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<li id="toc-Early_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screw_propellers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screw_propellers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Screw propellers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screw_propellers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Aircraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Propeller_geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller_geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Propeller geometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cavitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_propellers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_propellers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types of propellers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_propellers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of propellers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_propellers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variable-pitch_propeller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variable-pitch_propeller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Variable-pitch propeller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variable-pitch_propeller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skewback_propeller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skewback_propeller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Skewback propeller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skewback_propeller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modular_propeller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modular_propeller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Modular propeller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modular_propeller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voith_Schneider_propeller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voith_Schneider_propeller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Voith Schneider propeller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voith_Schneider_propeller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shaftless" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shaftless"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Shaftless</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shaftless-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toroidal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toroidal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Toroidal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toroidal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Damage_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Damage_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Damage protection</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Damage_protection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Damage protection subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Damage_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shaft_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shaft_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Shaft protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shaft_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weed_hatches_and_rope_cutters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weed_hatches_and_rope_cutters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Weed hatches and rope cutters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weed_hatches_and_rope_cutters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propeller_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Propeller variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Propeller_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Propeller characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propeller_phenomena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller_phenomena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Propeller phenomena</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller_phenomena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials_and_manufacture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials_and_manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Materials and manufacture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials_and_manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Propeller</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="مروحة دافعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مروحة دافعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%99r" title="Pər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Pər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cangkirik" title="Cangkirik – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Cangkirik" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phu-l%C3%B3%CD%98-ph%C3%A9-lah" title="Phu-ló͘-phé-lah – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Phu-ló͘-phé-lah" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Вінт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вінт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Вінт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вінт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A8lice_(tecnologia)" title="Hèlice (tecnologia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hèlice (tecnologia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propel" title="Propel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Propel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Propeller" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Έλικας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Έλικας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9lice_(dispositivo)" title="Hélice (dispositivo) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hélice (dispositivo)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helico" title="Helico – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Helico" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helize_(mekanika)" title="Helize (mekanika) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Helize (mekanika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پیش‌ران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیش‌ران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9lice" title="Hélice – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hélice" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A1n" title="Lián – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Lián" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9lice" title="Hélice – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hélice" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%ED%8E%A0%EB%9F%AC" title="프로펠러 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프로펠러" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Պրոպելեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պրոպելեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95" title="नोदक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नोदक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeler" title="Propeler – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Propeler" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helico" title="Helico – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Helico" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baling-baling" title="Baling-baling – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Baling-baling" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isiphokozisi" title="Isiphokozisi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isiphokozisi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elica" title="Elica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%97%D7%A3" title="מדחף – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדחף" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%96" title="Ауа винті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ауа винті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapela" title="Parapela – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Parapela" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elis" title="Elis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsorium" title="Propulsorium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Propulsorium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeleris" title="Propeleris – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Propeleris" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebaling" title="Bebaling – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bebaling" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Сэнс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сэнс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%83%9A%E3%83%A9" title="スクリュープロペラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スクリュープロペラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeler" title="Propeler – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Propeler" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propell" title="Propell – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Propell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propell" title="Propell – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Propell" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli%C3%A7" title="Eliç – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Eliç" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aruba_nap%C4%99dowa" title="Śruba napędowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Śruba napędowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9lice" title="Hélice – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hélice" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elice" title="Elice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Elice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillwinku" title="Phillwinku – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Phillwinku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Лопастной винт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лопастной винт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Propeller" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Пропелер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пропелер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeler" title="Propeler – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Propeler" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol%C3%A9c%C3%A9r" title="Kolécér – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kolécér" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potkuri" title="Potkuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Potkuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Propeller" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="உந்தி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உந்தி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervane" title="Pervane – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pervane" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Лопатевий гвинт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лопатевий гвинт" 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data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Device that transmits rotational power into linear thrust on a fluid</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For aircraft propellers, see <a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Propeller (aeronautics)">Propeller (aeronautics)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Propeller_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Propeller (disambiguation)">Propeller (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ship-propeller_2000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ship-propeller_2000.jpg/300px-Ship-propeller_2000.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ship-propeller_2000.jpg/450px-Ship-propeller_2000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ship-propeller_2000.jpg/600px-Ship-propeller_2000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>A 'right-handed' propeller on a merchant vessel, which rotates clockwise to propel the ship forward</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG/300px-Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG/450px-Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG/600px-Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100_Dash_8_OE-LGD_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2717" data-file-height="2206" /></a><figcaption>Propeller of <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PW100" title="Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100">Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100</a> <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> mounted on <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_Q400" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardier Q400">Bombardier Q400</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b> propeller</b> (colloquially often called a <b>screw</b> if on a <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ship</a> or an <b>airscrew</b> if on an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>) is a device with a rotating hub and radiating blades that are set at a pitch to form a helical spiral which, when rotated, exerts linear <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> upon a working fluid such as water or air.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Propellers are used to pump fluid through a pipe or duct, or to create thrust to propel a <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boat</a> through water or an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> through air. The blades are shaped so that their <a href="/wiki/Rotational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotational">rotational</a> motion through the fluid causes a pressure difference between the two surfaces of the blade by <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli's principle</a> which exerts force on the fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most marine propellers are <b>screw propellers</b> with helical blades rotating on a <a href="/wiki/Propeller_shaft_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller shaft (ship)">propeller shaft</a> with an approximately horizontal axis.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_developments">Early developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principle employed in using a screw propeller is derived from <a href="/wiki/Stern_sculling" title="Stern sculling">stern sculling</a>. In sculling, a single blade is moved through an arc, from side to side taking care to keep presenting the blade to the water at the effective angle. The innovation introduced with the screw propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a <a href="/wiki/Single-blade_propeller" title="Single-blade propeller">single blade</a>, but in practice there is nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimedes_screw.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG/220px-Archimedes_screw.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG/330px-Archimedes_screw.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The origin of the screw propeller starts at least as early as <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> (c. 287 – c. 212 BC), who used a screw to lift water for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and bailing boats, so famously that it became known as <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a>. It was probably an application of spiral movement in space (spirals were a special study of Archimedes) to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> for centuries. A flying toy, the <a href="/wiki/Bamboo-copter" title="Bamboo-copter">bamboo-copter</a>, was enjoyed in China beginning around 320 AD. Later, Leonardo da Vinci adopted the screw principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, sketches of which involved a large canvas screw overhead. </p><p>In 1661, Toogood and Hays proposed using screws for waterjet propulsion, though not as a propeller.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> in 1681 designed a horizontal watermill which was remarkably similar to the Kirsten-Boeing vertical axis propeller designed almost two and a half centuries later in 1928; two years later Hooke modified the design to provide motive power for ships through water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlton20121_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlton20121-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1693 a Frenchman by the name of Du Quet invented a screw propeller which was tried in 1693 but later abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1752, the <i>Academie des Sciences</i> in Paris granted Burnelli a prize for a design of a propeller-wheel. At about the same time, the French mathematician Alexis-Jean-Pierre Paucton suggested a water propulsion system based on the Archimedean screw.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlton20121_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlton20121-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1771, steam-engine inventor <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> in a private letter suggested using "spiral oars" to propel boats, although he did not use them with his steam engines, or ever implement the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the first practical and applied uses of a propeller was on a submarine dubbed <a href="/wiki/Turtle_(submersible)" title="Turtle (submersible)"><i>Turtle</i></a> which was designed in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, in 1775 by Yale student and inventor <a href="/wiki/David_Bushnell" title="David Bushnell">David Bushnell</a>, with the help of clock maker, engraver, and brass foundryman <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Doolittle" title="Isaac Doolittle">Isaac Doolittle</a>. Bushnell's brother Ezra Bushnell and ship's carpenter and clock maker Phineas Pratt constructed the hull in <a href="/wiki/Saybrook,_Connecticut" class="mw-redirect" title="Saybrook, Connecticut">Saybrook, Connecticut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the night of September 6, 1776, Sergeant Ezra Lee piloted <i>Turtle</i> in an attack on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Eagle_(1774)" title="HMS Eagle (1774)">HMS <i>Eagle</i></a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_Harbor" title="New York Harbor">New York Harbor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Turtle</i> also has the distinction of being the first submarine used in battle. Bushnell later described the propeller in an October 1787 letter to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>: "An oar formed upon the principle of the screw was fixed in the forepart of the vessel its axis entered the vessel and being turned one way rowed the vessel forward but being turned the other way rowed it backward. It was made to be turned by the hand or foot."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brass propeller, like all the brass and moving parts on <i>Turtle</i>, was crafted by Issac Doolittle of New Haven.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1785, Joseph Bramah of England proposed a propeller solution of a rod going through the underwater aft of a boat attached to a bladed propeller, though he never built it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlton20121–2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlton20121–2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1800, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Shorter" title="Edward Shorter">Edward Shorter</a> of London proposed using a similar propeller attached to a rod angled down temporarily deployed from the deck above the waterline and thus requiring no water seal, and intended only to assist becalmed sailing vessels. He tested it on the transport ship <a href="/wiki/Doncaster_(1792_ship)" title="Doncaster (1792 ship)"><i>Doncaster</i></a> at Gibraltar and Malta, achieving a speed of 1.5 mph (2.4 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-Carlton,_p.2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlton,_p.2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1802, American lawyer and inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Stevens_(inventor,_born_1749)" title="John Stevens (inventor, born 1749)">John Stevens</a> built a 25-foot (7.6 m) boat with a rotary steam engine coupled to a four-bladed propeller. The craft achieved a speed of 4 mph (6.4 km/h), but Stevens abandoned propellers due to the inherent danger in using the high-pressure steam engines. His subsequent vessels were paddle-wheeled boats.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlton,_p.2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlton,_p.2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1827, Czech inventor <a href="/wiki/Josef_Ressel" title="Josef Ressel">Josef Ressel</a> had invented a screw propeller with multiple blades on a conical base. He tested it in February 1826 on a manually-driven ship and successfully used it on a steamboat in 1829. His 48-ton ship <i>Civetta</i> reached 6 knots. This was the first successful Archimedes screw-propelled ship. His experiments were banned by police after a steam engine accident. Ressel, a forestry inspector, held an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. The screw propeller was an improvement over paddlewheels as it wasn't affected by ship motions or draft changes.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Patch" title="John Patch">John Patch</a>, a mariner in <a href="/wiki/Yarmouth,_Nova_Scotia" title="Yarmouth, Nova Scotia">Yarmouth, Nova Scotia</a> developed a two-bladed, fan-shaped propeller in 1832 and publicly demonstrated it in 1833, propelling a row boat across Yarmouth Harbour and a small coastal schooner at <a href="/wiki/Saint_John,_New_Brunswick" title="Saint John, New Brunswick">Saint John, New Brunswick</a>, but his patent application in the United States was rejected until 1849 because he was not an American citizen.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His efficient design drew praise in American scientific circles<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but by then he faced multiple competitors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Screw_propellers">Screw propellers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Screw propellers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Despite experimentation with screw propulsion before the 1830s, few of these inventions were pursued to the testing stage, and those that were proved unsatisfactory for one reason or another.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg/220px-F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg/330px-F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg/440px-F._P._Smith%27s_original_1836_screw_propeller_patent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>Smith's original 1836 patent for a screw propeller of two full turns. He would later revise the patent, reducing the length to one turn.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1835, two inventors in Britain, <a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">John Ericsson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Pettit_Smith" title="Francis Pettit Smith">Francis Pettit Smith</a>, began working separately on the problem. Smith was first to take out a screw propeller patent on 31 May, while Ericsson, a gifted <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> engineer then working in Britain, filed his patent six weeks later.<sup id="cite_ref-bourne84_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bourne84-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith quickly built a small model boat to test his invention, which was demonstrated first on a pond at his <a href="/wiki/Hendon" title="Hendon">Hendon</a> farm, and later at the Royal Adelaide Gallery of Practical Science in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, where it was seen by the Secretary of the Navy, Sir William Barrow. Having secured the patronage of a London banker named Wright, Smith then built a 30-foot (9.1 m), 6-<a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</a> (4.5 kW) canal boat of six <a href="/wiki/Tons_burthen" class="mw-redirect" title="Tons burthen">tons burthen</a> called <i>Francis Smith</i>, which was fitted with his wooden propeller and demonstrated on the <a href="/wiki/Paddington_Canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paddington Canal">Paddington Canal</a> from November 1836 to September 1837. By a fortuitous accident, the wooden propeller of two turns was damaged during a voyage in February 1837, and to Smith's surprise the broken propeller, which now consisted of only a single turn, doubled the boat's previous speed, from about four miles an hour to eight.<sup id="cite_ref-bourne84_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bourne84-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith would subsequently file a revised patent in keeping with this accidental discovery. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png/220px-EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png/330px-EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png/440px-EricssonCounterRotatingScrews.png 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption>Ericsson's original patent for a contra-rotating screw propulsion.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the meantime, Ericsson built a 45-foot (14 m) screw-propelled steamboat, <i>Francis B. Ogden</i> in 1837, and demonstrated his boat on the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">River Thames</a> to senior members of the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">British Admiralty</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Surveyor_of_the_Navy" title="Surveyor of the Navy">Surveyor of the Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Symonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William Symonds">Sir William Symonds</a>. In spite of the boat achieving a speed of 10 miles an hour, comparable with that of existing <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">paddle steamers</a>, Symonds and his entourage were unimpressed. The Admiralty maintained the view that screw propulsion would be ineffective in ocean-going service, while Symonds himself believed that screw propelled ships could not be steered efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-ogden_note_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ogden_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this rejection, Ericsson built a second, larger screw-propelled boat, <i>Robert F. Stockton</i>, and had her sailed in 1839 to the United States, where he was soon to gain fame as the designer of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a>'s first screw-propelled warship, <a href="/wiki/USS_Princeton_(1843)" title="USS Princeton (1843)">USS <i>Princeton</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bourne87-89_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bourne87-89-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrirte_Zeitung_(1843)_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG/220px-Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG/330px-Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG/440px-Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_21_335_1_Archimedische_Schraube_des_Dampfschiffes_Archimedes.PNG 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>Screw propeller of <a href="/wiki/SS_Archimedes" title="SS Archimedes">SS <i>Archimedes</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p>Apparently aware of the Royal Navy's view that screw propellers would prove unsuitable for seagoing service, Smith determined to prove this assumption wrong. In September 1837, he took his small vessel (now fitted with an iron propeller of a single turn) to sea, steaming from <a href="/wiki/Blackwall,_London" title="Blackwall, London">Blackwall, London</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hythe,_Kent" title="Hythe, Kent">Hythe, Kent</a>, with stops at <a href="/wiki/Ramsgate" title="Ramsgate">Ramsgate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folkestone" title="Folkestone">Folkestone</a>. On the way back to London on the 25th, Smith's craft was observed making headway in stormy seas by officers of the Royal Navy. This revived Admiralty's interest and Smith was encouraged to build a full size ship to more conclusively demonstrate the technology.<sup id="cite_ref-bourne85_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bourne85-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg/220px-Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg/330px-Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg/440px-Great_Britain_propeller_and_rudder_wideshot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A replica of <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Britain" title="SS Great Britain">SS <i>Great Britain</i></a>'s first propeller. A four-bladed model replaced the original in 1845. The ship was originally designed to have paddles, but plans changed after screw propellers were shown to be much more efficient.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/SS_Archimedes" title="SS Archimedes">SS <i>Archimedes</i></a> was built in 1838 by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wimshurst" title="Henry Wimshurst">Henry Wimshurst</a> of London, as the world's first steamship<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to be driven by a <a href="#History_of_ship_and_submarine_screw_propellers">screw propeller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Archimedes</i> had considerable influence on ship development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, in addition to her influence on commercial vessels. Trials with Smith's <i>Archimedes</i> led to a <a href="/wiki/Tug-of-war" class="mw-redirect" title="Tug-of-war">tug-of-war</a> competition in 1845 between <a href="/wiki/HMS_Rattler_(1843)" title="HMS Rattler (1843)">HMS <i>Rattler</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Alecto_(1839)" title="HMS Alecto (1839)">HMS <i>Alecto</i></a> with the screw-driven <i>Rattler</i> pulling the paddle steamer <i>Alecto</i> backward at 2.5 knots (4.6 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Archimedes</i> also influenced the design of <a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Britain" title="SS Great Britain">SS <i>Great Britain</i></a> in 1843, then the world's largest ship and the first screw-propelled steamship to cross the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in August 1845. </p><p><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS <i>Terror</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS <i>Erebus</i></a> were both heavily modified to become the first Royal Navy ships to have steam-powered engines and screw propellers. Both participated in <a href="/wiki/Franklin%27s_lost_expedition" title="Franklin's lost expedition">Franklin's lost expedition</a>, last seen in July 1845 near <a href="/wiki/Baffin_Bay" title="Baffin Bay">Baffin Bay</a>. </p><p>Screw propeller design stabilized in the 1880s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aircraft">Aircraft</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Precision_air_ATR72_5423a.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Precision_air_ATR72_5423a.gif/220px-Precision_air_ATR72_5423a.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Precision_air_ATR72_5423a.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="224" data-file-height="168" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ATR_72" title="ATR 72">ATR 72</a> propeller in flight</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Propeller (aeronautics)">Propeller (aeronautics)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> pioneered the twisted <a href="/wiki/Aerofoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerofoil">aerofoil</a> shape of modern aircraft propellers. They realized an air propeller was similar to a wing. They verified this using <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> experiments. They introduced a twist in their blades to keep the angle of attack constant. Their blades were only 5% less efficient than those used 100 years later.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding of low-speed propeller <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a> was complete by the 1920s, although increased power and smaller diameters added design constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Santos_Dumont" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberto Santos Dumont">Alberto Santos Dumont</a>, another early pioneer, applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his <a href="/wiki/Santos-Dumont_14-bis" title="Santos-Dumont 14-bis">14 bis biplane</a>. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating an airfoil shape. They were heavily <a href="/wiki/Camber_(aerodynamics)" title="Camber (aerodynamics)">undercambered</a>, and this plus the absence of lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers. Even so, this may have been the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg/220px-RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg/330px-RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg/440px-RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2731" /></a><figcaption>Propellers of <a href="/wiki/RMS_Olympic" title="RMS Olympic">RMS <i>Olympic</i></a>. The outer two are counter-rotating.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propeller_theory" title="Propeller theory">Propeller theory</a></div> <p>In the nineteenth century, several theories concerning propellers were proposed. The <a href="/wiki/Momentum_theory" title="Momentum theory">momentum theory</a> or disk actuator theory – a theory describing a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> of an ideal propeller – was developed by <a href="/wiki/William_John_Macquorn_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="William John Macquorn Rankine">W.J.M. Rankine</a> (1865), <a href="/wiki/Alfred_George_Greenhill" title="Alfred George Greenhill">A.G. Greenhill</a> (1888) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=R.E._Froude&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R.E. Froude (page does not exist)">R.E. Froude</a> (1889). The propeller is modelled as an infinitely thin disc, inducing a constant velocity along the axis of rotation and creating a flow around the propeller. </p><p>A screw turning through a solid will have zero "slip"; but as a propeller screw operates in a fluid (either air or water), there will be some losses. The most efficient propellers are large-diameter, slow-turning screws, such as on large ships; the least efficient are small-diameter and fast-turning (such as on an outboard motor). Using <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Newton's</a> laws of motion, one may usefully think of a propeller's forward thrust as being a reaction proportionate to the mass of fluid sent backward per time and the speed the propeller adds to that mass, and in practice there is more loss associated with producing a fast jet than with creating a heavier, slower jet. (The same applies in aircraft, in which larger-diameter <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a> engines tend to be more efficient than earlier, smaller-diameter turbofans, and even smaller <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojets</a>, which eject less mass at greater speeds.)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propeller_geometry">Propeller geometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Propeller geometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The geometry of a marine screw propeller is based on a <a href="/wiki/Helicoid" title="Helicoid">helicoidal</a> surface. This may form the face of the blade, or the faces of the blades may be described by offsets from this surface. The back of the blade is described by offsets from the helicoid surface in the same way that an <a href="/wiki/Aerofoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerofoil">aerofoil</a> may be described by offsets from the chord line. The pitch surface may be a true helicoid or one having a warp to provide a better match of angle of attack to the wake velocity over the blades. A warped helicoid is described by specifying the shape of the radial reference line and the pitch angle in terms of radial distance. The traditional propeller drawing includes four parts: a side elevation, which defines the rake, the variation of blade thickness from root to tip, a longitudinal section through the hub, and a projected outline of a blade onto a longitudinal centreline plane. The expanded blade view shows the section shapes at their various radii, with their pitch faces drawn parallel to the base line, and thickness parallel to the axis. The outline indicated by a line connecting the leading and trailing tips of the sections depicts the expanded blade outline. The pitch diagram shows variation of pitch with radius from root to tip. The transverse view shows the transverse projection of a blade and the developed outline of the blade.<sup id="cite_ref-PNA_ChVII_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNA_ChVII-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>blades</i> are the foil section plates that develop thrust when the propeller is rotated The <i>hub</i> is the central part of the propeller, which connects the blades together and fixes the propeller to the shaft. This is called the <i>boss</i> in the UK. <i>Rake</i> is the angle of the blade to a radius perpendicular to the shaft. <i>Skew</i> is the tangential offset of the line of maximum thickness to a radius </p><p>The propeller characteristics are commonly expressed as dimensionless ratios:<sup id="cite_ref-PNA_ChVII_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNA_ChVII-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Pitch ratio <i>PR</i> = propeller pitch/propeller diameter, or P/D</li> <li>Disk area A<sub>0</sub> = πD<sup>2</sup>/4</li> <li>Expanded area ratio = A<sub>E</sub>/A<sub>0</sub>, where expanded area A<sub>E</sub> = Expanded area of all blades outside of the hub.</li> <li>Developed area ratio = A<sub>D</sub>/A<sub>0</sub>, where developed area A<sub>D</sub> = Developed area of all blades outside of the hub</li> <li>Projected area ratio = A<sub>P</sub>/A<sub>0</sub>, where projected area A<sub>P</sub> = Projected area of all blades outside of the hub</li> <li>Mean width ratio = (Area of one blade outside the hub/length of the blade outside the hub)/Diameter</li> <li>Blade width ratio = Maximum width of a blade/Diameter</li> <li>Blade thickness fraction = Thickness of a blade produced to shaft axis/Diameter</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cavitation">Cavitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cavitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cavitation" title="Cavitation">Cavitation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cavitating-prop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Cavitating-prop.jpg/220px-Cavitating-prop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Cavitating-prop.jpg/330px-Cavitating-prop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Cavitating-prop.jpg/440px-Cavitating-prop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="753" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Cavitating propeller in <a href="/wiki/Water_tunnel_(hydrodynamic)" title="Water tunnel (hydrodynamic)">water tunnel</a> experiment</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG/220px-Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG/330px-Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG/440px-Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cavitation" title="Cavitation">Cavitation</a> damage evident on the propeller of a personal watercraft</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg/220px-Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg/330px-Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg/440px-Propeller_%26_anti-cavitation_plate_%26_Schilling_rudder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Bronze propeller & anti-cavitation plate, & <a href="/wiki/Schilling_rudder" title="Schilling rudder">Schilling rudder</a> (on a river barge)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cavitation" title="Cavitation">Cavitation</a> is the formation of vapor bubbles in water near a moving propeller blade in regions of very low pressure. It can occur if an attempt is made to transmit too much power through the screw, or if the propeller is operating at a very high speed. Cavitation can waste power, create vibration and wear, and cause damage to the propeller. It can occur in many ways on a propeller. The two most common types of propeller cavitation are suction side surface cavitation and tip vortex cavitation. </p><p>Suction side surface cavitation forms when the propeller is operating at high rotational speeds or under heavy load (high blade <a href="/wiki/Lift_coefficient" title="Lift coefficient">lift coefficient</a>). The pressure on the upstream surface of the blade (the "suction side") can drop below the <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> of the water, resulting in the formation of a vapor pocket. Under such conditions, the change in pressure between the downstream surface of the blade (the "pressure side") and the suction side is limited, and eventually reduced as the extent of cavitation is increased. When most of the blade surface is covered by cavitation, the pressure difference between the pressure side and suction side of the blade drops considerably, as does the thrust produced by the propeller. This condition is called "thrust breakdown". Operating the propeller under these conditions wastes energy, generates considerable noise, and as the vapor bubbles collapse it rapidly erodes the screw's surface due to localized <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a> against the blade surface. </p><p>Tip vortex cavitation is caused by the extremely low pressures formed at the core of the tip vortex. The tip vortex is caused by fluid wrapping around the tip of the propeller; from the pressure side to the suction side. This <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GpklBS3s7iU&feature=PlayList&p=218220F6C5BD650E&playnext_from=PL&index=18">video</a> demonstrates tip vortex cavitation. Tip vortex cavitation typically occurs before suction side surface cavitation and is less damaging to the blade, since this type of cavitation doesn't collapse on the blade, but some distance downstream. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_propellers">Types of propellers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Types of propellers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable-pitch_propeller">Variable-pitch propeller</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Variable-pitch propeller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg/220px-Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg/330px-Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg/440px-Controllable_pitch_propeller_schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>A controllable-pitch propeller</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg/220px-Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg/330px-Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg/440px-Rudder_and_propeller_Beached_fishing_vessel_N%C3%B8rre_Vorup%C3%B8r_Denmark_2017-04-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4621" data-file-height="3340" /></a><figcaption>A variable-pitch propeller on a fishing vessel</figcaption></figure> <p>Variable-pitch propellers may be either controllable (<a href="/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_(marine)" title="Variable-pitch propeller (marine)">controllable-pitch propellers</a>) or automatically feathering (<a href="/wiki/Folding_propeller" title="Folding propeller">folding propellers</a>). Variable-pitch propellers have significant advantages over the fixed-pitch variety, namely: </p> <ul><li>the ability to select the most effective blade angle for any given speed;</li> <li>when <a href="/wiki/Motorsailer" title="Motorsailer">motorsailing</a>, the ability to coarsen the blade angle to attain the optimum drive from wind and engines;</li> <li>the ability to move astern (in reverse) much more efficiently (fixed props perform very poorly in astern);</li> <li>the ability to "feather" the blades to give the least resistance when not in use (for example, when sailing). For large airplanes, if the engine is uncontrollable, the ability to feather the propeller is necessary to prevent the propeller from spinning so fast it breaks apart.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skewback_propeller">Skewback propeller</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Skewback propeller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An advanced type of propeller used on the American <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles-class_submarine" title="Los Angeles-class submarine">Los Angeles-class submarine</a> as well as the German <a href="/wiki/Type_212_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Type 212 submarine">Type 212 submarine</a> is called a <b>skewback propeller</b>. As in the <a href="/wiki/Scimitar_propeller" title="Scimitar propeller">scimitar blades</a> used on some aircraft, the blade tips of a skewback propeller are swept back against the direction of rotation. In addition, the blades are tilted rearward along the longitudinal axis, giving the propeller an overall cup-shaped appearance. This design preserves thrust efficiency while reducing cavitation, and thus makes for a quiet, <a href="/wiki/Stealth_technology" title="Stealth technology">stealthy</a> design.<sup id="cite_ref-JMCWebCreation_and_Co,_2009_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMCWebCreation_and_Co,_2009-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A small number of ships use propellers with <a href="/wiki/Winglet" class="mw-redirect" title="Winglet">winglets</a> similar to those on some airplane wings, reducing tip vortices and improving efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astern_propulsion" title="Astern propulsion">astern propulsion</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modular_propeller">Modular propeller</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modular propeller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Modular_propeller" title="Modular propeller">modular propeller</a> provides more control over the boat's performance. There is no need to change an entire propeller when there is an opportunity to only change the pitch or the damaged blades. Being able to adjust pitch will allow for boaters to have better performance while in different altitudes, water sports, or cruising.<sup id="cite_ref-Smrcka,_2017_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smrcka,_2017-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voith_Schneider_propeller">Voith Schneider propeller</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Voith Schneider propeller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Voith_Schneider_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Voith Schneider propeller">Voith Schneider propellers</a> use four untwisted straight blades turning around a vertical axis instead of helical blades and can provide thrust in any direction at any time, at the cost of higher mechanical complexity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shaftless">Shaftless</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shaftless"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rim-driven_thruster" title="Rim-driven thruster">Rim-driven thruster</a></div> <p>A rim-driven thruster integrates an electric motor into a ducted propeller. The cylindrical duct acts as the stator, while the tips of the blades act as the rotor. They typically provide high torque and operate at low RPMs, producing less noise. The system does not require a shaft, reducing weight. Units can be placed at various locations around the hull and operated independently, e.g., to aid in maneuvering. The absence of a shaft allows alternative rear hull designs.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toroidal">Toroidal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Toroidal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Toroidal_propeller" title="Toroidal propeller">Toroidal propeller</a></div> <p>Twisted-<a href="/wiki/Toroid" title="Toroid">toroid</a> (ring-shaped) propellers, first invented over 120 years ago,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> replace the blades with a-circular rings. They are significantly quieter (particularly at audible frequencies) and more efficient than traditional propellers for both air and water applications. The design distributes vortices generated by the propeller across the entire shape, causing them to dissipate faster in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Damage_protection">Damage protection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Damage protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shaft_protection">Shaft protection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Shaft protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg/220px-Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg/330px-Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg/440px-Propeller_rubber_bush_failed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>A failed rubber bushing in an <a href="/wiki/Outboard_motor" title="Outboard motor">outboard</a>'s propeller</figcaption></figure> <p>For smaller engines, such as outboards, where the propeller is exposed to the risk of collision with heavy objects, the propeller often includes a device that is designed to fail when overloaded; the device or the whole propeller is sacrificed so that the more expensive transmission and engine are not damaged. </p><p>Typically in smaller (less than 10 hp or 7.5 kW) and older engines, a narrow <a href="/wiki/Shear_pin" title="Shear pin">shear pin</a> through the drive shaft and propeller hub transmits the power of the engine at normal loads. The pin is designed to <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear</a> when the propeller is put under a load that could damage the engine. After the pin is sheared the engine is unable to provide propulsive power to the boat until a new shear pin is fitted.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In larger and more modern engines, a rubber <a href="/wiki/Bushing_(isolator)" title="Bushing (isolator)">bushing</a> transmits the <a href="/wiki/Torque" title="Torque">torque</a> of the drive shaft to the propeller's hub. Under a damaging load the <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> of the bushing in the hub is overcome and the rotating propeller slips on the shaft, preventing overloading of the engine's components.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After such an event the rubber bushing may be damaged. If so, it may continue to transmit reduced power at low revolutions, but may provide no power, due to reduced friction, at high revolutions. Also, the rubber bushing may perish over time leading to its failure under loads below its designed failure load. </p><p>Whether a rubber bushing can be replaced or repaired depends upon the propeller; some cannot. Some can, but need special equipment to insert the oversized bushing for an <a href="/wiki/Interference_fit" title="Interference fit">interference fit</a>. Others can be replaced easily. The "special equipment" usually consists of a funnel, a press and rubber lubricant (soap). If one does not have access to a lathe, an improvised funnel can be made from steel tube and car body filler; as the filler is only subject to compressive forces it is able to do a good job. Often, the bushing can be drawn into place with nothing more complex than a couple of nuts, washers and a threaded rod. A more serious problem with this type of propeller is a "frozen-on" spline bushing, which makes propeller removal impossible. In such cases the propeller must be heated in order to deliberately destroy the rubber insert. Once the propeller is removed, the splined tube can be cut away with a grinder and a new spline bushing is then required. To prevent a recurrence of the problem, the splines can be coated with anti-seize anti-corrosion compound. </p><p>In some modern propellers, a hard polymer insert called a <i>drive sleeve</i> replaces the rubber bushing. The <a href="/wiki/Rotating_spline" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotating spline">splined</a> or other non-circular cross section of the sleeve inserted between the shaft and propeller hub transmits the engine torque to the propeller, rather than friction. The polymer is weaker than the components of the propeller and engine so it fails before they do when the propeller is overloaded.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fails completely under excessive load, but can easily be replaced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weed_hatches_and_rope_cutters">Weed hatches and rope cutters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Weed hatches and rope cutters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg/220px-Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg/330px-Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg/440px-Right-handed_3-blade_bronze_propeller_%26_stainless_steel_rope_cutter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>Bronze propeller & stainless steel rope cutter</figcaption></figure> <p>Whereas the propeller on a large ship will be immersed in deep water and free of obstacles and <a href="/wiki/Flotsam" class="mw-redirect" title="Flotsam">flotsam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yacht" title="Yacht">yachts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barge" title="Barge">barges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Launch_(boat)" title="Launch (boat)">river boats</a> often suffer propeller fouling by debris such as weed, ropes, cables, nets and plastics. British <a href="/wiki/Narrowboat" title="Narrowboat">narrowboats</a> invariably have a <b>weed hatch</b> over the propeller, and once the narrowboat is stationary, the hatch may be opened to give access to the propeller, enabling debris to be cleared. Yachts and river boats rarely have weed hatches; instead they may fit a <b>rope cutter</b> that fits around the prop shaft and rotates with the propeller. These cutters clear the debris and obviate the need for divers to attend manually to the fouling. Several forms of rope cutters are available:<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>A simple sharp edged disc that cuts like a razor;<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A rotor with two or more projecting blades that slice against a fixed blade, cutting with a scissor action;<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A serrated rotor with a complex cutting edge made up of sharp edges and projections.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Propeller_variations">Propeller variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Propeller variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A cleaver is a type of propeller design especially used for boat racing. Its leading edge is formed round, while the <a href="/wiki/Trailing_edge" title="Trailing edge">trailing edge</a> is cut straight. It provides little bow lift, so that it can be used on boats that do not need much bow lift, for instance <a href="/wiki/Hydroplane_(boat)" title="Hydroplane (boat)">hydroplanes</a>, that naturally have enough hydrodynamic bow lift. To compensate for the lack of bow lift, a <a href="/wiki/Hydrofoil" title="Hydrofoil">hydrofoil</a> may be installed on the lower unit.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Hydrofoils reduce bow lift and help to get a boat out of the hole and onto plane.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Screw-propelled_vehicle" title="Screw-propelled vehicle">Screw-propelled vehicle</a> – Vehicle propelled by load-bearing rotating helical flanges</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propeller_characteristics">Propeller characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Propeller characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_ratio" title="Advance ratio">Advance ratio</a> – Ratio of freestream speed to tip speed</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_fan_design" title="Axial fan design">Axial fan design</a> – Fan that induces gas flow mostly parallel to the shaft</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propeller_phenomena">Propeller phenomena</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Propeller phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propeller_walk" title="Propeller walk">Propeller walk</a> – Tendency of a propeller to yaw a vessel during acceleration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavitation" title="Cavitation">Cavitation</a> – Low-pressure voids formed in liquids</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azimuth_thruster" title="Azimuth thruster">Azimuth thruster</a> – Steerable propulsion pod under a watercraft <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azipod" title="Azipod">Azipod</a> – Electric drive azimuth thruster</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_thruster" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow thruster">Bow thruster</a> – Transverse or steerable propulsion device at the bow of a watercraft</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducted_propeller" title="Ducted propeller">Ducted propeller</a> – Marine propeller with a non-rotating nozzle <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">Pump-jet</a> – Marine propulsion system</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folding_propeller" title="Folding propeller">Folding propeller</a> – Propeller with blades that fold open</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">Helix</a> – Space curve that winds around a line</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeller" title="Impeller">Impeller</a> – Rotor used to increase (or decrease in case of turbines) the pressure and flow of a fluid or gas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_rudder" title="Kitchen rudder">Kitchen rudder</a> – Type of directional propulsion system for vessels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuvering_thruster" title="Maneuvering thruster">Maneuvering thruster</a> – Transverse or steerable propulsion device in a watercraft</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_propeller" title="Modular propeller">Modular propeller</a> – Propeller assembled from components</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">Paddle steamer</a> – Steam-powered vessel propelled by paddle wheels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuger_rudder" title="Pleuger rudder">Pleuger rudder</a> – Thruster assisted ship's rudder</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propulsor" title="Propulsor">Propulsor</a> – Mechanical device to propel a vessel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stern_thruster" class="mw-redirect" title="Stern thruster">Stern thruster</a> – Transverse or steerable propulsion device at the stern of a watercraft</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercavitating_propeller" title="Supercavitating propeller">Supercavitating propeller</a> – Marine propeller designed to operate with a full cavitation bubble</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_(marine)" title="Variable-pitch propeller (marine)">Variable-pitch propeller</a> – Propeller with blades that can be rotated to control their pitch while in use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclorotor" title="Cyclorotor">Voith-Schneider propeller</a> – Perpendicular axis marine propulsion system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wake-equalising_duct" title="Wake-equalising duct">Wake-equalising duct</a> – Ship hull appendage to modify propeller inflow</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Materials_and_manufacture">Materials and manufacture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Materials and manufacture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9UbnJlhrHA">Construction of Wooden Propellers 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OR3e8waXuWk">2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WS-XqOsxBHY">3</a>, NASA Langley</td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_machine" title="Balancing machine">Balancing machine</a> – Measuring tool used for balancing rotating machine parts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite material</a> – Material made from a combination of two or more unlike substances</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> On many boats, the prop shaft is not horizontal but dips towards the stern. Although this is often forced upon the designer by hull shape, it gives a small benefit by helping to counter any <a href="/wiki/Squat_effect" title="Squat effect">squat effect</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ogden_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ogden_note_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> In the case of <i>Francis B. Ogden</i>, Symonds was correct. Ericsson had made the mistake of placing the rudder forward of the propellers, which made the rudder ineffective. Symonds believed that Ericsson tried to disguise the problem by towing a barge during the test.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> The emphasis here is on <i>ship</i>. There were a number of successful propeller-driven vessels prior to <i>Archimedes</i>, including Smith's own <i>Francis Smith</i> and Ericsson's <i>Francis B. Ogden</i> and <i>Robert F. Stockton</i>. However, these vessels were <i>boats</i> – designed for service on inland waterways – as opposed to <i>ships</i>, built for seagoing service.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/propeller">"Propeller"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Propeller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fpropeller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/propeller.htm">"Propeller Propulsion"</a>. NASA. May 5, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Propeller+Propulsion&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2015-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.grc.nasa.gov%2FWWW%2FK-12%2Fairplane%2Fpropeller.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlton2012" class="citation cs2">Carlton, John (2012), <i>Marine Propellers and Propulsion</i>, Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 363</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Propellers+and+Propulsion&rft.pages=363&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Carlton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlton20121-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlton20121_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlton20121_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarlton2012">Carlton 2012</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne1855" class="citation web cs1">Bourne, John (April 10, 1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LPczAQAAMAAJ">"A Treatise on the Screw Propeller: With Various Suggestions of Improvement"</a>. Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+the+Screw+Propeller%3A+With+Various+Suggestions+of+Improvement&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+%26+Longmans&rft.date=1855-04-10&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLPczAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_3hUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18">"Patents for Inventions: Abridgments of Specifications : Class…"</a>. Patent Office. April 10, 1857 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patents+for+Inventions%3A+Abridgments+of+Specifications+%3A+Class%E2%80%A6&rft.pub=Patent+Office&rft.date=1857-04-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_3hUAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Murihead, James Patrick, <i>The Life of James Watt, with Selections from His Correspondence… With Portraits and Woodcuts</i>, London: John Murray, 1858, p. 208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stein, Stephen K., 2017, <i>The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes]</i>, Ed. Stephen K. Stein, ABC-CLIO, Vol. 1, p. 600</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manstan, Roy R.; Frese, Frederic J., <i>Turtle: David Bushnell's Revolutionary Vessel</i>, Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59416105-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59416105-6">978-1-59416105-6</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/369779489">369779489</a>, 2010, pp. xiii, 52, 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tucker, Spencer, <i>Almanac of American Military History</i>, ABC-CLIO, 2013, Volume 1, p. 305</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansten pp. xiii, xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson, William, <i>A Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts</i>, Volume 4, G. G. & J. Robinson, 1801, p. 221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manstan, p. 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlton20121–2-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlton20121–2_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarlton2012">Carlton 2012</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carlton,_p.2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carlton,_p.2_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carlton,_p.2_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlton, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Augustin Normand, <i>La Genèse de l'Hélice Propulsive [The Genesis of the Screw Propulsor]</i>. Paris: Académie de Marine, 1962, pp. 31–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario Theriault, <i>Great Maritime Inventions</i> Goose Lane Publishing (2001) pp. 58–59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708174319/http://www.cogulus.com/cgi-bin/viewer.cgi?type=writings&file=1848_10_033">"Patch's Propeller"</a>, <i>Scientific America</i>, vol. 4, no. 5, p. 33, October 10, 1848, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogulus.com/cgi-bin/viewer.cgi?type=writings&file=1848_10_033">the original</a> on July 8, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2010</span> – via The Archimedes Screw</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+America&rft.atitle=Patch%27s+Propeller&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=33&rft.date=1848-10-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogulus.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Fviewer.cgi%3Ftype%3Dwritings%26file%3D1848_10_033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Edgar_C.1905" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Edgar C. (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TSg7AAAAIAAJ"><i>A Short history of Naval and Marine Engineering</i></a>. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 66–67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+history+of+Naval+and+Marine+Engineering&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1905&rft.au=Smith%2C+Edgar+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTSg7AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bourne84-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bourne84_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bourne84_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourne, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bourne87-89-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bourne87-89_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourne, pp. 87–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bourne85-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bourne85_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourne, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The type of screw propeller that now propels the vast majority of boats and ships was patented in 1836, first by the British engineer Francis Pettit Smith, then by the Swedish engineer John Ericsson. Smith used the design in the first successful screw-driven steamship, <i>Archimedes</i>, which was launched in 1839." Marshall Cavendish, p. 1335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The propeller was invented in 1836 by Francis Pettit Smith in Britain and John Ericsson in the United States. It first powered a seagoing ship, appropriately called <i>Archimedes</i>, in 1839." Macauley and Ardley, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In 1839, the Messrs. Rennie constructed the engines, machinery and propeller, for the celebrated <i>Archimedes</i>, from which may be said to date the introduction of the screw system of propulsion…" <i>Mechanics Magazine</i>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"It was not until 1839 that the principle of propelling steamships by a screw blade was fairly brought before the world, and for this we are indebted, as almost every adult will remember, to Mr. F. P. Smith of London. He was the man who first made the screw propeller practically useful. Aided by spirited capitalists, he built a large steamer named the "Archimedes", and the results obtained from her at once arrested public attention." MacFarlane, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bowcreektoanatahan.wordpress.com/propeller-versus-paddle-the-tug-of-war-between-hms-rattler-and-the-alecto/">Propeller versus Paddle: The Tug of War between HMS Rattler and the Alecto</a>, Bow Creek to Anatahan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ash, Robert L., Colin P. Britcher and Kenneth W. Hyde. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604093014/http://www.memagazine.org/supparch/flight03/propwr/propwr.html">"Wrights: How two brothers from Dayton added a new twist to airplane propulsion."</a> <i>Mechanical Engineering: 100 years of Flight</i>, 3 July 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/"><i>Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge</i></a>. Oklahoma City: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. 2008. pp. 2–7. FAA-8083-25A.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pilot%27s+Handbook+of+Aeronautical+Knowledge&rft.place=Oklahoma+City&rft.pages=2-7&rft.pub=U.S.+Federal+Aviation+Administration&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fregulations_policies%2Fhandbooks_manuals%2Faviation%2Fpilot_handbook%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">How propellers work - <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.deepblueyachtsupply.com/boat-propeller-theory">https://www.deepblueyachtsupply.com/boat-propeller-theory</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PNA_ChVII-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PNA_ChVII_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PNA_ChVII_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd1967" class="citation book cs1">Todd, F.H. (1967). "VII: Resistance and Propulsion". In Comstock, John P. (ed.). <i>Principles of Naval Architecture</i> (Revised ed.). Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. pp. 397–462.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VII%3A+Resistance+and+Propulsion&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Naval+Architecture&rft.pages=397-462&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Society+of+Naval+Architects+and+Marine+Engineers&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=F.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JMCWebCreation_and_Co,_2009-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JMCWebCreation_and_Co,_2009_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926223647/http://www.francehelices.fr/silent-propellers.htm">"Silent propellers"</a>. <i>France helices</i>. JMC Web Creation & Co. 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.francehelices.fr/silent-propellers.htm">the original</a> on September 26, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+helices&rft.atitle=Silent+propellers&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.francehelices.fr%2Fsilent-propellers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gsitek-props.co.uk/about_propellers.htm"><i>About Propellers</i></a>, UK: GSI Tek props</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=About+Propellers&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=GSI+Tek+props&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gsitek-props.co.uk%2Fabout_propellers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Godske, Bjørn. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ing.dk/artikel/dansk-udviklet-energibesparende-propeller-solgt-til-man-dieselturbo-128613">Energy saving propeller</a>" (in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>) <i><a href="/wiki/Ingeni%C3%B8ren" title="Ingeniøren">Ingeniøren</a></i>, 23 April 2012. Accessed: 15 March 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=da&sl=da&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fing.dk%2Fartikel%2Fdansk-udviklet-energibesparende-propeller-solgt-til-man-dieselturbo-128613">English translation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Godske, Bjørn. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ing.dk/artikel/kappel-propellere-baner-vej-succes-hos-man-167005">Kappel-propellers pave the way for success at MAN</a>" (in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>) <i><a href="/wiki/Ingeni%C3%B8ren" title="Ingeniøren">Ingeniøren</a></i>, 15 March 2014. Accessed: 15 March 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=da&sl=da&tl=en&u=ing.dk%2Fartikel%2Fkappel-propellere-baner-vej-succes-hos-man-167005">English translation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mandieselturbo.com/1019133/Press/Press-Releases/Trade-Press-Releases/Marine-Power/Propeller-Equipment/Kappel-Agreement-Secures-Access-to-Major-Market.html">Kappel agreement secures access to major market</a>", Man diesel turbo, 30 August 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.support-project.eu/supportknowledge/defaultinfo.aspx?topicid=145&index=6">Kapriccio Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140315174525/http://www.support-project.eu/supportknowledge/defaultinfo.aspx?topicid=145&index=6">Archived</a> 2014-03-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. Accessed: 15 March 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marinelink.com/news/article/industry-pays-tribute-to-innovation-awards/307142.aspx">Industry Pays Tribute to Innovation Awards Winners</a>" <i>Marine link</i>, 3 October 2002. Accessed: 15 March 2014. Quote: "Winner: the energy-saving Kappel propeller concept from the European Commission-funded Kapriccio propulsion research project. Blades curved towards the tips on the suction side reduce energy losses, fuel consumption, noise and vibration"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smrcka,_2017-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smrcka,_2017_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmrcka2005" class="citation web cs1">Smrcka, Karel (March 18, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/a-new-start-for-marine-propellers-2005-03-18/rep_id:4136">"A new start for marine propellers"</a>. <i>Engineering News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Engineering+News&rft.atitle=A+new+start+for+marine+propellers&rft.date=2005-03-18&rft.aulast=Smrcka&rft.aufirst=Karel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineeringnews.co.za%2Farticle%2Fa-new-start-for-marine-propellers-2005-03-18%2Frep_id%3A4136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220524153614/https://www.rina.org.uk/Are_rim-driven_propulsors_the_future.html">"Are rim-driven propulsors the future?"</a>. <i>www.rina.org.uk</i>. July 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rina.org.uk/Are_rim-driven_propulsors_the_future.html">the original</a> on 2022-05-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rina.org.uk&rft.atitle=Are+rim-driven+propulsors+the+future%3F&rft.date=2017-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rina.org.uk%2FAre_rim-driven_propulsors_the_future.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlain2023" class="citation web cs1">Blain, Loz (2023-01-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newatlas.com/aircraft/toroidal-quiet-propellers/">"Toroidal propellers: A noise-killing game changer in air and water"</a>. <i>New Atlas</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Atlas&rft.atitle=Toroidal+propellers%3A+A+noise-killing+game+changer+in+air+and+water&rft.date=2023-01-27&rft.aulast=Blain&rft.aufirst=Loz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewatlas.com%2Faircraft%2Ftoroidal-quiet-propellers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent" id="CITEREFSebastian2020"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/d6/fe/53/bea4417ed89176/US10836466.pdf">US 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and adapter", published 1994-03-08, issued January 16, 1996</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=5484264&rft.cc=US&rft.title=Torsionally+twisting+propeller+drive+sleeve+and+adapter&rft.inventor=Karls&rft.date=January 16, 1996&rft.pubdate=1994-03-08"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yachtingmonthly.com/gear/propeller-rope-cutter-test-30012"><i>Yachting World rope cutter test</i></a>, Yachting monthly, 14 April 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yachting+World+rope+cutter+test&rft.pub=Yachting+monthly&rft.date=2015-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yachtingmonthly.com%2Fgear%2Fpropeller-rope-cutter-test-30012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asap-supplies.com/propeller-drivetrain/rope-cutters"><i>Simple disc cutters</i></a>, ASAP Supplies</cite><span 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</li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ropestripper.com/strippers.php">"Stripper scissor-action rope cutter"</a>, <i>Rope stripper</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rope+stripper&rft.atitle=Stripper+scissor-action+rope+cutter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fropestripper.com%2Fstrippers.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.propprotect.com/">"Gator cissor-action rope cutter"</a>, <i>Prop protect</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prop+protect&rft.atitle=Gator+cissor-action+rope+cutter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.propprotect.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bing.com/images/search?q=yacht+rope+cutter&id=9A2642834983B967EF5261F4A95842DA499E0528&form=IQFRBA&first=1&scenario=ImageBasicHover">"Images of rope cutters"</a>, <i>Bing</i> (search), Microsoft</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bing&rft.atitle=Images+of+rope+cutters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bing.com%2Fimages%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dyacht%2Brope%2Bcutter%26id%3D9A2642834983B967EF5261F4A95842DA499E0528%26form%3DIQFRBA%26first%3D1%26scenario%3DImageBasicHover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APropeller" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propeller&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Propellers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Propellers">Propellers</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_propellers.shtml">Titanic's Propellers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heliciel.com/en/helice/calcul-helice-aile/theorie%20helice%20ailes.htm">Theory calculation propellers and wings</a>: detailed article with blade element theory software application</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wCcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA122">"What You Should Know About Propellers For Our Fighting Planes", November 1943, <i>Popular Science</i></a> extremely detailed article with numerous drawings and cutaway illustrations</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708180137/http://www.cogulus.com/archimedes/index.html">Archimedes Screw History</a>: The story of marine propulsion</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heliciel.com/en/Histoire-helice.htm">propellers history</a>: The story of propellers</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wartsila.com/products/marine-oil-gas/propulsors-gears">Propulsors and gears</a>: Wartsila Marine Propellers</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marinerspoint.in/propeller-drop/2020/02/">Propeller Drop</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420010629/https://marinerspoint.in/propeller-drop/2020/02/">Archived</a> 2021-04-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: Measured by <a href="/wiki/Feeler_gauge" title="Feeler gauge">feeler gauge</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YIE9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA232">"History of the Screw Propeller"</a>, 1881, pp. 232</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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