terror" retained their positions. They included <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a>, later chief executive of the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fouch%C3%A9" title="Joseph Fouché">Joseph Fouché</a>, director of the killings in Lyon who served as <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Police_(France)" title="Minister of Police (France)">Minister of Police</a> under the Directory, the Consulate and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndress2006237_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndress2006237-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his links to Augustin Robespierre, military success in Italy meant <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> escaped censure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn199782_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn199782-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg/180px-Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg/270px-Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg/360px-Paul_Barras_directeur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>Former Viscount and Montagnard <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a>, who took part in the Thermidorian reaction and later headed the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The December 1794 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Jaunaye" title="Treaty of La Jaunaye">Treaty of La Jaunaye</a> ended the <a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a> in western France by allowing freedom of worship and the return of non-juring priests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndress2006354_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndress2006354-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was accompanied by military success; in January 1795, French forces helped the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Patriottentijd" title="Patriottentijd">Patriots</a> set up the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a>, securing their northern border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1977178–192_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1977178–192-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war with Prussia was concluded in favour of France by the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a> in April 1795, while Spain made peace shortly thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargreaves-Mawdsley1968175–176_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargreaves-Mawdsley1968175–176-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the Republic still faced a crisis at home. Food shortages arising from a poor 1794 harvest were exacerbated in Northern France by the need to supply the army in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, while the winter was the worst since 1709.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons197515_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197515-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By April 1795, people were starving and the <i>assignat</i> was worth only 8% of its face value; in desperation, the Parisian poor <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_12_Germinal,_Year_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurrection of 12 Germinal, Year III">rose again</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoronoff198410_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoronoff198410-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were quickly dispersed and the main impact was another round of arrests, while Jacobin prisoners in Lyon were summarily executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoronoff198415_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoronoff198415-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A committee drafted a new <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">constitution</a>, approved by <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> on 23 September 1795 and put into place on 27th.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990320_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990320-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Largely designed by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Daunou" title="Pierre Claude François Daunou">Pierre Daunou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Antoine_de_Boissy_d%27Anglas" title="François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas">Boissy d'Anglas</a>, it established a <a href="/wiki/Bicameral_legislature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral legislature">bicameral legislature</a>, intended to slow down the legislative process, ending the wild swings of policy under the previous unicameral systems. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_500" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of 500">Council of 500</a> was responsible for drafting legislation, which was reviewed and approved by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a>, an upper house containing 250 men over the age of 40. Executive power was in the hands of five Directors, selected by the Council of Ancients from a list provided by the lower house, with a five-year mandate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons197518–19_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197518–19-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deputies were chosen by indirect election, a total franchise of around 5 million voting in primaries for 30,000 electors, or 0.6% of the population. Since they were also subject to stringent property qualification, it guaranteed the return of conservative or moderate deputies. In addition, rather than dissolving the previous legislature as in 1791 and 1792, the so-called 'law of two-thirds' ruled only 150 new deputies would be elected each year. The remaining 600 <i>Conventionnels</i> kept their seats, a move intended to ensure stability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons197519_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197519-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Directory_(1795–1799)"><span id="The_Directory_.281795.E2.80.931799.29"></span>The Directory (1795–1799)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale,_1795.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale%2C_1795.jpg/220px-Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale%2C_1795.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale%2C_1795.jpg/330px-Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale%2C_1795.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale%2C_1795.jpg/440px-Attaque_de_la_Convention_nationale%2C_1795.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2726" data-file-height="2085" /></a><figcaption>Troops under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> fire on Royalist insurgents in Paris, <a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">5 October 1795</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Jacobin sympathisers viewed the Directory as a betrayal of the Revolution, while <a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartists</a> later justified <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon</a>'s coup by emphasising its corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons19752_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons19752-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The regime also faced internal unrest, a weak economy, and an expensive war, while the Council of 500 could block legislation at will. Since the Directors had no power to call new elections, the only way to break a deadlock was rule by decree or use force. As a result, the Directory was characterised by "chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy-handed repression."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown20061_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20061-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Retention of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Conventionnels</i></span> ensured the <a href="/wiki/Thermidorians" title="Thermidorians">Thermidorians</a> held a majority in the legislature and three of the five Directors, but they were increasingly challenged by the right. On 5 October, Convention troops led by Napoleon put down a <a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">royalist rising</a> in Paris; when the first <a href="/wiki/1795_French_Directory_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1795 French Directory election">elections</a> were held two weeks later, over 100 of the 150 new deputies were royalists of some sort.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons197519–20_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197519–20-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The power of the Parisian <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">sans-culottes</i></span> had been broken by the suppression of the May 1795 revolt; relieved of pressure from below, the Jacobin clubs became supporters of the Directory, largely to prevent restoration of the monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons197527–28_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197527–28-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Removal of price controls and a collapse in the value of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">assignat</i></span> led to inflation and soaring food prices. By April 1796, over 500,000 Parisians were unemployed, resulting in the May insurrection known as the <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Equals" title="Conspiracy of the Equals">Conspiracy of the Equals</a>. Led by the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">François-Noël Babeuf</a>, their demands included immediate implementation of the 1793 Constitution, and a more equitable distribution of wealth. Despite support from sections of the military, the revolt was easily crushed, while Babeuf and other leaders were executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons197532–33_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197532–33-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, by 1799 the economy had been stabilised, and important reforms made allowing steady expansion of French industry. Many of these remained in place for much of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons1975175_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons1975175-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to 1797, three of the five Directors were firmly Republican; Barras, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Marie_de_La_R%C3%A9velli%C3%A8re-L%C3%A9peaux" title="Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux">Révellière-Lépeaux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Rewbell" title="Jean-François Rewbell">Jean-François Rewbell</a>, as were around 40% of the legislature. The same percentage were broadly <a href="/wiki/Club_de_Clichy" title="Club de Clichy">centrist</a> or unaffiliated, along with two Directors, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Fran%C3%A7ois_Letourneur" title="Étienne-François Letourneur">Étienne-François Letourneur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Carnot</a>. Although only 20% were committed Royalists, many centrists supported the restoration of the exiled <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII of France</a> in the belief this would bring peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997151_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997151-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elections of May 1797 resulted in significant gains for the right, with Royalists <a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a> elected President of the Council of 500, and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie,_marquis_de_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy">Barthélemy</a> appointed a Director.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997150_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997150-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/180px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/270px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/360px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1833" data-file-height="1953" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoléon Bonaparte">Napoléon Bonaparte</a> in the Council of 500 during <a href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</a>, 9 November 1799</figcaption></figure> <p>With Royalists apparently on the verge of power, Republicans attempted a pre-emptive <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">coup on 4 September</a>. Using troops from Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Italy_(France)" title="Army of Italy (France)">Army of Italy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Augereau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Augereau">Pierre Augereau</a>, the Council of 500 was forced to approve the arrest of Barthélemy, Pichegru and Carnot. The elections were annulled, sixty-three leading Royalists deported to <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>, and new laws passed against émigrés, Royalists and ultra-Jacobins. The removal of his conservative opponents opened the way for direct conflict between Barras, and those on the left.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997155_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997155-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fighting continued despite general war weariness, and the <a href="/wiki/1798_French_Directory_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1798 French Directory election">1798 elections</a> saw a resurgence in Jacobin strength. Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">invasion of Egypt</a> in July 1798 confirmed European fears of French expansionism, and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a> began in November. Without a majority in the legislature, the Directors relied on the army to enforce decrees, and extract revenue from conquered territories. Generals like Napoleon and <a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Catherine_Joubert" title="Barthélemy Catherine Joubert">Joubert</a> were now central to the political process, while both the army and Directory became notorious for their corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997208_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997208-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested the Directory collapsed because by 1799, many 'preferred the uncertainties of authoritarian rule to the continuing ambiguities of parliamentary politics'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuntLanskyHanson1979735–736_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuntLanskyHanson1979735–736-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The architect of its end was Sieyès, who when asked what he had done during the Terror allegedly answered "I survived". Nominated to the Directory, his first action was to remove Barras, with the help of allies including Talleyrand, and Napoleon's brother <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien</a>, President of the Council of 500.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997211_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997211-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 9 November 1799, the <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> replaced the five Directors with the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a>, which consisted of three members, Napoleon, Sieyès, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a>. Most historians consider this the end point of the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997219_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997219-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_ideology">Role of ideology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhairi_Black" title="Mhairi Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burgon" title="Richard Burgon">Burgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Campbell" title="Ronnie Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flynn_(politician)" title="Paul Flynn (politician)">Flynn (Paul)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Greer" title="Ross Greer">Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1531)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1698)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1755)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1794)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The role of ideology in the Revolution is controversial with Jonathan Israel stating that the "radical Enlightenment" was the primary driving force of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014695_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014695-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cobban, however, argues "[t]he actions of the revolutionaries were most often prescribed by the need to find practical solutions to immediate problems, using the resources at hand, not by pre-conceived theories."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban1963152_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban1963152-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The identification of ideologies is complicated by the profusion of revolutionary clubs, factions and publications, absence of formal political parties, and individual flexibility in the face of changing circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalton2013363–364,_368_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton2013363–364,_368-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, although the Declaration of the Rights of Man was a fundamental document for all revolutionary factions, its interpretation varied widely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201413_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201413-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While all revolutionaries professed their devotion to liberty in principle, "it appeared to mean whatever those in power wanted."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990420_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990420-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the liberties specified in the Rights of Man were limited by law when they might "cause harm to others, or be abused". Prior to 1792, Jacobins and others frequently opposed press restrictions on the grounds these violated a basic right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014206–208,_233_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014206–208,_233-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the radical National Convention passed laws in September 1793 and July 1794 imposing the death penalty for offences such as "disparaging the National Convention", and "misleading public opinion."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalton2013377_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton2013377-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While revolutionaries also endorsed the principle of equality, few advocated equality of wealth since property was also viewed as a right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990421_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990421-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Assembly opposed equal political rights for women,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990421–422_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990421–422-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the abolition of slavery in the colonies was delayed until February 1794 because it conflicted with the property rights of slave owners, and many feared it would disrupt trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013398,_405–406_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013398,_405–406-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political equality for male citizens was another divisive issue, with the 1791 constitution limiting the right to vote and stand for office to males over 25 who met a property qualification, so-called "active citizens". This restriction was opposed by many activists, including Robespierre, the Jacobins, and Cordeliers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014106,_148,_254_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014106,_148,_254-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principle that sovereignty resided in the nation was a key concept of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban1963165–166_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban1963165–166-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Israel argues this obscures ideological differences over whether the will of the nation was best expressed through representative assemblies and constitutions, or direct action by revolutionary crowds, and popular assemblies such as the sections of the Paris commune.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201424,_54,_66,_160,_177_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201424,_54,_66,_160,_177-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many considered constitutional monarchy as incompatible with the principle of popular sovereignty,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014142–143,_166,_204–295_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014142–143,_166,_204–295-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but prior to 1792, there was a strong bloc with an ideological commitment to such a system, based on the writings of Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu and Voltaire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201416–19,_175,_209,_351_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201416–19,_175,_209,_351-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Israel argues the nationalisation of church property and the establishment of the Constitutional Church reflected an ideological commitment to secularism, and a determination to undermine a bastion of old regime privilege.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014180–181_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2014180–181-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Cobban agrees the Constitutional Church was motivated by ideology, he sees its origins in the anti-clericalism of Voltaire and other Enlightenment figures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban1963173_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban1963173-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jacobins were hostile to formal political parties and factions which they saw as a threat to national unity and the general will, with "political virtue" and "love of country" key elements of their ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalton2013362_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton2013362-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinton2013267_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton2013267-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They viewed the ideal revolutionary as selfless, sincere, free of political ambition, and devoted to the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinton2013264–265_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton2013264–265-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disputes leading to the departure first of the <i>Feuillants</i>, then later the <i>Girondists</i>, were conducted in terms of the relative political virtue and patriotism of the disputants. In December 1793, all members of the Jacobin clubs were subject to a "purifying scrutiny", to determine whether they were "men of virtue".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinton2013274_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton2013274-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_Revolutionary_Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg/220px-Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg/330px-Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg/440px-Valmy_Battle_painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6926" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Valmy" title="The Battle of Valmy">The Battle of Valmy</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Horace_Vernet" title="Horace Vernet">Horace Vernet</a>, 1826. French victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Battle of Valmy</a> on 20 September 1792 validated the Revolutionary idea of armies composed of citizens</figcaption></figure> <p>The Revolution initiated a series of conflicts that began in 1792 and ended only with Napoleon's defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a> in 1815. In its early stages, this seemed unlikely; the 1791 Constitution specifically disavowed "war for the purpose of conquest", and although traditional tensions between France and Austria re-emerged in the 1780s, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a> cautiously welcomed the reforms. Austria was <a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1788%E2%80%931791)" title="Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)">at war with the Ottomans</a>, as were <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">the Russians</a>, while both were negotiating with Prussia over <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioning Poland</a>. Most importantly, Britain preferred peace, and as Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a> stated after the Declaration of Pillnitz, "without England, there is no case".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988779–780_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988779–780-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late 1791, factions within the Assembly came to see war as a way to unite the country and secure the Revolution by eliminating hostile forces on its borders and establishing its "natural frontiers".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayworth201589_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayworth201589-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France declared war on Austria in April 1792 and issued the first <a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">conscription</a> orders, with recruits serving for twelve months. By the time peace finally came in 1815, the conflict had involved every major European power as well as the United States, redrawn the map of Europe and expanded into the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988772_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988772-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1701 to 1801, the population of Europe grew from 118 to 187 million; combined with new mass production techniques, this allowed belligerents to support large armies, requiring the mobilisation of national resources. It was a different kind of war, fought by nations rather than kings, intended to destroy their opponents' ability to resist, but also to implement deep-ranging social change. While all wars are political to some degree, this period was remarkable for the emphasis placed on reshaping boundaries and the creation of entirely new European states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988772–773_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988772–773-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1792, French armies invaded the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a> but suffered a series of setbacks before victory over an Austrian-Prussian army at Valmy in September. After defeating a second Austrian army at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" title="Battle of Jemappes">Jemappes</a> on 6 November, they occupied the Netherlands, areas of the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">Nice</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Savoy" title="County of Savoy">Savoy</a>. Emboldened by this success, in February 1793 France declared war on the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, Spain and Britain, beginning the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988785_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988785-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the expiration of the 12-month term for the 1792 recruits forced the French to relinquish their conquests. In August, new conscription measures were passed and by May 1794 the French army had between 750,000 and 800,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlanning1996120–121_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlanning1996120–121-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite high rates of desertion, this was large enough to manage multiple internal and external threats; for comparison, the combined Prussian-Austrian army was less than 90,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown199535_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown199535-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg/220px-La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg/330px-La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg/440px-La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="789" /></a><figcaption>Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Italian_campaigns_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars#Bonaparte's_war" title="Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars">Italian campaigns</a> reshaped the map of Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>By February 1795, France had annexed the Austrian Netherlands, established their frontier on the left bank of the Rhine and replaced the Dutch Republic with the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a>, a satellite state. These victories led to the collapse of the anti-French coalition; Prussia made peace in April 1795, followed soon after by Spain, leaving Britain and Austria as the only major powers still in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayworth2015256_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayworth2015256-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1797, a series of defeats by Bonaparte in Italy led Austria to agree to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a>, in which they formally ceded the Netherlands and recognised the <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpine Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997157_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997157-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fighting continued for two reasons; first, French state finances had come to rely on indemnities levied on their defeated opponents. Second, armies were primarily loyal to their generals, for whom the wealth achieved by victory and the status it conferred became objectives in themselves. Leading soldiers like Hoche, Pichegru and Carnot wielded significant political influence and often set policy; Campo Formio was approved by Bonaparte, not the Directory, which strongly objected to terms it considered too lenient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997157_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997157-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite these concerns, the Directory never developed a realistic peace programme, fearing the destabilising effects of peace and the consequent demobilisation of hundreds of thousands of young men. As long as the generals and their armies stayed away from Paris, they were happy to allow them to continue fighting, a key factor behind sanctioning Bonaparte's <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">invasion of Egypt</a>. This resulted in aggressive and opportunistic policies, leading to the War of the Second Coalition in November 1798.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988787_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1988787-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_and_the_colonies">Slavery and the colonies</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791,_German_copper_engraving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg/220px-Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg/330px-Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg/440px-Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Saint-Domingue</a> slave revolt in 1791</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1789, the most populous French colonies were Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), Martinique, Guadeloupe, the Île Bourbon (Réunion) and the Île de la France. These colonies produced commodities such as sugar, coffee and cotton for exclusive export to France. There were about 700,000 slaves in the colonies, of which about 500,000 were in Saint-Domingue. Colonial products accounted for about a third of France's exports.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013397_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013397-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1788, the <i><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_the_Blacks" title="Society of the Friends of the Blacks">Société des Amis des Noirs</a></i> (Society of the Friends of Blacks) was formed in France with the aim of abolishing slavery in the empire. In August 1789, colonial slave owners and merchants formed the rival <i>Club de Massiac</i> to represent their interests. When the Constituent Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August 1789, delegates representing the colonial landowners successfully argued that the principles should not apply in the colonies as they would bring economic ruin and disrupt trade. Colonial landowners also gained control of the Colonial Committee of the Assembly from where they exerted a powerful influence against abolition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013398–402_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013398–402-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990413_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990413-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People of colour also faced social and legal discrimination in mainland France and its colonies, including a bar on their access to professions such as law, medicine and pharmacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013398–399_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013398–399-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1789–90, a delegation of free coloureds, led by <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Og%C3%A9" title="Vincent Ogé">Vincent Ogé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julien_Raimond" title="Julien Raimond">Julien Raimond</a>, unsuccessfully lobbied the Assembly to end discrimination against free coloureds. Ogé left for Saint-Domingue where an uprising against white landowners broke out in October 1790. The revolt failed and Ogé was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013401–402_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013401–402-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990413_195-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990413-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1791, the National Assembly granted full political rights to coloureds born of two free parents, but left the rights of freed slaves to be determined by the colonial assemblies. The assemblies refused to implement the decree and fighting broke out between the coloured population of Saint-Domingue and white colonists, each side recruiting slaves to their forces. <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">A major slave revolt</a> followed in August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013402–403_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013402–403-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1792, the Legislative Assembly responded to the revolt by granting citizenship to all free coloureds and sending two commissioners, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9ger-F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_Sonthonax" title="Léger-Félicité Sonthonax">Sonthonax</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Polverel" title="Étienne Polverel">Polvérel</a>, and 6,000 troops to Saint-Domingue to enforce the decree. On arrival in September, the commissioners announced that slavery would remain in force. Over 72,000 slaves were still in revolt, mostly in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013404–405_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013404–405-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brissot and his supporters envisaged an eventual abolition of slavery but their immediate concern was securing trade and the support of merchants for the revolutionary wars. After Brissot's fall, the new constitution of June 1793 included a new Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen but excluded the colonies from its provisions. In any event, the new constitution was suspended until France was at peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013406–407_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013406–407-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 1793, royalist planters from Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue formed an alliance with Britain. The Spanish supported insurgent slaves, led by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Papillon" title="Jean-François Papillon">Jean-François Papillon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Biassou" title="Georges Biassou">Georges Biassou</a>, in the north of Saint-Domingue. White planters loyal to the republic sent representatives to Paris to convince the Jacobin controlled Convention that those calling for the abolition of slavery were British agents and supporters of Brissot, hoping to disrupt trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013407–408_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013407–408-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June, the commissioners in Saint-Domingue freed 10,000 slaves fighting for the republic. As the royalists and their British and Spanish supporters were also offering freedom for slaves willing to fight for their cause, the commissioners outbid them by abolishing slavery in the north in August, and throughout the colony in October. Representatives were sent to Paris to gain the approval of the convention for the decision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013407–408_201-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013407–408-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990414_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990414-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Convention voted for the abolition of slavery in the colonies on 4 February 1794 and decreed that all residents of the colonies had the full rights of French citizens irrespective of colour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013409_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013409-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An army of 1,000 sans-culottes led by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugues" title="Victor Hugues">Victor Hugues</a> was sent to Guadeloupe to expel the British and enforce the decree. The army recruited former slaves and eventually numbered 11,000, capturing Guadeloupe and other smaller islands. Abolition was also proclaimed on Guyane. <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> remained under British occupation, while colonial landowners in <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Îles Mascareignes</a> repulsed the republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013409–410_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013409–410-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black armies drove the Spanish out of Saint-Domingue in 1795, and the last of the British withdrew in 1798.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990414–415_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990414–415-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In republican controlled areas from 1793 to 1799, freed slaves were required to work on their former plantations or for their former masters if they were in domestic service. They were paid a wage and gained property rights. Black and coloured generals were effectively in control of large areas of Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue, including <a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a> in the north of Saint-Domingue, and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Rigaud" title="André Rigaud">André Rigaud</a> in the south. Historian Fréderic Régent states that the restrictions on the freedom of employment and movement of former slaves meant that, "only whites, persons of color already freed before the decree, and former slaves in the army or on warships really benefited from general emancipation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERégent2013409–410_204-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERégent2013409–410-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media_and_symbolism">Media and symbolism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Symbolism in the French Revolution">Symbolism in the French Revolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newspapers">Newspapers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg/180px-L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg/270px-L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg/360px-L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3192" data-file-height="2316" /></a><figcaption>A copy of <i>L'Ami du peuple</i> stained with the blood of Marat</figcaption></figure> <p>Newspapers and pamphlets played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution. Prior to 1789, there have been a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal licence to operate, but the Estates-General created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. Among the most significant were Marat's <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Ami_du_peuple" title="L'Ami du peuple">L'Ami du peuple</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Elys%C3%A9e_Loustallot" title="Elysée Loustallot">Elysée Loustallot</a>'s <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolutions_de_Paris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Revolutions de Paris (page does not exist)">Revolutions de Paris</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_de_Paris" class="extiw" title="fr:Revolutions de Paris">fr</a>]</span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next decade, more than 2,000 newspapers were founded, 500 in Paris alone. Most lasted only a matter of weeks but they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisick1993149–166_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisick1993149–166-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand. There was a widespread assumption that writing was a vocation, not a business, and the role of the press was the advancement of civic republicanism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20057–12_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20057–12-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1793 the radicals were most active but initially the royalists flooded the country with their publication the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=L%27Ami_du_Roi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L'Ami du Roi (page does not exist)">L'Ami du Roi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Ami_du_Roi" class="extiw" title="fr:L'Ami du Roi">fr</a>]</span>" (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisick1988623–645_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisick1988623–645-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolutionary_symbols">Revolutionary symbols</h3></div> <p>To illustrate the differences between the new Republic and the old regime, the leaders needed to implement a new set of symbols to be celebrated instead of the old religious and monarchical symbols. To this end, symbols were borrowed from historic cultures and redefined, while those of the old regime were either destroyed or reattributed acceptable characteristics. These revised symbols were used to instil in the public a new sense of tradition and reverence for the Enlightenment and the Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="La_Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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.description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Marseillaise.ogg&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Marseillaise.ogg&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Marseillaise.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Marseillaise.ogg&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Marseillaise.ogg&lang=zh-hk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-HK" label="中文（香港） ‪(zh-hk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Marseillaise.ogg&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The French national anthem <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">La Marseillaise</i></span>; text in French.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marche-des-marseillois.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Marche-des-marseillois.jpg/200px-Marche-des-marseillois.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Marche-des-marseillois.jpg/300px-Marche-des-marseillois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Marche-des-marseillois.jpg/400px-Marche-des-marseillois.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2882" data-file-height="3016" /></a><figcaption>Marche des Marseillois, 1792, satirical etching, London<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>"<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></span></span>" (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[la<span class="wrap"> </span>maʁsɛjɛːz]</a></span>) became the <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> of France. The song was written and composed in 1792 by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Joseph_Rouget_de_Lisle" title="Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle">Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle</a>, and was originally titled "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin</i></span>". The <a href="/wiki/French_National_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="French National Convention">French National Convention</a> adopted it as the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic's</a> anthem in 1795. It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Fédéré">volunteers</a> from <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> marching on the capital. </p><p>The song is the first example of the "European march" anthemic style, while the evocative melody and lyrics led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music. De Lisle was instructed to 'produce a hymn which conveys to the soul of the people the enthusiasm which it (the music) suggests.'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECerulo1993243–271_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECerulo1993243–271-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guillotine">Guillotine</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png/130px-Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png/195px-Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png/260px-Cruikshank_-_The_Radical%27s_Arms.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Cartoon attacking the excesses of the Revolution as symbolised by the <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotine</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">Guillotine</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotine</a> remains "the principal symbol of the Terror in the French Revolution."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2007151_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2007151-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Invented by a physician during the Revolution as a quicker, more efficient and more distinctive form of execution, the guillotine became a part of popular culture and historic memory. It was celebrated on the left as the people's avenger, for example in the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_song" title="Revolutionary song">revolutionary song</a> <i><a href="/wiki/La_guillotine_permanente" title="La guillotine permanente">La guillotine permanente</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelonLevayer1989153–154_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelonLevayer1989153–154-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cursed as the symbol of the Terror by the right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuntMartinRosenwein2003664_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuntMartinRosenwein2003664-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its operation became a popular entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators. Vendors sold programmes listing the names of those scheduled to die. Many people came day after day and vied for the best locations from which to observe the proceedings; knitting women (<a href="/wiki/Tricoteuse" title="Tricoteuse">tricoteuses</a>) formed a cadre of hardcore regulars, inciting the crowd. Parents often brought their children. By the end of the Terror, the crowds had thinned drastically. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cockade,_tricolore,_and_liberty_cap"><span id="Cockade.2C_tricolore.2C_and_liberty_cap"></span>Cockade, <i>tricolore</i>, and liberty cap</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sans-culotte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sans-culotte.jpg/150px-Sans-culotte.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sans-culotte.jpg/225px-Sans-culotte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sans-culotte.jpg/300px-Sans-culotte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A <i><a href="/wiki/Sans-culotte" class="mw-redirect" title="Sans-culotte">sans-culotte</a></i> and Tricoloure</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cockade" title="Cockade">Cockades</a> were widely worn by revolutionaries beginning in 1789. They now pinned the blue-and-red cockade of Paris onto the white cockade of the <i>Ancien Régime</i>. <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a> asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade. Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, and they are used on the city's coat of arms. Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowdy200442_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowdy200442-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Liberty cap, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Pileus_(hat)" title="Pileus (hat)">pileus</a>, is a brimless, felt cap that is conical in shape with the tip pulled forward. It reflects Roman republicanism and liberty, alluding to the Roman ritual of <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a>, in which a freed slave receives the bonnet as a symbol of his newfound liberty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarden199566–102_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarden199566–102-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_women">Role of women</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Women in the French Revolution">Women in the French Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Militant_feminism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Militant feminism in the French Revolution">Militant feminism in the French Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg/180px-Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg/270px-Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg/360px-Ch%C3%A9rieux_-_Club_des_femmes_patriotes_dans_une_%C3%A9glise_-_1793.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2554" data-file-height="1902" /></a><figcaption>Club of patriotic women in a church</figcaption></figure> <p>Deprived of political rights by the <i>Ancien Régime</i>, the Revolution initially allowed women to participate, although only to a limited degree. Activists included Girondists like <a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a>, author of the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Woman_and_of_the_Female_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a>, killer of Marat. Others like <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9roigne_de_M%C3%A9ricourt" class="mw-redirect" title="Théroigne de Méricourt">Théroigne de Méricourt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_L%C3%A9on" title="Pauline Léon">Pauline Léon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Revolutionary_Republican_Women" title="Society of Revolutionary Republican Women">Society of Revolutionary Republican Women</a> supported the Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and took part in the October 1789 March to Versailles. Despite this, the 1791 and 1793 constitutions denied them political rights and democratic citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelzerRabine199279_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelzerRabine199279-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1793, the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women campaigned for strict price controls on bread, and a law that would compel all women to wear the tricolour cockade. Although both demands were successful, in October the male-dominated Jacobins who then controlled the government denounced the Society as dangerous rabble-rousers and made all women's clubs and associations illegal. Organised women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after 30 October 1793.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyApplewhiteJohnson1979143–149_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyApplewhiteJohnson1979143–149-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, especially in the provinces, women played a prominent role in resisting social changes introduced by the Revolution. This was particularly so in terms of the reduced role of the Catholic Church; for those living in rural areas, closing of the churches meant a loss of normality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHufton1992106–107_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHufton1992106–107-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sparked a counter-revolutionary movement led by women; while supporting other political and social changes, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and revolutionary cults like the <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesanHuntNelson2013452_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesanHuntNelson2013452-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Olwen_Hufton" title="Olwen Hufton">Olwen Hufton</a> argues some wanted to protect the Church from heretical changes enforced by revolutionaries, viewing themselves as "defenders of faith".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHufton1998303_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHufton1998303-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prominent_women">Prominent women</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olympe_de_Gouges.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Olympe_de_Gouges.png/180px-Olympe_de_Gouges.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Olympe_de_Gouges.png/270px-Olympe_de_Gouges.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Olympe_de_Gouges.png/360px-Olympe_de_Gouges.png 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a>, Girondist author of the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Woman_and_of_the_Female_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen</a>, executed in November 1793</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a> was an author whose publications emphasised that while women and men were different, this should not prevent equality under the law. In her <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Woman_and_of_the_Female_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen</a> she insisted women deserved rights, especially in areas concerning them directly, such as divorce and recognition of illegitimate children.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Gouges_Writings_564–568_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Gouges_Writings_564–568-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Along with other Girondists, she was executed in November 1793 during the Terror. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</a>, also known as Manon or Marie Roland, was another important female activist whose political focus was not specifically women but other aspects of the government. A Girondist, her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join. She too was executed in November 1793.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalton2001262–267_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalton2001262–267-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_policies">Economic policies</h2></div> <p>The Revolution abolished many economic constraints imposed by the <i>Ancien Régime</i>, including church tithes and feudal dues although tenants often paid higher rents and taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland20021–24_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland20021–24-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All church lands were nationalised, along with those owned by Royalist exiles, which were used to back paper currency known as <a href="/wiki/Assignats" class="mw-redirect" title="Assignats">assignats</a>, and the feudal <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a> system eliminated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVardi1988704–717_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVardi1988704–717-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also abolished the highly inefficient system of <a href="/wiki/Ferme_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale" title="Ferme générale">tax farming</a>, whereby private individuals would collect taxes for a hefty fee. The government seized the foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education. The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation's charitable and <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_France#Revolution" title="History of education in France">school systems were massively disrupted</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1986181–197_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1986181–197-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg/220px-France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg/330px-France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg/440px-France-500Livres-1790-uni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption> Early <i>Assignat</i> of 29 September 1790: 500 <a href="/wiki/French_livres" class="mw-redirect" title="French livres">livres</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1790 and 1796, industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared, forcing the government to finance expenditure by issuing ever increasing quantities <i>assignats</i>. When this resulted in escalating inflation, the response was to impose price controls and persecute private speculators and traders, creating a <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a>. Between 1789 and 1793, the annual deficit increased from 10% to 64% of gross national product, while annual inflation reached 3,500% after a poor harvest in 1794 and the removal of price controls. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but inflation continued until the introduction of the gold-based <i>Franc germinal</i> in 1803.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrezisCrouzet19957–40_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrezisCrouzet19957–40-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</a></div> <p>The French Revolution had a major impact on western history, by ending feudalism in France and creating a path for advances in individual freedoms throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmerColton1995341_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmerColton1995341-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The revolution represented the most significant challenge to political absolutism up to that point in history and spread democratic ideals throughout Europe and ultimately the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiemerSimon1997106_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiemerSimon1997106-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its impact on <a href="/wiki/French_nationalism" title="French nationalism">French nationalism</a> was profound, while also stimulating nationalist movements throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannDinwiddy198813_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannDinwiddy198813-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern historians argue the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a> was a direct consequence of the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeitner200712_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeitner200712-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the revolution is often seen as marking the start of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpang2003119–147_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpang2003119–147-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3></div><p> The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarising politics for more than a century. Historian <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Victor_Alphonse_Aulard" title="François Victor Alphonse Aulard">François Aulard</a> wrote:</p><blockquote><p>"From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity."<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply either "|first=" and the actual title of the cited work, or use "|title=[untitled]" for intentional omission. (November 2020)">title missing</span></a></i>]</sup></p></blockquote><p>The revolution permanently crippled the power of the aristocracy and drained the wealth of the Church, although the two institutions survived. Hanson suggests the French underwent a fundamental transformation in self-identity, evidenced by the elimination of privileges and their replacement by intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2009191_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2009191-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> in 1815, the French public lost many of the rights and privileges earned since the revolution, but remembered the participatory politics that characterised the period. According to Paul Hanson, "Revolution became a tradition, and <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> an enduring option."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2009189_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2009189-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Revolution meant an end to arbitrary royal rule and held out the promise of rule by law under a constitutional order. Napoleon as emperor set up a constitutional system and the restored Bourbons were forced to retain one. After the abdication of Napoleon III in 1871, the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy regime</a> (1940–1944), tried to undo the revolutionary heritage, but retained the republic. However, there were no efforts by the Bourbons, Vichy or any other government to restore the privileges that had been stripped away from the nobility in 1789. France permanently became a society of equals under the law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2009189_237-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2009189-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Agriculture was transformed by the Revolution. With the breakup of large estates controlled by the Church and the nobility and worked by hired hands, rural France became more a land of small independent farms. Harvest taxes were ended, such as the tithe and seigneurial dues. <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">Primogeniture</a> was ended both for nobles and peasants, thereby weakening the family patriarch, and led to a fall in the birth rate since all children had a share in the family property.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1988251–254,_265_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1988251–254,_265-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cobban argues the Revolution bequeathed to the nation "a ruling class of landowners."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196489_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196489-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic historians are divided on the economic impact of the Revolution. One suggestion is the resulting fragmentation of agricultural holdings had a significant negative impact in the early years of 19th century, then became positive in the second half of the century because it facilitated the rise in human capital investments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranckMichalopoulos2017_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranckMichalopoulos2017-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue the redistribution of land had an immediate positive impact on agricultural productivity, before the scale of these gains gradually declined over the course of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinleyFranckJohnson2017_243-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinleyFranckJohnson2017-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the cities, entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way. However, the British blockade virtually ended overseas and colonial trade, hurting the cities and their supply chains. Overall, the Revolution did not greatly change the French business system, and probably helped freeze in place the horizons of the small business owner. The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large-scale industry was less common than in other industrialising nations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196468–80_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196468–80-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_outside_France">Europe outside France</h3></div> <p>Historians often see the impact of the Revolution as through the institutions and ideas exported by Napoleon. Economic historians Dan Bogart, Mauricio Drelichman, Oscar Gelderblom, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal describe Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codified law</a> as the French Revolution's "most significant export."<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a>, Davide Cantoni, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Johnson_(economist)" title="Simon Johnson (economist)">Simon Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_A._Robinson_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Robinson (economist)">James A. Robinson</a> the French Revolution had long-term effects in Europe. They suggest that "areas that were occupied by the French and that underwent radical institutional reform experienced more rapid <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and economic growth, especially after 1850. There is no evidence of a negative effect of French invasion."<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Revolution sparked intense debate in Britain. The <a href="/wiki/Revolution_Controversy" title="Revolution Controversy">Revolution Controversy</a> was a "<a href="/wiki/Pamphlet_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamphlet war">pamphlet war</a>" set off by the publication of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Discourse_on_the_Love_of_Our_Country" title="A Discourse on the Love of Our Country">A Discourse on the Love of Our Country</a></i>, a speech given by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Richard Price</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_Society" title="Revolution Society">Revolution Society</a> on 4 November 1789, supporting the French Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> responded in November 1790 with his own pamphlet, <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i>, attacking the French Revolution as a threat to the aristocracy of all countries.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1970459–505_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1970459–505-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Coxe_(MP)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Coxe (MP) (page does not exist)">William Coxe</a> opposed Price's premise that one's country is principles and people, not the State itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000233_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000233-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, two seminal political pieces of political history were written in Price's favour, supporting the general right of the French people to replace their State. One of the first of these "<a href="/wiki/Pamphlet#History" title="Pamphlet">pamphlets</a>" into print was <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Men" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Men">A Vindication of the Rights of Men</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> . Wollstonecraft's title was echoed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i>, published a few months later. In 1792 <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wyvill_(reformer)" title="Christopher Wyvill (reformer)">Christopher Wyvill</a> published <i>Defence of Dr. Price and the Reformers of England</i>, a plea for reform and moderation.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This exchange of ideas has been described as "one of the great political debates in British history".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowe200593_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowe200593-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_United_Irishmen" title="Society of United Irishmen">Society of United Irishmen</a> involving Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in <a href="/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster">Ulster</a>. The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by <a href="/wiki/Wolfe_Tone" title="Wolfe Tone">Wolfe Tone</a>, that was crushed by Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPelling20025–10_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelling20025–10-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German reaction to the Revolution swung from favourable to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of guilds, serfdom and the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. Above all the antagonism helped stimulate and shape <a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German nationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France invaded Switzerland and turned it into the "<a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Republic</a>" (1798–1803), a French puppet state. French interference with localism and traditions was deeply resented in Switzerland, although some reforms took hold and survived in the later <a href="/wiki/Restoration_and_Regeneration_in_Switzerland" title="Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland">period of restoration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1970394–421_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1970394–421-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Revolutionary Wars, the French invaded and occupied the region now known as Belgium between 1794 and 1814. The new government enforced reforms, incorporating the region into France. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann197865–81,_101–102_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann197865–81,_101–102-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kingdom of Denmark adopted liberalising reforms in line with those of the French Revolution. Reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_reform" title="Agrarian reform">agrarian reforms</a> that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant <a href="/wiki/Freehold_(law)" title="Freehold (law)">freeholders</a>. Much of the initiative came from well-organised liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorstbollOstergård1990155–179_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorstbollOstergård1990155–179-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Norway" title="Constitution of Norway">Constitution of Norway</a> of 1814 was inspired by the French Revolution,<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was considered to be one of the most liberal and democratic constitutions at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3></div> <p>Initially, most people in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">Province of Quebec</a> were favourable toward the revolutionaries' aims. The Revolution took place against the background of an ongoing campaign for constitutional reform in the colony by <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalist</a> emigrants from the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199357–58_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199357–58-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public opinion began to shift against the Revolution after the Flight to Varennes and further soured after the September Massacres and the subsequent execution of Louis XVI.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199365_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199365-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French migration to <a href="/wiki/The_Canadas" title="The Canadas">the Canadas</a> experienced a substantial decline during and after the Revolution. Only a limited number of artisans, professionals, and religious emigres were allowed to settle in the region during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-canimmg2_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canimmg2-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most emigres settled in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-canimmg2_262-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canimmg2-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influx of religious emigres also revitalised the local Catholic Church, with exiled priests establishing a number of parishes across the Canadas.<sup id="cite_ref-canimmg2_262-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canimmg2-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the French Revolution deeply polarised American politics, and this polarisation led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a>. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a> led by former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_France" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to France">American minister to France</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> favored revolutionary France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and his unanimous cabinet, including Jefferson, decided that the treaty did not bind the United States to enter the war. Washington <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Neutrality" title="Proclamation of Neutrality">proclaimed neutrality</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">Historiography of the French Revolution</a></div> <p>The first writings on the French revolution were near contemporaneous with events and mainly divided along ideological lines. These included <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>'s conservative critique <a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790) and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s response <a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudé198812–14_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudé198812–14-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1815, narrative histories dominated, often based on first-hand experience of the revolutionary years. By the mid-nineteenth century, more scholarly histories appeared, written by specialists and based on original documents and a more critical assessment of contemporary accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013486–487_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013486–487-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:183px;max-width:183px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:224px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippolyte_Taine_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Hippolyte_Taine_cropped.png/181px-Hippolyte_Taine_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="181" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Hippolyte_Taine_cropped.png 1.5x" data-file-width="182" data-file-height="226" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Hippolyte Taine</a>, conservative historian of the French Revolution</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:205px;max-width:205px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:224px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges_Lefebvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Georges_Lefebvre.jpg/203px-Georges_Lefebvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="203" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Georges_Lefebvre.jpg/305px-Georges_Lefebvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Georges_Lefebvre.jpg/406px-Georges_Lefebvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="824" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre" title="Georges Lefebvre">Georges Lefebvre</a>, Marxist historian of the French Revolution</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Dupuy identifies three main strands in nineteenth century historiography of the Revolution. The first is represented by reactionary writers who rejected the revolutionary ideals of popular sovereignty, civil equality, and the promotion of rationality, progress and personal happiness over religious faith. The second stream is those writers who celebrated its democratic, and republican values. The third were liberals like <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Germaine de Staël</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a>, who accepted the necessity of reforms establishing a constitution and the rights of man, but rejected state interference with private property and individual rights, even when supported by a democratic majority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013487–488_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013487–488-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Jules Michelet</a> was a leading 19th-century historian of the democratic republican strand, and <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Thiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mignet" title="François Mignet">Mignet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> were prominent in the liberal strand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudé1988441–442,_444–445_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudé1988441–442,_444–445-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Hippolyte Taine</a>'s <i>Origins of Contemporary France</i> (1875–1894) was modern in its use of departmental archives, but Dupuy sees him as reactionary, given his contempt for the crowd, and Revolutionary values.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013488_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013488-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The broad distinction between conservative, democratic-republican and liberal interpretations of the Revolution persisted in the 20th-century, although historiography became more nuanced, with greater attention to critical analysis of documentary evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013488_268-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013488-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990440_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990440-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Victor_Alphonse_Aulard" title="François Victor Alphonse Aulard">Alphonse Aulard</a> (1849–1928) was the first professional historian of the Revolution; he promoted graduate studies, scholarly editions, and learned journals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989881–889_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989881–889-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His major work, <i>The French Revolution, a Political History, 1789–1804</i> (1905), was a democratic and republican interpretation of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudé198815–16_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudé198815–16-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Socio-economic analysis and a focus on the experiences of ordinary people dominated French studies of the Revolution from the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudé198816–19_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudé198816–19-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre" title="Georges Lefebvre">Georges Lefebvre</a> elaborated a Marxist socio-economic analysis of the revolution with detailed studies of peasants, the rural panic of 1789, and the behaviour of revolutionary crowds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013489_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013489-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudé198818–19_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudé198818–19-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Soboul" title="Albert Soboul">Albert Soboul</a>, also writing in the Marxist-Republican tradition, published a major study of the <i>sans-culottes</i> in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990444_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990444-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cobban" title="Alfred Cobban">Alfred Cobban</a> challenged Jacobin-Marxist social and economic explanations of the revolution in two important works, <i>The Myth of the French Revolution</i> (1955) and <i>Social Interpretation of the French Revolution</i> (1964). He argued the Revolution was primarily a political conflict, which ended in a victory for conservative property owners, a result which retarded economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudé198820_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudé198820-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990445_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyle1990445-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In their 1965 work, <i>La Revolution française</i>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">François Furet</a> and Denis Richet also argued for the primacy of political decisions, contrasting the reformist period of 1789 to 1790 with the following interventions of the urban masses which led to radicalisation and an ungovernable situation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013490_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013490-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 1990s, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations of the revolution in terms of bourgeoisie-proletarian class struggle as anachronistic. However, no new explanatory model has gained widespread support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpang2003119–147_234-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpang2003119–147-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell2004323–351_280-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell2004323–351-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historiography of the Revolution has expanded into areas such as cultural and regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013490_279-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuy2013490-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordeliers" title="Cordeliers">Cordeliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Europe" title="Democracy in Europe">Democracy in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Glossary of the French Revolution">Glossary of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_associated_with_the_French_Revolution" title="List of people associated with the French Revolution">List of people associated with the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_groups_in_the_French_Revolution" title="List of political groups in the French Revolution">List of political groups in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_during_the_French_Revolution_and_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars">List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Musée de la Révolution française">Musée de la Révolution française</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_in_the_18th_century" title="Paris in the 18th century">Paris in the 18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Timeline of the French Revolution">Timeline of the French Revolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contrary to what is often assumed, the nobility were subject to tax, although how much they were able to evade or pass onto their tenants is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrens1976521–527_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrens1976521–527-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Other estimates of the death toll range from 170,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHussenet2007148_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHussenet2007148-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 200,000–250,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1987?_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1987?-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In one exchange, a Hébertist named Vadier threatened to 'gut that fat <a href="/wiki/Turbot" title="Turbot">turbot</a>, Danton', who replied that if he tried, he (Danton) would 'eat his brains and shit in his skull'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989814_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989814-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELivesey200119-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELivesey200119_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLivesey2001">Livesey 2001</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFehér1990117–130_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFehér1990">Fehér 1990</a>, pp. 117–130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201339–40_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJessene2013">Jessene 2013</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015100-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015100_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJourdan2015">Jourdan 2015</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20154-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20154_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarzagalli2015">Marzagalli 2015</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1978279–303-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1978279–303_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaker1978">Baker 1978</a>, pp. 279–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan200411–12-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan200411–12_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJordan2004">Jordan 2004</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20156–7-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20156–7_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarzagalli2015">Marzagalli 2015</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay201524,_31-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay201524,_31_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClay2015">Clay 2015</a>, pp. 24, 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201332–33-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201332–33_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJessene2013">Jessene 2013</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20158–10-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20158–10_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarzagalli2015">Marzagalli 2015</a>, pp. 8–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015104-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJourdan2015104_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJourdan2015">Jourdan 2015</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20155,_14–17-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzagalli20155,_14–17_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarzagalli2015">Marzagalli 2015</a>, pp. 5, 14–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETilly1983337-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETilly1983337_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTilly1983">Tilly 1983</a>, p. 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir198998-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir198998_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeir1989">Weir 1989</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChanel201568-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChanel201568_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChanel2015">Chanel 2015</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrens1976521–527-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrens1976521–527_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBehrens1976">Behrens 1976</a>, pp. 521–527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir198996-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir198996_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeir1989">Weir 1989</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJourdan201594–104-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJourdan201594–104_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJourdan2015">Jourdan 2015</a>, pp. 94–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith201550–51-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith201550–51_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2015">Smith 2015</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessene201336-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessene201336_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a 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University of Virginia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2546-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2546-2"><bdi>978-0-8139-2546-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ending+the+French+Revolution%3A+Violence%2C+Justice%2C+and+Repression+from+the+Terror+to+Napoleon&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-2546-2&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Howard+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1995" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Howard G. (1995). <i>War, Revolution, and the Bureaucratic State Politics and Army Administration in France, 1791-1799</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0542-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0542-5"><bdi>978-0-1982-0542-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Revolution%2C+and+the+Bureaucratic+State+Politics+and+Army+Administration+in+France%2C+1791-1799&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-0542-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Howard+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerulo1993" class="citation journal cs1">Cerulo, Karen A. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_sociological-forum_1993-06_8_2/page/243">"Symbols and the world system: national anthems and flags"</a>. <i>Sociological Forum</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 243–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01115492">10.1007/BF01115492</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144023960">144023960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Forum&rft.atitle=Symbols+and+the+world+system%3A+national+anthems+and+flags&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=243-271&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01115492&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144023960%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cerulo&rft.aufirst=Karen+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_sociological-forum_1993-06_8_2%2Fpage%2F243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenserHunt2001" class="citation book cs1">Censer, Jack; Hunt, Lynn (2001). <i>Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution</i>. Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2710-2088-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2710-2088-4"><bdi>978-0-2710-2088-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6783315M">6783315M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberty%2C+Equality%2C+Fraternity%3A+Exploring+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6783315M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-2710-2088-4&rft.aulast=Censer&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChanel2015" class="citation journal cs1">Chanel, Gerri (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejournals.eu/pliki/art/7257/pl">"Taxation as a Cause of the French Revolution: Setting the Record Straight"</a>. <i>Studia Historica Gedansia</i>. <b>3</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210921005014/https://www.ejournals.eu/pliki/art/7257/pl">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Historica+Gedansia&rft.atitle=Taxation+as+a+Cause+of+the+French+Revolution%3A+Setting+the+Record+Straight&rft.volume=3&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Chanel&rft.aufirst=Gerri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejournals.eu%2Fpliki%2Fart%2F7257%2Fpl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Jane (2005). "Republican citizenship, ethics and the French revolutionary press". <i>Ethical Space: The International Journal of Communication Ethics</i>. <b>2</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethical+Space%3A+The+International+Journal+of+Communication+Ethics&rft.atitle=Republican+citizenship%2C+ethics+and+the+French+revolutionary+press&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisick1988" class="citation journal cs1">Chisick, Harvey (1988). 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(2000). <i>English Society: 1660–1832; Religion, Ideology and Politics During the Ancient Regime</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-6627-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-6627-5"><bdi>978-0-5216-6627-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL16970384M">16970384M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Society%3A+1660%E2%80%931832%3B+Religion%2C+Ideology+and+Politics+During+the+Ancient+Regime&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL16970384M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-6627-5&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=J.C.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClay2015" class="citation book cs1">Clay, Lauren (2015). <i>The Bourgoisie, Capitalism and the Origins of the French Revolution</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bourgoisie%2C+Capitalism+and+the+Origins+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Clay&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFAndress2015">Andress 2015</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobban1963" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Cobban, Alfred (1963). <i>A History of Modern France</i>. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-6151-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-6151-5"><bdi>978-0-5216-6151-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5770047M">5770047M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Interpretation+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.edition=1999&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL5770047M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-6151-5&rft.aulast=Cobban&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConner2012" class="citation book cs1">Conner, Clifford (2012). <i>Jean-Paul Marat: Tribune of the French Revolution</i>. Pluto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-3193-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-3193-5"><bdi>978-0-7453-3193-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Paul+Marat%3A+Tribune+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-3193-5&rft.aulast=Conner&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCough1987" class="citation journal cs1">Cough, Hugh (1987). "Genocide and the Bicentenary: the French Revolution and the Revenge of the Vendee". <i>Historical Journal</i>. <b>30</b> (4): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1987-12_30_4/page/977">977–988</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00022433">10.1017/S0018246X00022433</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159724928">159724928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+the+Bicentenary%3A+the+French+Revolution+and+the+Revenge+of+the+Vendee&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=977-988&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00022433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159724928%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cough&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrook1996" class="citation book cs1">Crook, Malcolm (1996). <i>Elections in the French Revolution: An Apprenticeship in Democracy, 1789-1799</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5214-5191-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5214-5191-8"><bdi>978-0-5214-5191-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elections+in+the+French+Revolution%3A+An+Apprenticeship+in+Democracy%2C+1789-1799&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-5214-5191-8&rft.aulast=Crook&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowdy2004" class="citation book cs1">Crowdy, Terry (2004). <i>French Revolutionary Infantry 1789–1802</i>. Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-6660-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-6660-7"><bdi>978-1-8417-6660-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Revolutionary+Infantry+1789%E2%80%931802&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-8417-6660-7&rft.aulast=Crowdy&rft.aufirst=Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowe2005" class="citation book cs1">Crowe, Ian (2005). <i>An Imaginative Whig: Reassessing the Life and Thought of Edmund Burke</i>. University of Missouri Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6419-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6419-0"><bdi>978-0-8262-6419-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Imaginative+Whig%3A+Reassessing+the+Life+and+Thought+of+Edmund+Burke&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8262-6419-0&rft.aulast=Crowe&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalton2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dalton, Susan (2001). "Gender and the Shifting Ground of Revolutionary Politics: The Case of Madame Roland". <i>Canadian Journal of History</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 259–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fcjh.36.2.259">10.3138/cjh.36.2.259</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18711850">18711850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Gender+and+the+Shifting+Ground+of+Revolutionary+Politics%3A+The+Case+of+Madame+Roland&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=259-282&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fcjh.36.2.259&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18711850&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannDinwiddy1988" class="citation book cs1">Dann, Otto; Dinwiddy, John (1988). <i>Nationalism in the Age of the French Revolution</i>. Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9076-2897-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9076-2897-2"><bdi>978-0-9076-2897-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+in+the+Age+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-9076-2897-2&rft.aulast=Dann&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft.au=Dinwiddy%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2016" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Ian (2016). <i>The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny</i>. Profile Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8466-8541-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8466-8541-5"><bdi>978-1-8466-8541-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+From+Enlightenment+to+Tyranny&rft.pub=Profile+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-8466-8541-5&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelonLevayer1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Delon, Michel; Levayer, Paul-Édouard (1989). <i>Chansonnier révolutionnaire</i> (in French). Éditions Gallimard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-0703-2530-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-0703-2530-X"><bdi>2-0703-2530-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chansonnier+r%C3%A9volutionnaire&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+Gallimard&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=2-0703-2530-X&rft.aulast=Delon&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Levayer%2C+Paul-%C3%89douard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesanHuntNelson2013" class="citation book cs1">Desan, Suzanne; Hunt, Lynn; Nelson, William (2013). <i>The French Revolution in Global Perspective</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5096-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5096-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-5096-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+in+Global+Perspective&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-5096-9&rft.aulast=Desan&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Lynn&rft.au=Nelson%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle1990" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, William (1990). <i>The Oxford History of the French Revolution</i> (3rd (2018) ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-0493-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-0493-2"><bdi>978-0-1988-0493-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.edition=3rd+%282018%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-1988-0493-2&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2009" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, William (2009). <i>Aristocracy and its Enemies in the Age of Revolution</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1916-0971-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1916-0971-8"><bdi>978-0-1916-0971-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristocracy+and+its+Enemies+in+the+Age+of+Revolution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-1916-0971-8&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupuy2013" class="citation book cs1">Dupuy, Pascal (2013). <i>The Revolution in History, Commemoration, and Memory</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revolution+in+History%2C+Commemoration%2C+and+Memory&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Dupuy&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFMcPhee2013">McPhee 2013</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2008" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Philip (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleonpathtopo0000dwye"><i>Napoleon: The Path to Power 1769–1799</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-4820-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-4820-6"><bdi>978-0-3001-4820-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+The+Path+to+Power+1769%E2%80%931799&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-4820-6&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonpathtopo0000dwye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFehér1990" class="citation book cs1">Fehér, Ferenc (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000unse_a4w7"><i>The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity</i></a> (1992 ed.). University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-7120-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-7120-9"><bdi>978-0-5200-7120-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+and+the+Birth+of+Modernity&rft.edition=1992&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-5200-7120-9&rft.aulast=Feh%C3%A9r&rft.aufirst=Ferenc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrenchrevolution0000unse_a4w7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinleyFranckJohnson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Finley, Theresa; Franck, Raphael; Johnson, Noel (2017). "The Effects of Land Redistribution: Evidence from the French Revolution". <i>George Mason University</i>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3033094">3033094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=George+Mason+University&rft.atitle=The+Effects+of+Land+Redistribution%3A+Evidence+from+the+French+Revolution&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3033094%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft.au=Franck%2C+Raphael&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Noel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForster1967" class="citation journal cs1">Forster, Robert (1967). "The Survival of the Nobility during the French Revolution". <i>Past & Present</i> (37): 71–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F37.1.71">10.1093/past/37.1.71</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650023">650023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=The+Survival+of+the+Nobility+during+the+French+Revolution&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=71-86&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F37.1.71&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650023%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Forster&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranckMichalopoulos2017" class="citation journal cs1">Franck, Raphaël; Michalopoulos, Stelios (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/institute/working-papers-institute/iwp2.pdf">"Emigration during the French Revolution: Consequences in the Short and Longue Durée"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NBER Working Paper No. 23936</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw23936">10.3386/w23936</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134086399">134086399</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180220175239/https://www.minneapolisfed.org/institute/working-papers-institute/iwp2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBER+Working+Paper+No.+23936&rft.atitle=Emigration+during+the+French+Revolution%3A+Consequences+in+the+Short+and+Longue+Dur%C3%A9e&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw23936&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134086399%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=Rapha%C3%ABl&rft.au=Michalopoulos%2C+Stelios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Finstitute%2Fworking-papers-institute%2Fiwp2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreyFrey2004" class="citation book cs1">Frey, Linda; Frey, Marsha (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000frey"><i>The French Revolution</i></a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-2193-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-2193-1"><bdi>978-0-3133-2193-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-3133-2193-1&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Frey%2C+Marsha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrenchrevolution0000frey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuret1989" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François (1989). Kafker, Frank (ed.). <i>A Deep-rooted Ideology as Well as Circumstance in </i>The French Revolution: Conflicting Interpretations<i><span></span></i> (2002 ed.). Krieger Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5752-4092-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5752-4092-3"><bdi>978-1-5752-4092-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Deep-rooted+Ideology+as+Well+as+Circumstance+in+The+French+Revolution%3A+Conflicting+Interpretations&rft.edition=2002&rft.pub=Krieger+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-1-5752-4092-3&rft.aulast=Furet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuretOzouf1989" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona (1989). <i>A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4"><bdi>978-0-6741-7728-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Dictionary+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-6741-7728-4&rft.aulast=Furet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Ozouf%2C+Mona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrard2012" class="citation book cs1">Garrard, G. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RM7bmjNINt0C&pg=PA37"><i>Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes</i></a>. SUNY series in Social and Political Thought. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8743-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8743-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-8743-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230209002457/https://books.google.com/books?id=RM7bmjNINt0C&pg=PA37">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2023</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+Counter-Enlightenment%3A+A+Republican+Critique+of+the+Philosophes&rft.series=SUNY+series+in+Social+and+Political+Thought&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-8743-3&rft.aulast=Garrard&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRM7bmjNINt0C%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGershoy1933" class="citation journal cs1">Gershoy, Leo (1933). Hazen, Charles D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45337195">"The French Revolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Current_History" title="Current History">Current History</a></i>. <b>38</b> (3): IV–VI. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2641-080X">2641-080X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45337195">45337195</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307061012/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45337195">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+History&rft.atitle=The+French+Revolution&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=IV-VI&rft.date=1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45337195%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2641-080X&rft.aulast=Gershoy&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45337195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGough1998" class="citation book cs1">Gough, Hugh (1998). <i>The Terror in the French Revolution</i> (2010 ed.). Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2302-0181-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2302-0181-1"><bdi>978-0-2302-0181-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Terror+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.edition=2010&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-2302-0181-1&rft.aulast=Gough&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwood1993" class="citation book cs1">Greenwood, Frank Murray (1993). <i>Legacies of Fear: Law and Politics in Quebec in the Era of the French Revolution</i>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6974-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6974-0"><bdi>978-0-8020-6974-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+Fear%3A+Law+and+Politics+in+Quebec+in+the+Era+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-6974-0&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Frank+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Paul (2007). <i>The A to Z of the French Revolution</i>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-1606-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-1606-8"><bdi>978-1-4617-1606-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4617-1606-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2009" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Paul (2009). <i>Contesting the French Revolution</i>. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6083-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6083-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-6083-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contesting+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6083-4&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarden1995" class="citation journal cs1">Harden, David J. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_past-present_1995-02_146/page/66">"Liberty Caps and Liberty Trees"</a>. <i>Past & Present</i> (146): 66–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F146.1.66">10.1093/past/146.1.66</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/651152">651152</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Liberty+Caps+and+Liberty+Trees&rft.issue=146&rft.pages=66-102&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F146.1.66&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F651152%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harden&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_past-present_1995-02_146%2Fpage%2F66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargreaves-Mawdsley1968" class="citation book cs1">Hargreaves-Mawdsley, William (1968). <i>Spain under the Bourbons, 1700–1833</i>. 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North Texas University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324000839/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc822845/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Conquering+the+natural+frontier%3A+French+expansion+to+the+Rhine+during+the+War+of+the+First+Coalition+1792%E2%80%931797&rft.degree=PHD&rft.inst=North+Texas+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hayworth&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc822845%2Fm2%2F1%2Fhigh_res_d%2Fdissertation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHibbert1982" class="citation book cs1">Hibbert, Christopher (1982). <i>The French Revolution</i>. 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University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6837-8"><bdi>978-0-8020-6837-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+the+Limits+of+Citizenship+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-6837-8&rft.aulast=Hufton&rft.aufirst=Olwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomenlimitsofcit0000huft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHufton1998" class="citation book cs1">Hufton, Olwen (1998). "In Search of Counter-Revolutionary Women.". In <a href="/wiki/Gary_Kates" title="Gary Kates">Kates, Gary</a> (ed.). <i>The French Revolution: Recent debates and New Controversies</i>. pp. 302–336.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=In+Search+of+Counter-Revolutionary+Women.&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+Recent+debates+and+New+Controversies&rft.pages=302-336&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Hufton&rft.aufirst=Olwen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntLanskyHanson1979" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, Lynn; Lansky, David; Hanson, Paul (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-history_1979-12_51_4/page/734">"The Failure of the Liberal Republic in France, 1795–1799: The Road to Brumaire"</a>. <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>51</b> (4): 734–759. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F241988">10.1086/241988</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1877164">1877164</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154019725">154019725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Failure+of+the+Liberal+Republic+in+France%2C+1795%E2%80%931799%3A+The+Road+to+Brumaire&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=734-759&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154019725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1877164%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F241988&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.au=Lansky%2C+David&rft.au=Hanson%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-modern-history_1979-12_51_4%2Fpage%2F734&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt1984" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Lynn (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsculturec0000hunt_p8w4"><i>Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution</i></a>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Culture%2C+and+Class+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticsculturec0000hunt_p8w4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntMartinRosenwein2003" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Lynn; Martin, Thomas R.; Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2003). <i>The Making of the West</i>. Vol. II (2010 ed.). 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Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-5172-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-5172-4"><bdi>978-0-6911-5172-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+ideas%2C+an+intellectual+history+of+the+French+Revolution+from+the+Rights+of+Man+to+Robespierre&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-6911-5172-4&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessene2013" class="citation book cs1">Jessene, Jean-Pierre (2013). <i>The Social and Economic Crisis in France at the End of the Ancien Régime</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+and+Economic+Crisis+in+France+at+the+End+of+the+Ancien+R%C3%A9gime&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Jessene&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFMcPhee2013">McPhee 2013</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1988" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Peter M. (1988). <i>The Peasantry in the French Revolution</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-3070-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-3070-1"><bdi>978-0-5213-3070-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2031722M">2031722M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peasantry+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL2031722M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-3070-1&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan2004" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, David (2004). <i>The King's Trial: The French Revolution versus Louis XVI</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5202-3697-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5202-3697-4"><bdi>978-0-5202-3697-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Trial%3A+The+French+Revolution+versus+Louis+XVI&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-5202-3697-4&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJourdan2015" class="citation book cs1">Jourdan, Annie (2015). <i>Tumultuous contexts and radical ideas (1783-89). The 'pre-revolution' in a transnational context</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tumultuous+contexts+and+radical+ideas+%281783-89%29.+The+%27pre-revolution%27+in+a+transnational+context&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Jourdan&rft.aufirst=Annie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFAndress2015">Andress 2015</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1989" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Emmet (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturalhistoryo0000kenn"><i>A Cultural History of the French Revolution</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-4426-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-4426-3"><bdi>978-0-3000-4426-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-4426-3&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Emmet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fculturalhistoryo0000kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2000" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Michael (2000). <i>The Jacobin Clubs in the French Revolution: 1793–1795</i>. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5718-1186-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5718-1186-8"><bdi>978-1-5718-1186-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jacobin+Clubs+in+the+French+Revolution%3A+1793%E2%80%931795&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-5718-1186-8&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeitner2007" class="citation book cs1">Keitner, Chimene I. (2007). <i>The Paradoxes of Nationalism: The French Revolution and Its Meaning for Contemporary Nation Building</i>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6958-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6958-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-6958-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paradoxes+of+Nationalism%3A+The+French+Revolution+and+Its+Meaning+for+Contemporary+Nation+Building&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6958-3&rft.aulast=Keitner&rft.aufirst=Chimene+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann1978" class="citation book cs1">Kossmann, E.H. (1978). <i>The Low Countries: 1780–1940</i>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2108-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2108-1"><bdi>978-0-1982-2108-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Low+Countries%3A+1780%E2%80%931940&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-2108-1&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=E.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLalevée2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Lalevée, Thomas J. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://h-france.net/rude/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/LaleveeVol6.pdf"><i>National Pride and Republican grandezza: Brissot's New Language for International Politics in the French Revolution</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (PHD thesis). Australian National University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=National+Pride+and+Republican+grandezza%3A+Brissot%27s+New+Language+for+International+Politics+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.degree=PHD&rft.inst=Australian+National+University&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Lalev%C3%A9e&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fh-france.net%2Frude%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F08%2FLaleveeVol6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauritsenThorup2011" class="citation book cs1">Lauritsen, H.R.; Thorup, M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2BjJPXCnw0MC&pg=PT100"><i>Rousseau and Revolution</i></a>. Continuum Studies in Political Philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-8776-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-8776-5"><bdi>978-1-4411-8776-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230209002459/https://books.google.com/books?id=2BjJPXCnw0MC&pg=PT100">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2023</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+Revolution&rft.series=Continuum+Studies+in+Political+Philosophy&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-8776-5&rft.aulast=Lauritsen&rft.aufirst=H.R.&rft.au=Thorup%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2BjJPXCnw0MC%26pg%3DPT100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre1962" class="citation book cs1">Lefebvre, Georges (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000lefe_m6h9"><i>The French Revolution: From Its Origins to 1793</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2310-8598-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2310-8598-4"><bdi>978-0-2310-8598-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+From+Its+Origins+to+1793&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-2310-8598-4&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrenchrevolution0000lefe_m6h9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevyApplewhiteJohnson1979" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Darline Gay; Applewhite, Harriet Branson; Johnson, Mary Durham, eds. (1979). <i>Women in Revolutionary Paris, 1789–1795</i>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2520-0409-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2520-0409-4"><bdi>978-0-2520-0409-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Revolutionary+Paris%2C+1789%E2%80%931795&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-2520-0409-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Gwynne (2002). <i>The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2034-0991-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2034-0991-6"><bdi>978-0-2034-0991-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+Rethinking+the+Debate&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-2034-0991-6&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gwynne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinton2013" class="citation book cs1">Linton, Marisa (2013). <i>Friends, Enemies, and the Role of the Individual</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Friends%2C+Enemies%2C+and+the+Role+of+the+Individual&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Linton&rft.aufirst=Marisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFMcPhee2013">McPhee 2013</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivesey2001" class="citation book cs1">Livesey, James (2001). <i>Making Democracy in the French Revolution</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-0624-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-0624-9"><bdi>978-0-6740-0624-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Democracy+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-0624-9&rft.aulast=Livesey&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudwikowski1990" class="citation journal cs1">Ludwikowski, Rhett (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/xmlui/handle/item/151153">"The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and the American Constitutional Development"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Comparative Law</i>. <b>2</b>: 445–462. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F840552">10.2307/840552</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/840552">840552</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143656851">143656851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=The+French+Declaration+of+the+Rights+of+Man+and+Citizen+and+the+American+Constitutional+Development&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=445-462&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143656851%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F840552%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F840552&rft.aulast=Ludwikowski&rft.aufirst=Rhett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruj.uj.edu.pl%2Fxmlui%2Fhandle%2Fitem%2F151153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons1975" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Martyn (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franceunderdirec0000lyon"><i>France under the Directory</i></a> (2008 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-9950-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-9950-9"><bdi>978-0-5210-9950-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+under+the+Directory&rft.edition=2008&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-5210-9950-9&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranceunderdirec0000lyon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Martin, Jean-Clément (1987). <i>La Vendée et la France</i> (in French). Éditions du Seuil.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Vend%C3%A9e+et+la+France&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+du+Seuil&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Cl%C3%A9ment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarzagalli2015" class="citation book cs1">Marzagalli, Sylvia (2015). <i>Economic and Demographic Developments</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+and+Demographic+Developments&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Marzagalli&rft.aufirst=Sylvia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFAndress2015">Andress 2015</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLynn1997" class="citation book cs1">McLynn, Frank (1997). <i>Napoleon</i> (1998 ed.). Pimlico. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-6247-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-6247-5"><bdi>978-0-7126-6247-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon&rft.edition=1998&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7126-6247-5&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcManners1969" class="citation book cs1">McManners, John (1969). <i>The French Revolution and the Church</i> (1982 ed.). Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3132-3074-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3132-3074-5"><bdi>978-0-3132-3074-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+and+the+Church&rft.edition=1982&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-3132-3074-5&rft.aulast=McManners&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelzerRabine1992" class="citation book cs1">Melzer, Sarah; Rabine, Leslie, eds. (1992). <i>Rebel Daughters: Women and the French Revolution</i>. Oxford University Press Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-6886-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-6886-3"><bdi>978-0-1950-6886-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebel+Daughters%3A+Women+and+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+Inc&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-1950-6886-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPhee2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_McPhee_(academic)" title="Peter McPhee (academic)">McPhee, Peter</a>, ed. (2013). <i>A Companion to the French Revolution</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3564-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3564-4"><bdi>978-1-4443-3564-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25355797M">25355797M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL25355797M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3564-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1970" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert R. Palmer">Palmer, Robert R.</a> (1970), <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution</i>, vol. 2</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Democratic+Revolution&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Roswell_Palmer" title="Robert Roswell Palmer">Palmer, Robert R.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-education-quarterly_summer-1986_26_2/page/181">"How Five Centuries of Educational Philanthropy Disappeared in the French Revolution"</a>. <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 181–197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F368736">10.2307/368736</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/368736">368736</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147116875">147116875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=How+Five+Centuries+of+Educational+Philanthropy+Disappeared+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=181-197&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147116875%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F368736%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F368736&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_history-of-education-quarterly_summer-1986_26_2%2Fpage%2F181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmerColton1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Roswell_Palmer" title="Robert Roswell Palmer">Palmer, Robert R.</a>; Colton, Joel (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780679432531"><i>A History of the Modern World</i></a>. Alfred A Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6794-3253-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6794-3253-1"><bdi>978-0-6794-3253-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pub=Alfred+A+Knopf&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-6794-3253-1&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rft.au=Colton%2C+Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780679432531&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPas2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pas, Niek (2008). <i>De geschiedenis van Frankrijk in een notendop: (bijna) alles wat je altijd wilde weten</i> (in Dutch). Bakker. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0351-3170-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0351-3170-5"><bdi>978-9-0351-3170-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+geschiedenis+van+Frankrijk+in+een+notendop%3A+%28bijna%29+alles+wat+je+altijd+wilde+weten&rft.pub=Bakker&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9-0351-3170-5&rft.aulast=Pas&rft.aufirst=Niek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelling2002" class="citation book cs1">Pelling, Nick (2002). <i>Anglo-Irish Relations: 1798-1922</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2039-8655-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2039-8655-4"><bdi>978-0-2039-8655-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Irish+Relations%3A+1798-1922&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-2039-8655-4&rft.aulast=Pelling&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2003" class="citation book cs1">Price, Munro (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roadfromversaill00pric"><i>The Road from Versailles: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Fall of the French Monarchy</i></a>. St Martins Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3122-6879-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3122-6879-4"><bdi>978-0-3122-6879-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+from+Versailles%3A+Louis+XVI%2C+Marie+Antoinette%2C+and+the+Fall+of+the+French+Monarchy&rft.pub=St+Martins+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-3122-6879-4&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Munro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froadfromversaill00pric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRégent2013" class="citation book cs1">Régent, Frédéric (2013). <i>A Companion to the French Revolution</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+French+Revolution&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=R%C3%A9gent&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFMcPhee2013">McPhee 2013</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiemerSimon1997" class="citation book cs1">Riemer, Neal; Simon, Douglas (1997). <i>The New World of Politics: An Introduction to Political Science</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9396-9341-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9396-9341-2"><bdi>978-0-9396-9341-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World+of+Politics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Political+Science&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-9396-9341-2&rft.aulast=Riemer&rft.aufirst=Neal&rft.au=Simon%2C+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossHoltermannBindreiter2019" class="citation book cs1">Ross, A.; Holtermann, J.H.; Bindreiter, U. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JzG-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA323"><i>On Law and Justice</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1910-2579-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1910-2579-2"><bdi>978-0-1910-2579-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230209002457/https://books.google.com/books?id=JzG-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA323">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Law+and+Justice&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-1910-2579-2&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Holtermann%2C+J.H.&rft.au=Bindreiter%2C+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJzG-DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothenberg1988" class="citation journal cs1">Rothenberg, Gunter (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-interdisciplinary-history_spring-1988_18_4/page/771">"The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon"</a>. <i>The Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i>. <b>18</b> (4): 771–793. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F204824">10.2307/204824</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824">204824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=The+Origins%2C+Causes%2C+and+Extension+of+the+Wars+of+the+French+Revolution+and+Napoleon&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=771-793&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F204824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F204824%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rothenberg&rft.aufirst=Gunter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-interdisciplinary-history_spring-1988_18_4%2Fpage%2F771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudé1988" class="citation book cs1">Rudé, George (1988). <i>The French Revolution: Its Causes, Its History and Its Legacy After 200 Years</i>. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5558-4150-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5558-4150-8"><bdi>978-1-5558-4150-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+Its+Causes%2C+Its+History+and+Its+Legacy+After+200+Years&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-1-5558-4150-8&rft.aulast=Rud%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSargentVelde1995" class="citation journal cs1">Sargent, Thomas J.; Velde, Francois R (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-political-economy_1995-06_103_3/page/474">"Macroeconomic features of the French Revolution"</a>. <i>Journal of Political Economy</i>. <b>103</b> (3): 474–518. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F261992">10.1086/261992</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2138696">2138696</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153904650">153904650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Macroeconomic+features+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=474-518&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153904650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2138696%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F261992&rft.aulast=Sargent&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=Velde%2C+Francois+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-political-economy_1995-06_103_3%2Fpage%2F474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchama1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama, Simon</a> (1977). <i>Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813</i>. Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0021-6701-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0021-6701-7"><bdi>978-0-0021-6701-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patriots+and+Liberators%3A+Revolution+in+the+Netherlands%2C+1780%E2%80%931813&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-0021-6701-7&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchama1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama, Simon</a> (1989). <i>Citizens, A Chronicle of The French Revolution</i> (2004 ed.). Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1727-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1727-3"><bdi>978-0-1410-1727-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizens%2C+A+Chronicle+of+The+French+Revolution&rft.edition=2004&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-1410-1727-3&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1975" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, Samuel (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1975-10_80_4/page/859">"Problems of Law and Order during 1790, the "Peaceful" Year of the French Revolution"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>80</b> (4): 859–888. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1867442">10.2307/1867442</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1867442">1867442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Problems+of+Law+and+Order+during+1790%2C+the+%22Peaceful%22+Year+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=859-888&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1867442&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1867442%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_american-historical-review_1975-10_80_4%2Fpage%2F859&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShusterman2013" class="citation book cs1">Shusterman, Noah (2013). <i>The French Revolution; Faith, Desire, and Politics</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4156-6021-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4156-6021-1"><bdi>978-0-4156-6021-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3B+Faith%2C+Desire%2C+and+Politics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-4156-6021-1&rft.aulast=Shusterman&rft.aufirst=Noah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2015" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jay M. (2015). <i>Nobility</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nobility&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jay+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFAndress2015">Andress 2015</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoboul1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Soboul" title="Albert Soboul">Soboul, Albert</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00sobo"><i>The French Revolution 1787–1799</i></a>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3947-1220-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3947-1220-8"><bdi>978-0-3947-1220-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+1787%E2%80%931799&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-3947-1220-8&rft.aulast=Soboul&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrenchrevolution00sobo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpang2003" class="citation journal cs1">Spang, Rebecca (2003). "Paradigms and Paranoia: How modern Is the French Revolution?". <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>108</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr%2F108.1.119">10.1086/ahr/108.1.119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Paradigms+and+Paranoia%3A+How+modern+Is+the+French+Revolution%3F&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr%2F108.1.119&rft.aulast=Spang&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherland2002" class="citation journal cs1">Sutherland, D. M. G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-history_2002-03_62_1/page/1">"Peasants, Lords, and Leviathan: Winners and Losers from the Abolition of French Feudalism, 1780–1820"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 1–24. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2697970">2697970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Peasants%2C+Lords%2C+and+Leviathan%3A+Winners+and+Losers+from+the+Abolition+of+French+Feudalism%2C+1780%E2%80%931820&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2697970%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=D.+M.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-economic-history_2002-03_62_1%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTackett2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tackett, Timothy (2003). "The Flight to Varennes and the Coming of the Terror". <i>Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques</i>. <b>29</b> (3): 469–493. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41299285">41299285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Reflections+%2F+R%C3%A9flexions+Historiques&rft.atitle=The+Flight+to+Varennes+and+the+Coming+of+the+Terror&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=469-493&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41299285%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tackett&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTackett2004" class="citation book cs1">Tackett, Timothy (2004). <i>When the King Took Flight</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-1642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-1642-2"><bdi>978-0-6740-1642-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+the+King+Took+Flight&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-1642-2&rft.aulast=Tackett&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTackett2011" class="citation journal cs1">Tackett, Timothy (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://h-france.net/rude/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/TackettVol4.pdf">"Rumor and Revolution: The Case of the September Massacres"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>French History and Civilization</i>. <b>4</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181130071546/https://h-france.net/rude/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/TackettVol4.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 30 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+History+and+Civilization&rft.atitle=Rumor+and+Revolution%3A+The+Case+of+the+September+Massacres&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Tackett&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fh-france.net%2Frude%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F08%2FTackettVol4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1932" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, James Matthew (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0W0OAQAAMAAJ"><i>Leaders of the French Revolution</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leaders+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=B.+Blackwell&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=James+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0W0OAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilly1983" class="citation journal cs1">Tilly, Louise (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-interdisciplinary-history_autumn-1983_14_2/page/333">"Food Entitlement, Famine, and Conflict"</a>. <i>The Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 333–349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F203708">10.2307/203708</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/203708">203708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Food+Entitlement%2C+Famine%2C+and+Conflict&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=333-349&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F203708&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F203708%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tilly&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-interdisciplinary-history_autumn-1983_14_2%2Fpage%2F333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVardi1988" class="citation journal cs1">Vardi, Liana (1988). "The Abolition of the Guilds during the French Revolution". <i>French Historical Studies</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 704–717. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F286554">10.2307/286554</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286554">286554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Abolition+of+the+Guilds+during+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=704-717&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F286554&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F286554%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vardi&rft.aufirst=Liana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton2013" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Charles (2013). <i>Clubs, parties, factions in </i>The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution<i><span></span></i>. Wiley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clubs%2C+parties%2C+factions+in+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasson2009" class="citation book cs1">Wasson, Ellis (2009). <i>A History of Modern Britain: 1714 to the Present</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3935-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3935-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-3935-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Britain%3A+1714+to+the+Present&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3935-9&rft.aulast=Wasson&rft.aufirst=Ellis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir1989" class="citation journal cs1">Weir, David (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-history_1989-03_49_1/page/95">"Tontines, Public Finance, and Revolution in France and England, 1688–1789"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 95–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002205070000735X">10.1017/S002205070000735X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2121419">2121419</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154494955">154494955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Tontines%2C+Public+Finance%2C+and+Revolution+in+France+and+England%2C+1688%E2%80%931789&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95-124&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154494955%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2121419%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002205070000735X&rft.aulast=Weir&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-economic-history_1989-03_49_1%2Fpage%2F95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1995" class="citation journal cs1">White, Eugene Nelson (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-history_1995-06_55_2/page/227">"The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance, 1770–1815"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>55</b> (2): 227–255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700041048">10.1017/S0022050700041048</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2123552">2123552</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154871390">154871390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+French+Revolution+and+the+Politics+of+Government+Finance%2C+1770%E2%80%931815&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=227-255&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154871390%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2123552%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700041048&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Eugene+Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-economic-history_1995-06_55_2%2Fpage%2F227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoronoff1984" class="citation book cs1">Woronoff, Denis (1984). <i>The Thermidorean regime and the directory: 1794–1799</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-8917-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-8917-7"><bdi>978-0-5212-8917-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thermidorean+regime+and+the+directory%3A+1794%E2%80%931799&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-5212-8917-7&rft.aulast=Woronoff&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Bibliography of the French Revolution">Bibliography of the French Revolution</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbray1975" class="citation journal cs1">Abray, Jane (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1975-02_80_1/page/43">"Feminism in the French Revolution"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>80</b> (1): 43–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1859051">10.2307/1859051</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1859051">1859051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Feminism+in+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-62&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1859051&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1859051%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Abray&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_american-historical-review_1975-02_80_1%2Fpage%2F43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckstrand2009" class="citation book cs1">Beckstrand, Lisa (2009). <i>Deviant women of the French Revolution and the rise of feminism</i>. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6114-7400-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6114-7400-8"><bdi>978-1-6114-7400-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deviant+women+of+the+French+Revolution+and+the+rise+of+feminism&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-6114-7400-8&rft.aulast=Beckstrand&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2007" class="citation book cs1">Bell, David Avrom (2007). <i>The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It</i>. Mariner Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6189-1981-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6189-1981-9"><bdi>978-0-6189-1981-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Total+War%3A+Napoleon%27s+Europe+and+the+Birth+of+Warfare+as+We+Know+It&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-6189-1981-9&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=David+Avrom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanning1997" class="citation book cs1">Blanning, Timothy C. W (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000blan_d3f3"><i>The French Revolution: Class War or Culture Clash?</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3336-7064-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3336-7064-4"><bdi>978-0-3336-7064-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+Class+War+or+Culture+Clash%3F&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-3336-7064-4&rft.aulast=Blanning&rft.aufirst=Timothy+C.+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrenchrevolution0000blan_d3f3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBredin1988" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bredin, Jean-Denis (1988). <i>Sieyes; la clé de la Révolution française</i> (in French). Fallois.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sieyes%3B+la+cl%C3%A9+de+la+R%C3%A9volution+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.pub=Fallois&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Bredin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenser2002" class="citation book cs1">Censer, Jack (2002). Klaits, Joseph; Haltzel, Michael (eds.). <i>The French Revolution after 200 Years in </i>Global Ramifications of the French Revolution<i><span></span></i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-2447-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-2447-6"><bdi>978-0-5215-2447-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+after+200+Years+in+Global+Ramifications+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-2447-6&rft.aulast=Censer&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1984" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Samuel (1984). "Nobility, Bourgeoisie and the Industrial Revolution in Belgium". <i>Past & Present</i> (105): 140–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F105.1.140">10.1093/past/105.1.140</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650548">650548</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Nobility%2C+Bourgeoisie+and+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+Belgium&rft.issue=105&rft.pages=140-175&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F105.1.140&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650548%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeCampbell1989" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Alistair; Campbell, Peter (1989). <i>French electoral systems and elections since 1789</i>. Gower. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5660-5696-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5660-5696-3"><bdi>978-0-5660-5696-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+electoral+systems+and+elections+since+1789&rft.pub=Gower&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-5660-5696-3&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComninel1987" class="citation book cs1">Comninel, George C (1987). <i>Rethinking the French Revolution: Marxism and the Revisionist Challenge</i>. Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8609-1890-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8609-1890-5"><bdi>978-0-8609-1890-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+French+Revolution%3A+Marxism+and+the+Revisionist+Challenge&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8609-1890-5&rft.aulast=Comninel&rft.aufirst=George+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2004" class="citation book cs1">Cook, Bernard A (2004). <i>Belgium (Studies in Modern European History, V. 50)</i>. Peter Lang Publishing Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-5824-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-5824-3"><bdi>978-0-8204-5824-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belgium+%28Studies+in+Modern+European+History%2C+V.+50%29&rft.pub=Peter+Lang+Publishing+Inc&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-5824-3&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Bernard+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevance1977" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Devance, Louis (1977). "Le Féminisme pendant la Révolution Française". <i>Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française</i> (in French). <b>49</b> (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+Historiques+de+la+R%C3%A9volution+Fran%C3%A7aise&rft.atitle=Le+F%C3%A9minisme+pendant+la+R%C3%A9volution+Fran%C3%A7aise&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Devance&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorginy2003" class="citation book cs1">Dorginy, Marcel (2003). <i>The Abolitions of Slavery: From L.F. Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848</i>. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5718-1432-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5718-1432-6"><bdi>978-1-5718-1432-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abolitions+of+Slavery%3A+From+L.F.+Sonthonax+to+Victor+Schoelcher%2C+1793%2C+1794%2C+1848&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-5718-1432-6&rft.aulast=Dorginy&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2001" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, William (2001). <i>The French Revolution: A very short introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-5396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-5396-7"><bdi>978-0-1928-5396-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+A+very+short+introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-5396-7&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1997" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Geoffrey (1997). Aston, Nigel (ed.). <i>Religion according to Napoleon; the limitations of pragmatism in </i>Religious Change in Europe 1650–1914: Essays for John McManners<i><span></span></i>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0596-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0596-8"><bdi>978-0-1982-0596-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+according+to+Napoleon%3B+the+limitations+of+pragmatism+in+Religious+Change+in+Europe+1650%E2%80%931914%3A+Essays+for+John+McManners&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-0596-8&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFremont-Barnes2007" class="citation book cs1">Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2007). <i>Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 1760–1815</i>. Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3130-4951-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3130-4951-4"><bdi>978-0-3130-4951-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Age+of+Political+Revolutions+and+New+Ideologies%2C+1760%E2%80%931815&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-3130-4951-4&rft.aulast=Fremont-Barnes&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuret1981" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François (1981). <i>Interpreting the French Revolution</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Furet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuret1995" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François (1995). <i>Revolutionary France, 1770–1880</i>. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6311-9808-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6311-9808-6"><bdi>978-0-6311-9808-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+France%2C+1770%E2%80%931880&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-6311-9808-6&rft.aulast=Furet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFursenkoMcArthur1976" class="citation journal cs1">Fursenko, A.A; McArthur, Gilbert (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1976-07_33_3/page/481">"The American and French Revolutions Compared: The View from the U.S.S.R."</a> <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1921544">10.2307/1921544</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1921544">1921544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+American+and+French+Revolutions+Compared%3A+The+View+from+the+U.S.S.R.&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=481&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1921544&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1921544%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fursenko&rft.aufirst=A.A&rft.au=McArthur%2C+Gilbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1976-07_33_3%2Fpage%2F481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrioch1994" class="citation journal cs1">Garrioch, David (1994). "The People of Paris and Their Police in the Eighteenth Century. 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Van Nostrand. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8987-4718-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8987-4718-8"><bdi>978-0-8987-4718-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Era+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Van+Nostrand&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-8987-4718-8&rft.aulast=Gershoy&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhammer2005" class="citation book cs1">Goldhammer, Jesse (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/headlessrepublic00gold_0"><i>The headless republic : sacrificial violence in modern French thought</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4150-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4150-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-4150-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/783283094">783283094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+headless+republic+%3A+sacrificial+violence+in+modern+French+thought&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F783283094&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4150-9&rft.aulast=Goldhammer&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fheadlessrepublic00gold_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampson1988" class="citation book cs1">Hampson, Norman (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryoff0000hamp"><i>A Social History of the French Revolution</i></a>. Routledge: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-6525-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-6525-4"><bdi>978-0-7100-6525-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=Routledge&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-7100-6525-4&rft.aulast=Hampson&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialhistoryoff0000hamp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHibbert1980" class="citation book cs1">Hibbert, Christopher (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/daysoffrenchrevo0000hibb"><i>The Days of the French Revolution</i></a>. Quill, William Morrow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6880-3704-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6880-3704-8"><bdi>978-0-6880-3704-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Days+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Quill%2C+William+Morrow&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-6880-3704-8&rft.aulast=Hibbert&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdaysoffrenchrevo0000hibb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHufton1983" class="citation journal cs1">Hufton, Olwen (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-interdisciplinary-history_autumn-1983_14_2/page/303">"Social Conflict and the Grain Supply in Eighteenth-Century France"</a>. <i>The Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 303–331. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F203707">10.2307/203707</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/203707">203707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Social+Conflict+and+the+Grain+Supply+in+Eighteenth-Century+France&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=303-331&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F203707&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F203707%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hufton&rft.aufirst=Olwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_journal-of-interdisciplinary-history_autumn-1983_14_2%2Fpage%2F303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt1996" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Lynn (1996). <i>The French Revolution and Human Rights</i> (2016 ed.). Bedford/St Martins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3190-4903-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3190-4903-4"><bdi>978-1-3190-4903-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+and+Human+Rights&rft.edition=2016&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt+Martins&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-3190-4903-4&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1963" class="citation book cs1">James, C. L. R. (1963). <i>The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution</i> (2001 ed.). Penguin Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Jacobins%3A+Toussaint+L%27Ouverture+and+the+San+Domingo+Revolution&rft.edition=2001&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=C.+L.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson, Thomas</a> (1903). Ford, Paul (ed.). <i>The Works of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. XII: Correspondence and Papers 1808–1816</i> (2010 ed.). Cosimo Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6164-0215-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6164-0215-0"><bdi>978-1-6164-0215-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Thomas+Jefferson%2C+Vol.+XII%3A+Correspondence+and+Papers+1808%E2%80%931816&rft.edition=2010&rft.pub=Cosimo+Classics&rft.date=1903&rft.isbn=978-1-6164-0215-0&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJourdan2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jourdan, Annie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.0642292.0035.012">"The "Alien Origins" of the French Revolution: American, Scottish, Genevan, and Dutch Influences"</a>. <i>The Western Society for French History</i>. <b>35</b> (2). University of Amsterdam. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.0642292.0035.012">2027/spo.0642292.0035.012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Western+Society+for+French+History&rft.atitle=The+%22Alien+Origins%22+of+the+French+Revolution%3A+American%2C+Scottish%2C+Genevan%2C+and+Dutch+Influences&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fspo.0642292.0035.012&rft.aulast=Jourdan&rft.aufirst=Annie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fspo.0642292.0035.012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKołakowski1978" class="citation book cs1">Kołakowski, Leszek (1978). <i>Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown</i>. 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Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-2188-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-2188-8"><bdi>978-0-6911-2188-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.edition=2005&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0-6911-2188-8&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomingoffrenchre0000lefe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre1963" class="citation book cs1">Lefebvre, Georges (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000lefe_m6h9"><i>The French Revolution: from 1793 to 1799</i></a>. 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New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2310-2519-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2310-2519-5"><bdi>978-0-2310-2519-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+from+1793+to+1799&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-2310-2519-5&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrenchrevolution0000lefe_m6h9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre1964" class="citation book cs1">Lefebvre, Georges (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thermidoriansdir0003lefe"><i>The Thermidorians & the Directory</i></a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1344-4539-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1344-4539-7"><bdi>978-0-1344-4539-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thermidorians+%26+the+Directory&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-1344-4539-7&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthermidoriansdir0003lefe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLéonard1977" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Léonard, Jacques (1977). "Femmes, Religion et Médecine: Les Religieuses qui Soignent, en France au XIXe Siècle". <i>Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations</i> (in French). <b>32</b> (55).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales%3A+%C3%89conomies%2C+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9s%2C+Civilisations&rft.atitle=Femmes%2C+Religion+et+M%C3%A9decine%3A+Les+Religieuses+qui+Soignent%2C+en+France+au+XIXe+Si%C3%A8cle&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=55&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9onard&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcHugh2012" class="citation journal cs1">McHugh, Tim (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3376001">"Expanding Women's Rural Medical Work in Early Modern Brittany: The Daughters of the Holy Spirit"</a>. <i>History of Medicine and Allied Sciences</i>. <b>67</b> (3): 428–456. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrr032">10.1093/jhmas/jrr032</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3376001">3376001</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21724643">21724643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Medicine+and+Allied+Sciences&rft.atitle=Expanding+Women%27s+Rural+Medical+Work+in+Early+Modern+Brittany%3A+The+Daughters+of+the+Holy+Spirit&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=428-456&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3376001%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21724643&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrr032&rft.aulast=McHugh&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3376001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillan1999" class="citation book cs1">McMillan, James H (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francewomen178910000mcmi"><i>France and women, 1789–1914: gender, society and politics</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-2602-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-2602-8"><bdi>978-0-4152-2602-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+and+women%2C+1789%E2%80%931914%3A+gender%2C+society+and+politics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-2602-8&rft.aulast=McMillan&rft.aufirst=James+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrancewomen178910000mcmi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx, Karl</a> (1983). Kamenka, Eugene (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/portablekarlmarx0000marx"><i>The Paris Commune and the Future of Socialism: 1870–1882 in The Portable Karl Marx</i></a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1401-5096-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1401-5096-4"><bdi>978-0-1401-5096-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paris+Commune+and+the+Future+of+Socialism%3A+1870%E2%80%931882+in+The+Portable+Karl+Marx&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-1401-5096-4&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fportablekarlmarx0000marx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1984" class="citation journal cs1">Mitchell, CJ (1984). 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Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3411-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3411-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-3411-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-3411-7&rft.aulast=Neely&rft.aufirst=Sylvia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof00neel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossignol2006" class="citation book cs1">Rossignol, Marie-Jeanne (2006). <i>The American Revolution in France: Under the Shadow of the French Revolution in </i>Europe's American Revolution<i><span></span></i>. 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"A problem in self-identity: Russian intellectual thought in the context of the French Revolution". <i>European Studies</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 61–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F004724419602600104">10.1177/004724419602600104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145177231">145177231</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Studies&rft.atitle=A+problem+in+self-identity%3A+Russian+intellectual+thought+in+the+context+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-76&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F004724419602600104&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145177231%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shlapentokh&rft.aufirst=Dmitry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSepinwall2017" class="citation journal cs1">Sepinwall, Alyssa Goldstein (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44478370">"Beyond "The Black Jacobins": Haitian Revolutionary Historiography Comes of Age"</a>. <i>Journal of Haitian Studies</i>. <b>23</b> (1): 17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhs.2017.0000">10.1353/jhs.2017.0000</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44478370">44478370</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158697106">158697106</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410035456/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44478370">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Haitian+Studies&rft.atitle=Beyond+%22The+Black+Jacobins%22%3A+Haitian+Revolutionary+Historiography+Comes+of+Age&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158697106%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44478370%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjhs.2017.0000&rft.aulast=Sepinwall&rft.aufirst=Alyssa+Goldstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44478370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoboul1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Soboul" title="Albert Soboul">Soboul, Albert</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffr00sobo"><i>A short history of the French Revolution: 1789–1799</i></a>. Geoffrey Symcox. University of California Press, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-3419-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-3419-8"><bdi>978-0-5200-3419-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+short+history+of+the+French+Revolution%3A+1789%E2%80%931799&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press%2C+Ltd&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-5200-3419-8&rft.aulast=Soboul&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryoffr00sobo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoperFetzer2003" class="citation journal cs1">Soper, J. Christopher; Fetzer, Joel S (2003). 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The English Universities Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3400-8369-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3400-8369-7"><bdi>978-0-3400-8369-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robespierre+and+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=The+English+Universities+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=978-0-3400-8369-7&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frobespierrefrenc0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1959" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, J.M. (1959). <i>The French Revolution</i>. Basil Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTombsTombs2007" class="citation book cs1">Tombs, Robert; Tombs, Isabelle (2007). <i>That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4024-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4024-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-4024-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Sweet+Enemy%3A+The+French+and+the+British+from+the+Sun+King+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-4024-7&rft.aulast=Tombs&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Tombs%2C+Isabelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:French_Revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:French Revolution">French Revolution</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/French_Revolution" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/French Revolution">French Revolution</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>the French Revolution</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=French+Revolution&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=French+Revolution">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=French+Revolution&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.domaine-vizille.fr/">Museum of the French Revolution</a> (French)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook13.html">Primary source documents</a> from <a href="/wiki/Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project#Internet_Modern_Sourcebook" title="Internet History Sourcebooks Project">The Internet Modern History Sourcebook</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/">Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution</a>, a collaborative site by the Center for History and New Media (George Mason University) and the American Social History Project (City University of New York).</li> <li>Vancea, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151114165139/http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The%20Cahiers%20de%20Doleances%20of%201789">The Cahiers de Doleances of 1789</a>, Clio History Journal, 2008.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140130232229/http://frda-stage.stanford.edu/en/images">French Revolution Digital Archive</a> a collaboration of the Stanford University Libraries and the Bibliothèque nationale de France, containing 12000 digitised images</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://les.guillotines.free.fr/">The guillotined of the French Revolution</a> factsheets of all the sentenced to death of the French Revolution</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/ead/upenn_rbml_MsColl515">Jean-Baptiste Lingaud papers</a>, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania. Includes a vast number of name lists and secret surveillance records as well as arrest warrants for aristocrats and their sympathisers. Most notable in this part of the collection are letters and documents from the Revolutionary Committee and the Surveillance Committee.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.lib.ua.edu/18375">French Revolution Pamphlets</a>, Division of Special Collections, University of Alabama Libraries. Over 300 digitised pamphlets, from writers including Robespierre, St. Juste, Desmoulins, and Danton.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547gg">"The French Revolution's Legacy"</a> BBC Radio 4 discussion with Stefan Collini, Anne Janowitz and Andrew Roberts (<i>In Our Time</i>, 14 June 2001)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime in France">Ancien Régime (Old Regime)</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> French Revolution </b><br />1789–1792 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Revolution" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Revolution" title="Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Revolution" title="Template talk:French Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Timeline of the French Revolution">Timeline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolution</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Constitutional monarchy</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">Republic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Glossary of the French Revolution">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_journals_appearing_under_the_French_Revolution" title="List of journals appearing under the French Revolution">Journals</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Musée de la Révolution française">Museum</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Significant_civil_and_political_events_by_year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Significant civil and political events by year</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1788</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Tiles" title="Day of the Tiles">Day of the Tiles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(7 Jun 1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Vizille" title="Assembly of Vizille">Assembly of Vizille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jul 1788)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1789</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3F" title="What Is the Third Estate?">What Is the Third Estate?</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jan 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9veillon_riots" title="Réveillon riots">Réveillon riots</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Apr 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Convocation of the Estates General</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 May 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Dauphin_of_France#Illness" title="Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France">Death of the Dauphin</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 June 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">Tennis Court Oath</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jun 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jul 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fear" title="Great Fear">Great Fear</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">Abolition of Feudalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–11 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles" title="Women's March on Versailles">Women's March on Versailles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Oct 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biens_nationaux" title="Biens nationaux">Nationalization of the Church properties</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Nov 1789)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1790</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parlement#Abolition" title="Parlement">Abolition of the Parlements</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Feb–Jul 1790)</span></li> <li>Abolition of the <a href="/wiki/French_nobility#The_abolition_of_privileges_during_the_French_Revolution" title="French nobility">Nobility</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Jun 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">Civil Constitution of the Clergy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a></i> <small>(14 Jul 1790)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1791</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Jun 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_massacre" title="Champ de Mars massacre">Champ de Mars massacre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jul 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Pillnitz" title="Declaration of Pillnitz">Declaration of Pillnitz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Aug 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">The Constitution of 1791</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_(France)" title="Legislative Assembly (France)">National Legislative Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1792</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">France declares war</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Apr 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto" title="Brunswick Manifesto">Brunswick Manifesto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jul 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune_(1789%E2%80%931795)" title="Paris Commune (1789–1795)">Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jun 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">10th of August</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Aug 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_Massacres" title="September Massacres">September Massacres</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sep 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First republic declared</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1793</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Execution of Louis XVI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jan 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security" title="Committee of General Security">Committee of General Security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May_%E2%80%93_2_June_1793" title="Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793">Fall of the Girondists</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Jun 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat#Death" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Assassination of Marat</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jul 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Aug 1793)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat" title="The Death of Marat">The Death of Marat</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(painting)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Suspects" title="Law of Suspects">Law of Suspects</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Sep 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette#Trial_and_execution_(14–16_October_1793)" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette is guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(16 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution#The_Revolution_and_the_Church" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Anti-clerical laws</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(throughout the year)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1794</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton#Life" title="Georges Danton">Danton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins#Trial_and_execution" title="Camille Desmoulins">Desmoulins guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial" title="Law of 22 Prairial">Law of 22 Prairial</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> guillotined <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_White_Terror" title="First White Terror">White Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Fall 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins#Fall_from_power" title="Jacobins">Closing of the Jacobin Club</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Nov 1794)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1795–6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_12_Germinal_Year_III" title="Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III">Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Apr 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">Constitution of the Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Aug 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directoire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1795–99)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">5 Oct 1795</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Equals" title="Conspiracy of the Equals">Conspiracy of the Equals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(May 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1797</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">Coup of 18 Fructidor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congress_of_Rastatt" title="Second Congress of Rastatt">Second Congress of Rastatt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1798</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Flor%C3%A9al_Year_VI" title="Law of 22 Floréal Year VI">Law of 22 Floréal Year VI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 May 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1799</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_30_Prairial_VII" title="Coup of 30 Prairial VII">Coup of 30 Prairial VII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Nov 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">Constitution of the Year VIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Dec 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Revolutionary_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Revolutionary campaigns</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1792_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1792</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun_(1792)" title="Battle of Verdun (1792)">Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thionville_(1792)" title="Siege of Thionville (1792)">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Valmy</a></li> <li>Royalist Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Vendée</a></li> <li>Dauphiné</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Goddess" title="Column of the Goddess">Lille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1792)" title="Siege of Mainz (1792)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" title="Battle of Jemappes">Jemappes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Namur_(1792)" title="Siege of Namur (1792)">Namur</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Namur_(1792)" class="extiw" title="fr:Siège de Namur (1792)">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1793_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1793</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">First Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neerwinden_(1793)" title="Battle of Neerwinden (1793)">Battle of Neerwinden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Famars" title="Battle of Famars">Battle of Famars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Sardinia" title="French expedition to Sardinia">Expedition to Sardinia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaiserslautern" title="Battle of Kaiserslautern">Battle of Kaiserslautern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1793)" title="Siege of Mainz (1793)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wattignies" title="Battle of Wattignies">Battle of Wattignies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hondschoote" title="Battle of Hondschoote">Battle of Hondschoote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bellegarde_(1793)" title="Siege of Bellegarde (1793)">Siege of Bellegarde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peyrestortes" title="Battle of Peyrestortes">Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Toulon">Siege of Toulon</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">First Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Truillas" title="Battle of Truillas">Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">Second Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26–27 Dec 1793)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1794_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1794</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-en-Cauchies" title="Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies">Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Boulou" title="Second Battle of Boulou">Second Battle of Boulou</a> (Pyrenees) <span style="font-size:85%;">(30 Apr – 1 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tourcoing" title="Battle of Tourcoing">Battle of Tourcoing</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tournay_(1794)" title="Battle of Tournay (1794)">Battle of Tournay</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June" title="Glorious First of June">Glorious First of June</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1794)">Battle of Fleurus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aldenhoven_(1794)" title="Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)">Battle of Aldenhoven</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Oct 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1795_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1795 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1795</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1796_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1796 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1796</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796%E2%80%931797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796–1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lonato" title="Battle of Lonato">Battle of Lonato</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3–4 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Theiningen" title="Battle of Theiningen">Battle of Theiningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neresheim" title="Battle of Neresheim">Battle of Neresheim</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amberg" title="Battle of Amberg">Battle of Amberg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Battle of Würzburg">Battle of Würzburg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovereto" title="Battle of Rovereto">Battle of Rovereto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">First Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emmendingen" title="Battle of Emmendingen">Battle of Emmendingen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(19 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Schliengen" title="Battle of Schliengen">Battle of Schliengen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bassano" title="Second Battle of Bassano">Second Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calliano" title="Battle of Calliano">Battle of Calliano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6–7 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15–17 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Ireland_(1796)" title="French expedition to Ireland (1796)">Ireland expedition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1797_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1797 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1797</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_13_January_1797" title="Action of 13 January 1797">Naval Engagement off Brittany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14–15 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_25_January_1797" title="Action of 25 January 1797">Battle of the Bay of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Leoben" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Leoben">Treaty of Leoben</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neuwied_(1797)" title="Battle of Neuwied (1797)">Battle of Neuwied</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Oct 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1798_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1798 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1798</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Switzerland" title="French invasion of Switzerland">French invasion of Switzerland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 January – 17 May 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French Invasion of Egypt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798#French_landing" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May – 23 Sep 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1799_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1799</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">Second Coalition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">Siege of Acre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Mar – 21 May 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ostrach" title="Battle of Ostrach">Battle of Ostrach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stockach_(1799)" title="Battle of Stockach (1799)">Battle of Stockach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano" title="Battle of Magnano">Battle of Magnano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)" title="Battle of Cassano (1799)">Battle of Cassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27–28 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Zurich" title="First Battle of Zurich">First Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–7 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)" title="Battle of Trebbia (1799)">Battle of Trebbia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17–20 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novi_(1799)" title="Battle of Novi (1799)">Battle of Novi</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Aug 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Zurich" title="Second Battle of Zurich">Second Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25–26 Sep 1799)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1800_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1800 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1800</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Alessandria" title="Convention of Alessandria">Convention of Alessandria</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden" title="Battle of Hohenlinden">Battle of Hohenlinden</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Dec 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="Second League of Armed Neutrality">League of Armed Neutrality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1800–02)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1801_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1801 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1801</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Treaty of Lunéville</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Feb 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Florence" title="Treaty of Florence">Treaty of Florence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Mar 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_campaign" title="Algeciras campaign">Algeciras campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Jul 1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1802</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1802)" title="Treaty of Paris (1802)">Treaty of Paris</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jun 1802)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Military_leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military leaders</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic"><img alt="French First Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army" title="French Revolutionary Army">French Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustache_Charles_d%27Aoust" title="Eustache Charles d'Aoust">Eustache Charles d'Aoust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Augereau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Augereau">Pierre Augereau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Beauharnais" title="Alexandre de Beauharnais">Alexandre de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bessi%C3%A8res" title="Jean-Baptiste Bessières">Jean-Baptiste Bessières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Brune" title="Guillaume Brune">Guillaume Brune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Carteaux" title="Jean François Carteaux">Jean François Carteaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Championnet" title="Jean-Étienne Championnet">Jean-Étienne Championnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bertin_Gaston_Chapuis_de_Tourville" title="Charles Bertin Gaston Chapuis de Tourville">Chapuis de Tourville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Philippe,_Comte_de_Custine" title="Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine">Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Davout" title="Louis-Nicolas Davout">Louis-Nicolas Davout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Desaix" title="Louis Desaix">Louis Desaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dugommier" title="Jacques François Dugommier">Jacques François Dugommier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas-Alexandre_Dumas" title="Thomas-Alexandre Dumas">Thomas-Alexandre Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dumouriez" title="Charles François Dumouriez">Charles François Dumouriez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Marie_Barth%C3%A9lemy_Ferino" title="Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino">Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Charles_de_Flers" title="Louis-Charles de Flers">Louis-Charles de Flers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grenier" title="Paul Grenier">Paul Grenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_de_Grouchy,_marquis_de_Grouchy" title="Emmanuel de Grouchy, marquis de Grouchy">Emmanuel de Grouchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maurice_Hatry" title="Jacques Maurice Hatry">Jacques Maurice Hatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Hoche" title="Lazare Hoche">Lazare Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Jourdan" title="Jean-Baptiste Jourdan">Jean-Baptiste Jourdan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Christophe_de_Kellermann" title="François Christophe de Kellermann">François Christophe de Kellermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Kl%C3%A9ber" title="Jean-Baptiste Kléber">Jean-Baptiste Kléber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Choderlos_de_Laclos" title="Pierre Choderlos de Laclos">Pierre Choderlos de Laclos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lannes" title="Jean Lannes">Jean Lannes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lecourbe" title="Claude Lecourbe">Claude Lecourbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Lefebvre" title="François Joseph Lefebvre">François Joseph Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Macdonald" title="Étienne Macdonald">Étienne Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Marbot" title="Jean-Antoine Marbot">Jean-Antoine Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Marbot" title="Marcellin Marbot">Marcellin Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9verin_Marceau" title="François Séverin Marceau">François Séverin Marceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont" title="Auguste de Marmont">Auguste de Marmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na" title="André Masséna">André Masséna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon-Adrien_Jeannot_de_Moncey" title="Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey">Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau" title="Jean Victor Marie Moreau">Jean Victor Marie Moreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Mortier,_Duke_of_Tr%C3%A9vise" class="mw-redirect" title="Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise">Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Jacques_Osten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Jacques Osten (page does not exist)">Pierre-Jacques Osten</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Jacques_Osten" class="extiw" title="fr:Pierre-Jacques Osten">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot" title="Nicolas Oudinot">Nicolas Oudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine-Dominique_de_P%C3%A9rignon" title="Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon">Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski" title="Józef Poniatowski">Józef Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_de_Gouvion_Saint-Cyr" title="Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr">Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer" title="Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer">Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Mathieu-Philibert_S%C3%A9rurier" title="Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier">Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Souham" title="Joseph Souham">Joseph Souham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Gabriel_Suchet" title="Louis-Gabriel Suchet">Louis-Gabriel Suchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Henri_Belgrand_de_Vaubois" title="Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois">Belgrand de Vaubois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Victor_Perrin" title="Claude-Victor Perrin">Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Navy#18th_century" title="French Navy">French Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Alexandre_L%C3%A9on_Durand_Linois" title="Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois">Charles-Alexandre Linois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalition Wars">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Alvinczi" title="József Alvinczi">József Alvinczi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9bastien_Charles_Joseph_de_Croix,_Count_of_Clerfayt" title="François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt">Count of Clerfayt <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Aloys_zu_F%C3%BCrstenberg" title="Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg">Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_von_Hotze" title="Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze">Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze <span style="font-size:85%;">(Swiss)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf,_Count_von_Kalckreuth" title="Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth">Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kray" title="Paul Kray">Pál Kray <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Eugene,_Prince_of_Lambesc" title="Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc">Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc <span style="font-size:85%;">(French)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Anton_Karl,_Count_Baillet_de_Latour" title="Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour">Maximilian Baillet de Latour <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">Karl Mack von Leiberich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ritter_von_Otto" title="Rudolf Ritter von Otto">Rudolf Ritter von Otto <span style="font-size:85%;">(Saxon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Josias_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Vitus_von_Quosdanovich" title="Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich">Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Heinrich_XV_of_Reuss-Plauen" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen">Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_von_Szoboszl%C3%B3" title="Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló">Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Philipp_Sebottendorf" title="Karl Philipp Sebottendorf">Karl Philipp Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_Sigmund_von_Wurmser" title="Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser">Dagobert von Wurmser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain"><img alt="Kingdom of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abercromby" title="Ralph Abercromby">Ralph Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Saumarez,_1st_Baron_de_Saumarez" title="James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez">James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick,_Duke_of_York_and_Albany" title="Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany">Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_V,_Prince_of_Orange" title="William V, Prince of Orange">William V, Prince of Orange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia"><img alt="Kingdom of Prussia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick">Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Louis,_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen">Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov" title="Alexander Korsakov">Alexander Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rosenberg" title="Andrei Rosenberg">Andrei Rosenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)#Charles_IV,_decline_and_fall_(1788–1808)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Firm%C3%ADn_de_Carvajal,_Conde_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión">Luis Firmin de Carvajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ricardos" title="Antonio Ricardos">Antonio Ricardos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other_significant_figures_and_factions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other significant figures and factions</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Society_of_1789" title="Patriotic Society of 1789">Patriotic Society of 1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Alexandre_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric,_duc_de_la_Rochefoucauld-Liancourt" class="mw-redirect" title="François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt">François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Ren%C3%A9_Guy_le_Chapelier" title="Isaac René Guy le Chapelier">Isaac René Guy le Chapelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Nicolas de Condorcet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Feuillant_(political_group)" title="Feuillant (political group)">Feuillants</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Club_de_Clichy" title="Club de Clichy">monarchiens</a></i></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Elliott" title="Grace Elliott">Grace Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaud_II_de_La_Porte" title="Arnaud II de La Porte">Arnaud de La Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Jean-Sifrein Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie,_marquis_de_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy">François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu_Dumas" title="Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas">Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Antoine Barnave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9odore-Victor,_comte_de_Lameth" title="Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth">Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Malo_Fran%C3%A7ois_Lameth" title="Charles Malo François Lameth">Charles Malo François Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ch%C3%A9nier" title="André Chénier">André Chénier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Rewbell" title="Jean-François Rewbell">Jean-François Rewbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Jordan_(politician)" title="Camille Jordan (politician)">Camille Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Antoine_de_Boissy_d%27Anglas" title="François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas">Boissy d'Anglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_Royer-Collard" title="Pierre Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre Paul Royer-Collard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Jacques Pierre Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Roland_de_la_Plati%C3%A8re" title="Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière">Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</a></li> <li>Father <a href="/wiki/Henri_Gr%C3%A9goire" title="Henri Grégoire">Henri Grégoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Jean_H%C3%A9rault_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles">Marie Jean Hérault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Treilhard" title="Jean Baptiste Treilhard">Jean Baptiste Treilhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victurnien_Vergniaud" title="Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud">Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Debry" title="Jean Debry">Jean Debry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Marie_de_La_R%C3%A9velli%C3%A8re-L%C3%A9peaux" title="Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux">Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Plain" title="The Plain">The Plain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès">de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Cambon" title="Pierre-Joseph Cambon">Pierre-Joseph Cambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe Égalité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Merlin" title="Antoine Christophe Merlin">Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Jean Joseph Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Neufch%C3%A2teau" class="mw-redirect" title="François de Neufchâteau">François de Neufchâteau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Mountain" title="The Mountain">Montagnards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Louis Antoine de Saint-Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_le_Peletier,_marquis_de_Saint-Fargeau" title="Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau">Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Couthon" title="Georges Couthon">Georges Couthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Collot_d%27Herbois" title="Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois">Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Voulland" title="Jean-Henri Voulland">Jean-Henri Voulland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Antoine_Merlin_de_Douai" title="Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai">Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Quentin_Fouquier-Tinville" title="Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville">Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Le_Bas" title="Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas">Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Guillaume_Alexis_Vadier" title="Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier">Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Amar" title="Jean-Pierre-André Amar">Jean-Pierre-André Amar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine,_comte_Prieur-Duvernois" title="Claude Antoine, comte Prieur-Duvernois">Prieur de la Côte-d'Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Prieur de la Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Romme" title="Gilbert Romme">Gilbert Romme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bon_Saint-Andr%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Bon Saint-André">Jean Bon Saint-André</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Lambert_Tallien" title="Jean-Lambert Tallien">Jean-Lambert Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Saliceti" title="Antoine Christophe Saliceti">Antoine Christophe Saliceti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists" title="Hébertists">Hébertists</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Enrag%C3%A9s" title="Enragés">Enragés</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Jacques Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Billaud-Varenne" title="Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne">Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette" title="Pierre Gaspard Chaumette">Pierre Gaspard Chaumette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Momoro" title="Antoine-François Momoro">Antoine-François Momoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent" title="François-Nicolas Vincent">François-Nicolas Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Chabot" title="François Chabot">François Chabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_No%C3%ABl_Bouchotte" title="Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte">Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Gobel" title="Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel">Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot" title="François Hanriot">François Hanriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Roux" title="Jacques Roux">Jacques Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas-Marie_Maillard" title="Stanislas-Marie Maillard">Stanislas-Marie Maillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Varlet" title="Jean-François Varlet">Jean-François Varlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Th%C3%A9ophile_Victor_Leclerc" title="Jean Théophile Victor Leclerc">Theophile Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Lacombe" title="Claire Lacombe">Claire Lacombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_L%C3%A9on" title="Pauline Léon">Pauline Léon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Gracchus Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Sylvain Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVII" title="Louis XVII">Louis XVII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Enghien" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien">Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Henri, Prince of Condé">Louis Henri, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé">Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fesch" title="Joseph Fesch">Joseph Fesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont" title="Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A9sa_Tallien" title="Thérésa Tallien">Thérésa Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gui-Jean-Baptiste_Target" title="Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target">Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Th%C3%A9ot" title="Catherine Théot">Catherine Théot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Louise_of_Savoy,_Princesse_de_Lamballe" title="Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe">Madame de Lamballe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_du_Barry" title="Madame du Barry">Madame du Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Louis de Breteuil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">de Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chouan" title="Jean Chouan">Jean Chouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Loménie de Brienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Charles Alexandre de Calonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Duval_d%27Epr%C3%A9mesnil" title="Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil">Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_associated_with_the_French_Revolution" title="List of people associated with the French Revolution">List of people associated with the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordeliers" title="Cordeliers">Cordeliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_Club" title="Panthéon Club">Panthéon Club</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Truth" title="Society of the Friends of Truth">Social Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Influential_thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Influential thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Les Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anacharsis_Cloots" title="Anacharsis Cloots">Anacharsis Cloots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Daunou" title="Pierre Claude François Daunou">Pierre Claude François Daunou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Cultural_impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cultural impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_France" title="Cockade of France">Cockade of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag of France</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscadin" title="Muscadin">Muscadin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Republican_calendar" title="French Republican calendar">French Republican calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">Metric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Reason" title="Cult of Reason">Cult of Reason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Reason" title="Temple of Reason">Temple of Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Women in the French Revolution">Women in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incroyables_and_merveilleuses" title="Incroyables and merveilleuses">Incroyables and merveilleuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Symbolism in the French Revolution">Symbolism in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">Historiography of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_during_the_French_Revolution_and_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars">Films</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="France_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:France_topics" title="Template:France topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:France_topics" title="Template talk:France topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:France_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:France topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="France_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_France" title="Political history of France">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_journalism" title="History of French journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">Liberalism and radicalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brittany" title="History of Brittany">History of Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Normandy" title="History of Normandy">History of Normandy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_laws_of_the_Kingdom_of_France" title="Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France">Fundamental laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Modern">Late Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1851_French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1851 French coup d'état">Coup of 2 December 1851</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_France" title="Interwar France">Interwar</a> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">1900 to present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_French_riots" title="2005 French riots">2005 riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#France,_Benelux_countries" title="Great Recession in Europe">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks" title="November 2015 Paris attacks">2015 Paris attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election" title="2017 French presidential election">2017 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France" title="COVID-19 pandemic in France">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests" title="2021 French labor protests">2021 labor protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election" title="2022 French presidential election">2022 presidential election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_France" title="Geography of France">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants" title="List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_France" title="Climate change in France">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_France" title="Borders of France">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_France" title="List of islands of France">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_France" title="List of lakes of France">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_mountains_by_prominence" title="List of French mountains by prominence">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_France" title="List of national parks of France">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France" title="List of rivers of France">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_France" title="List of World Heritage Sites in France">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutions_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutions of France">Constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_France" title="Elections in France">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_elections_in_France" title="Presidential elections in France">presidential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_France" title="Human rights in France">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_France" title="Intersex rights in France">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in France">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_France" title="Legal history of France">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_France" title="Law enforcement in France">enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_criminal_law" title="French criminal law">criminal law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_France" title="List of political parties in France">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_France#Agriculture" title="Economy of France">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_France" title="Automotive industry in France">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_France" title="Energy in France">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_France" title="List of exports of France">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc (former currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_regions_and_overseas_collectivities_by_GDP" title="List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP">French subdivisions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_France" title="Mining in France">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext_Paris" title="Euronext Paris">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_France" title="Science and technology in France">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_France" title="Tourism in France">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_France" title="List of trade unions in France">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_France" title="Transport in France">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_France" title="Category:Society of France">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_France" title="Abortion in France">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_France" title="Birth control in France">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_France" title="Homelessness in France">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_France" title="Immigration to France">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_departments_by_life_expectancy" title="List of French departments by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_France" title="Secularism in France">secularism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_France" title="Racism in France">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_protection_in_France" title="Social protection in France">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_France" title="Culture of France">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_architecture" title="French architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_art" title="French art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_France" title="Coat of arms of France">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_France" title="Cinema of France">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_cuisine" title="French cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li>Cultural icons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_fashion" title="French fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Remarkable_Gardens_of_France" title="List of Remarkable Gardens of France">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_France" title="Languages of France">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of France">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_France" title="Music of France">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_France" title="Public holidays in France">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_France" title="Sport in France">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of France">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_France" title="Theatre of France">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding:0.25em;"><div><div style="margin-top:0;line-height:1.4em;margin-bottom:-0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">Outline</a></li></ul> </div><div style="margin-top:-0.2em;line-height:1.4em;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:France" title="Category:France">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_France" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject France">WikiProject</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template talk:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Category:History of the Catholic Church by country">By country or region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Catholic ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Curia" title="History of the Roman Curia">History of the Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">Religious institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a><br />(30–325/476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a> (100–325)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a><br />(180–451)<br /><a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman<br />state church</a><br />(380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6534#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4018183-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85051319">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941849g">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941849g">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="francouzská revoluce (1789-1794 : Francie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph138786&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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1,\n [\"CITEREFCenser2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenserHunt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCerulo1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChanel2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisick1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisick1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClay2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobban1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobban1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeCampbell1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComninel1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConner2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCough1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrook1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowdy2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalton2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDannDinwiddy1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelonLevayer1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesanHuntNelson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevance1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorginy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupuis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupuy2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFehér1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinleyFranckJohnson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForster1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranckMichalopoulos2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFremont-Barnes2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreyFrey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuret1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuret1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuret1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuretOzouf1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFursenkoMcArthur1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrard2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrioch1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershoy1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershoy1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldhammer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGough1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwood1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamerow1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHampson1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarden1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHargreaves-Mawdsley1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayworth2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbert1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbert1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorstbollOstergård1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHufton1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHufton1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHufton1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntLanskyHanson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntMartinRosenwein2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHussenet2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJefferson1903\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJessene2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJourdan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJourdan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeitner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKossmann1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKołakowski1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLalevée2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauritsenThorup2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLefebvre1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLefebvre1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLefebvre1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLefebvre1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLerner2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevyApplewhiteJohnson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinton2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivesey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLudwikowski1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyons1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLéonard1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacleod1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarx1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarzagalli2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcHugh2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLynn1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcManners1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMillan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPhee2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelzerRabine1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeely2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1792\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOpie1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmerColton1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelling2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiemerSimon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossHoltermannBindreiter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossignol2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRothenberg1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudé1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRégent2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSargentVelde1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchama1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchama1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSepinwall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlapentokh1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShusterman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoboul1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoboul1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoperFetzer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpang2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutherland2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTackett2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTackett2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTackett2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTendler2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTilly1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTombsTombs2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVardi1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalton2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWasson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeir1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoronoff1984\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 116,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 50,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"France topics\"] = 1,\n [\"French revolution footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 8,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of France sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Catholic Church\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox historical event\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 25,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 15,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Republicanism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Revolution sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 273,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Title missing\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","440","18.2"],["?","400","16.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","280","11.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","5.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","5.0"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","3.3"],["(for generator)","80","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","2.5"],["[others]","620","25.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-skztb","timestamp":"20241124054404","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"French Revolution","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Revolution","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q6534","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q6534","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-18T00:19:10Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T05:44:00Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg","headline":"revolution in France from 1789 to 1799"}</script> </body> </html>