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Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even while globally blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit pages on <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="m:">Meta-Wiki</a>. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/No_open_proxies" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/No open proxies">No open proxies</a> global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Global" class="extiw" title="m:Steward requests/Global">post a request for review on Meta-Wiki</a>. 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Mary was proclaimed his successor in London on 19 July; sources differ on whether her [[Regnal years of English and British monarchs|regnal years]] were dated from 24 July<ref>Weir (p. 160)</ref> or 6 July.<ref>''Sweet and Maxwell's'' (p. 28)</ref>}}&nbsp;–<br/>17 November 1558 | coronation = 1 October 1553 | cor-type = [[Coronation of Mary I of England|Coronation]] | predecessor = [[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]] ''(disputed)'' or [[Edward VI]] | regent = [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]] (1554–1558) | reg-type = Co-monarch | successor = [[Elizabeth I]] | succession1 = [[Queen consort of Spain]] | reign1 = 16 January 1556&nbsp;–<br/>17 November 1558 | reign-type1 = Tenure | birth_date = 18 February 1516 | birth_place = [[Palace of Placentia]], [[Greenwich]], England | death_date = 17 November 1558 (aged 42) | death_place = [[St James's Palace]], [[Westminster]], England | burial_date = 14 December 1558 | burial_place = [[Westminster Abbey]], London | spouse = {{Marriage|[[Philip II of Spain]]|25 July 1554}} | house = [[House of Tudor|Tudor]] | father = [[Henry VIII of England]] | mother = [[Catherine of Aragon]] | religion = [[Catholic Church in England|Roman Catholicism]] | signature = Mary I Signature.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature with the words "Marye the quene" }} '''Mary I''' (18 February 1516&nbsp;– 17 November 1558), also known as '''Mary Tudor''', and as "'''Bloody Mary'''" by her [[Protestant]] opponents, was [[List of English monarchs|Queen of England]] and [[List of Irish monarchs|Ireland]] from July 1553 and [[List of Spanish royal consorts|Queen of Spain]] as the wife of King [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] from January 1556 until [[Death and funeral of Mary I of England|her death]] in 1558. She made vigorous attempts to [[Second Statute of Repeal|reverse]] the [[English Reformation]], which had begun during the reign of her father, King [[Henry VIII]]. Her attempt to restore to the Church the property confiscated in the previous two reigns was largely thwarted by [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], but during her five-year reign, Mary had over 280 religious dissenters [[burned at the stake]] in the [[Marian persecutions]]. Mary was the [[Children of Henry VIII|only surviving child]] of Henry VIII by his first wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]]. She was declared illegitimate and barred from the line of succession following the [[annulment]] of her parents' marriage in 1533, though she would later be restored via the [[Third Succession Act 1543]]. Her younger half-brother, [[Edward VI]], succeeded their father in 1547 at the age of nine. When Edward became terminally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because he supposed, correctly, that she would reverse the Protestant reforms that had taken place during his reign. Upon his death, leading politicians proclaimed Mary's and Edward's Protestant cousin, [[Lady Jane Grey]], as queen instead. Mary speedily assembled a force in [[East Anglia]] and deposed Jane, who was eventually beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the [[Empress Matilda]]—the first [[queen regnant]] of England. In July 1554, she [[Wedding of Mary I of England and Philip of Spain|married Prince Philip of Spain]], becoming [[queen consort]] of [[Habsburg Spain]] on his accession in 1556. After Mary's death in 1558, her re-establishment of [[Roman Catholicism in England]] was [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement|reversed]] by her younger half-sister and successor, [[Elizabeth I]]. ==Birth and family== Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich, England]]. She was the only child of King [[Henry VIII]] and his first wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]], to survive infancy. Before Mary, her mother had three miscarriages and stillbirths and one short-lived son, [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]].<ref>Loades, pp. 12–13; Weir, pp. 152–153.</ref> Mary was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth.<ref>Porter, p. 13; Waller, p. 16; Whitelock, p. 7.</ref> Her godparents included [[Lord Chancellor]] [[Thomas Wolsey]]; her great-aunt [[Catherine, Countess of Devon]]; and [[Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk]].<ref>Porter, pp. 13, 37; Waller, p. 17.</ref> Henry VIII's first cousin once removed, [[Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury]], stood sponsor for Mary's [[confirmation]], which was conducted immediately after the baptism.<ref>Porter, p. 13; Waller, p. 17; Whitelock, p. 7.</ref> The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin [[Frances Brandon]].<ref>Loades, p. 28; Porter, p. 15.</ref> In 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Mary's [[governess]].<ref>Loades, p. 29; Porter, p. 16; Waller, p. 20; Whitelock, p. 21.</ref> Sir [[John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford|John Hussey]] (later Lord Hussey) was her [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]] from 1530, and his wife Lady Anne, daughter of [[George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent]], was one of Mary's attendants.<ref>Hoyle, p. 407.</ref> ==Childhood== [[File:Catalina de Aragón, palacio de Lambeth.jpg|thumb|[[Catherine of Aragon]], 1520, Mary's mother]] [[File:Mary Tudor by Horenbout.jpg|thumb|alt=Mary as a snub-nosed girl with red hair|Mary in 1522, at the time of her engagement to [[Emperor Charles V]]. She is aged 6 and wears a rectangular brooch inscribed "The Emperour".<ref>Whitelock, p. 23.</ref>]] Mary was a precocious child.<ref>Whitelock, p. 27.</ref> In July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting [[Kingdom of France|French]] delegation with a performance on the [[virginals]] (a type of [[harpsichord]]).<ref>Loades, pp. 19–20; Porter, p. 21.</ref> A great part of her early education came from her mother, who consulted the Spanish [[humanist]] [[Juan Luis Vives]] for advice and commissioned him to write ''De Institutione Feminae Christianae'', a treatise on the education of girls.<ref>Loades, p. 31; Porter, p. 30.</ref> By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin.<ref>Porter, p. 28; Whitelock, p. 27.</ref> She studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek.<ref>Loades, pp. 32, 43.</ref> Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] ambassador [[Sebastian Giustinian]] that Mary never cried.<ref>''Domine Orator, per Deum immortalem, ista puella nunquam plorat'', quoted in Whitelock, p. 17.</ref> Mary had a fair complexion with pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair, traits very similar to those of her parents. She was ruddy-cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Giles |last=Tremlett |title=Catherine of Aragon, Henry's Spanish Queen |page=244}}</ref> Despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons.<ref>Tittler, p. 1.</ref> By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, leaving Henry without a legitimate male heir.<ref>Loades, p. 37; Porter, pp. 38–39; Whitelock, pp. 32–33.</ref> In 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of [[Wales]] to preside, presumably in name only, over the [[Council of Wales and the Marches]].<ref>Porter, pp. 38–39; Whitelock, pp. 32–33.</ref> She was given her own [[Royal court|court]] based at [[Ludlow Castle]] and many of the [[royal prerogative]]s normally reserved for a [[Prince of Wales]]. Vives and others called her the [[Princess of Wales]], although she was never technically invested with the title.<ref>Waller, p. 23.</ref> She appears to have spent three years in the [[Welsh Marches]], making regular visits to her father's court, before returning permanently to the [[home counties]] around London in mid-1528.<ref>Loades, pp. 41–42, 45.</ref> [[File:Emperor charles v.png|thumb|left|Emperor Charles V, Mary's cousin and later father-in-law]] Throughout Mary's childhood, Henry negotiated potential future marriages for her. When she was only two years old, Mary was promised to [[Francis III, Duke of Brittany|Francis, Dauphin of France]], the infant son of King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], but the contract was repudiated after three years.<ref>Porter, pp. 20–21; Waller, pp. 20–21; Whitelock, pp. 18–23.</ref> In 1522, at the age of six, she was instead contracted to marry her 22-year-old cousin [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref>Loades, pp. 22–23; Porter, pp. 21–24; Waller, p. 21; Whitelock, p. 23.</ref> However, Charles broke off the engagement within a few years with Henry's agreement.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 30–31.</ref> [[Cardinal Wolsey]], Henry's chief adviser, then resumed marriage negotiations with the French, and Henry suggested that Mary marry the French king Francis I, who was eager for an alliance with England.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 36–37.</ref> A marriage treaty was signed which provided that Mary marry either Francis I or his second son [[Henry II of France|Henry, Duke of Orléans]],<ref>Whitelock, pp. 37–38.</ref> but Wolsey secured an alliance with France without the marriage. In 1528, Wolsey's agent [[Thomas Magnus]] discussed the idea of Mary marrying her cousin [[James V of Scotland]] with the Scottish diplomat [[Adam Otterburn]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=State Papers Henry VIII |volume=4, part IV |publisher=London |date=1836 |page=545}}</ref> According to the Venetian Mario Savorgnano, by this time she was developing into a pretty, well-proportioned young lady with a fine complexion.<ref>Mario Savorgnano, 25 August 1531, in ''Calendar of State Papers, Venetian'', vol. IV, p. 682, quoted in Loades, p. 63.</ref> ==Adolescence== Although various possibilities for Mary's marriage had been considered, the marriage of Mary's parents was itself in jeopardy, which threatened her status. Disappointed at the lack of a male heir, and eager to remarry, Henry attempted to have his marriage to Catherine [[annulled]], but [[Pope Clement VII]] refused his request. Henry claimed, citing biblical passages ([[Leviticus]] 20:21), that the marriage was unclean because Catherine was the widow of his brother [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] (Mary's uncle). Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur was never [[consummate]]d and so was not a valid marriage. [[Pope Julius II]] had issued a dispensation on that basis. Clement VII may have been reluctant to act because he was influenced by Charles V, Catherine's nephew and Mary's former betrothed, whose troops had [[Sack of Rome (1527)|sacked Rome]] in the [[War of the League of Cognac]].<ref>Porter, pp. 56, 78; Whitelock, p. 40.</ref> From 1531, Mary was often sick with irregular menstruation and depression, although it is not clear whether this was caused by stress, puberty or a more deep-seated disease.<ref>Waller, p. 27.</ref> She was not permitted to see her mother, whom Henry had sent to live away from court.<ref>Porter, p. 76; Whitelock, p. 48.</ref> In early 1533, Henry married [[Anne Boleyn]], and in May [[Thomas Cranmer]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], formally declared the marriage with Catherine void and the marriage to Anne valid. Henry repudiated the Pope's authority, declaring himself Supreme Head of the [[Church of England]]. Catherine was demoted to Dowager Princess of Wales (a title she would have held as Arthur's widow), and Mary was deemed illegitimate. She was styled "The Lady Mary" rather than Princess, and her place in the line of succession was transferred to Henry and Anne's newborn daughter, [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]].<ref>Porter, p. 92; Whitelock, pp. 55–56.</ref> Mary's household was dissolved;<ref>Loades, p. 77; Porter, p. 92; Whitelock, p. 57.</ref> her servants (including the Countess of Salisbury) were dismissed and, in December 1533, she was sent to join her infant half-sister's household at [[Hatfield Palace]], Hertfordshire.<ref>Loades, p. 78; Whitelock, p. 57.</ref> Mary determinedly refused to acknowledge that Anne was the queen or that Elizabeth was a princess, enraging King Henry.<ref>Porter, pp. 97–101; Whitelock, pp. 55–69.</ref> Under strain and with her movements restricted, Mary was frequently ill, which the royal physician attributed to her "ill treatment".<ref>Dr [[William Butts]], quoted in Waller, p. 31.</ref> The Imperial ambassador [[Eustace Chapuys]] became her close adviser, and interceded, unsuccessfully, on her behalf at court.<ref>Loades, pp. 84–85.</ref> The relationship between Mary and her father worsened; they did not speak to each other for three years.<ref>Porter, p. 100.</ref> Although both she and her mother were ill, Mary was refused permission to visit Catherine.<ref>Porter, pp. 103–104; Whitelock, pp. 67–69, 72.</ref> When Catherine died in 1536, Mary was "inconsolable".<ref>Letter from Emperor Charles V to [[Isabella of Portugal|Empress Isabella]], quoted in Whitelock, p. 75.</ref> Catherine was interred in [[Peterborough Cathedral]], while Mary grieved in semi-seclusion at [[Hunsdon]] in Hertfordshire.<ref>Porter, p. 107; Whitelock, pp. 76–77.</ref> ==Adulthood== In 1536, Queen Anne fell from the King's favour and was beheaded. Elizabeth, like Mary, was declared illegitimate and stripped of her [[Second Succession Act|succession rights]].<ref>Whitelock, p. 91.</ref> Within two weeks of Anne's execution, Henry married [[Jane Seymour]], who urged her husband to make peace with Mary.<ref>Porter, p. 121; Waller, p. 33; Whitelock, p. 81.</ref> Henry insisted that Mary recognise him as head of the Church of England, repudiate [[papal]] authority, acknowledge that the marriage between her parents was unlawful, and accept her own illegitimacy. She attempted to reconcile with Henry by submitting to his authority as far as "God and my conscience" permitted, but was eventually bullied into signing a document agreeing to all of Henry's demands.<ref>Porter, pp. 119–123; Waller, pp. 34–36; Whitelock, pp. 83–89.</ref> Reconciled with her father, Mary resumed her place at court.<ref>Porter, pp. 119–123; Waller, pp. 34–36; Whitelock, pp. 90–91.</ref> Henry granted her a household, which included the reinstatement of Mary's favourite, [[Susan Clarencieux]].<ref>Loades, p. 105.</ref> Mary's [[Privy Purse]] accounts for this period, kept by [[Mary Finch]], show that [[Hatfield House]], the [[Palace of Beaulieu]] (also called Newhall), [[Richmond, North Yorkshire|Richmond]] and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence, as well as Henry's palaces at [[Palace of Placentia|Greenwich]], [[Palace of Westminster|Westminster]] and [[Hampton Court]].<ref>Madden, F. (ed.) (1831) ''The Privy Purse Expenses of the Princess Mary'', quoted in Loades, p. 111.</ref> Her expenses included fine clothes and gambling at cards, one of her favourite pastimes.<ref>Porter, pp. 129–132; Whitelock, p. 28.</ref> Rebels in the North of England, including Lord Hussey, Mary's former chamberlain, campaigned against Henry's religious reforms, and one of their demands was that Mary be made legitimate. The rebellion, known as the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]], was ruthlessly suppressed.<ref>Porter, pp. 124–125.</ref> Along with other rebels, Hussey was executed, but there is no suggestion that Mary was directly involved.<ref>Loades, p. 108.</ref> In 1537, Queen Jane died after giving birth to a son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]]. Mary was made godmother to her half-brother and acted as chief mourner at the Queen's funeral.<ref>Loades, p. 114; Porter, pp. 126–127; Whitelock, pp. 95–96.</ref> [[File:Mary I by Master John.jpg|thumb|alt=Mary as a young woman|Mary in 1544]] [[File:Family of Henry VIII c 1545.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|1545 painting showing left to right: 'Mother Jak', Mary, Edward, Henry VIII, Jane Seymour (posthumous), Elizabeth, Will Somers (court fool)]] Mary was courted by [[Philip, Duke of Bavaria]], from late 1539, but he was [[Lutheran]] and his suit for her hand was unsuccessful.<ref>Loades, pp. 127–129; Porter, pp. 135–136; Waller, p. 39; Whitelock, p. 101.</ref> Over 1539, the King's chief minister, [[Thomas Cromwell]], negotiated a potential alliance with the [[United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg|Duchy of Cleves]]. Suggestions that Mary marry [[William I, Duke of Cleves]], who was the same age, came to nothing, but a match between Henry and the Duke's sister [[Anne of Cleves|Anne]] was agreed.<ref>Loades, pp. 126–127; Whitelock, p. 101.</ref> When the King saw Anne for the first time in late December 1539, a week before the scheduled wedding, he found her unattractive but was unable, for diplomatic reasons and without a suitable pretext, to cancel the marriage.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 103–104.</ref> Cromwell fell from favour and was arrested for treason in June 1540; one of the unlikely charges against him was that he had plotted to marry Mary himself.<ref>Whitelock, p. 105.</ref> Anne consented to the annulment of the marriage, which had not been consummated, and Cromwell was beheaded.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 105–106.</ref> In 1541, Henry had the Countess of Salisbury, Mary's old governess and godmother, executed on the pretext of a [[Exeter Conspiracy|Catholic plot]] in which her son [[Reginald Pole]] was implicated.<ref>Loades, p. 122; Porter, p. 137.</ref> Her executioner was "a wretched and blundering youth" who "literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces".<ref>Contemporary Spanish and English reports, quoted in Whitelock, p. 108.</ref> In 1542, following the execution of Henry's fifth wife, [[Catherine Howard]], the unmarried Henry invited Mary to attend the royal Christmas festivities.<ref>Porter, p. 143.</ref> At court, while her father was between marriages and thus without a consort, Mary acted as hostess.<ref>Waller, p. 37.</ref> In 1543, Henry married his sixth and last wife, [[Catherine Parr]], who was able to bring the family closer together.<ref>Porter, pp. 143–144; Whitelock, p. 110.</ref> Henry returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession through the [[Act of Succession 1544]] (also known as the Third Succession Act), placing them after Edward{{snd}}though both remained legally illegitimate.<ref>Loades, p. 120; Waller, p. 39; Whitelock, p. 112.</ref> Henry VIII died in 1547, and Edward succeeded him. Mary inherited estates in [[Norfolk]], [[Suffolk]] and [[Essex]], and was granted Hunsdon and Beaulieu as her own.<ref>Loades, pp. 137–138; Whitelock, p. 130.</ref> Since Edward was still a child, rule passed to a regency council dominated by Protestants, who attempted to establish their faith throughout the country. For example, the [[Act of Uniformity 1549]] prescribed Protestant rites for church services, such as the use of Thomas Cranmer's ''[[Book of Common Prayer (1549)|Book of Common Prayer]]''. Mary remained faithful to Roman Catholicism and defiantly celebrated traditional Mass in her own chapel. She appealed to her cousin Emperor Charles V to apply diplomatic pressure demanding that she be allowed to practise her religion.<ref>Loades, pp. 143–147; Porter, pp. 160–162; Whitelock, pp. 133–134.</ref> For most of Edward's reign, Mary remained on her own estates and rarely attended court.<ref>Porter, p. 154; Waller, p. 40.</ref> A plan between May and July 1550 to smuggle her out of England to the safety of the European mainland came to nothing.<ref>Loades, pp. 153–157; Porter, pp. 169–176; Waller, pp. 41–42; Whitelock, pp. 144–147.</ref> Religious differences between Mary and Edward continued. Mary attended a reunion with Edward and Elizabeth for Christmas 1550, where the 13-year-old Edward embarrassed Mary, then 34, and reduced both her and himself to tears in front of the court, by publicly reproving her for ignoring his laws regarding worship.<ref>Porter, p. 178; Whitelock, p. 149.</ref> Mary repeatedly refused Edward's demands that she abandon Catholicism, and Edward persistently refused to drop his demands.<ref>Porter, pp. 179–182; Whitelock, pp. 148–160.</ref> ==Accession== {{see also|1553 succession crisis in England}} [[File:streathamladyjayne.jpg|thumb|Edward VI declared his first cousin once removed, [[Lady Jane Grey]], his heir. Lady Jane was married to [[Lord Guildford Dudley]], a son of the English politician [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland]].]] On 6 July 1553, at the age of 15, Edward VI died of a lung infection, possibly [[tuberculosis]].<ref>Porter, p. 187.</ref> He did not want the crown to go to Mary because he feared she would restore Catholicism and undo his and their father's reforms, and so he planned to exclude her from the line of succession. His advisers told him that he could not disinherit only one of his half-sisters: he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well, even though she was a Protestant. Guided by [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland]], and perhaps others, Edward excluded both from the line of succession in his will.<ref>Porter, pp. 188–189.</ref> Contradicting the [[Act of Succession 1544]], which restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession, Edward named Northumberland's daughter-in-law [[Lady Jane Grey]], the granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister [[Mary Tudor, Queen of France|Mary]], as his successor. Lady Jane's mother was Frances Brandon, Mary's cousin and goddaughter. Just before Edward's death, Mary was summoned to London to visit her dying brother, but was warned that the summons was a pretext on which to capture her and thereby facilitate Jane's accession to the throne.<ref>Waller, pp. 48–49; Whitelock, p. 165.</ref> Therefore, instead of heading to London from her residence at Hunsdon, Mary fled to [[East Anglia]], where she owned extensive estates and Northumberland had ruthlessly put down [[Kett's Rebellion]]. Many adherents to the Catholic faith, opponents of Northumberland, lived there.<ref>Waller, pp. 51–53; Whitelock, pp. 165, 138.</ref> On 9 July, from [[Kenninghall]], Norfolk, she wrote to the [[Privy Council of England|privy council]] with orders for her proclamation as Edward's successor.<ref>Loades, p. 176; Porter, p. 195; Tittler, pp. 8, 81–82; Whitelock, p. 168.</ref> On 10 July 1553, Lady Jane was proclaimed queen by Northumberland and his supporters, and on the same day Mary's servant, [[Thomas Hungate]], arrived in London with her letter to the council.<ref>Whitelock, p. 168.</ref> By 12 July, Mary and her supporters had assembled a military force at [[Framlingham Castle]], Suffolk.<ref>Porter, p. 203; Waller, p. 52.</ref> Northumberland's support collapsed,<ref>Loades, pp. 176–181; Porter, pp. 213–214; Waller, p. 54; Whitelock, pp. 170–174.</ref> and Jane was deposed on 19 July.<ref>Porter, p. 210; Weir, pp. 159–160.</ref> She and Northumberland were imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. Mary rode triumphantly into London on 3 August 1553, on a wave of popular support. She was accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth and a procession of over 800 nobles and gentlemen.<ref>Waller, pp. 57–59.</ref> ==Reign== One of Mary's first actions as queen was to order the release of the Roman Catholic [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], and [[Stephen Gardiner]] from imprisonment in the Tower of London, as well as her kinsman [[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (1553 creation)|Edward Courtenay]].<ref>Waller, p. 59; Whitelock, p. 181.</ref> Mary understood that the young Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Northumberland's scheme, and Northumberland was the only conspirator of rank executed for [[high treason]] in the immediate aftermath of the attempted coup. Lady Jane and her husband, [[Lord Guildford Dudley]], though found guilty, were kept under guard in the Tower rather than immediately executed, while Lady Jane's father, [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]], was released.<ref>Waller, pp. 59–60; Whitelock, pp. 185–186.</ref> Mary was left in a difficult position, as almost all the [[Privy Council of England|Privy Counsellors]] had been implicated in the plot to put Lady Jane on the throne.<ref>Whitelock, p. 182.</ref> She appointed Gardiner to the council and made him both [[Bishop of Winchester]] and [[Lord Chancellor]], offices he held until his death in November 1555. Susan Clarencieux became [[Mistress of the Robes]].<ref>Whitelock, p. 183.</ref> On 1 October 1553, Gardiner [[Coronation of Mary I of England|crowned]] Mary at [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref>Porter, pp. 257–261; Whitelock, pp. 195–197.</ref> ===Spanish marriage=== {{Multiple image|image1=Edward Courtenay 1st Earl of Devon.jpg|image2=El cardenal Reginald Pole, por Sebastiano del Piombo.jpg|total_width=350|footer=[[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon]] and Cardinal [[Reginald Pole]]: both were potential candidates for marriage}} [[File:Philip II.jpg|thumb|right|Philip of Spain by [[Titian]]]] Now aged 37, Mary turned her attention to finding a husband and producing an heir, which would prevent the Protestant Elizabeth (still next in line under the terms of [[Henry VIII's will]] and the [[Act of Succession of 1544]]) from succeeding to the throne. While the English expected her to marry, there was a general consensus that the Queen should not marry a foreigner, since that could lead to the interference of a foreign power in English affairs.<ref>{{harvtxt|Froude|1910|page=23}}</ref> On 16 November 1553, a parliamentary delegation went to her and formally requested that she choose an English husband,<ref>{{harvtxt|Weikel|1980|page=53}}</ref> with its obvious although tacit candidates being her kinsmen [[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon|Edward Courtenay]], recently created Earl of Devon, and the Catholic Cardinal [[Reginald Pole]]. But Mary's first cousin, [[Emperor Charles V|Charles V]], also king of Spain, saw that an alliance with England would give him supremacy in Europe; he sent his minister to England to propose his only legitimate son, [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]], as a person whom the religious and political interests of the world recommended for Mary.<ref>{{harvtxt|Froude|1910|page=55}}; Loades, pp. 199–201; Porter, pp. 265–267.</ref> The Spanish prince had been widowed a few years before by the death of his first wife, [[Maria Manuela of Portugal]], mother of his son [[Carlos, Prince of Asturias|Carlos]] and was the heir apparent to vast territories in Continental Europe and the New World. Both Philip and Mary were descendants of [[John of Gaunt]]. As part of the marriage negotiations, a portrait of Philip by [[Titian]] was sent to Mary in the latter half of 1553.<ref>Porter, p. 310.</ref> Mary was convinced that the safety of England required her to form a closer relationship with Charles's family, the [[Habsburgs]], and she decided to marry Philip.<ref>{{harvtxt|Heard|2000|pages=46, 48}}</ref> A marriage treaty was presented to the Privy Council on 7 December 1553, and even though the terms clearly favoured England and included several safeguards, many still thought that England would be drawn into Philip's wars and become a mere province of the Habsburg Empire.<ref>{{harvtxt|Heard|2000|pages=48, 49}}</ref> This was of particular concern to the [[landed gentry]] and parliamentary classes, who foresaw having to pay greater taxes to cover the cost of England’s participation in foreign wars.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fletcher|1970|page=86}}</ref> Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the [[English House of Commons]] unsuccessfully petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, fearing that England would be relegated to a dependency of the Habsburgs.<ref>Porter, pp. 279–284; Waller, p. 72; Whitelock, pp. 202–209.</ref> The marriage was unpopular with the English; Gardiner and his allies opposed it on the basis of patriotism, while Protestants were motivated by a fear that with the restoration of Catholicism and the arrival of the Spanish King, the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] would come to judge Protestant heretics.<ref>Waller, p. 73.</ref> Many English people knew the stories of the torments and cruelties suffered by the prisoners of the Inquisition, and there were even those “who had suffered from the rack of the inquisitors” themselves.<ref>Alexander Samson, ''Mary and Philip: The marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain'' (Manchester, 2020), p. 70.</ref> It was not just the English who were alarmed by the pending marriage of Mary and Philip. France feared an alliance between England and Spain. [[Antoine de Noailles]], the French ambassador to England, "threatened war and began immediate intrigues with any malcontents he could find". Before Christmas in 1553, anti-Spanish ballads and broadsheets were circulating in the streets of London.<ref>{{harvtxt|Loades|1999|pages=190–191}}</ref> When Mary insisted on marrying Philip, insurrections broke out. [[Thomas Wyatt the Younger]] led a force from [[Kent]] to depose Mary in favour of Elizabeth, as part of a wider conspiracy now known as [[Wyatt's rebellion]], which also involved the Duke of Suffolk, Lady Jane's father.<ref>Porter, pp. 288–299; Whitelock, pp. 212–213.</ref> Mary declared publicly that she would summon Parliament to discuss the marriage and if Parliament decided that the marriage was not to the kingdom's advantage, she would refrain from pursuing it.<ref>Porter, p. 300; Waller, pp. 74–75; Whitelock, p. 216.</ref> On reaching London, Wyatt was defeated and captured. Wyatt, the Duke of Suffolk, Lady Jane, and her husband Guildford Dudley were executed. Courtenay, who was implicated in the plot, was imprisoned and then exiled. Elizabeth, though protesting her innocence in the Wyatt affair, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for two months, then put under house arrest at [[Woodstock Palace]].<ref>Porter, pp. 311–313; Whitelock, pp. 217–225.</ref> Mary was—excluding the brief, disputed reigns of the [[Empress Matilda]] and Lady Jane Grey—England's first [[queen regnant]]. Further, under the English common law doctrine of ''[[jure uxoris]]'', the property and titles belonging to a woman became her husband's upon marriage, and it was feared that any man she married would thereby become king of England in fact and name.<ref>Waller, pp. 84–85; Whitelock, pp. 202, 227.</ref> While Mary's grandparents [[Ferdinand and Isabella]] had retained sovereignty of their respective realms during their marriage, there was no precedent to follow in England.<ref>Porter, p. 269; Waller, p. 85.</ref> Under the terms of [[Queen Mary's Marriage Act]], Philip was to be styled "King of England", all official documents (including [[Acts of Parliament]]) were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple, for Mary's lifetime only. England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war, and Philip could not act without his wife's consent or appoint foreigners to office in England.<ref>Porter, pp. 291–292; Waller, p. 85; Whitelock, pp. 226–227.</ref> Philip was unhappy with these conditions but ready to agree for the sake of securing the marriage.<ref>Porter, pp. 308–309; Whitelock, p. 229.</ref> He had no amorous feelings for Mary and sought the marriage for its political and strategic gains; his aide [[Ruy Gómez de Silva]] wrote to a correspondent in [[Brussels]], "the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration, but in order to remedy the disorders of this kingdom and to preserve the [[Habsburg Netherlands|Low Countries]]."<ref>Letter of 29 July 1554 in the ''Calendar of State Papers, Spanish'', volume XIII, quoted in Porter, p. 320 and Whitelock, p. 244.</ref> A future child of Mary and Philip would be not only heir to the throne of England but also heir to the [[Spanish Empire]] in the event that Philip's eldest son, Don Carlos, died without issue.<ref>Alexander Samson, ''Mary and Philip: The marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain'' (Manchester, 2020), pp. 71–73.</ref> To elevate his son to Mary's rank, Emperor Charles V ceded to Philip the [[Kingdom of Naples|crown of Naples]] as well as his claim to the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Mary thus became [[List of Neapolitan royal consorts|queen of Naples]] and titular [[List of queens of Jerusalem|queen of Jerusalem]] upon marriage.<ref name="waller90">Porter, pp. 321, 324; Waller, p. 90; Whitelock, p. 238.</ref> Their [[Wedding of Mary I of England and Philip of Spain|wedding]] at [[Winchester Cathedral]] on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting.<ref>Loades, pp. 224–225; Porter, pp. 318, 321; Waller, pp. 86–87; Whitelock, p. 237.</ref> Philip could not speak English, and so they spoke a mixture of Spanish, French, and Latin.<ref>Porter, p. 319; Waller, pp. 87, 91.</ref> ===False pregnancy=== [[File:Felipe of Spain and MariaTudor.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Interior scene of the royal couple with Mary seated beneath a coat of arms and Philip stood beside her|Mary and Philip, [[Hans Eworth]]]] In September 1554, Mary stopped menstruating. She gained weight, and felt nauseated in the mornings. For these reasons, almost the entirety of her court, including her physicians, believed she was pregnant.<ref>Porter, p. 333; Waller, pp. 92–93.</ref> Parliament passed the [[Treason Act of 1554]] making Philip regent in the event of Mary's death in childbirth.<ref>Loades, pp. 234–235.</ref> In the last week of April 1555, Elizabeth was released from house arrest, and called to court as a witness to the birth, which was expected imminently.<ref>Porter, p. 338; Waller, p. 95; Whitelock, p. 255.</ref> According to Giovanni Michieli, the Venetian ambassador, Philip may have planned to marry Elizabeth if Mary died,<ref>Waller, p. 96.</ref> but in a letter to his brother-in-law [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian of Austria]], Philip expressed uncertainty as to whether Mary was pregnant.<ref>"The queen's pregnancy turns out not to have been as certain as we thought": Letter of 25 April 1554, quoted in Porter, p. 337 and Whitelock, p. 257.</ref> Mary's pregnancy had its pros and cons for Elizabeth: if Mary died during childbirth, Elizabeth would become the new queen; however, if her sister gave birth to a healthy baby, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply.<ref>Loades, p. 32.</ref> Thanksgiving services in the [[diocese of London]] were held at the end of April after false rumours that Mary had given birth to a son spread across Europe.<ref>Waller, p. 95; Whitelock, p. 256.</ref> Through May and June, the apparent delay in delivery fed gossip that Mary was not pregnant.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 257–259.</ref> Susan Clarencieux revealed her doubts to the French ambassador, [[Antoine de Noailles]].<ref>Whitelock, p. 258.</ref> Mary continued to exhibit signs of pregnancy until July 1555, when her abdomen receded. Michieli dismissively ridiculed the pregnancy as more likely to "end in wind rather than anything else".<ref>Waller, p. 97; Whitelock, p. 259.</ref> It was most likely a [[false pregnancy]], perhaps induced by Mary's overwhelming desire to have a child.<ref>Porter, pp. 337–338; Waller, pp. 97–98.</ref> In August, soon after the disgrace of the false pregnancy, which Mary considered "God's punishment" for her having "tolerated heretics" in her realm,<ref>PBS Video.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=July 2024}} Philip left England to command his armies against France in [[Flanders]].<ref>Porter, p. 342.</ref> Mary was heartbroken and fell into a deep depression. Michieli was touched by the Queen's grief; he wrote she was "extraordinarily in love" with her husband and disconsolate at his departure.<ref>Waller, pp. 98–99; Whitelock, p. 268.</ref> Elizabeth remained at court until October, apparently restored to favour.<ref>Antoine de Noailles quoted in Whitelock, p. 269.</ref> In the absence of any children, Philip was concerned that one of the next claimants to the English throne after his sister-in-law was [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], who was betrothed to [[Francis II of France|Francis, Dauphin of France]]. Philip persuaded his wife that Elizabeth should marry his cousin [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]], to secure the Catholic succession and preserve the Habsburg interest in England, but Elizabeth refused to agree and parliamentary consent was unlikely.<ref>Whitelock, p. 284.</ref> ===Religious policy=== [[File:1555 gold medal Queen Mary I of England.jpg|thumb|right|Gold medal by [[Jacopo da Trezzo]] of "Mary I, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith", 1555]] [[File:Mary1 by Eworth 2.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Mary in an ornate dress|Mary by [[Hans Eworth]], 1554. She wears a jewelled pendant bearing the [[Mary Tudor pearl|Tudor pearl]] set beneath two diamonds.]] In the month following her accession, Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel any of her subjects to follow her religion, but by the end of September 1553, leading Protestant churchmen—including [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[John Bradford]], [[John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)|John Rogers]], [[John Hooper (bishop)|John Hooper]], and [[Hugh Latimer]]—were imprisoned.<ref>Tittler, pp. 23–24; Whitelock, p. 187.</ref> Mary's first Parliament, which assembled in early October, declared her parents' marriage valid and [[First Statute of Repeal|abolished Edward's religious laws]].<ref>Loades, pp. 207–208; Waller, p. 65; Whitelock, p. 198.</ref> Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1539 [[Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles]] of Henry VIII, which (among other things) reaffirmed clerical celibacy. Married priests were deprived of their [[benefice]]s.<ref>Porter, p. 241; Whitelock, pp. 200–201.</ref> Mary rejected the break with Rome her father instituted and the establishment of Protestantism by her brother's regents. Philip persuaded Parliament to [[Second Statute of Repeal|repeal Henry's religious laws]], returning the English church to Roman jurisdiction. Reaching an agreement took many months and Mary and [[Pope Julius III]] had to make a major concession: the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|confiscated]] monastery lands were not returned to the church but remained in the hands of their influential new owners.<ref>Porter, p. 331.</ref> By the end of 1554, the Pope had approved the deal, and the [[Revival of the Heresy Acts|Heresy Acts were revived]].<ref>Loades, pp. 235–242.</ref> Around 800 rich Protestants, including [[John Foxe]], fled into [[Marian exiles|exile]].<ref>Waller, p. 113.</ref> Those who stayed and persisted in publicly proclaiming their beliefs became targets of heresy laws.<ref name="Solly">Solly, Meilan. "[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/myth-bloody-mary-180974221/ The Myth of 'Bloody Mary']". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. March 12, 2020.</ref> The first executions occurred over five days in February 1555: John Rogers on 4 February, [[Laurence Saunders]] on 8 February, and [[Rowland Taylor]] and John Hooper on 9 February.<ref>Whitelock, p. 262.</ref> Thomas Cranmer, the imprisoned archbishop of Canterbury, was forced to watch Bishops [[Nicholas Ridley (martyr)|Ridley]] and Latimer being burned at the stake. He recanted, repudiated Protestant theology, and rejoined the Catholic faith.<ref>Loades, p. 325; Porter, pp. 355–356; Waller, pp. 104–105.</ref> Under the normal process of the law, he should have been absolved as a repentant, but Mary refused to reprieve him. On the day of his burning, he dramatically withdrew his recantation.<ref>Loades, p. 326; Waller, pp. 104–105; Whitelock, p. 274.</ref> In total, 283 were executed, most by burning.<ref>Duffy, p. 79; Waller, p. 104.</ref> The burnings proved so unpopular that even [[Alfonso de Castro]], one of Philip's own ecclesiastical staff, condemned them<ref>Porter, pp. 358–359; Waller, p. 103; Whitelock, p. 266.</ref> and another adviser, [[Simon Renard]], warned him that such "cruel enforcement" could "cause a revolt".<ref>Waller, p. 102.</ref> Mary persevered with the policy, which continued for the rest of her reign and exacerbated anti-Catholic and anti-Spanish feeling among the English people.<ref>Waller, pp. 101, 103, 105; Whitelock, p. 266.</ref> The victims became lauded as [[List of Protestant martyrs of the English Reformation|martyrs]].<ref>See for example, the [[Oxford Martyrs]].</ref> Reginald Pole, the son of Mary's executed governess, arrived as papal legate in November 1554.<ref>Loades, p. 238; Waller, p. 94.</ref> He was ordained a priest and appointed Archbishop of Canterbury immediately after Cranmer's execution in March 1556.<ref>Porter, p. 357.</ref>{{Efn|Although he was in deacon's orders and prominent in the church, Pole was not ordained until the day before his consecration as archbishop.<ref>Loades, p. 319.</ref>}} As long as the Queen remained childless, her half-sister Elizabeth was her successor. Mary, concerned about her sister's religious convictions (Elizabeth only attended mass under obligation and had only superficially converted to Catholicism to save her life after being imprisoned following Wyatt's rebellion, although she remained a staunch Protestant), seriously considering the possibility of removing her from the succession and naming as her successor her Scottish first cousin and devout Catholic, [[Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox|Margaret Douglas]].<ref>Morgan Ring, ''So High A Blood: The Life of Margaret Countess of Lennox'' (Bloomsbury, 2017), p. 110.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Porter|2007|pp=251-252}}</ref> ===Foreign policy=== [[File:Mary1 by Eworth 3.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait by [[Hans Eworth]] ({{circa|1555–1558}})]] Furthering the [[Tudor conquest of Ireland]], English colonists were settled in the [[Irish Midlands]] under Mary and Philip's reign. [[County Laois|Queen's]] and [[County Offaly|King's Counties]] (later called Counties Laois and Offaly) were founded, and their [[Plantations of Ireland|plantation]] began.<ref>Tittler, p. 66.</ref> Their principal towns were named, respectively, Maryborough (later called [[Portlaoise]]) and Philipstown (later [[Daingean]]). In January 1556, Mary's father-in-law the Emperor abdicated. Mary and Philip were still apart; he was declared king of Spain in Brussels, but she stayed in England. Philip negotiated an unsteady truce with the French in February 1556. The next month, the French ambassador in England, Antoine de Noailles, was implicated in a plot against Mary when [[Henry Dudley (conspirator)|Henry Dudley]], a second cousin of the executed Duke of Northumberland, attempted to assemble an invasion force in France. The plot, known as the Dudley conspiracy, was betrayed, and the conspirators in England were rounded up. Dudley remained in exile in France, and Noailles prudently left Britain.<ref>Porter, pp. 381–387.</ref> Philip returned to England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary to support Spain in a [[Italian War of 1551–1559|renewed war against France]]. Mary was in favour of declaring war, but her councillors opposed it because French trade would be jeopardised, it contravened the foreign war provisions of the marriage treaty, and a bad economic legacy from Edward VI's reign and a series of poor harvests meant England lacked supplies and finances.<ref>Whitelock, p. 288.</ref> War was only declared in June 1557 after Reginald Pole's nephew [[Thomas Stafford (rebel)|Thomas Stafford]] invaded England and seized [[Scarborough Castle]] with French help, in a failed attempt to depose Mary.<ref>Porter, p. 389; Waller, p. 111; Whitelock, p. 289.</ref> As a result of the war, relations between England and the Papacy became strained, since [[Pope Paul IV]] was allied with [[Henry II of France]].<ref>Whitelock, pp. 293–295.</ref> In August, English forces were victorious in the aftermath of the [[Battle of St. Quentin (1557)|Battle of Saint Quentin]], with one eyewitness reporting, "Both sides fought most choicely, and the English best of all."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol13/pp308-318 |pages=308–318 |title=Spain: August 1557 |date=1954 |series=Calendar of State Papers, Spain |volume=13, 1554-1558 |editor-first=Royall |editor-last=Tyler |publisher=London |via=British History Online |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> Celebrations were brief, as in January 1558 French forces [[Siege of Calais (1558)|took Calais]], England's sole remaining possession on the European mainland. Although the territory was financially burdensome, its loss was a mortifying blow to the Queen's prestige.<ref>Loades, pp. 295–297; Porter, pp. 392–395; Whitelock, pp. 291–292.</ref> According to ''[[Holinshed's Chronicles]]'', Mary later lamented (although this may be apocryphal), "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying in my heart".<ref>Porter, p. 393.</ref> ===Commerce and revenue=== [[File:Post Medieval coin, Sixpence of Phillip and Mary (FindID 662681).jpg|thumb|Philip and Mary [[Sixpence (British coin)|sixpence]], 1554]] [[File:Mary Tudor Shilling.jpg|thumb|Mary [[Shilling (British coin)|shilling]]]] The weather during the years of Mary's reign was consistently wet. The persistent rain and flooding led to famine.<ref>Porter, pp. 229, 375; Whitelock, p. 277.</ref> Another problem was the decline of the [[Antwerp]] cloth trade.<ref>Tittler, p. 48.</ref> Despite Mary's marriage to Philip, England did not benefit from Spain's enormously lucrative trade with the [[Spanish Empire|New World]].<ref>Tittler, p. 49.</ref> The Spanish guarded their trade routes jealously, and Mary could not condone English smuggling or piracy against her husband's subjects.<ref>Tittler, pp. 49–50.</ref> In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the English economy, Mary's counsellors continued Northumberland's policy of seeking out new commercial opportunities. She granted a [[royal charter]] to the [[Muscovy Company]] under governor [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]],<ref>Porter, p. 371.</ref> and commissioned a world atlas from [[Diogo Homem]].<ref>Porter, p. 373.</ref> Adventurers such as [[John Lok]] and [[William Towerson (16th-century merchant)|William Towerson]] sailed south in an attempt to develop links with the coast of Africa.<ref>Porter, p. 372.</ref> Financially, Mary's regime tried to reconcile a modern form of government—with correspondingly higher spending—with a medieval system of collecting taxation and dues.<ref>Porter, p. 375; Tittler, p. 51.</ref> Mary retained the Edwardian appointee [[William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester]], as [[Lord High Treasurer]] and assigned him to oversee the revenue collection system. A failure to apply new tariffs to new forms of imports meant that a key source of revenue was neglected. To solve this, Mary's government published a revised "Book of Rates" (1558), which listed the tariffs and duties for every import. This publication was not extensively reviewed until 1604.<ref>Porter, p. 376.</ref> English coinage was [[The Great Debasement|debased under both Henry VIII and Edward VI]]. Mary drafted plans for currency reform but they were not implemented until after her death.<ref>Porter, p. 376; Tittler, p. 53.</ref> ==Death== [[File:Tomb of Elizabeth I and Mary I.jpg|thumb|alt=Tomb of Elizabeth I and Mary I|Tomb of Elizabeth I and Mary I in [[Westminster Abbey]]]] After Philip's visit in 1557, Mary again thought she was pregnant, with a baby due in March 1558.<ref>Porter, p. 398; Waller, pp. 106, 112; Whitelock, p. 299.</ref> She decreed in her will that her husband would be the regent during the minority of their child.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 299–300.</ref> But no child was born, and Mary was forced to accept that her half-sister Elizabeth would be her lawful successor.<ref>Whitelock, p. 301.</ref> Mary was weak and ill from May 1558.<ref>Loades, p. 305; Whitelock, p. 300.</ref> In pain, possibly from [[ovarian cyst]]s or [[uterine cancer]],<ref>Waller, p. 108.</ref> she died on 17 November 1558, aged 42, at [[St James's Palace]], during an [[influenza]] epidemic that also claimed Archbishop Pole's life later that day. She was succeeded by Elizabeth. Philip, who was in Brussels, wrote to his sister [[Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal|Joanna]]: "I felt a reasonable regret for her death."<ref>Letter from the King of Spain to the [[Joan of Austria, Princess of Portugal|Princess of Portugal]], 4 December 1558, in ''Calendar of State Papers, Spanish'', volume XIII, quoted in Loades, p. 311; Waller, p. 109 and Whitelock, p. 303.</ref> Although Mary's will stated that she wished to be buried next to her mother, she was [[Death and funeral of Mary I of England|interred in Westminster Abbey]] on 14 December, in a tomb she eventually shared with Elizabeth. The inscription on their tomb, affixed there by [[James I of England|James I]] when he succeeded Elizabeth, is ''Regno consortes et urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis'' ("Consorts in realm and tomb, we sisters Elizabeth and Mary here lie down to sleep in hope of the resurrection").<ref>Porter, p. 410; Whitelock, p. 1.</ref> ==Legacy== {{See also|Cultural depictions of Mary I of England}} [[John White (bishop)|John White]], Bishop of Winchester, praised Mary at her funeral service: "She was a king's daughter; she was a king's sister; she was a king's wife. She was a queen, and by the same title a king also."<ref>Loades, p. 313; Whitelock, p. 305.</ref> She was the first woman to successfully claim the throne of England, despite competing claims and determined opposition, and enjoyed popular support and sympathy during the earliest parts of her reign, especially from the Roman Catholics of England.<ref>Waller, p. 116.</ref> Protestant writers at the time, and since, have often condemned Mary's reign. By the 17th century, the memory of her religious persecutions had led to the adoption of her [[sobriquet]] "Bloody Mary".<ref>Waller, p. 115.</ref> [[John Knox]] attacked Mary in his ''[[First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women]]'' (1558), and John Foxe vilified her prominently in ''[[Actes and Monuments]]'' (1563). Foxe's book remained popular throughout the following centuries and helped shape enduring perceptions of Mary as a bloodthirsty tyrant.<ref>Porter, pp. 361–362, 418; Waller, pp. 113–115.</ref> Historian Lucy Wooding notes misogynistic undertones in descriptions of Mary. "She's simultaneously being lambasted for being 'vindictive and fierce' and 'spineless and weak', criticized for such actions as showing clemency to political prisoners and yielding authority to her husband."<ref name=Solly/> Mary is remembered in the 21st century for her vigorous efforts to restore the primacy of Roman Catholicism in England after the rise of Protestant influence during the previous reigns. Protestant historians have long deplored her reign, emphasizing that in just five years she burned several hundred Protestants at the stake. In the mid-20th century, [[H. F. M. Prescott]] attempted to redress the tradition that Mary was intolerant and authoritarian, and scholarship since then has tended to view the older, simpler assessments of Mary with increasing reservations.<ref>Weikel.</ref> A historiographical revisionism since the 1980s has improved her reputation among scholars to some degree.<ref>Loades, David (1989). "The Reign of Mary Tudor: Historiography and Research." ''Albion'' '''21''' (4) : 547–558. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/albion/article/the-reign-of-mary-tudor-historiography-and-research/08D58887054B50ADFFD93F606E7DF02B online].</ref> [[Christopher Haigh]] argued that her revival of religious festivities and Catholic practices was generally welcomed.<ref>Haigh, pp. 203–234, quoted in Freeman, Thomas S. (2017). "Restoration and Reaction: Reinterpreting the Marian Church." ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' In press. [http://repository.essex.ac.uk/20116/1/JEH%20review%20article%20%28final%20version%29.docx online].</ref> Haigh concluded that the "last years of Mary's reign were not a gruesome preparation for Protestant victory, but a continuing consolidation of Catholic strength."<ref>Haigh, p. 234.</ref> English Catholics often remembered Mary favourably; decades after her death, the epitaph for [[John Throckmorton (died 1580)|John Throckmorton]] refers to "Queene Marie [Mary I] of happie memorie".<ref>Epitaph plaque, tomb of Sir [[John Throckmorton (died 1580)|John Throckmorton]], Coughton Church, Warwickshire.</ref> Catholic historians, such as [[John Lingard]], thought Mary's policies failed not because they were wrong but because she had too short a reign to establish them and because of natural disasters beyond her control.<ref>Loades, pp. 340–341.</ref> In other countries, the Catholic Counter-Reformation was spearheaded by [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] missionaries, but Mary's chief religious advisor, Cardinal Reginald Pole, refused to allow the Jesuits into England.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mayer |first=Thomas F. |date=1996 |chapter=A Test of Wills: Cardinal Pole, Ignatius Loyola, and the Jesuits in England |editor-last=McCoog |editor-first=Thomas M. |title=The Reckoned Expense: Edmund Campion and the Early English Jesuits |pages=21–38}}</ref> Her marriage to Philip was unpopular among her subjects and her religious policies resulted in deep-seated resentment.<ref>Loades, pp. 342–343; Waller, p. 116.</ref> The military loss of Calais to France was a bitter humiliation to English pride. Failed harvests increased public discontent.<ref>Loades, pp. 340–343.</ref> Philip spent most of his time abroad, while his wife remained in England, leaving her depressed at his absence and undermined by their inability to have children. After Mary's death, Philip sought to marry Elizabeth but she refused him.<ref>Porter, p. 400.</ref> Although Mary's rule was ultimately ineffectual and unpopular, the policies of fiscal reform, naval expansion, and colonial exploration that were later lauded as Elizabethan accomplishments were started in Mary's reign.<ref>Tittler, p. 80; Weikel.</ref> ==Titles, style, and arms== [[File:Coat of Arms of England (1554-1558).svg|thumb|Arms of Mary I, [[Impalement (heraldry)|impaled]] with [[Coat of arms of the King of Spain|those of her husband]], Philip II of Spain|alt=Shield bearing many quarterings held between a black eagle and a lion and surmounted by a crowned helm]] When Mary ascended the throne, she was proclaimed under the same official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI: "Mary, [[by the Grace of God]], [[List of English monarchs|Queen of England]], [[British claims to the French throne|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Defender of the Faith]], and of the Church of England and of [[Church of Ireland|Ireland]] on Earth Supreme Head". The title Supreme Head of the Church was repugnant to Mary's Catholicism, and she omitted it after Christmas 1553.<ref>Loades, pp. 217, 323.</ref> Under Mary's marriage treaty with Philip, the official joint style reflected not only Mary's but also Philip's dominions and claims: "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God, King and Queen of England, France, [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Kings of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], [[Archdukes of Austria]], [[Dukes of Milan]], [[Duke of Burgundy|Burgundy]] and [[Duke of Brabant|Brabant]], Counts of Habsburg, [[Count of Flanders|Flanders]] and [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]]".<ref name=waller90/> This style, which had been in use since 1554, was replaced when Philip inherited the Spanish Crown in 1556 with "Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".<ref>e.g. Waller, p. 106.</ref> Mary I's [[heraldry|coat of arms]] was the same as those used by all her predecessors since [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]] three [[fleurs-de-lys]] [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] [for France] and [[Gules]] three lions [[passant guardant]] in [[Pale (heraldry)|pale]] Or ([[Royal Arms of England|for England]]). Sometimes, her arms were [[Impalement (heraldry)|impaled]] (depicted side-by-side) with [[Coat of arms of Spain|those of her husband]]. She adopted "Truth, the Daughter of Time" ({{Langx|la|Veritas Temporis Filia}}) as her personal motto.<ref>Waller, p. 60; Whitelock, p. 310.</ref> ==Family tree== Both Mary and Philip were descended from [[John of Gaunt]], the Duke of Lancaster, a relationship that was used to portray Philip as an English king.<ref>Whitelock, p. 242.</ref> {{Chart top}} {{Tree chart/start|align=center}} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | |Gaunt |Gaunt=[[John of Gaunt]],<br/>Duke of Lancaster }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |Hen| |John| |Joan |Hen=[[Henry IV of England]] |John=[[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset|John Beaufort]],<br/>Earl of Somerset |Joan=[[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland|Joan Beaufort]] }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | |Hen3|y|Catherine| | | | | | | |Hen5| |John| |Cecily |Hen3=[[Henry III of Castile]] |Catherine=[[Catherine of Lancaster]] |Hen5=[[Henry V of England]] |John=[[John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset|John Beaufort]],<br/>Duke of Somerset |Cecily=[[Cecily Neville]] }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | |,|-|'| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | |John| | | | | | | | | | | |Hen| |Mary| | Edw |John=[[John II of Castile]] |Hen=[[Henry VI of England]] |Mary=[[Lady Margaret Beaufort]] |Edw=[[Edward IV of England]] }} {{Tree chart | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | Bel |y| Fer | | | | | | | | | | | | Hen |y| Lis |Fer=[[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] |Bel=[[Isabella I of Castile]] |Lis =[[Elizabeth of York]] |Hen=[[Henry VII of England]] }} {{Tree chart | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | Joa | | Mar | | Kat |y|~|~|~|~| Hen | | | | Mrg | | MaT |MaT=[[Mary Tudor, Queen of France|Mary Tudor]] |Joa=[[Joanna of Castile]] |Mar=[[Maria of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|Maria of Aragon]] |Hen=[[Henry VIII of England]]|Kat=[[Catherine of Aragon]] |Mrg=[[Margaret Tudor]] }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | |!| | | |!| | | | | |!| | | |,|'| |`|.| | | |!| | | |!| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| |Chuck|y|Bella| | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |Jim| |Fran |Chuck=[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] |Bella=[[Isabella of Portugal]] |Fran=[[Lady Frances Brandon]] |Jim=[[James V of Scotland]] }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| }} {{Tree chart |border=0| | | | Phi |~|~|~|~|~| May| | Eli | | Edw | | Mry | |Jan |May='''Mary I of England''' |Phi=[[Philip II of Spain]] |Eli=[[Elizabeth I of England]] |Edw=[[Edward VI of England]] |Jan=[[Lady Jane Grey]] |Mry=[[Mary, Queen of Scots]] }} {{Tree chart/end}} {{Chart bottom}} ==See also== * [[Jewels of Mary I of England]] * [[Tudor period]] ==Notes== {{Notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist|20em}} === Sources === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Cite web |title=Calendar of State Papers, Spain |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/search/series/cal-state-papers--spain}} * {{Cite book |last=Duffy |first=Eamon |title=Fires of Faith: Catholic England Under Mary Tudor |date=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15216-6 |location=New Haven, CT |oclc=276274639 |ol=22685559M |author-link=Eamon Duffy}} * {{Cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Anthony |title=Tudor Rebellions |publisher=Longman Group Limited |edition=Second |year=1970 |isbn=9780582313897 |url=https://archive.org/details/tudorrebellions0000flet_t8l4/mode/2up |access-date=18 November 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Froude |first=James Anthony |title=The Reign of Mary Tudor |publisher=London: J. M. Dent & Sons, New York: P. Dutton & Co. |year=1910 |url=https://archive.org/details/reignofmarytudor01frou/mode/2up |access-date=8 December 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |title=English Reformations: religion, politics and society under the Tudors |date=1992 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-198-22163-0 |location=Oxford |oclc=26720329 |ol=1718720M |author-link=Christopher Haigh}} * {{Cite book |last=Heard |first=Nigel |title=Edward VI and Mary: A Mid-Tudor Crisis? |edition=Second |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2000 |isbn=9780340743171 |url=https://archive.org/details/edwardvimarymidt0000hear/mode/2up |access-date=9 November 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Hoyle |first=R. W. |title=The Pilgrimage of Grace and the Politics of the 1530s |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-925906-2 |ol=22264908M}} * {{Cite book |last=Loades |first=David M. |title=Mary Tudor: A Life |date=1989 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |isbn=0-631-15453-1 |location=Oxford |lccn=89007163 |ol=2188907M |author-link=David Loades}} * {{Cite book |last=Loades |first=David M. |title=Politics and Nation, England 1450-1660 |edition=Fifth |publisher=David Loades |year=1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsnationen0000load |access-date=3 December 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Paget |first=Gerald |title=The Lineage & Ancestry of HRH Prince Charles, Prince of Wales |date=1977 |publisher=Charles Skilton |isbn=0-284-98590-2 |location=Edinburgh & London |oclc=79311835 |ol=17872227M}} * {{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Linda |title=Mary Tudor: The First Queen |date=2007 |publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-7499-0982-6 |location=London |oclc=230990057 |ol=26863607M |author-link=Linda Porter (historian)}} * {{Cite book |title=Sweet & Maxwell's Guide to Law Reports and Statutes |date=1962 |publisher=Sweet & Maxwell's Guide |edition=4th |location=London |chapter=Chapter Five: Table of regnal year of English Sovereigns |chapter-url=https://guides.library.harvard.edu/ld.php?content_id=12548485}} * {{Cite book |last=Tittler |first=Robert |title=The Reign of Mary I |date=1991 |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-582-06107-5 |edition=2nd |location=London & New York |lccn=90043171 |ol=1882426M}} * {{Cite book |last=Waller |first=Maureen |title=Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England |date=2006 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=0-312-33801-5 |location=New York |ol=9516816M}} * {{Cite book |last=Weikel |first=Ann |location=The Marian Council Revisited |editor1-last=Tittler |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Loach |editor2-first=Jennifer |title=The Mid-Tudor Polity c.1540-1560 |publisher=Rowman and Littlefield |year=1980 |url=https://archive.org/details/midtudorpolityc10000unse/54/mode/2up |access-date=2 October 2021 |isbn=9780333245286}} * Weikel, Ann (2004; online edition 2008). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18245 "Mary I (1516–1558)"] in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' {{ODNBsub}}. Oxford University Press. {{doi|10.1093/ref:odnb/18245}}. * {{Cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy |date=1996 |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=0-7126-7448-9 |location=London |ol=7794712M |author-link=Alison Weir}} * {{Cite book |last=Whitelock |first=Anna |title=Mary Tudor: England's First Queen |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7475-9018-7 |location=London |lccn=2009437824 |ol=23681864M |author-link=Anna Whitelock}} {{Refend}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * Doran, Susan and Thomas Freeman, eds. (2011). ''Mary Tudor: Old and New Perspectives''. Palgrave MacMillan. * Edwards, John. (2011). ''Mary I: England's Catholic Queen''. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|0-300-11810-4}}. * [[Carolly Erickson|Erickson, Carolly]] (1978). ''Bloody Mary: The Life of Mary Tudor''. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. {{ISBN|0-385-11663-2}}. * [[David Loades|Loades, David M.]] (1979, 2d ed. 1991). ''The Reign of Mary Tudor: Politics, Government and Religion in England, 1553–58''. London and New York: Longman. {{ISBN|0-582-05759-0}}. *: —— (2006). ''Mary Tudor: The Tragical History of the First Queen of England''. Kew, Richmond, UK: National Archives. *: —— (2011). ''Mary Tudor''. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Amberley Publishing. * [[Frederic Madden|Madden, Frederick]], [https://archive.org/details/privypurseexpen00maddgoog/page/n9 ''Privy Purse Expenses of the Princess Mary, 1536–1544'' (London, 1831)]. * [[H. F. M. Prescott|Prescott, H. F. M.]] (1952). ''Mary Tudor: The Spanish Tudor''. Second edition. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. * [[Jasper Ridley|Ridley, Jasper]] (2001). ''Bloody Mary's Martyrs: The Story of England's Terror''. New York: Carroll & Graf. {{ISBN|0-7867-0854-9}}. * Samson, Alexander (2020). ''Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain''. Manchester UK: Manchester University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-5261-4223-8}}. * Waldman, Milton (1972). ''The Lady Mary: A Biography of Mary Tudor, 1516–1558''. London: Collins. {{ISBN|0-00-211486-0}}. * [[R. B. Wernham|Wernham, R. B.]] (1966). ''Before the Armada: The Growth of English Foreign Policy, 1485–1588''. London: Jonathan Cape. {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons|Mary I of England}} {{Wikiquote}} * [https://www.royal.uk/mary-i Mary I] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]] * {{Cite DNB|wstitle=Mary I (1516–1558)}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Mary I., Queen}} * {{Cite web |title=Mary I (1516–1558) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mary_i_queen.shtml |publisher=BBC}} * {{NPG name|name=Queen Mary I}} {{S-start}} {{S-hou|[[Tudor dynasty]]|18 February|1516|17 November|1558}} {{S-reg}} {{S-bef|before=[[Edward VI]] or [[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of English monarchs|Queen of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]]|years=1553–1558|regent1=[[Philip II of Spain|Philip]]|years1=1554–1558}} {{S-aft|after=[[Elizabeth I]]}} {{S-roy}} {{S-break}} {{S-vac|rows=2|last=[[Isabella of Portugal]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[Queen consort of Naples]]<br/>[[Duchess consort of Milan]]|years=1554–1558}} {{S-vac|rows=2|next=[[Elisabeth of Valois|Elisabeth of France]]}} 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