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<span>Military history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armies_and_retinues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armies_and_retinues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Armies and retinues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armies_and_retinues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactics_and_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactics_and_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Tactics and organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactics_and_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms_of_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms_of_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Forms of warfare</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms_of_warfare-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forms of warfare subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forms_of_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feuds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feuds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Feuds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feuds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raiding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raiding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Raiding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raiding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Total_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Total war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_of_a_battle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_of_a_battle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aftermath of a battle</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath_of_a_battle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath of a battle subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_of_a_battle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Victory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Victory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Defeat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavalry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavalry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Cavalry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Naval warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_and_fortification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_and_fortification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Siege and fortification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_and_fortification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Logistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chariotry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chariotry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Chariotry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chariotry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mercenary_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mercenary_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Mercenary activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mercenary_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Armament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="982" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> warrior battling <a href="/wiki/Roman_cavalry" title="Roman cavalry">Roman cavalry</a>, from the 3rd century <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Warfare seems to have been a constant in Germanic society, and archaeology indicates this was the case prior to the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021673_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021673-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wars were frequent between and within the individual Germanic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021794_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021794-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Germanic languages preserve various words for "war", and they did not necessarily clearly differentiate between warfare and other forms of violent interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010665–667_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010665–667-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans note that for the Germans, robbery in warfare was not shameful. Consequently the motivations for Germanic warfare both against Rome and against other Germanic peoples was the potential to acquire booty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010674_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010674-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical descriptions of the warfare of the Germanic peoples depend entirely on Greco-Roman sources, and this is the aspect of Germanic society that Greco-Roman sources discuss the most.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides Julius Caesar's <i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Gallicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellum Gallicum">Bellum Gallicum</a></i> (1st century BCE), there are two accounts that might apply to the Germanic peoples in general: chapter 6 of Tacitus's <i>Germania</i> (c. 100 CE) and book 11 of the <a href="/wiki/Strategikon_of_Maurice" title="Strategikon of Maurice"><i>Strategikon</i> of Maurice</a> (6th century CE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010676_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010676-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the accuracy of these depictions has been questioned, and it is impossible to show archaeologically how the <i>Germani</i> fought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeology has yielded large amounts of Germanic weaponry, giving at a sense of their equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_history">Military history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Military history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio,_03.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio%2C_03.JPG/250px-Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio%2C_03.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio%2C_03.JPG/375px-Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio%2C_03.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio%2C_03.JPG/500px-Sarcofago_dio_portonaccio%2C_03.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="1620" /></a><figcaption>Battle between Germanic warriors and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Portonaccio_sarcophagus" title="Portonaccio sarcophagus">Portonaccio sarcophagus</a> (190-200)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Wars">Germanic Wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></div> <p>Archaeological records indicate that the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a> was accompanied by large-scale migration and warfare. After a period of amalgamation, the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a> emerged, which appears to have been a time of relative peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The military situation in the Germanic world was radically changed with the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> and the late centuries BC. For close to a thousand years afterward, the Germanic world was characterized by almost continuous warfare and large-scale migration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though often defeated by the Romans, the Germanic tribes were remembered in Roman records as fierce combatants, whose main downfall was that they failed to join together into a collective fighting force under a unified <a href="/wiki/Command_(military_formation)" title="Command (military formation)">command</a>, which allowed the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> to employ a "<a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">divide and rule</a>" strategy against them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008105_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008105-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On occasions when the Germanic tribes worked together, the results were impressive. Three <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> were ambushed and destroyed by an alliance of Germanic tribes headed by <a href="/wiki/Arminius" title="Arminius">Arminius</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" title="Battle of the Teutoburg Forest">Battle of the Teutoburg Forest</a> in 9 CE. As a result, the Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts at conquering <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> beyond the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts199665–66_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts199665–66-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma,_Lazio,_00186,_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_(Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus)_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/375px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10569" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption>The 3rd-century <a href="/wiki/Great_Ludovisi_sarcophagus" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Ludovisi sarcophagus">Great Ludovisi sarcophagus</a> depicts a battle between <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Romans</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 4th and 5th centuries CE, <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> militarily organized themselves to sufficiently challenge and sack Rome in <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">410</a> AD and again in <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">455</a> AD. Then in 476 AD, the last Roman emperor was deposed by the Germanic warrior <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, an event which effectively ended Roman predominance in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsHyslop201485_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsHyslop201485-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germanic tribes eventually overwhelmed and conquered the ancient world. That military transition was additionally spurred by the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> in the 8th to 10th centuries, giving rise to modern <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and medieval warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006836_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006836-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The later military development of armored knights and fortified castles was a response in part to the relentless plundering and raiding by the Vikings, which meant that the Germanic tribes who had settled mainland Europe and the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> had to adapt themselves so as to combat another wave of Germanic aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006322–323_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006322–323-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armies_and_retinues">Armies and retinues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Armies and retinues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg/220px-Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg/330px-Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg/440px-Osterby_Man_Suebian-Knot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bog_body" title="Bog body">bog body</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Osterby_Man" title="Osterby Man">Osterby Man</a>, displaying the <a href="/wiki/Suebian_knot" title="Suebian knot">Suebian knot</a>, a hairstyle which, according to Tacitus, was common among Germanic warriors<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021683_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021683-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The core of the army is imagined as having been formed by the <a href="/wiki/Comitatus_(warband)" title="Comitatus (warband)">comitatus</a> (retinue) of a chief, a term used in ancient sources that has many possible meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021785_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021785-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus describes it as a group of warriors (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">comites</i></span>) who follow a leader (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">princeps</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen1998107_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998107-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heiko_Steuer" title="Heiko Steuer">Heiko Steuer</a> argues that a comitatus might refer to any group of warriors held together by mutual agreement and desire for booty, and that these were political, rather than ethnic or tribal groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021786_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021786-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As retinues grew larger, their names could become associated with entire peoples. Many retinues functioned as <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a> (mercenary units in the Roman army).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021793–794_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021793–794-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Germanic armies were probably not large, with numbers such as an army of 100,000 Suevi claimed by Caesar being literary and propagandistic exaggerations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars can extrapolate numbers from 500–600 to 1600 per war band from later sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021675_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021675-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older scholarship sometimes supposed that all the men in a "tribe" formed the army, but this would have been logistically impossible in a premodern society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steuer, while noting Germanic victories against large Roman forces, estimates the typical war band to have been no larger than 3000 men, while estimating that only as many of 1,800 may have participated in a campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021575–676_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021575–676-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later times, as the population of Germania grew, the armies grew larger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021680_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021680-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most warriors were probably unmarried men. Tacitus and <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> (4th century CE) indicate that armies included both young men and older, more experienced warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early Middle Ages, armies were mostly composed of a distinct warrior class that relied on peasants for support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010681–682_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010681–682-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tactics_and_organization">Tactics and organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tactics and organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg/220px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg/330px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg/440px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Image of Romans fighting the <a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a> (193 CE)</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman sources stress, perhaps partially as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">literary topos</a>, that the Germanic peoples fought without discipline, with Tacitus in particular stating that Germanic war-leaders achieved more by example than by command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199868–69_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199868–69-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200463_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200463-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus claims that Germanic armies were not divided into units like Roman ones, while Maurice emphasizes that informal units were formed in the army based on kinship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steuer, however, notes that many <i>Germani</i> served in the Roman army or as imperial bodyguards and thus would have been familiar with the organization of the Roman military. He argues that Germanic armies may have been organized in a manner not dissimilar to Roman armies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021676–678_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021676–678-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In antiquity, Germanic warriors fought mostly on foot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200935_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200935-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germanic infantry fought in tight formations in close combat, in a style that Steuer compares to the Greek <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus mentions a single formation as used by the <i>Germani</i>, the wedge (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">cuneus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men probably practiced the use of weapons beginning in their youth. When fighting the Roman legions, Germanic warriors seem to have preferred to attack from ambush, which would require organization and training. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Roman period, mounted horsemen were usually limited to chiefs and their immediate retinues,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200935_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200935-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who may have dismounted to fight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Roman sources such as Ammianus indicate a Germanic distrust of cavalry before the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Tacitus mentions <i>Germani</i> fighting both on foot and on horseback, Caesar is known to have maintained a group of Germanic cavalry, and other sources speak of the excellent horsemanship of groups such as the Alemanni.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> East Germanic peoples such as the Goths developed cavalry forces armed with lances due to contact with various nomadic peoples, so that the armies of <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a> were primarily horsemen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200942_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200942-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms_of_warfare">Forms of warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Forms of warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three main types of warfare carried out during the Germanic Iron Age were <a href="/wiki/Feud" title="Feud">feuds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">raids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total war</a> involving the entire tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feuds">Feuds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Feuds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Blood_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood feud">Blood feud</a></div> <p>The prevalence of feuds in early Germanic warfare is well attested in the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Sagas of Icelanders</a> and other Germanic poems such as <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a>. Since quarrels between individuals were at the time not regulated by any form of tribal law, feuds became in many cases the only way to obtain remedy for an injury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raiding">Raiding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Raiding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raids</a> were typically carried out by the early Germanic peoples either for the purpose of acquiring booty or for scouting for areas suitable for colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such raids were typically organized by individual leaders who would invite all who were interested in joining him on his quest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Caesar, a Germanic chieftain would typically announce a raid at the popular assembly and call for volunteers. Such raids did not necessarily involve the entire tribe, but must rather be considered private ventures. According to Tacitus, chieftains would utilize raids as a form of military training.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A book illustration with an armed man on a horse in a town, and below the writing "Alboin in Pavia"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg/220px-Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg/330px-Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg/440px-Alboin%27s_entrance_into_Pavia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="2932" /></a><figcaption>A modern rendering of <a href="/wiki/Alboin" title="Alboin">Alboin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> entrance into <a href="/wiki/Ticinum" title="Ticinum">Ticinum</a>. In the late 6th century, the entire Lombard people invaded and settled <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The purpose of a raid was not to gain territory, but rather to capture resources and secure prestige. These raids were conducted by <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">irregular troops</a>, often formed along family or village lines, in groups of 10 to about 1,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large bodies of troops, while figuring prominently in the history books, were the exception rather than the rule of ancient warfare. Thus a typical Germanic force might consist of 100 men with the sole goal of raiding a nearby Germanic or foreign village. Thus, most warfare was at their Germanic neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Larger migrations were generally preluded by raids. A significant example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</a>, which had been preceded for centuries by naval raids on <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cavalry was rarely used by Germanic raiders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Total_war">Total war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Total war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wars involving entire tribes were uncommon in the Germanic world until the Iron Age. One of the earliest Germanic peoples involved in such warfare were the <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a>, who are mentioned in classical sources as battling the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a> in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When engaged in total war, Germanic armies often consisted of more than 50 percent noncombatants, as displaced people would travel with large groups of soldiers, the elderly, women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg/220px-Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg/330px-Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg/440px-Hjalmars_avsked_av_Orvar_Odd_efter_striden_p%C3%A5_Sams%C3%B6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>A scene from the <a href="/wiki/Hervarar_saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Hervarar saga">Hervarar saga</a>. <a href="/wiki/%C3%96rvar-Oddr" title="Örvar-Oddr">Örvar-Oddr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hjalmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hjalmar">Hjalmar</a> bid each other farewell, by <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge" title="Mårten Eskil Winge">Mårten Eskil Winge</a> (1866).</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Getica" title="Getica">Getica</a>, the 6th century Gothic historian <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a> mentions a series of mass-migrations of the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> from Scandinavia towards the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, but the accuracy of his writing has been put up to question. Other major tribal migrations taking place in the Migration Period include that of the Vandals, <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>. During such migrations the entire tribe would move along with their belongings on <a href="/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">ox</a>-drawn wagons, not unlike the <a href="/wiki/American_pioneer" title="American pioneer">American pioneers</a> centuries later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When such folk-armies were forced to fight, a <a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">wagon fort</a> would be established, where the women and children were provided shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such large-scale migrations required skilled leadership. Many of the most famous early Germanic kings, such as <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genseric" class="mw-redirect" title="Genseric">Genseric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alboin" title="Alboin">Alboin</a>, are remembered for leading their people on such migrations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest of Germanic mass migrations are not recounted in classical literature, and clues about such events can only be derived from archaeological discoveries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_of_a_battle">Aftermath of a battle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aftermath of a battle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victory">Victory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Victory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After a victorious battle, Germanic warriors would normally attend only the dead and wounded of their own side. Enemy dead would generally be left to be devoured by birds and beasts of prey. This process is described vividly in many pieces of early Germanic literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg/220px-Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg/330px-Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg/440px-Die_Frauen_der_Teutonen_verteidigen_die_Wagenburg_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption>"The Women of the <a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a> Defend the <a href="/wiki/Laager" class="mw-redirect" title="Laager">Wagon Fort</a>" (1882) by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Leutemann" title="Heinrich Leutemann">Heinrich Leutemann</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In case of victory, the booty would be divided among the troops, often by the casting of lots. Sometimes the booty, including prisoners, would be sacrificed to the god of war. This was infamously done by the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a> to Roman soldiers captured during the <a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeat">Defeat</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Defeat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Legitimacy for Germanic chieftains resided in their ability to successfully lead armies to victory. Defeat on the battlefield at the hands of the Romans or other barbarians often meant the end of a ruler and in some cases, being absorbed by "another, victorious confederation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999112_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999112-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was reported in Roman sources that upon being defeated, Germanic women would kill their own children and commit suicide in order to avoid slavery. This was done by the Cimbri women following the defeat of their tribe by the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vercellae" title="Battle of Vercellae">Battle of Vercellae</a> in 101 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cavalry">Cavalry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cavalry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_(Cavalry).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28Cavalry%29.jpg/220px-Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28Cavalry%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28Cavalry%29.jpg/330px-Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28Cavalry%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28Cavalry%29.jpg/440px-Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574_%28Cavalry%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> cavalryman with a <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a> battling a number of Roman soldiers, from the 3rd century <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While Germanic warfare emphasized the use of infantry, they were quite adept at the training and use of cavalry. In Germanic warfare, cavalry was generally used for reconnaissance, flanking, the pursuit of fleeing enemies and other special tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Germanic tribes were on the march, their wagons would generally be protected by cavalry. Early Germanic chieftains were typically mounted. This is attested from numerous <a href="/wiki/Horse_burial" title="Horse burial">horse burials</a> in the graves of Germanic leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Germanic cavalrymen commonly used <a href="/wiki/Spur" title="Spur">spurs</a> to properly control the horse. The <a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">stirrup</a> was later introduced. This enabled the easier mounting and maintenance of balance. The fact that the stirrup was introduced at such a late date is a testimony to the excellent horsemanship of Germanic riders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar notes that the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> would attach a fast-running warrior to each cavalryman, who could assist the latter with both defense and offense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikinger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Wikinger.jpg/220px-Wikinger.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Wikinger.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="222" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>Sea-faring <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a> depicted invading England. <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a> illustration from the 12th century <i>Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund</i> (<a href="/wiki/Pierpont_Morgan_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierpont Morgan Library">Pierpont Morgan Library</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Caesar considered Germanic cavalrymen superior to those of the Romans, and was thus forced to recruit Germanic mercenaries to compensate for this inferiority. The Germanic horses were however of smaller size than those of the Romans, and Germanic cavalrymen in Roman service were thus compelled by Caesar to ride Roman horses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200936–37_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200936–37-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They would turn out to be vital in Caesar's victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Vingeanne" title="Battle of the Vingeanne">Battle of the Vingeanne</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naval_warfare">Naval warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Naval warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a></div> <p>Naval warfare became an important component of Germanic warfare, particularly raiding. Ships were ideal for raiding because they enabled increased mobility and secrecy, which was essential for the success of a raid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the early Germanic peoples, boats were primarily used for transportation. Certain tribes along the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast, such as the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, fought naval battles during their raids on Roman territory. During the Viking Age the <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">North Germanic peoples</a> mastered the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Viking_ship" title="Viking ship">Viking ship</a> and excelled at naval warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siege_and_fortification">Siege and fortification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Siege and fortification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roman sources mention that the Germanic peoples generally avoided walled towns and fortresses during their campaigns on Roman soil. Ammianus reports that they regarded cities as "tombs surrounded by nets".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was most likely because the <i>Germani</i> did not have proper siege equipment; with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> in North Africa, Germanic sieges seem to have been generally unsuccessful, with the unsuccessful besieging of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> in Sens in 356 breaking off after only thirty days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200940–41_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200940–41-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Older scholarship often said that the <i>Germani</i> possessed no fortresses of their own, however the existence of fortifications have been shown archaeologically, as well as larger earthworks meant to protect entire stretches of territory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021307_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021307-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus, in his <a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)"><i>Annales</i></a>, portrays the Cheruscan leader <a href="/wiki/Segestes" title="Segestes">Segestes</a> as besieged by Arminius in 15 CE (Annales I.57). Steuer believes that the siege was likely at a fortified farmstead of some kind, a type of fortification well-attested in Germania.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021308–309_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021308–309-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Larger fortified towns (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">oppida</i>), found as far north as modern central Germany, are often identified as "Celtic" by archaeologists, although this cannot be clearly established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021309_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021309-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, fortified settlements are also found in northern Germany at <a href="/wiki/Wittorf" title="Wittorf">Wittorf</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Osnabr%C3%BCck" title="Osnabrück">Osnabrück</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a>, and on <a href="/wiki/Bornholm" title="Bornholm">Bornholm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021310–316_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021310–316-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hilltop fortifications, which Steuer calls "castles", are also attested from the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">pre-Roman Iron Age</a> (5th/4th–1st century BCE) onward.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021316–335_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021316–335-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Logistics">Logistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Logistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A key advantage of early Germanic armies was their mobility. For long-term conflicts they would usually bring all their supplies with them. For short term engagements, they brought with them few supplies and rather lived off the land. This would often cause severe devastation to areas in which Germanic warriors fought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For logistical reasons, early Germanic peoples generally carried out war in summer, but as they expanded southwards at the expense of the Romans, they were able to fight in the winter as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chariotry">Chariotry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chariotry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike their <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> neighbors, the use of <a href="/wiki/Chariots" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariots">chariots</a> was not widespread among Iron Age Germanic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200937_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200937-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germanic peoples had used the horse-drawn war-chariot in the Bronze Age, but later gave it up.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960166–174_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960166–174-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mercenary_activity">Mercenary activity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mercenary activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Numerus_Batavorum" title="Numerus Batavorum">Numerus Batavorum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gabiniani" title="Gabiniani">Gabiniani</a></div> <p>Germanic warriors frequently fought as mercenaries in the Roman army. Some of these mercenaries, such as <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, rose to prominent positions. According to <a href="/wiki/Francis_Owen_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Owen (linguist)">Francis Owen</a>, the Western Roman Empire would have collapsed much earlier without such mercenaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Returning Germanic mercenaries in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> brought back many Roman products to their communities. This had a major impact on Germanic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960174–178_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960174–178-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armament">Armament</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Armament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_spear" title="Migration Period spear">Migration Period spear</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spearhead_of_kovel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Spearhead_of_kovel.png/220px-Spearhead_of_kovel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Spearhead_of_kovel.png/330px-Spearhead_of_kovel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Spearhead_of_kovel.png/440px-Spearhead_of_kovel.png 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>The Spearhead of Kovel, a migration period spearhead with a runic inscription in <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Archaeological finds, mostly in the form of grave goods, indicate that a sort of standardized Germanic warrior's kit had developed by the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">pre-Roman Iron Age</a>, with warriors armed with spear, shield, and increasingly with swords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher status individuals were often buried with spurs for riding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus likewise reports that most Germanic warriors used the sword or the spear, and he gives the native word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">framea</i></span> for the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199869_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199869-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus says that the sword was not frequently used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199870_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199870-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological finds show spearheads and swords with one cutting edge were generally produced natively in Germania, while swords with two cutting edges were more frequently of Roman manufacture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021662_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021662-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axes become more common in warrior graves from the 3rd century CE onward, as well as bows and arrows.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200941_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200941-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tacitus claims that many Germanic warriors went into battle naked or scantily clad, and that for many the only defensive equipment was a shield, something also shown on Roman depictions of Germanic warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199870_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199870-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germanic word for breastplate, <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">brunna</i></span>, is of Celtic origin, indicating that it was borrowed prior to the Roman period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199871_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199871-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only archaeological evidence for helmets and <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">chain mail</a> shows them to be of Roman manufacture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021661_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021661-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Normal" warriors seem to have acquired their own kit, while members of a comitatus appear to have been armed by their leaders from centralized workshops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021667_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021667-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <wbr /><i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Germanic_history_and_culture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Germanic history and culture">Ancient Germanic history and culture</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Celtic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Wars">Germanic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare" title="Gothic and Vandal warfare">Gothic and Vandal warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon warfare</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021673-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021673_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 673.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021794-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021794_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 794.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010665–667-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010665–667_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, pp. 665–667.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010674-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010674_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, p. 674.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021674_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 674.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200462_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurdoch2004">Murdoch 2004</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010676-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010676_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, p. 676.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960119–133_8-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwen1960">Owen 1960</a>, pp. 119–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008105-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008105_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008">Archer et al. 2008</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts199665–66-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts199665–66_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1996">Roberts 1996</a>, pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsHyslop201485-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsHyslop201485_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDanielsHyslop2014">Daniels & Hyslop 2014</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006836-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006836_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldmanMason2006">Waldman & Mason 2006</a>, p. 836.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006322–323-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldmanMason2006322–323_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldmanMason2006">Waldman & Mason 2006</a>, pp. 322–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021683-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021683_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 683.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021785-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021785_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 785.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998107-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen1998107_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021786-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021786_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 786.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021793–794-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021793–794_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 793–794.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010677_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, p. 677.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021675-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021675_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 675.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010680–681_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, pp. 680–681.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021575–676-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021575–676_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 575–676.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021680-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021680_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 680.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010681–682-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010681–682_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, pp. 681–682.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199868–69-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199868–69_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, pp. 68–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200463-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200463_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurdoch2004">Murdoch 2004</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulittaSpringer2010678–679_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010">Bulitta & Springer 2010</a>, pp. 678–679.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021676–678-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021676–678_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 676–678.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200935-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200935_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200935_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2009">Todd 2009</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021663_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 663.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021672_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 672.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200942-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200942_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2009">Todd 2009</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999113_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeary1999">Geary 1999</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary1999112-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeary1999112_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeary1999">Geary 1999</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200936–37-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200936–37_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2009">Todd 2009</a>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200464_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurdoch2004">Murdoch 2004</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200940–41-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200940–41_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2009">Todd 2009</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021307-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021307_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021308–309-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021308–309_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 308–309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021309-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021309_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021310–316-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021310–316_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 310–316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021316–335-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021316–335_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, pp. 316–335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200937-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200937_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2009">Todd 2009</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960166–174-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960166–174_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwen1960">Owen 1960</a>, pp. 166–174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen1960174–178-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen1960174–178_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwen1960">Owen 1960</a>, pp. 174–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199869-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199869_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199870-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199870_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199870_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021662-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021662_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 662.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd200941-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd200941_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2009">Todd 2009</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199871-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199871_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021661-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021661_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 661.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteuer2021667-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteuer2021667_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteuer2021">Steuer 2021</a>, p. 667.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Christon I.; Ferris, John R.; Herwig, Holger; Travers, Timothy H. E. (2008). <i>World History of Warfare</i>. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1941-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1941-0"><bdi>978-0-8032-1941-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History+of+Warfare&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+NE&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1941-0&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Christon+I.&rft.au=Ferris%2C+John+R.&rft.au=Herwig%2C+Holger&rft.au=Travers%2C+Timothy+H.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBémontMonod2012" class="citation book cs1">Bémont, Charles; Monod, Gabriel (2012). <i>Medieval Europe, 395–1270</i>. Lecturable [Kindle Edition]. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00ASEDPFA">B00ASEDPFA</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe%2C+395%E2%80%931270&rft.pub=Lecturable+%5BKindle+Edition%5D&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00ASEDPFA%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9mont&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Monod%2C+Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulittaSpringer2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bulitta, Brigitte; Springer, Matthias; et al. (2010) [2000]. "Kriegswesen". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/database/GAO/entry/RGA_3111/html"><i>Germanische Altertumskunde Online</i></a>. de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">667–</span>746.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kriegswesen&rft.btitle=Germanische+Altertumskunde+Online&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E667-%3C%2Fspan%3E746&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Bulitta&rft.aufirst=Brigitte&rft.au=Springer%2C+Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdatabase%2FGAO%2Fentry%2FRGA_3111%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanielsHyslop2014" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Patricia; Hyslop, Stephen (2014). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationalgeograph0000dani"><i>Almanac of World History</i></a></span>. Washington DC: National Geographic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7922-5911-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7922-5911-4"><bdi>978-0-7922-5911-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Almanac+of+World+History&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=National+Geographic&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7922-5911-4&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Hyslop%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationalgeograph0000dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeary1999" class="citation book cs1">Geary, Patrick J. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe">"Barbarians and Ethnicity"</a>. In G.W. Bowersock; Peter Brown; Oleg Grabar (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe"><i>Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-51173-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-51173-6"><bdi>978-0-674-51173-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Barbarians+and+Ethnicity&rft.btitle=Late+Antiquity%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Postclassical+World&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-51173-6&rft.aulast=Geary&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flateantiquitygui00bowe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Howard_Green" title="Dennis Howard Green">Green, Dennis H.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RONb2alF0rEC"><i>Language and History in the Early Germanic World</i></a> (2001 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79423-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79423-7"><bdi>978-0-521-79423-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+History+in+the+Early+Germanic+World&rft.edition=2001&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79423-7&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Dennis+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRONb2alF0rEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2005" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2005). <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515954-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515954-7"><bdi>978-0-19-515954-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire%3A+A+New+History+of+Rome+and+the+Barbarians&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515954-7&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdoch2004" class="citation book cs1">Murdoch, Adrian (2004). "Germania Romana". In Murdoch, Brian; Read, Malcolm (eds.). <i>Early Germanic Literature and Culture</i>. Camden House. pp. <span class="nowrap">55–</span>71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germania+Romana&rft.btitle=Early+Germanic+Literature+and+Culture&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.pub=Camden+House&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Murdoch&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Owen_(philologist)" title="Francis Owen (philologist)">Owen, Francis</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000371958"><i>The Germanic People</i></a>. New York: Bookman Associates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+People&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bookman+Associates&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F000371958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1996" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, J. M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope00robe_0"><i>A History of Europe</i></a>. New York: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9658431-9-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9658431-9-5"><bdi>978-0-9658431-9-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-9658431-9-5&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofeurope00robe_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantosuo2004" class="citation book cs1">Santosuo, Antonio (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/barbariansmaraud0000sant"><i>Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare</i></a>. New York: MJF Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56731-891-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56731-891-3"><bdi>978-1-56731-891-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarians%2C+Marauders%2C+and+Infidels%3A+The+Ways+of+Medieval+Warfare&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MJF+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-56731-891-3&rft.aulast=Santosuo&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbarbariansmaraud0000sant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteuer2021" class="citation book cs1">Steuer, Heiko (2021). <i>Germanen aus Sicht der Archäologie: Neue Thesen zu einem alten Thema</i>. de Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germanen+aus+Sicht+der+Arch%C3%A4ologie%3A+Neue+Thesen+zu+einem+alten+Thema&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Steuer&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Todd" title="Malcolm Todd">Todd, Malcolm</a> (2009) [1999]. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Early_Germans_(Todd_book)" title="The Early Germans (Todd book)">The Early Germans</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405137560" title="Special:BookSources/9781405137560"><bdi>9781405137560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Germans&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781405137560&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldmanMason2006" class="citation book cs1">Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). <i>Encyclopedia of European Peoples</i>. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4964-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4964-6"><bdi>978-0-8160-4964-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+European+Peoples&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4964-6&rft.aulast=Waldman&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Mason%2C+Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Germanic_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranceDeVries2008" class="citation book cs1">France, John; DeVries, Kelly (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t9UWAQAAIAAJ"><i>Warfare in the Dark Ages</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0754625575" title="Special:BookSources/978-0754625575"><bdi>978-0754625575</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Dark+Ages&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0754625575&rft.aulast=France&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=DeVries%2C+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt9UWAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywood2006" class="citation book cs1">Haywood, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dus9AQAAIAAJ"><i>Dark Age Naval Power: A Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity</i></a>. Anglo-Saxon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1898281432" title="Special:BookSources/1898281432"><bdi>1898281432</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Age+Naval+Power%3A+A+Reassessment+of+Frankish+and+Anglo-Saxon+Seafaring+Activity&rft.pub=Anglo-Saxon+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1898281432&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddus9AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHärke1990" class="citation journal cs1">Härke, Heinrich (February 1990). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Warrior Graves"? The Background of the Anglo-Saxon Weapon Burial Rite". <i><a href="/wiki/Past_%26_Present_(journal)" title="Past & Present (journal)">Past & Present</a></i>. <b>126</b> (126). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">22–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F126.1.22">10.1093/past/126.1.22</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650808">650808</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=%22Warrior+Graves%22%3F+The+Background+of+the+Anglo-Saxon+Weapon+Burial+Rite&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=126&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=1990-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F126.1.22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650808%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4rke&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDowall2000" class="citation book cs1">MacDowall, Simon (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYSHCwAAQBAJ"><i>Germanic Warrior 236-568 AD</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Blumsbury USA</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1841761524" title="Special:BookSources/1841761524"><bdi>1841761524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germanic+Warrior+236-568+AD&rft.pub=Blumsbury+USA&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1841761524&rft.aulast=MacDowall&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYSHCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDowall2005" class="citation book cs1">MacDowall, Simon (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0mJoAAAAMAAJ"><i>Adrianopole, AD 378: The Goths Crush Rome's Legions</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Praeger</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/027598835X" title="Special:BookSources/027598835X"><bdi>027598835X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adrianopole%2C+AD+378%3A+The+Goths+Crush+Rome%27s+Legions&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=027598835X&rft.aulast=MacDowall&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0mJoAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusset1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Musset" title="Lucien Musset">Musset, Lucien</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=48BmAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe, AD 400-600</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Elek" title="Paul Elek">Paul Elek</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/023617620X" title="Special:BookSources/023617620X"><bdi>023617620X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Invasions%3A+The+Making+of+Europe%2C+AD+400-600&rft.pub=Paul+Elek&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=023617620X&rft.aulast=Musset&rft.aufirst=Lucien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D48BmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2014" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Lindsay (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYSHCwAAQBAJ"><i>Roman Soldier vs Germanic Warrior: 1st Century AD</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472803511" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472803511"><bdi>978-1472803511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Soldier+vs+Germanic+Warrior%3A+1st+Century+AD&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1472803511&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Lindsay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYSHCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1996" class="citation book cs1">Price, Arnold Hereward (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAloAAAAMAAJ"><i>Germanic Warrior Clubs: An Inquiry Into the Dynamics of the Era of Migrations and Into the Antecedents of Medieval Society</i></a>. UVT. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3924898219" title="Special:BookSources/3924898219"><bdi>3924898219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germanic+Warrior+Clubs%3A+An+Inquiry+Into+the+Dynamics+of+the+Era+of+Migrations+and+Into+the+Antecedents+of+Medieval+Society&rft.pub=UVT&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3924898219&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Arnold+Hereward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAloAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShadrakeShadrake1997" class="citation book cs1">Shadrake, Ben; Shadrake, Susanne (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a67eAAAAMAAJ"><i>Barbarian warriors: Saxons, Vikings, Normans</i></a>. Brassey's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85753-213-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85753-213-5"><bdi>978-1-85753-213-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarian+warriors%3A+Saxons%2C+Vikings%2C+Normans&rft.pub=Brassey%27s&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85753-213-5&rft.aulast=Shadrake&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Shadrake%2C+Susanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da67eAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeidel2002" class="citation journal cs1">Speidel, Michael P. (Fall 2002). "Berserks: A History of Indo-European "Mad Warriors"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i>. <b>13</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">253–</span>290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2002.0054">10.1353/jwh.2002.0054</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20078974">20078974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Berserks%3A+A+History+of+Indo-European+%22Mad+Warriors%22&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E290&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2002.0054&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20078974%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Speidel&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeidel2004" class="citation book cs1">Speidel, Michael P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QhuVByLAy9oC"><i>Ancient Germanic Warriors: Warrior Styles from Trajan's Column to Icelandic Sagas</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134384203" title="Special:BookSources/1134384203"><bdi>1134384203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Germanic+Warriors%3A+Warrior+Styles+from+Trajan%27s+Column+to+Icelandic+Sagas&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1134384203&rft.aulast=Speidel&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQhuVByLAy9oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteuer2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heiko_Steuer" title="Heiko Steuer">Steuer, Heiko</a> (2004). "Warrior Bands, War Lords, and the Birth of Tribes and States in the First Millennium AD in Middle Europe". In Otto, Ton; Thrane, Henrik; Vandkilde, Helle (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eZ6eDwAAQBAJ"><i>Warfare and Society: Archaeological and Social Anthropological Perspectives</i></a>. ISD LLC. pp. <span class="nowrap">227–</span>236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8779349358" title="Special:BookSources/8779349358"><bdi>8779349358</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warrior+Bands%2C+War+Lords%2C+and+the+Birth+of+Tribes+and+States+in+the+First+Millennium+AD+in+Middle+Europe&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Society%3A+Archaeological+and+Social+Anthropological+Perspectives&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E236&rft.pub=ISD+LLC&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=8779349358&rft.aulast=Steuer&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeZ6eDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1958" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Arthur_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Arthur Thompson">Thompson, E. A.</a> (November 1958). "Early Germanic Warfare". <i><a href="/wiki/Past_%26_Present_(journal)" title="Past & Present (journal)">Past & Present</a></i>. <b>14</b> (14). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">2–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F14.1.2">10.1093/past/14.1.2</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650090">650090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Early+Germanic+Warfare&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=1958-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F14.1.2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650090%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Germanic+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_peoples436" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_peoples" title="Template talk:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_peoples436" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> origin primarily identified as speakers of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">Early culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_early_Germanic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Family in early Germanic culture">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Folklore </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon mythology">Anglo-Saxon mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_funerary_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic funerary practices">Funerary practices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial_mounds" title="Anglo-Saxon burial mounds">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_name" title="Germanic name">Names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_name" title="Gothic name">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Numbers in Germanic paganism">Numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_in_Germanic_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings in Germanic paganism">Rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture#Scripts" title="Early Germanic culture">Scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" title="Runes">Runes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sippe" title="Sippe">Sippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic symbols">Symbology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare" title="Gothic and Vandal warfare">Gothic and Vandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Viking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisigavi" title="Brisigavi">Brisgavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucinobantes" title="Bucinobantes">Bucinobantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentienses" title="Lentienses">Lentienses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetovari" title="Raetovari">Raetovari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrabaecampi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrabaecampi">Adrabaecampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrones" title="Ambrones">Ambrones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampsivarii" title="Ampsivarii">Ampsivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angrivarii" title="Angrivarii">Angrivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armalausi" title="Armalausi">Armalausi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auiones" title="Auiones">Auiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarpi" title="Avarpi">Avarpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baemi" title="Baemi">Baemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banochaemae" title="Banochaemae">Banochaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerosi" title="Caerosi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segni_(tribe)" title="Segni (tribe)">Segni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateinoi" title="Bateinoi">Bateinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Betasii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brondings" title="Brondings">Brondings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buri_tribe" title="Buri tribe">Buri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritni" title="Caritni">Caritni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuari" title="Casuari">Casuari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaedini" title="Chaedini">Chaedini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaemae" title="Chaemae">Chaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chali" title="Chali">Chali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charudes" title="Charudes">Charudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasuarii" title="Chasuarii">Chasuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattuarii" title="Chattuarii">Chattuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobandi" title="Cobandi">Cobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corconti" title="Corconti">Corconti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cugerni" title="Cugerni">Cugerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danes_(tribe)" title="Danes (tribe)">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dauciones" title="Dauciones">Dauciones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulgubnii" title="Dulgubnii">Dulgubnii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favonae" title="Favonae">Favonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firaesi" title="Firaesi">Firaesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosi" title="Fosi">Fosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisiavones" title="Frisiavones">Frisiavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambrivii" title="Gambrivii">Gambrivii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greuthungi" title="Greuthungi">Greuthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutones" title="Gutones">Gutones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thervingi" title="Thervingi">Thervingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Goths" title="Thracian Goths">Thracian Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutes" title="Gutes">Gutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermunduri" title="Hermunduri">Hermunduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilleviones" title="Hilleviones">Hilleviones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingaevones" title="Ingaevones">Ingaevones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irminones" title="Irminones">Irminones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istvaeones" title="Istvaeones">Istvaeones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juthungi" title="Juthungi">Juthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacringi" title="Lacringi">Lacringi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovii" title="Lemovii">Lemovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hea%C3%B0obards" title="Heaðobards">Heaðobards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugii" title="Lugii">Lugii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diduni" title="Diduni">Diduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Helisii">Helisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helveconae" title="Helveconae">Helveconae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manimi" title="Manimi">Manimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Marsi (Germanic tribe)">Marsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattiaci" title="Mattiaci">Mattiaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Njars" title="Njars">Njars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuithones" title="Nuithones">Nuithones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osi_(tribe)" title="Osi (tribe)">Osi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reudigni" title="Reudigni">Reudigni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugii" title="Rugii">Rugii</a></li> 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