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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greek_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greek_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient Greek religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greek_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anaximander" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anaximander"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Anaximander</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anaximander-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_views_of_cosmos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_views_of_cosmos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early views of cosmos</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_views_of_cosmos-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early views of cosmos subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_views_of_cosmos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>European view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Chinese view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Indian view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australian_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australian_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Australian view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australian_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Similarities_in_observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similarities_in_observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Similarities in observation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Similarities_in_observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copernican_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copernican_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Copernican Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copernican_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Early beliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copernican_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copernican_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Copernican theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copernican_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neoplatonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoplatonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Neoplatonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoplatonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cosmology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cosmology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Physical cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Philosophical cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Religious cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmos</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86" title="الكون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الكون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos_(f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99)" title="Kosmos (fəlsəfə) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kosmos (fəlsəfə)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D1%8B%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Йыһан – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Йыһан" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_(%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Космас (філасофія) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Космас (філасофія)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cosmos" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Космослăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Космослăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Κόσμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κόσμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cosmos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmo" title="Kosmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kosmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کیهان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کیهان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(philosophie)" title="Cosmos (philosophie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cosmos (philosophie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cosmos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%A3%BC_(%EA%B3%84%ED%86%B5)" title="우주 (계통) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우주 (계통)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%AB%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%A5%D6%80%D6%84_(%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6)" title="Տիեզերք (փիլիսոփայություն) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տիեզերք (փիլիսոփայություն)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmo" title="Kosmo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kosmo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmo" title="Cosmo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cosmo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7" title="ಅಂತರಿಕ್ಷ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಂತರಿಕ್ಷ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ຈັກກະວານ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈັກກະວານ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cosmos" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmas" title="Kosmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kosmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmo" title="Cosmo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Cosmo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosem" title="Cosem – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cosem" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="گیتا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="گیتا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%A0%E1%80%AC_(%E1%80%92%E1%80%BF%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92)" title="စကြဝဠာ (ဒဿနိကဗေဒ) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စကြဝဠာ (ဒဿနိကဗေဒ)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A2%E3%82%B9_(%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E8%A6%B3)" title="コスモス (宇宙観) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コスモス (宇宙観)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koinot" title="Koinot – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koinot" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B8" title="ਕੌਸਮੋਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੌਸਮੋਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کیهان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کیهان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmo" title="Cosmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cosmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cosmos" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamaway" title="Pamaway – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pamaway" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Козмос – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Козмос" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Космос (философия) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Космос (философия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%86%D8%B3" title="کۆسمۆس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆسمۆس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Космос – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Космос" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5" title="จักรวาล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวาล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(mitoloji)" title="Cosmos (mitoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cosmos (mitoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81_(%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Космос (філософія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Космос (філософія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%B8%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%B1" title="عالم ظاہر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عالم ظاہر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_v%C5%A9_tr%E1%BB%A5" title="Hệ vũ trụ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ vũ trụ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Universe as a complex and orderly system or entity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cosmos (disambiguation)">Cosmos (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammarion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flammarion.jpg/265px-Flammarion.jpg" decoding="async" width="265" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flammarion.jpg/398px-Flammarion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flammarion.jpg/530px-Flammarion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3614" data-file-height="3027" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flammarion_engraving" title="Flammarion engraving">Flammarion engraving</a>, Paris 1888</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>cosmos</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">κόσμος</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Kósmos</i></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a> also </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an alternative name for the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> or its nature or order. Usage of the word <i>cosmos</i> implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> or entity.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cosmos is studied in <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> – a broad discipline covering scientific, religious or philosophical aspects of the cosmos and its nature. Religious and philosophical approaches may include the cosmos among spiritual entities or other matters deemed to exist outside the physical universe. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%AD%CF%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:κοσμέω">κοσμεῖν</a> (<i>κοσμεῖν</i>) meant generally "to dispose, prepare", but especially "to order and arrange (troops for battle), to set (an army) in array"; also "to establish (a government or regime)", "to adorn, dress" (especially of women). Thus <i>kosmos</i> meant "ornaments, decoration" (compare <i>kosmokomes</i> "dressing the hair," and cosmetic).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> used the term <i>kosmos</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">κόσμος</span>, Latinized <i>kósmos</i>) for the order of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> further introduced the concept of a Cosmic Mind (<i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">Nous</a></i>) ordering all things.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern Greek <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:κόσμος">κόσμος</a> "order, good order, orderly arrangement" is a word with several main senses rooted in those notions. κόσμος has developed, along with primary "the universe, the world", the meaning of "people" (collectively). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greek_religion">Ancient Greek religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1870 book <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</i> noted<sup id="cite_ref-CPM_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPM-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> dogma that water is the origin of things, that is, that it is that out of which every thing arises, and into which every thing resolves itself, Thales may have followed Orphic cosmogonies, while, unlike them, he sought to establish the truth of the assertion. Hence, Aristotle, immediately after he has called him the originator of philosophy brings forward the reasons which Thales was believed to have adduced in confirmation of that assertion; for that no written development of it, or indeed any book by <i>Thales</i>, was extant, is proved by the expressions which Aristotle uses when he brings forward the doctrines and proofs of the <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Milesian</a>. (p. 1016)</dd></dl> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, describes the idea of the good, or the Godhead, sometimes <i>teleologically</i>, as the ultimate purpose of all conditioned existence; sometimes <i>cosmologically</i>, as the ultimate operative cause; and has begun to develop the <i>cosmological</i>, as also the physico-theological proof for the being of God; but has referred both back to the idea of the Good, as the necessary presupposition to all other ideas, and the cognition of them. (p. 402)</dd></dl> <p>The book <i>The Works of Aristotle</i> (1908, p. 80 <i>Fragments</i>) mentioned<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle1908_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle1908-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Aristotle says the poet <i>Orpheus</i> never existed; the Pythagoreans ascribe this Orphic poem to a certain <i>Cercon</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Cercops" title="Cercops">Cercops</a>).</dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (1947) noted<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>The Orphics were an ascetic sect; wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later, in the Christian sacrament. The intoxication that they sought was that of "enthusiasm," of union with the god. They believed themselves, in this way, to acquire mystic knowledge not obtainable by ordinary means. This mystical element entered into Greek philosophy with Pythagoras, who was a reformer of Orphism as Orpheus was a reformer of the religion of Dionysus. From Pythagoras Orphic elements entered into the philosophy of Plato, and from Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anaximander">Anaximander</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anaximander"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> was a pre-<a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socratic</a> Greek philosopher who is widely referred to as the "father of astronomy" and even as the "father of cosmology" as a result of his works to explain the origin and makeup of the physical universe. He is regarded as the most important of the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Islands" title="Ionian Islands">Ionian</a> philosophers, and was a pupil of <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a>. Traditionally, details of his life and opinions are perpetuated not only by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastos</a>, but also by a great number of secondary authors.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He lived throughout the fifth and fourth centuries, BCE, and was most likely the first philosopher to try to rationalize the system of the Earth, Sun, and Moon by the use of geometry and mathematics. Anaximander was also said to have created the first map of the world, however, like much of the rest of his works, this has been lost since his time. There is, however, documentation of Anaximander being responsible for the conception of the first mechanical model of the world, which is outlined by a <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a>. He postulated that the Earth was at the center of the universe, and that its shape was convex and cylindrical, with life existing on one of the two flat sides. Beyond the Earth, sits the other planets, which Anaximander also details the order of. Next are the fixed stars, which he regarded as wheel-like condensations of air filled with fire, provided at certain places with openings through which flames are discharged.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anaximander places the Moon beyond these stars, and assumed it to also be wheel-like in shape, being nineteen times the size of Earth. Finally, on the top of the universe is the Sun, which interacts with the Moon, and the relationship between them is described in terms of <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, in which a stoppage in would lead to eclipses. </p><p>In this model, the Sun is a ring, 28 times the size of the Earth, with a hollow rim, filled with fire, which at a certain place is seen through an aperture as in a pair of bellows.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also postulated regarding the formation of thunder and lightning, maintaining that they are caused by the wind becoming compressed inside a thick cloud and suddenly breaking through, causing the loud sound to be heard as the cloud is bursting. He claimed the fissure then looked like a spark because of the contrast with the dark cloud. Anaximander's model set a precedent for succeeding theories, including <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>'s system, with the major change being the shift away from the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> and towards the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric model">heliocentric model</a> of the universe. The explained model, although accredited to Anaximander, did necessarily take from ideas originated in foreign cultures, such as the astronomical wheels which are known from <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian</a> cosmology.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But even without detailed commentary, these elements of the Anaximander tradition give a strong impression of an original and courageous thinker making conscious efforts towards producing a rational explanation of fundamental physical principles, the nature and motion of heavenly bodies, the shape of Earth, its place in the universe, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_views_of_cosmos">Early views of cosmos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early views of cosmos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eastern and Western thought differed greatly in their understanding of space and the organization of the cosmos. The Chinese saw the Cosmos as empty, infinite, and intertwined with the Earth. Western ideas, based on the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a>' understanding of the cosmos, believed in a multi-planar divided cosmos that was finite and filled with air. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_view">European view</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: European view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Nights_Long_Moments_(152181573).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_Nights_Long_Moments_%28152181573%29.jpeg/220px-The_Nights_Long_Moments_%28152181573%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_Nights_Long_Moments_%28152181573%29.jpeg/330px-The_Nights_Long_Moments_%28152181573%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_Nights_Long_Moments_%28152181573%29.jpeg/440px-The_Nights_Long_Moments_%28152181573%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Stars rotating in the night sky</figcaption></figure> <p>Early Europeans viewed the cosmos as a divinely created, spatially finite, bifurcated cosmos, divided into sublunary and superlunary realms. Objects above the lunar disc were believed to be stable, with heavenly bodies believed to be made out of a refined substance called "<a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">quintessence</a>". This was understood to be a crystalline, completely transparent substance that held all of the superlunary spheres in perfect order. After their creation by God, these spheres did not change except for their rotation above the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objects below the lunar sphere were subject to constant combination, separation, and recombination. This was because they consisted of the chaotic elements of earth, air, fire, and water.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of celestial spheres was developed in the cosmological models of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They believed in a stable cosmos created by God, where distinct realms were subject to different kinds of order. Some Europeans maintained the Aristotelian view that infinity could only be seen as an attribute of God, with the cosmos being finite. Furthermore, following the Aristotelian view that "nature abhors a vacuum", some Europeans believed that the space between the spheres were filled with air.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory persisted until the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, when the discovery that the Sun was in the center of the planetary system rocked cosmological understanding to its core. Other theories such as Atomism posited a void of atoms as the fundamental elements of physics, while Stoicism postulated a void allowing for the cosmos to expand and contract in volume through its cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-sambursky110_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sambursky110-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SEP_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_view">Chinese view</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chinese view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chinese<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2023)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> had multiple theories of the processes and components of the cosmos. The most popular of these beliefs was the Xuan Ye theory, the astronomical view of the cosmos as an infinite space with floating pieces of condensed vapor.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese believed that the Earth consisted of condensed <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang"><i>yin</i></a> and the heavens of <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang"><i>yang</i></a>; and that these properties coexisted in constant relation to each other, with <i>yin</i> and <i>yang</i> being used together to explain processes on Earth as well of those relating the Earth in conjunction with the heavens.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea was described by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> as a cosmos that functioned similarly to a complex organism, with discernible patterns in an ever-changing structure. There was both a pattern and a randomness to the cosmos.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, the Chinese believed that earthly phenomena could affect heavenly bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese believed that <i>qi</i> was the substance of all things in the cosmos and Earth, including inanimate matter, humans, ideas, emotions, celestial bodies and everything that exists or has existed;<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that it was <i>qi</i> condensing that created all the matter within the cosmos.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is relatively consistent with the modern understanding of the congregation of matter through gravitational fields.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese held a belief associated with the Xuan Ye theory, which held space as both empty and infinite.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was inconsistent with the Aristotelian concepts that nature would not contain a vacuum, and that infinity could only be a divine attribute.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of the nothingness of space was later recognized as one of the most important discoveries of modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_view">Indian view</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Indian view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Indians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2023)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> believed in a cyclic universe related to three other beliefs: (i), time is endless and space has infinite extension; (ii), earth is not the center of the universe; and (iii), laws govern all development, including the creation and destruction of the universe. The Indians believed that there were three types of space, physiological, physical, and infinite space. The infinite space consists of undivided consciousness and everything that is inside and outside. However, finite division of space is where time begins, and the division of time is where all beings were first created. It was believed that there are connections between the physical and the psychological worlds, and an equivalence existed between the outer cosmos and the inner cosmos of the individual. This is expressed in the famous sentence – <i>yat pinḍe tad brahmṇḍe</i>, “as in the body so in the universe”. </p><p>The ancient Indians mapped out the outer world or the universe at an altar where Yajurveda listed multiples of ten that reached ten million. The numbers used to count to ten million was used as a reference to show the relation of the planets in the universe to Earth, it was not a relevant scale to the entire universe, therefore backing that they believed the universe to be infinite and endless. The Indians calculated the speed of light to be four thousand four hundred and four (4,404) yojanas per nimesa, or about one hundred eighty six thousand (186,000) miles per second. Ancient Indian beliefs also included the belief that the Earth was created after certain stars, these stars include the Sun, Gemini, Aja, and Kurma. Evidence from the Etymological considerations prove this belief and also points towards the discovery of the twin asses, which in western astrology can be found next to the Cancer constellation as Asellus, Borealis, and Asellus Australis. </p><p>The Indian cyclic model assumes the existence of countless island universes, which go through their own periods of development and destruction. The conception of cyclicity is taken to be recursive. For an early exposition of these astronomical and cosmological ideas, one may read al-Bīrūnī's classic history of Indian science, composed in 1030 AD, and for an even earlier, popular, view of Indian ideas, one may consult the Vedantic text called the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vāsiṣṭha</a> (YV), which at 32,000 shlokas is one of the longest books in world literature.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australian_view">Australian view</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Australian view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal astronomy</a></div> <p>Australian cosmology has a vast and varied history.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Australian cosmology beliefs were based around the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's ideas, also known as Indigenous astronomy, and it was around before the Babylonians, Greeks, and the Renaissance period. They found ways to observe the Moon, stars, and the Sun, this enabled them to create a sense of time. This also allowed them to navigate across the continent, create calendars, and predict the weather. One of the most important constellations in Australia for the Aboriginal people is the Emu. The Emu constellation represents the connection between the earth and the sky, and stories and representations of their constellations were written on some cave walls in Australia. Another indigenous tribe known as the Euahlayi saw the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> as a river and between the two bright sides represented a Galactic Bulge where the two sons of the creator Baiame and the river made a connection from the earth and the sky. The <a href="/wiki/Yol%C5%8Bu" class="mw-redirect" title="Yolŋu">Yolngu</a> people were one of the first to discover how the tide of the ocean works. They discovered the tide had a direct correlation with the Moon. Their reasoning as to why the ocean did not fill up as much as perhaps when the Moon was full versus a crescent moon is because the Moon was not as full either. This contradicts the father of science, Galileo, who said that the tides correlated with the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Multiple indigenous tribes described winter by the <a href="/wiki/Pleiades" title="Pleiades">Seven Sisters</a>, a group of stars in the sky that provided hunter-gatherers a sort of calendar to indicate whether they should be hunting or gathering, based on the season. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similarities_in_observation">Similarities in observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Similarities in observation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is one way that both the Chinese and the Europeans, along with countless other ancient societies, related to the cosmos. This was through meaning, placed on celestial bodies, that were observed moving above the Earth. The Chinese had a very complex astronomical understanding of the stars and the cosmos that influenced everything from their art and architecture to their myths and science.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was also true of the Greeks and Romans, whose 48 constellations, including the zodiac signs and the constellation of Orion, have been passed down to modern Western cultures. These were likely passed down to them from ancient Babylonian and Egyptian astronomers.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copernicus is said to have been inspired by the fecund sun deity of neoplatonic thought, which may have initially inspired his vision of a heliocentric universe.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copernican_Revolution">Copernican Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Copernican Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG/220px-Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG/330px-Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG/440px-Copernicus_-_Heliocentric_Solar_System.JPG 2x" data-file-width="607" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>Copernicus' Heliocentric Solar System</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></div> <p>Commonly regarded as the foundation of modern astronomy, the common universal view of the cosmos shifted as Nicolaus Copernicus positioned the Sun as the center of the Universe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_beliefs">Early beliefs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Early beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the Copernican Revolution, the Ptolemaic system, also known as the geocentric model, was widely accepted. This put the Earth at the center of the universe, with the Sun and other planets revolving around the Earth in an epicyclic orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle's geocentric model was also broadly acknowledged, along with his claim that the planets rotated but did not orbit. The reasoning behind this was due to the belief that all objects outside of the lunar sphere were celestial bodies, and therefore could not change, as they were made of <i>quintessence.</i><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were notable critiques of this model prior to Copernicus. In the Islamic world, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> doubted Ptolemy's notion of the planetary orbits, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">Muhammad al-Battani</a> recalculated the parameters. However, both still agreed with the geocentric model.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the first known astronomers that supported the Heliocentric theory was <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>. After observing a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipse</a>, he came to the conclusion that the Sun was farther away from Earth than the Moon and that the Sun was much larger than Earth. He also claimed the Sun was a star. While Aristarchus was later an influence on Copernicus and his groundbreaking work, prior to the 17th century Aristarchus' findings were obstructed by the more established theories of Ptolemy and Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copernican_theory">Copernican theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Copernican theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus was appointed by the Catholic Church as an official, as his uncle was a bishop in the church. He used his income to further his studies, eventually studying at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copernicus began doubting the knowledge of natural philosophers and their beliefs, claiming that geometrical astronomy instead would result in the true reality of the cosmos. His manuscript, <i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus</a>,</i> pioneered ideas that would change the course of how both the cosmos and astrology were viewed. Most notably, Copernicus claimed that the Sun was the stationary center of the universe. His work also included calculations on the motions of the Moon, and the motions in latitude and longitude of the planets, all which orbit the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copernicus' work was not immediately published as it disagreed with Biblical teachings, and he feared his work would be rejected by Catholic officials.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Neoplatonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copernicus' work was not entirely mathematical conviction. There is evidence that Copernicus was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">neoplatonism</a>. Founded by philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, neoplatonism believes that the Sun is the symbol of The One, or <a href="/wiki/Anima_Mundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Anima Mundi">The Universal Soul</a>. It would make sense then that Copernicus would place the god-like figure at the center of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neoplatonist <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> claimed the universe was infinite, containing multiple earths and suns. This changed the belief of a finite universe to an infinite one, which emphasized a more obscure and incomplete version of God.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/220px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/330px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/440px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>The Ancient and <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> cosmos as depicted in <a href="/wiki/Peter_Apian" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Apian">Peter Apian</a>'s <i>Cosmographia</i> (Antwerp, 1539)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> is the study of the cosmos, and in its broadest sense covers a variety of very different approaches: scientific, religious and philosophical. All cosmologies have in common an attempt to understand the implicit order within the whole of being. In this way, most religions and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> systems have a cosmology. </p><p>When <i>cosmology</i> is used without a qualifier, it often signifies physical cosmology, unless the context makes clear that a different meaning is intended. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_cosmology">Physical cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Physical cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a> (often simply described as 'cosmology') is the scientific study of the universe, from the beginning of its physical existence. It includes speculative concepts such as a multiverse, when these are being discussed. In <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>, the term <i>cosmos</i> is often used in a technical way, referring to a particular <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> continuum within a (postulated) <a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">multiverse</a>. The particular cosmos in which humans live, the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>, is generally capitalized as <i>the Cosmos</i>. </p><p>In physical cosmology, the uncapitalized term <b>cosmic</b> signifies a subject with a relationship to the universe, such as 'cosmic time' (time since the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>), '<a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>' (high energy particles or radiation detected from <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">space</a>), and '<a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>' (microwave radiation detectable from all directions in space). </p><p>According to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Charles_Peter_Mason" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Charles Peter Mason">Charles Peter Mason</a> in <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Sir William Smith</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</a></i> (1870, see book screenshot for full quote), <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> described the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-CPM_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPM-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg/170px-Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg/255px-Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg/340px-Philolaus-and-Philomelus-Pythagorean-Book.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="1035" /></a><figcaption>Excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a> Pythagoras book (Charles Peter Mason, 1870)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> It appears, in fact, from this, as well as from the extant fragments, that the first book (from <a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a>) of the work contained a general account of the origin and arrangement of the universe. The second book appears to have been an exposition of the nature of numbers, which in the Pythagorean theory are the essence and source of all things. (p. 305)</p></blockquote> <p>In September 2023, astrophysicists questioned the overall current view of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model_of_Cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Model of Cosmology">Standard Model of Cosmology</a>, based on the latest <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> studies.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20230902_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230902-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2023, astronomers proposed a new, more comprehensive, view of the cosmos, and which includes all objects in the universe, and suggested that the universe may have begun with <a href="/wiki/Instanton" title="Instanton">instantons</a>, and may be a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PHYS-20231018_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PHYS-20231018-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AJP-20231001_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJP-20231001-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_cosmology">Philosophical cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophical cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cosmology is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> that deals with the nature of the universe, a theory or doctrine describing the natural order of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic definition of Cosmology is the science of the origin and development of the universe. In modern astronomy, the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang theory</a> is the dominant postulation. </p><p>Philosophy of cosmology is an expanding discipline, directed to the conceptual foundations of cosmology and the philosophical contemplation of the universe as a totality. It draws on the fundamental theories of physics – thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and special and general relativity – and on several branches of philosophy – philosophy of physics, philosophy of science, metaphysics, philosophy of mathematics, and epistemology.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_cosmology">Religious cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religious cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_cosmology" title="Religious cosmology">Religious cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic philosophy and Christianity">Hellenistic philosophy and Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism (religion)</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, the cosmos is the <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">created</a> heavenly bodies (Sun, Moon, wandering stars, and <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars" title="Fixed stars">fixed stars</a>). The concept of cosmos as the created universe and its arrangement has been important in <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> since its very inception, as it is heavily used in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and occurs over 180 times.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>, the word is sometimes used synonymously with <i><a href="/wiki/Aeon" title="Aeon">aion</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to refer to "worldly life" or "this world" or "this age" as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a> or <a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">world to come</a>, although "aion/aeon" is also at times used in a more other-worldly sense as the eternal plane of the divine.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(Carl_Sagan_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (Carl Sagan book)"><i>Cosmos</i> (Carl Sagan book)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Personal_Voyage" title="Cosmos: A Personal Voyage">Cosmos: A Personal Voyage</a></i>, 1980</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Spacetime_Odyssey" title="Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey">Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey</a></i>, 2014</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos:_Possible_Worlds" title="Cosmos: Possible Worlds">Cosmos: Possible Worlds</a></i>, 2020</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_View" title="Cosmic View">Cosmic View</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Zoom" title="Cosmic Zoom">Cosmic Zoom</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmonaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonaut">Cosmonaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmicism" title="Cosmicism">Cosmicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogram" title="Cosmogram">Cosmogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmography" title="Cosmography">Cosmography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrocosm_and_microcosm" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocosm and microcosm">Macrocosm and microcosm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaverse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Megaverse (disambiguation)">Megaverse (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikei%C3%B4sis" title="Oikeiôsis">Oikeiôsis (Stoic cosmopolitanism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_point_(de_Chardin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega point (de Chardin)">Omega point (de Chardin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omniverse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Omniverse (disambiguation)">Omniverse (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rerikhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rerikhism">Rerikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cosmos">"Definition of COSMOS"</a>. 20 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607112647/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cosmos">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+COSMOS&rft.date=2023-06-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fcosmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/cosmos">"Cosmos"</a>. <i>Dictionary.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401003838/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cosmos">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Cosmos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fcosmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=ko/smos">"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, κόσμος"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122183639/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=ko/smos">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Henry+George+Liddell%2C+Robert+Scott%2C+A+Greek-English+Lexicon%2C+%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dko%2Fsmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>, <i>Pyth.</i>, β 59; <a href="/wiki/Aetius_(philosopher)" title="Aetius (philosopher)">Aetius</a> ΙΙ 1.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Aetius Ι 3.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CPM-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CPM_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CPM_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSir_William_Smith1870" class="citation book cs1">Sir William Smith (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgree03smituoft#page/304/"><i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology</i></a>. Boston, Little. p. 305.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+biography+and+mythology&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=Boston%2C+Little&rft.date=1870&rft.au=Sir+William+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fdictionaryofgree03smituoft%23page%2F304%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aristotle1908-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle1908_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotleRoss,_W._D._(William_David)Smith,_J.A._(John_Alexander)1908" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle; Ross, W. D. (William David); Smith, J.A. (John Alexander) (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofaristotle12arisuoft"><i>The Works of Aristotle</i></a>. Oxford : Clarendon Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofaristotle12arisuoft/page/80">80</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Aristotle&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Oxford+%3A+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1908&rft.au=Aristotle&rft.au=Ross%2C+W.+D.+%28William+David%29&rft.au=Smith%2C+J.A.+%28John+Alexander%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofaristotle12arisuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1947" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westernphilosoph035502mbp"><i>History of Western Philosophy</i></a>. George Allen And Unwin Ltd London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.pub=George+Allen+And+Unwin+Ltd+London&rft.date=1947&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesternphilosoph035502mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen1993" class="citation book cs1">Pedersen, Olaf (1993). <i>Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Physics+and+Astronomy%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=13-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBala2010" class="citation book cs1">Bala, Arun (2010). <i>The dialogue of civilizations in the birth of modern science</i>. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS). pp. 134–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9812309082" title="Special:BookSources/978-9812309082"><bdi>978-9812309082</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/647647268">647647268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dialogue+of+civilizations+in+the+birth+of+modern+science&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=134-152&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies+%28ISEAS%29&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F647647268&rft.isbn=978-9812309082&rft.aulast=Bala&rft.aufirst=Arun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2009" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2009). <i>Planets, stars and orbs : the medieval cosmos, 1200–1687</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521138680" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521138680"><bdi>978-0521138680</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/818047493">818047493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planets%2C+stars+and+orbs+%3A+the+medieval+cosmos%2C+1200%E2%80%931687&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F818047493&rft.isbn=978-0521138680&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sambursky110-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sambursky110_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSambursky1959" class="citation cs2">Sambursky, Samuel (1959), <i>Physics of the Stoics</i>, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+of+the+Stoics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Sambursky&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SEP_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berryman, Sylvia, "Ancient Atomism", <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/atomism-ancient/">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604024544/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/atomism-ancient/">Archived</a> 2016-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1957" class="citation journal cs1">Needham, Joseph (1957). "Science and Civilisation in China. Volume II, History of Scientific Thought. Joseph Needham". <i>Isis</i>. <b>48</b> (3): 365–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348588">10.1086/348588</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China.+Volume+II%2C+History+of+Scientific+Thought.+Joseph+Needham&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=365-367&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F348588&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm">"Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China"</a>. <i>afe.easia.columbia.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140510022244/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=afe.easia.columbia.edu&rft.atitle=Living+in+the+Chinese+Cosmos%3A+Understanding+Religion+in+Late-Imperial+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafe.easia.columbia.edu%2Fcosmos%2Fbgov%2Fcosmos.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIannaccone2006" class="citation cs2">Iannaccone, Isaia (2006), "Cosmological Special Relativity", <i>Cosmological Relativity</i>, World Scientific, pp. 3–28, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789812772633_0002">10.1142/9789812772633_0002</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9812700759" title="Special:BookSources/978-9812700759"><bdi>978-9812700759</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cosmological+Special+Relativity&rft.btitle=Cosmological+Relativity&rft.pages=3-28&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789812772633_0002&rft.isbn=978-9812700759&rft.aulast=Iannaccone&rft.aufirst=Isaia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2018/sep/03/sacralising-the-cosmos-nature-and-life-1866698.html">"Sacralising the Cosmos, Nature and Life"</a>. <i>The New Indian Express</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200921082601/https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2018/sep/03/sacralising-the-cosmos-nature-and-life-1866698.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Sacralising+the+Cosmos%2C+Nature+and+Life&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newindianexpress.com%2Fopinions%2F2018%2Fsep%2F03%2Fsacralising-the-cosmos-nature-and-life-1866698.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cosmology-australian-indigenous-cosmology">"Cosmology: Australian Indigenous Cosmology | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413221508/https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cosmology-australian-indigenous-cosmology">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Cosmology%3A+Australian+Indigenous+Cosmology+%26%23124%3B+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fenvironment%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fcosmology-australian-indigenous-cosmology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankenier2013" class="citation cs2">Pankenier, David W. (2013), "Cosmology and the calendar", <i>Astrology and Cosmology in Early China</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 242–258, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139017466.014">10.1017/cbo9781139017466.014</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139017466" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139017466"><bdi>978-1139017466</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cosmology+and+the+calendar&rft.btitle=Astrology+and+Cosmology+in+Early+China&rft.pages=242-258&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139017466.014&rft.isbn=978-1139017466&rft.aulast=Pankenier&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers1998" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers, H (1998). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Ptolemaic+System+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fastronomy-and-space-exploration%2Fastronomy-general%2Fptolemaic-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBala2006" class="citation book cs1">Bala, Arun (2006). <i>The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230601215">10.1057/9780230601215</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230609792" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230609792"><bdi>978-0230609792</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142593876">142593876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dialogue+of+Civilizations+in+the+Birth+of+Modern+Science&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142593876%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230601215&rft.isbn=978-0230609792&rft.aulast=Bala&rft.aufirst=Arun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuessoum2008" class="citation journal cs1">Guessoum, N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=solar-center.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Ask+a+Solar+Physicist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsolar-center.stanford.edu%2FFAQ%2FQsunasstar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristarchus-of-Samos">"Aristarchus of Samos | Greek astronomer"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200812075650/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristarchus-of-Samos">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Aristarchus+of+Samos+%7C+Greek+astronomer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAristarchus-of-Samos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/copernicus.html">"Nicolaus Copernicus"</a>. <i>starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200916022849/https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/copernicus.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Nicolaus+Copernicus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstarchild.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2FStarChild%2Fwhos_who_level2%2Fcopernicus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry2017" class="citation book cs1">Henry, John (2017). <i>Moving heaven and earth : Copernicus and the solar system</i>. Icon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1785782701" title="Special:BookSources/978-1785782701"><bdi>978-1785782701</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1007075382">1007075382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moving+heaven+and+earth+%3A+Copernicus+and+the+solar+system&rft.pub=Icon+Books&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1007075382&rft.isbn=978-1785782701&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer1906" class="citation book cs1">Dreyer, J.L.E. 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(ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201017213429/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/copernicus/">archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-17<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nicolaus+Copernicus&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2019&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Rabin&rft.aufirst=Sheila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2019%2Fentries%2Fcopernicus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/314/09-314-neoplatonism.htm">"Neoplatonism"</a>. <i>www.utm.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210115152417/https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/314/09-314-neoplatonism.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.utm.edu&rft.atitle=Neoplatonism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.utm.edu%2Fstaff%2Fjfieser%2Fclass%2F314%2F09-314-neoplatonism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicholas-of-Cusa">"Nicholas Of Cusa | Christian scholar"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200821181816/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicholas-of-Cusa">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Nicholas+Of+Cusa+%7C+Christian+scholar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FNicholas-of-Cusa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn2003" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Thomas S. (2003). <i>The Copernican revolution : planetary astronomy in the development of western thought</i>. Harvard Univ. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Story+of+Our+Universe+May+Be+Starting+to+Unravel&rft.date=2023-09-02&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft.au=Gleiser%2C+Marcelo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F09%2F02%2Fopinion%2Fcosmology-crisis-webb-telescope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PHYS-20231018-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PHYS-20231018_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_National_University2023" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> (18 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2023-10-view-universe.html">"A new view of all objects in the universe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Phys.org" title="Phys.org">Phys.org</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20231019205532/https://phys.org/news/2023-10-view-universe.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=A+new+view+of+all+objects+in+the+universe&rft.date=2023-10-18&rft.au=Australian+National+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2023-10-view-universe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AJP-20231001-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AJP-20231001_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLineweaverPatel2023" class="citation journal cs1">Lineweaver, Charles H.; Patel, Vihan N. (1 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/aapt/ajp/article/91/10/819/2911822/All-objects-and-some-questions">"All objects and some questions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physics" title="American Journal of Physics">American Journal of Physics</a></i>. <b>91</b> (10): 819–825. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F5.0150209">10.1119/5.0150209</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20231002003850/https://pubs.aip.org/aapt/ajp/article/91/10/819/2911822/All-objects-and-some-questions">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=All+objects+and+some+questions&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=819-825&rft.date=2023-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F5.0150209&rft.aulast=Lineweaver&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft.au=Patel%2C+Vihan+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aip.org%2Faapt%2Fajp%2Farticle%2F91%2F10%2F819%2F2911822%2FAll-objects-and-some-questions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cosmology">"Definition of "Cosmology"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170506111128/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cosmology">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-05-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+%22Cosmology%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fcosmology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy-of-cosmology.ox.ac.uk/">"Philosophy of Cosmology"</a>. <i>philosophy-of-cosmology.ox.ac.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200817125303/http://philosophy-of-cosmology.ox.ac.uk/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=philosophy-of-cosmology.ox.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Cosmology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy-of-cosmology.ox.ac.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblestudytools.com/lexicons/greek/nas/kosmos.html">"Kosmos Meaning in Bible – New Testament Greek Lexicon – New American Standard"</a>. <i>Bible Study Tools</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721143737/https://www.biblestudytools.com/lexicons/greek/nas/kosmos.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Study+Tools&rft.atitle=Kosmos+Meaning+in+Bible+%E2%80%93+New+Testament+Greek+Lexicon+%E2%80%93+New+American+Standard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblestudytools.com%2Flexicons%2Fgreek%2Fnas%2Fkosmos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saviourofall.org/Writings/aion.html">"Concerning Aion and Aionios"</a>. Saviour of All Fellowship. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130730082108/http://www.saviourofall.org/Writings/aion.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Concerning+Aion+and+Aionios&rft.pub=Saviour+of+All+Fellowship&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saviourofall.org%2FWritings%2Faion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblehub.com/topical/a/aeon.htm">"Topical Bible: Aeon"</a>. <i>biblehub.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721104239/https://biblehub.com/topical/a/aeon.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblehub.com&rft.atitle=Topical+Bible%3A+Aeon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Ftopical%2Fa%2Faeon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYHtp6kx8qgC">Greene, B. (1999). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. W.W. Norton, New York </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0CO2iwfzRJkC">Hawking, S.W. (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. Bantam Book.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKak1999" class="citation book cs1">Kak, Subhash (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/25255679.pdf"><i>Concepts of Space, Time, and Consciousness in Ancient India</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Baton Rouge: Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Louisiana State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/25255679.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Space%2C+Time%2C+and+Consciousness+in+Ancient+India&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Department+of+Electrical+%26+Computer+Engineering+Louisiana+State+University&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Kak&rft.aufirst=Subhash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F25255679.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmos" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eh3_GfqlDlMC">Yulsman, T. (2003). Origins: The Quest for our Cosmic Roots. Institute of Physics Publishing, London.</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul 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class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cosmos" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:cosmos">cosmos</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080412094332/http://www.shekpvar.net/~dna/Publications/Cosmos/cosmos.html">Cosmos – an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos</a> – from Digital Nature Agency</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/search/image_set/20?by_subject=star&tabs=hidden">JPL Spitzer telescope photos of macrocosmos</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121002055222/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/search/image_set/20?by_subject=star&tabs=hidden">Archived</a> 2012-10-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080210211117/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhiana.cgi?id=dv3-16">Macrocosm and Microcosm</a>, in <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140923030415/http://www.eocosmos.org/">Encyclopedia of Cosmos</a> This is in Japanese.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://8cosmos.com/">Cosmos</a> – Illustrated Encyclopedia of Cosmos and Cosmic Law <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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