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id="toc-International_Military_Tribunal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Military_Tribunal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>International Military Tribunal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Military_Tribunal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuremberg_Military_Tribunals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuremberg_Military_Tribunals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Nuremberg Military Tribunals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuremberg_Military_Tribunals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>International Military Tribunal for the Far East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Romania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Other trials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_in_the_United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_the_United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development in the United Nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_the_United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Customary_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Customary_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Customary law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Customary_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>National law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome_Statute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome_Statute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Rome Statute</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rome_Statute-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rome Statute subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rome_Statute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition_of_aggression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_of_aggression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Definition of aggression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_of_aggression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Jurisdiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State-_versus_human-rights-centric_approaches_to_aggression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State-_versus_human-rights-centric_approaches_to_aggression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>State- versus human-rights-centric approaches to aggression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State-_versus_human-rights-centric_approaches_to_aggression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crime of aggression</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جريمة عدوان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جريمة عدوان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Din_agrese" title="Zločin agrese – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zločin agrese" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrechen_der_Aggression" title="Verbrechen der Aggression – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verbrechen der Aggression" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimen_de_agresi%C3%B3n" title="Crimen de agresión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crimen de agresión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_d%27agression" title="Crime d'agression – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crime d'agression" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo%C4%8Din_agresije_(me%C4%91unarodno_pravo)" title="Zločin agresije (međunarodno pravo) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zločin agresije (međunarodno pravo)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejahatan_agresi" title="Kejahatan agresi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kejahatan agresi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimine_di_aggressione" title="Crimine di aggressione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crimine di aggressione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agresijos_nusikaltimas" title="Agresijos nusikaltimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Agresijos nusikaltimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenayah_pencerobohan" title="Jenayah pencerobohan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jenayah pencerobohan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BE%B5%E7%95%A5%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA" title="侵略犯罪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="侵略犯罪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crim_d%27agression" title="Crim d'agression – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Crim d'agression" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wszcz%C4%99cie_lub_prowadzenie_wojny_napastniczej" title="Wszczęcie lub prowadzenie wojny napastniczej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wszczęcie lub prowadzenie wojny napastniczej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Преступление агрессии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Преступление агрессии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggressionsbrott" title="Aggressionsbrott – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aggressionsbrott" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96%D1%97" title="Злочин агресії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Злочин агресії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ACmene_de_agresion" title="Crìmene de agresion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Crìmene de agresion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BE%B5%E7%95%A5%E7%BD%AA" title="侵略罪 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Aggressive use of state military force that violates the Charter of the United Nations</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_2251_Destroyed_Stalingrad_does_not_give_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>The crime of aggression was conceived by Soviet jurist <a href="/wiki/Aron_Trainin" title="Aron Trainin">Aron Trainin</a> in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of the Soviet Union">German invasion of the Soviet Union</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Pictured: <a href="/wiki/Stalingrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a> in ruins, December 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>crime of aggression</b> or <b>crime against peace</b> is the planning, initiation, or execution of a large-scale and serious act of aggression using state military force. The definition and scope of the crime is controversial. The <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> contains an exhaustive list of acts of aggression that can give rise to individual criminal responsibility, which include <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> by the use of force, <a href="/wiki/Bombardment" title="Bombardment">bombardment</a>, and military <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> of ports. In general, committing an act of aggression is a leadership crime that can only be committed by those with the power to shape a state's policy of aggression, as opposed to those who discharge it. </p><p>The philosophical basis for the wrongness of aggression is found in <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war theory</a>, in which waging a <a href="/wiki/War_of_aggression" title="War of aggression">war without a just cause for self-defense</a> is unjust. In the wake of the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of the Soviet Union">German invasion of the Soviet Union</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Soviet jurist <a href="/wiki/Aron_Trainin" title="Aron Trainin">Aron Trainin</a> made the first successful proposal to criminalize aggression. The <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_International_Military_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter of the International Military Tribunal">Charter of the International Military Tribunal</a> provided criminal liability for waging aggressive war, which was the main focus of the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg trial">Nuremberg trial</a>. Other participants in World War II were tried for aggression <a href="/wiki/War-responsibility_trials_in_Finland" title="War-responsibility trials in Finland">in Finland</a>, Poland, China, the <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">subsequent Nuremberg trials</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo Trial">Tokyo trial</a>. No one has been prosecuted for aggression either before or since the 1940s. </p><p>It is generally accepted that the crime of aggression exists in <a href="/wiki/International_customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International customary law">international customary law</a>. The definitions and the conditions for the exercise of <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a> over this crime by the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> were adopted in 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Kampala_Review_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Kampala Review Conference">Kampala Review Conference</a> by the <a href="/wiki/States_parties_to_the_Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="States parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">states parties to the court</a>. Aggression is criminalized according to the <a href="/wiki/Statute_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute law">statute law</a> of some countries, and can be prosecuted under <a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">universal jurisdiction</a>. </p><p>Aggression is one of the core crimes in <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>. In 1946, the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="International Military Tribunal">International Military Tribunal</a> ruled that aggression was "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standard view is that aggression is a crime against the state that is attacked, but it can also be considered a crime against individuals who are killed or harmed as a result of war. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Just_war_theory">Just war theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Just war theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">Warfare</a> has been part of human experience since the beginning of human history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xv_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xv-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criminalization of aggression is of recent origin, dating to after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, but the idea of aggression as a grave moral transgression and violation of the <a href="/wiki/International_order" title="International order">international order</a> dates back much farther.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016273_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016273-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvi_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvi-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a>, over the centuries, held that a war fought for territorial aggrandizement was unjust, and that just wars are fought only for self-defense, or in defense of allies, against such aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016274_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016274-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophical basis for the criminalization of aggression derives from eighteenth-century theorist <a href="/wiki/Emer_de_Vattel" title="Emer de Vattel">Emer de Vattel</a>, although Vattel did not envision formal trials for aggression, simply the execution of wrongdoers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016276–277_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016276–277-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early modern just war theorists conceived aggression as the first wrong committed against another country, rather than the first military strike.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016278_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016278-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, often considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>, saw the principal wrong in aggression in the violation of individual rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016279-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1815, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> was outlawed "as an Enemy and Disturber of the tranquillity of the World" in what was considered an "Exception to general rules of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Nations">Law of Nations</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I_and_interwar">World War I and interwar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War I and interwar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux,_France,_1918,_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg/220px-Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg/330px-Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg/440px-Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2257" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_war" title="Effects of war">loss of life and harms of war</a> are cited as a reason for the illegality of aggression. Pictured: aerial view of the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Vaux-devant-Damloup" title="Vaux-devant-Damloup">Vaux, France</a>, 1918.</figcaption></figure> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the prosecution of Kaiser <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Wilhelm II</a> for aggression was proposed by the United Kingdom and France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a speech on <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">11 November 1918</a>, British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> cited the loss of "the lives of millions of the best young men in Europe" and "the outrage upon international law which is involved in invading the territory of an independent country without its consent" as a crime for which someone should be held responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20131_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20131-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposed prosecution met with disapproval from the judiciary<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20131_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20131-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was rejected by the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> had the mandate of maintaining international peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013x_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013x-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interwar treaties criminalizing aggression were proposed but not ratified,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there was no progress towards the criminalization of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201345_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201345-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aggressive war became progressively delegitimized but was not considered illegal under <a href="/wiki/International_customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International customary law">international customary law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201322–23_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201322–23-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the 1928 <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a> did not contain any suggestion that war was criminal,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201328_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201328-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was cited as a precedent for the prosecution of German and Japanese leaders for waging aggressive wars after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201323_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201323-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Invasions during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> led to new thinking on aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201340_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201340-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet">Soviet</a> criminologist <a href="/wiki/Aron_Naumovich_Trainin" class="mw-redirect" title="Aron Naumovich Trainin">Aron Naumovich Trainin</a> developed the ideas that were used to criminalize aggressive war, although he did not attract international attention until 1943. Others making similar proposals included <a href="/wiki/Hersch_Lauterpacht" title="Hersch Lauterpacht">Hersch Lauterpacht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_de_Baer" title="Marcel de Baer">Marcel de Baer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bohuslav_E%C4%8Der" title="Bohuslav Ečer">Bohuslav Ečer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trainin argued that although material and political responsibility rested with the state, criminal responsibility for aggressive war was vested in the individuals exercising authority. He blamed <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hitler_cabinet" title="Hitler cabinet">his cabinet</a>, government officials, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> and German industrialists for acts of aggression against the Soviet Union, which he described as "the most heinous crime".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201351–52_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201351–52-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Governments-in-exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Governments-in-exile">governments-in-exile</a> represented in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=London_International_Assembly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="London International Assembly (page does not exist)">London International Assembly</a> lobbied for a formal international tribunal with jurisdiction over acts of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201353_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201353-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, Trainin proposed that the Nazi leaders could be dealt with either with a tribunal or by "the political verdict of the victorious democratic States".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201357_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201357-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, the Soviet Union still perceived itself as vulnerable to international aggression, which motivated its interest in criminalizing aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201357–58_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201357–58-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there was not much in the way of <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a> to work from, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">United States Department of War</a> put together the legal framework for the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> in ten months.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201367_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201367-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some prominent United States policymakers thought that execution without trial compromised the principles of the Allies and that formal trials before an international court would lend legitimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201367–68_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201367–68-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/London_Conference_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="London Conference of 1945">London Conference of 1945</a>, the victorious <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> decided to criminalize aggression and try their vanquished enemies<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013x_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013x-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although at the conference doubts were raised that wars of aggression were illegal under customary law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the Soviet Union, which invaded the Baltic States and Poland according to the secret protocols of the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_pact" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet pact">German–Soviet pact</a>, and Western countries, which had <a href="/wiki/Plan_R_4" title="Plan R 4">planned an invasion of Norway</a>, were aware that they could also be accused of acts of aggression and so they limited the definition of crimes against peace to the actions of their defeated enemies during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013x,_150_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013x,_150-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin201438_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin201438-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_law">Case law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Case law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost all the trials for crimes against peace took place between November 1945 and November 1948,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013xii_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013xii-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though in some cases such as <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> they extended into 1949;<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> no one has been prosecuted for aggression before or since.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010209,_211_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010209,_211-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The courts faced the challenge, first of proving the criminality of acts of aggression, and secondly in tying such acts to individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014149_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014149-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War-responsibility_trials_in_Finland">War-responsibility trials in Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: War-responsibility trials in Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War-responsibility_trials_in_Finland" title="War-responsibility trials in Finland">War-responsibility trials in Finland</a></div> <p>In 1939, <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">the Soviet Union invaded Finland</a>, leading to a peace treaty on <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">unfavorable terms</a> in 1940. During the <a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a>, Finland managed to retake its ceded territory and progressed further to the areas of Soviet Union that had never been part of Finland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013432_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013432-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, the war turned against Finland, which signed <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Armistice" title="Moscow Armistice">an armistice</a> on even less favorable terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013433_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013433-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Control Commission">Allied Control Commission</a> in Finland insisted on holding trials for aggression during the second war, as the armistice had required Finnish cooperation in trying those accused of war crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013435–436_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013435–436-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law establishing the tribunal established criminal responsibility for those who "in a significant manner contributed in Finland's engagement in the war...or prevented peace" between 1941 and 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013436–437_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013436–437-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eight men were tried; wartime president <a href="/wiki/Risto_Ryti" title="Risto Ryti">Risto Ryti</a>, six members of the cabinet, and the Finnish ambassador to Germany, but not any generals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013438_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013438-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike other specifications of the crimes against peace, the Finnish trials charged those who joined the government after 1941 and rejected peace offers from the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013439_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013439-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially seven were convicted and the ambassador was acquitted; the judgement was revised to convict all the defendants with harsher penalties, up to ten years imprisonment with <a href="/wiki/Hard_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard labor">hard labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013440_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013440-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convicts were treated leniently in prison and all were released by 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013441_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013441-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Military_Tribunal">International Military Tribunal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: International Military Tribunal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/220px-Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/330px-Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/440px-Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1693" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Chief prosecutor <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> <i>(on the pulpit)</i></figcaption></figure><p> The <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a> defined crimes against peace as<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013392_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013392-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a <a href="/wiki/War_of_aggression" title="War of aggression">war of aggression</a>, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.</p></blockquote> <p>The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgement that because war in general is evil, "To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These words, originally written in a letter by British judge <a href="/wiki/Robert_Wright,_Baron_Wright" title="Robert Wright, Baron Wright">Robert Wright</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been widely quoted. The judgement found that there was a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order as it had existed since the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>" and "the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Greater_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Germany">Greater Germany</a> beyond <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany#World_War_I" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">the frontiers of 1914</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The planning of aggression was traced to Hitler's 1925 book <i><a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a></i> and specific secret meetings held on <a href="/wiki/Hossbach_Memorandum" title="Hossbach Memorandum">5 November 1937</a>, 23 May 1939, <a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_Obersalzberg_Speech" title="Hitler's Obersalzberg Speech">22 August 1939</a>, and 23 November 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court considered the planning of acts of aggression <a href="/wiki/German_annexation_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="German annexation of Austria">against Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–152_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–152-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as wars of aggressions against <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Poland">Poland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014152–154_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014152–154-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Denmark and Norway</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014154–155_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014154–155-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014155–156_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014155–156-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Marita" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Marita">Greece</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014156–157_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014156–157-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">the Soviet Union</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014157–159_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014157–159-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the <a href="/wiki/German_declaration_of_war_against_the_United_States" title="German declaration of war against the United States">declaration of war on the United States</a> and prior encouragement of <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl Harbor attack">Japanese aggression against the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014159_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014159-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the court did not rule on acts of aggression short of war, it does not preclude the criminality of aggression for less large-scale actions than World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014160_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014160-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess">Rudolf Hess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jodl" title="Alfred Jodl">Alfred Jodl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Arthur Seyss-Inquart</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nuremberg verdict was groundbreaking, establishing international criminal law and rejecting that <a href="/wiki/Act_of_state_doctrine" title="Act of state doctrine">act of state doctrine</a> granted immunity for such serious crimes. The defendants were prosecuted even for acts that were legal under domestic law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opinion on the Nuremberg trials was divided. While some heralded it as a breakthrough in international law, crimes against peace specifically were subject to criticism as <i>ex post facto</i> law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuremberg_Military_Tribunals">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nuremberg Military Tribunals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Military_Tribunals" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Military Tribunals">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg/220px-Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg/330px-Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg/440px-Theodor_von_Hornbostel_testifies_for_the_prosecution_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodor_von_Hornbostel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theodor von Hornbostel (page does not exist)">Theodor von Hornbostel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_von_Hornbostel" class="extiw" title="de:Theodor von Hornbostel">de</a>]</span> testifies for the prosecution during the <a href="/wiki/Ministries_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministries trial">Ministries trial</a>, giving evidence for aggression</figcaption></figure><p> The <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Military_Tribunals" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Military Tribunals">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a> were based on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_No._10&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law No. 10 (page does not exist)">Law No. 10</a>, which defined aggression as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Initiation of invasions of other countries and wars of aggression in violation of international laws and treaties, including but not limited to planning, preparation, initiation or waging a war of aggression, or a war of violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.</p></blockquote> <p>The main Nuremberg trial only considered the conspiracy to commit crimes against peace against Austria and Czechoslovakia, ruling that these relatively bloodless invasions were not wars of aggression. The slightly different wording of the offense in Law No. 10 allowed the invasions of these countries to be counted as substantive crimes against peace, and ultimately two defendants were convicted for their role in these invasions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011180–181_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011180–181-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chief prosecutor <a href="/wiki/Telford_Taylor" title="Telford Taylor">Telford Taylor</a> was skeptical about prosecuting aggression, but ultimately charged defendants in four of the <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">subsequent Nuremberg trials</a>: the <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="IG Farben trial">IG Farben trial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krupp_trial" title="Krupp trial">Krupp trial</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Command_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="High Command trial">High Command trial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ministries_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministries trial">Ministries trial</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of 66 defendants charged with aggression, only three were convicted (<a href="/wiki/Hans_Lammers" title="Hans Lammers">Hans Lammers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keppler" title="Wilhelm Keppler">Wilhelm Keppler</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Koerner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Koerner (page does not exist)">Paul Koerner</a>), all of them during the Ministries trial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179,_181,_186,_201_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179,_181,_186,_201-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the trials helped clarify the scope of aggression as a criminal offense, defining its four necessary elements as "a state act of aggression; sufficient authority to satisfy the leadership requirement; participation in the planning, preparing, initiating or waging of the aggressive act; and <i><a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a></i>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011201–202_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011201–202-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: International Military Tribunal for the Far East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></div><p> The <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Charter" title="Tokyo Charter">Tokyo Charter</a> defined crimes against peace as<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013392_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013392-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>the planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a declared or undeclared war of aggression, or a war in violation of international law, treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.</p></blockquote> <p>The charge of aggression was central to the trial; 36 out of 55 counts were for crimes against peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202069,_71_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202069,_71-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judgement in the Tokyo Trial was three times longer than the Nuremberg judgement, making it a valuable source of case law on aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014161_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014161-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of the judges followed the Nuremberg interpretation of crimes against peace, but two judges – <a href="/wiki/Radhabinod_Pal" title="Radhabinod Pal">Radhabinod Pal</a> from India and <a href="/wiki/Bert_R%C3%B6ling" title="Bert Röling">Bert Röling</a> of the Netherlands – dissented against the prosecution of crimes against peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202070_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202070-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prosecution used <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(criminal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (criminal)">conspiracy</a> to file more charges as each member of a conspiracy was held responsible for all others acting in the same conspiracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202072–73_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202072–73-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of the conspiracy charges related to crimes against peace alleged that the conspiracy sought to "secure military, naval, political and economic domination of East Asia and of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and of all countries and islands therein and bordering thereon" by "wag[ing] declared or undeclared war or wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law, treaties, agreements and assurances, against any country or countries which might oppose that purpose."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202075_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202075-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conspiracy charges were partly successful as the judges accepted that there was a joint conspiracy to wage aggressive war from 1928 to 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202074_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202074-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The judgement summarizes the rise of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Japanese militarism</a> in the 1930s<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014163–165_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014163–165-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading up to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conference_of_11_August_1936&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conference of 11 August 1936 (page does not exist)">Conference of 11 August 1936</a> in which an expansionist policy was decided.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014166_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014166-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1937, <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japan invaded China</a> and in 1938–1939 it prepared for war with the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014167_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014167-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romania">Romania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Romania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Treaties,_1947" title="Paris Peace Treaties, 1947">1947 treaty of peace</a> with Romania obliged the country to apprehend and bring to trial people accused of "war crimes and crimes against peace and humanity".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, on 18 August 1947, Romania issued its "Law for the Prosecution and Punishment of Those Guilty of War Crimes or Crimes against Peace or Humanity".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least 8 members of the wartime government of <a href="/wiki/Ion_Antonescu" title="Ion Antonescu">Ion Antonescu</a> were sentenced in 1949 for crimes against peace, although <a href="/wiki/Toma_Ghi%C8%9Bulescu" title="Toma Ghițulescu">one of them</a> was rehabilitated by the Romanian Supreme Court on 26 October 1998. Another Romanian sentenced for crimes against peace – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gheron_Netta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gheron Netta (page does not exist)">Gheron Netta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_Antonescu" title="Ion Antonescu">Ion Antonescu</a>'s last finance minister (1 April to 23 August, 1944) – was rehabilitated by the Supreme Court on 17 January 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_trials">Other trials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other trials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Greiser" title="Arthur Greiser">Arthur Greiser</a>, a Nazi leader in <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Danzig" class="mw-redirect" title="Free State of Danzig">Danzig</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Gauleiter" title="Gauleiter">Gauleiter</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Warthegau" class="mw-redirect" title="Warthegau">Warthegau</a> region annexed from Poland, was tried and convicted by a Polish court in 1946 for aggression among other charges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrumbl2013411_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrumbl2013411-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_Epstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Catherine Epstein (page does not exist)">Catherine Epstein</a> states that the evidence that Greiser had participated in a conspiracy to wage aggressive war is weak or nonexistent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrumbl2013423_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrumbl2013423-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Mark_A._Drumbl" title="Mark A. Drumbl">Mark A. Drumbl</a>, he would probably not be convicted according to the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> definition of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrumbl2013427_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrumbl2013427-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1946, former Japanese general <a href="/wiki/Takashi_Sakai" title="Takashi Sakai">Takashi Sakai</a> was tried by a Chinese court for aggression, convicted, and executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013387,_390_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013387,_390-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sakai appears to have been responsible for carrying out policies designed by others, which would put him outside the Rome Statute definition of aggression. According to jurist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roger_S._Clark&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roger S. Clark (page does not exist)">Roger S. Clark</a>, he probably would not have been convicted for crimes against peace if tried at the Tokyo trial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013396–397_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013396–397-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_in_the_United_Nations">Development in the United Nations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Development in the United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 11 December 1946, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> passed a resolution affirming the criminality of "waging aggressive war" and stating that it was not just the aggression of the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a> that was a crime, but aggression in general.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010205_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010205-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crimes against peace, devised by the Allies as a temporary solution, soon exhausted their usefulness and were abandoned by 1950. In the early 1950s, attempts to codify the crime of aggression in a "Code of Offences Against the Peace and Security of Mankind" stalled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 1940s, other crimes against international law, especially <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, took priority over aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016278_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016278-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maintenance of international peace and stability is a major function of the international order, and the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Charter of the United Nations</a> prohibits acts of aggression against other states. The prohibition of aggression is considered a <a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">peremptory norm</a> in customary law, such that it is binding on states that are not members of the United Nations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin201476_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin201476-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important provision in the UN Charter is Article 2(4): "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin201477_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin201477-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Force" refers to armed or military force, defined broadly: it can refer to conventional armies or irregular forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin201480–81_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin201480–81-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although not explicitly stated in the UN Charter, the conventional view is that only state actors can commit aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin201482–83_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin201482–83-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although self-defense is an exception to the prohibition of force, claims of preventive self-defense are largely rejected, while claims of pre-emptive self defense are "more well-founded".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014114–116_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014114–116-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 14 December 1974, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_3314" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314">United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314</a> elaborated on the prohibition of the use of force in the UN Charter. Although not legally binding, it influenced the Rome Statute's definition of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014104_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014104-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resolution 3314 generally defines aggression as "the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations, as set out in this Definition".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014105_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014105-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes an incomplete list of acts of aggression and confirms that aggression are committed by one state against another, excluding non-state actors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014105–106_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014105–106-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resolution also refers to "crime of aggression" and makes it clear that there is individual criminal liability for aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014105_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014105-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Customary_law">Customary law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Customary law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is generally agreed by scholars of <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a> that the crime of aggression is part of <a href="/wiki/International_customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International customary law">international customary law</a>, but there is no agreement on the exact scope of aggression that is covered in customary law. This threshold is probably high, in order to distinguish criminal aggression from other acts of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010202,_207_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010202,_207-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Cassese" title="Antonio Cassese">Antonio Cassese</a>, the customary criminalization of aggression covers "planning, or organizing, or preparing, or participating in the first use of armed force by a State against the territorial integrity and political independence of another State in contravention of the UN Charter, provided the acts of aggression concerned have large-scale and serious consequences".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010207–208_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010207–208-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gerhard Werle and Florian Jessberger argue that wars of aggression are criminalized under customary law, but not acts of aggression falling short of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010209–210_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010209–210-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue for a broader conception, including other acts of aggression that have broad-ranging and severe consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010211_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010211-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aggression requires both a <i><a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">actus reus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010210_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010210-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of <i>mens rea</i>, Israeli jurist <a href="/wiki/Yoram_Dinstein" title="Yoram Dinstein">Yoram Dinstein</a> argues that aggression can only be committed by a few high state officials who decide to wage aggressive war, and any subordinates who know in advance that their plans will be used to wage an aggressive war. Other jurists require a special intent, in the form of seeking to "achieve territorial gains, or to obtain economic advantages, or to interfere with the internal affairs" of the state that is aggressed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010212_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010212-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_law">National law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: National law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After 1948, many states passed <a href="/wiki/Statute_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute law">statute law</a> criminalizing aggression,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xviii_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xviii-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with different variations in prohibited conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010194_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010194-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dinstein has argued that national prosecutions for aggression are undesirable as "the nature of crimes against peace is such that no domestic proceedings can conceivably dispel doubts regarding the impartiality of the judges."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010194_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010194-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aggression can be tried under <a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">universal jurisdiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rome_Statute">Rome Statute</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Rome Statute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1998, at the Rome Conference that adopted the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</a> ("the Statute"), the crime was included as one of the crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court (Article 5.1) and over which any State that becomes party to the Statute accepts the Court's jurisdiction (Article 12.1). Participants to the Rome Conference could not agree on the definition of the crime nor on further conditions for the Court's exercise of jurisdiction; the Statute did not allow the Court to exercise such jurisdiction until these outstanding issues were solved (Article 5.2). At the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Review_Conference_of_the_Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Review Conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Review Conference</a> ("the Conference"), States Parties agreed by consensus to adopt resolution RC/Res.6 accepting the amendments to the Statute adding the definition of the crime and the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction over this crime.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aggression is one of the core crimes in <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoler201989_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoler201989-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_of_aggression">Definition of aggression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Definition of aggression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the Rome Statute, as amended in the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Kampala_Review_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Kampala Review Conference">Kampala Review Conference</a>, the crime of aggression "means the planning, preparation, initiation or execution, by a person in a position effectively to exercise control over or to direct the political or military action of a State, of an act of aggression which, by its character, gravity and scale, constitutes a manifest violation of the Charter of the United Nations".<sup id="cite_ref-UN_Kampala_amendments2010_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN_Kampala_amendments2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013393_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013393-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criminal prosecution of aggression is limited to the most serious acts of state aggression;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoler2019104_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoler2019104-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> non-state aggression, an even more disputed concept, is excluded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016284_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016284-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rome Statute also restricts the crime of aggression to leaders of a state who have the power to determine a state's policy, excluding even high-ranking officials or generals who carry out a war of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoler2019104_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoler2019104-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013397–398_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013397–398-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, the crime of aggression is distinguished from the act of aggression, defined in the <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="extiw" title="s:Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute</a> by the amendments of the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Kampala_Review_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Kampala Review Conference">Kampala Review Conference</a> as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-UN_Kampala_amendments2010_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN_Kampala_amendments2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013393_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013393-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>2. For the purpose of paragraph 1, "act of aggression" means the use of <a href="/wiki/Armed_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed force">armed force</a> by a State against the <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Territorial_integrity" title="Territorial integrity">territorial integrity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Political_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Political independence">political independence</a> of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations. Any of the following acts, regardless of a <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">declaration of war</a>, shall, in accordance with <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_3314" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314">United Nations General Assembly resolution 3314</a> (XXIX) of 14 December 1974, qualify as an act of aggression: </p><dl><dd>(a) The <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasion</a> or attack by the armed forces of a State of the <a href="/wiki/Territory_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Territory (country subdivision)">territory</a> of another State, or any <a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a>, however temporary, resulting from such invasion or attack, or any <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Use_of_force" title="Use of force">use of force</a> of the territory of another State or part thereof;</dd> <dd>(b) <a href="/wiki/Bombardment" title="Bombardment">Bombardment</a> by the armed forces of a State against the territory of another State or the use of any <a href="/wiki/Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons">weapons</a> by a State against the territory of another State;</dd> <dd>(c) The <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> of the ports or coasts of a State by the <a href="/wiki/Armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces">armed forces</a> of another State;</dd> <dd>(d) An attack by the armed forces of a State on the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air fleets of another State;</dd> <dd>(e) The use of armed forces of one State which are within the territory of another State with the agreement of the receiving State, in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement;</dd> <dd>(f) The action of a State in allowing its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State;</dd> <dd>(g) The sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a>, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to the acts listed above, or its substantial involvement therein.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Kampala_Review_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Kampala Review Conference">Kampala Review Conference</a>, 11 June 2010<sup id="cite_ref-UN_Kampala_amendments2010_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN_Kampala_amendments2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></dd></dl></blockquote> <p>The list of prohibited acts is exhaustive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoler2019104–105_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoler2019104–105-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The International Criminal Court may only prosecute an act of aggression if the aggressing state has accepted its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression, or following a referral from the <a href="/wiki/Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Security Council">Security Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics argue that the ICC should not prosecute aggression; a prominent criticism is that justified war is a political determination, and the involvement of a court in such a matter could compromise its legitimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016284_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016284-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prosecution by the ICC is unlikely because of the narrow scope of the crime and limited jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoler2019105_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoler2019105-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ICC's jurisdiction over aggression was activated on 17 July 2018 after a decision by two-thirds of states parties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoler2019104_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoler2019104-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 17 March 2022, 43 State Parties have ratified or acceded to the amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State-_versus_human-rights-centric_approaches_to_aggression">State- versus human-rights-centric approaches to aggression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: State- versus human-rights-centric approaches to aggression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wars of aggression entail "legally unjustified killing that is otherwise anomalously non-criminal at both the international and national levels: the killing of combatants and proportionate collateral civilians through a manifestly illegal use of international force".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standard view is that aggression is a crime against the state that is attacked.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016279-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rome Statute definition of aggression does not technically require harm to individuals,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018860_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018860-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the relatively bloodless invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a> in 1939 was not prosecuted at Nuremberg.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018862_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018862-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some severe violations of state sovereignty (such as <a href="/wiki/Foreign_electoral_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign electoral interference">foreign electoral interference</a> aiming at <a href="/wiki/Regime_change" title="Regime change">regime change</a>) are not criminalized as aggression, while lesser infringements involving military force can be criminalized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861–862_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861–862-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is debatable whether prohibiting aggression protects state sovereignty or circumscribes it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others see aggression as a crime primarily against individuals who are killed or harmed as a result of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016279-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Larry_May_(philosopher)" title="Larry May (philosopher)">Larry May</a> maintains that serious aggressions, entailing loss of life, can be subsumed under the category of crimes against humanity. Conversely, a war cannot be justified by a minor violation of territorial integrity, and a violation of territorial integrity that does not involve serious human rights violations cannot be considered a criminal act of aggression. This conception of aggression could also allow for <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_intervention" title="Humanitarian intervention">humanitarian intervention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279–280_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016279–280-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional view is that only decision-makers can be held criminally responsible for aggression, rather than lower-level military personnel and ordinary soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018864_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018864-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent times, some have considered whether soldiers who knowingly participate in a war of aggression incur moral or should incur legal liability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016283_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016283-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soldiers have a right and a responsibility to refuse to commit war crimes, but in general the right to refuse to fight an illegal war is not recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018865,_867_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018865,_867-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International law scholar <a href="/wiki/Tom_Dannenbaum" title="Tom Dannenbaum">Tom Dannenbaum</a> argues that soldiers should have a right not to fight in illegal wars, and those who refuse to do so should be recognized as refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018868,_870_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018868,_870-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One controversial issue is whether waging aggressive war inherently violates the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">right to life</a> guaranteed in <a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">international human rights law</a>. In 2019, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee" title="United Nations Human Rights Committee">United Nations Human Rights Committee</a> ruled that "States parties engaged in acts of aggression as defined in international law, resulting in deprivation of life, violate ipso facto article 6 [the right to life] of the" <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Innocent_Children_Victims_of_Aggression" title="International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression">International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_international_tribunal_for_the_crime_of_aggression_(Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine)" title="Special international tribunal for the crime of aggression (Russian invasion of Ukraine)">Special international tribunal for the crime of aggression (Russian invasion of Ukraine)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xv-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xv_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016273-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016273_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvi-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvi_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016274-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016274_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016276–277-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016276–277_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, pp. 276–277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016278-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016278_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016278_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016279-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, p. 279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014xvii_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013ix_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. ix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20131-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20131_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20131_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013x-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013x_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013x_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201345-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201345_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201322–23-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201322–23_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201328-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201328_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201323-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201323_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201340-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201340_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201351–52-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201351–52_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 51–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201353-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201353_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201357-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201357_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201357–58-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201357–58_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 57–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201367-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201367_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201367–68-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201367–68_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013x,_150-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013x,_150_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. x, 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin201438-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin201438_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013xii-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013xii_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjqxzR0xTvoC&pg=PA75">Henry F. Carey, Lexington Books, 2004, <i>Romania Since 1989: Politics, Economics, and Society</i>, p. 75</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2010209,_211-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2010209,_211_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemp2010">Kemp 2010</a>, pp. 209, 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014149-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014149_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013432-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013432_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, p. 432.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013433-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013433_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, p. 433.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013435–436-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013435–436_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, pp. 435–436.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013436–437-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013436–437_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, pp. 436–437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013438-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013438_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, p. 438.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013439-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013439_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, p. 439.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013440-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013440_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, p. 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETallgren2013441-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETallgren2013441_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTallgren2013">Tallgren 2013</a>, p. 441.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013392-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013392_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2013392_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClark2013">Clark 2013</a>, p. 392.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 150–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–152-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–152_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 151–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014152–154-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014152–154_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 152–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014154–155-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014154–155_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 154–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014155–156-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014155–156_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 155–156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014156–157-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014156–157_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014157–159-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014157–159_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 157–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014159-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014159_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014160-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014160_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013xi_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011180–181-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011180–181_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 180–181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179,_181,_186,_201-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011179,_181,_186,_201_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 179, 181, 186, 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011201–202-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011201–202_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 201–202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202069,_71-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202069,_71_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohenTotani2020">Cohen & Totani 2020</a>, pp. 69, 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014161-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014161_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202070-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202070_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohenTotani2020">Cohen & Totani 2020</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202072–73-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202072–73_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohenTotani2020">Cohen & Totani 2020</a>, pp. 72–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202075-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202075_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohenTotani2020">Cohen & Totani 2020</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202074-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohenTotani202074_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohenTotani2020">Cohen & Totani 2020</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014163–165-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014163–165_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 163–165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014166-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014166_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014167-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014167_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0M8WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405">United States, Department of State, 1968, <i>Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776–1949: Multilateral, 1946–1949</i>, p. 405</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hRn56_qAwiYC&pg=PA131">Dennis Deletant, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999, <i>Communist Terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Police State, 1948–1965</i>, p. 131</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjqxzR0xTvoC&pg=PA75">Henry F. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rome+Statute+of+the+International+Criminal+Court&rft.pub=United+Nations+Treaty+Collection&rft.date=2022-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftreaties.un.org%2FPages%2FViewDetails.aspx%3Fsrc%3DTREATY%26mtdsg_no%3DXVIII-10-b%26chapter%3D18%26clang%3D_en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, p. 861.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018859_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, p. 859.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018860-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018860_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, p. 860.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018862-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018862_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, p. 862.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861–862-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018861–862_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, pp. 861–862.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016279–280-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016279–280_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, pp. 279–280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018864-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018864_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, p. 864.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2016283-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay2016283_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay2016">May 2016</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018865,_867-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018865,_867_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, pp. 865, 867.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018868,_870-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDannenbaum2018868,_870_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDannenbaum2018">Dannenbaum 2018</a>, pp. 868, 870.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasey-Maslen2021" class="citation book cs1">Casey-Maslen, Stuart (2021). "Jus ad Bellum, Aggression, and the Right to Life". <i>The Right to Life under International Law: An Interpretative Manual</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 122–140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-49478-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-49478-6"><bdi>978-1-108-49478-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jus+ad+Bellum%2C+Aggression%2C+and+the+Right+to+Life&rft.btitle=The+Right+to+Life+under+International+Law%3A+An+Interpretative+Manual&rft.pages=122-140&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-108-49478-6&rft.aulast=Casey-Maslen&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2013" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Roger S. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199671144.001.0001/acprof-9780199671144-chapter-19">"The Crime of Aggression: From the Trial of Takashi Sakai, August 1946, to the Kampala Review Conference on the ICC in 2010"</a>. <i>The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967114-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967114-4"><bdi>978-0-19-967114-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression%3A+From+the+Trial+of+Takashi+Sakai%2C+August+1946%2C+to+the+Kampala+Review+Conference+on+the+ICC+in+2010&rft.btitle=The+Hidden+Histories+of+War+Crimes+Trials&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967114-4&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Roger+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199671144.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199671144-chapter-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenTotani2020" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, David; Totani, Yuma (2020). <i>The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-82068-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-82068-4"><bdi>978-1-108-82068-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tokyo+War+Crimes+Tribunal%3A+Law%2C+History%2C+and+Jurisprudence&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-108-82068-4&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Totani%2C+Yuma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannenbaum2018" class="citation journal cs1">Dannenbaum, Tom (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchy054">"The Criminalization of Aggression and Soldiers' Rights"</a>. <i>European Journal of International Law</i>. <b>29</b> (3): 859–886. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchy054">10.1093/ejil/chy054</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Criminalization+of+Aggression+and+Soldiers%27+Rights&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=859-886&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchy054&rft.aulast=Dannenbaum&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fejil%252Fchy054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrumbl2013" class="citation book cs1">Drumbl, Mark A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199671144.001.0001/acprof-9780199671144-chapter-20">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Germans are the Lords and Poles are the Servants': The Trial of Arthur Greiser in Poland, 1946"</a>. <i>The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967114-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967114-4"><bdi>978-0-19-967114-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E2%80%98Germans+are+the+Lords+and+Poles+are+the+Servants%E2%80%99%3A+The+Trial+of+Arthur+Greiser+in+Poland%2C+1946&rft.btitle=The+Hidden+Histories+of+War+Crimes+Trials&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967114-4&rft.aulast=Drumbl&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199671144.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199671144-chapter-20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeller2011" class="citation book cs1">Heller, Kevin Jon (2011). <i>The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955431-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955431-7"><bdi>978-0-19-955431-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nuremberg+Military+Tribunals+and+the+Origins+of+International+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955431-7&rft.aulast=Heller&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp2010" class="citation book cs1">Kemp, Gerhard (2010). <i>Individual Criminal Liability for the International Crime of Aggression</i>. Intersentia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-000-0013-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-000-0013-1"><bdi>978-94-000-0013-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Individual+Criminal+Liability+for+the+International+Crime+of+Aggression&rft.pub=Intersentia&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-94-000-0013-1&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2016" class="citation book cs1">May, Larry (2016). "Just War Theory and the Crime of Aggression". In Kreß, Claus; Barriga, Stefan (eds.). <i>The Crime of Aggression: A Commentary</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01526-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01526-5"><bdi>978-1-107-01526-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Just+War+Theory+and+the+Crime+of+Aggression&rft.btitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression%3A+A+Commentary&rft.pages=273-286&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01526-5&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayapin2014" class="citation book cs1">Sayapin, Sergey (2014). <i>The Crime of Aggression in International Criminal Law: Historical Development, Comparative Analysis and Present State</i>. <a href="/wiki/T.M.C._Asser_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="T.M.C. Asser Press">T.M.C. Asser Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6704-927-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6704-927-6"><bdi>978-90-6704-927-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression+in+International+Criminal+Law%3A+Historical+Development%2C+Comparative+Analysis+and+Present+State&rft.pub=T.M.C.+Asser+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-6704-927-6&rft.aulast=Sayapin&rft.aufirst=Sergey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellars2013" class="citation book cs1">Sellars, Kirsten (2013). <i><span></span>'Crimes Against Peace' and International Law</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02884-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02884-5"><bdi>978-1-107-02884-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Crimes+Against+Peace%27+and+International+Law&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02884-5&rft.aulast=Sellars&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoler2019" class="citation book cs1">Soler, Christopher (2019). <i>The Global Prosecution of Core Crimes under International Law</i>. T.M.C. Asser Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6265-335-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6265-335-1"><bdi>978-94-6265-335-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Prosecution+of+Core+Crimes+under+International+Law&rft.pub=T.M.C.+Asser+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-94-6265-335-1&rft.aulast=Soler&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTallgren2013" class="citation book cs1">Tallgren, Immi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199671144.001.0001/acprof-9780199671144-chapter-21">"The Finnish War-Responsibility Trial in 1945–6: The Limits of Ad Hoc Criminal Justice?"</a>. <i>The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967114-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967114-4"><bdi>978-0-19-967114-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Finnish+War-Responsibility+Trial+in+1945%E2%80%936%3A+The+Limits+of+Ad+Hoc+Criminal+Justice%3F&rft.btitle=The+Hidden+Histories+of+War+Crimes+Trials&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967114-4&rft.aulast=Tallgren&rft.aufirst=Immi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199671144.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199671144-chapter-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBockConze2021" class="citation book cs1">Bock, Stefanie; Conze, Eckart (2021). <i>Rethinking the Crime of Aggression: International and Interdisciplinary Perspectives</i>. T.M.C. Asser Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6265-467-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6265-467-9"><bdi>978-94-6265-467-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Crime+of+Aggression%3A+International+and+Interdisciplinary+Perspectives&rft.pub=T.M.C.+Asser+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-94-6265-467-9&rft.aulast=Bock&rft.aufirst=Stefanie&rft.au=Conze%2C+Eckart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dannenbaum, Tom (2018). <i>The Crime of Aggression, Humanity, and the Soldier</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-16918-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-16918-0"><bdi>978-1-107-16918-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression%2C+Humanity%2C+and+the+Soldier&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-107-16918-0&rft.aulast=Dannenbaum&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzebyk2013" class="citation book cs1">Grzebyk, Patrycja (2013). <i>Criminal Responsibility for the Crime of Aggression</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-00120-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-00120-8"><bdi>978-1-136-00120-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Responsibility+for+the+Crime+of+Aggression&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-00120-8&rft.aulast=Grzebyk&rft.aufirst=Patrycja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJia2015" class="citation journal cs1">Jia, Bing Bing (2015). "The Crime of Aggression as Custom and the Mechanisms for Determining Acts of Aggression". <i>American Journal of International Law</i>. <b>109</b> (3): 569–582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5305%2Famerjintelaw.109.3.0569">10.5305/amerjintelaw.109.3.0569</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147754466">147754466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression+as+Custom+and+the+Mechanisms+for+Determining+Acts+of+Aggression&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=569-582&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5305%2Famerjintelaw.109.3.0569&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147754466%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jia&rft.aufirst=Bing+Bing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDougall2021" class="citation book cs1">McDougall, Carrie (2021). <i>The Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-86476-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-86476-3"><bdi>978-1-108-86476-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression+under+the+Rome+Statute+of+the+International+Criminal+Court&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-108-86476-3&rft.aulast=McDougall&rft.aufirst=Carrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoliti2017" class="citation book cs1">Politi, Mauro (2017). <i>The International Criminal Court and the Crime of Aggression</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-21829-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-21829-0"><bdi>978-1-351-21829-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Criminal+Court+and+the+Crime+of+Aggression&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-21829-0&rft.aulast=Politi&rft.aufirst=Mauro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime+of+aggression" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crime_of_aggression&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/docs/RC-Res.6-ENG.pdf">Resolution RC/Res.6</a> – Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on the crime of aggression</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asp.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/asp/reviewconference/Pages/review%20conference.aspx">Review Conference</a> – Official Site of the Assembly of States Parties</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asp.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/asp/reviewconference/Pages/crime%20of%20aggression.aspx">Crime of Aggression</a> – Official Site of the Assembly of States Parties</li> <li>UN Treaty Collection (UTC) – Status of Acceptance, Ratification <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10-a&chapter=18&lang=en">10 .a Amendment to article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141213092747/http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10-a&chapter=18&lang=en">Archived</a> 13 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10-b&chapter=18&lang=en">10 .b Amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615192223/http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10-b&chapter=18&lang=en">Archived</a> 15 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">Customary international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">Peremptory norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against<br />international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a 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