Episode 42: Biolore: India's most aggressive botanical invaders

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class="article-item article-item--open" data-track-component="news" lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <div class="c-article-header__restrict"> <ul class="c-article-identifiers" data-test="article-identifier"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item" data-test="article-category"><span class="c-article-identifiers__type">PODCAST</span></li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"><time datetime="2025-03-18">18 March 2025</time></li> </ul> <h1 class="c-article-magazine-title">Episode 42: Biolore: India's most aggressive botanical invaders</h1> <div class="u-clearfix"> <div class="c-article-teaser-text"> How alien species are changing India’s landscapes </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-author-list-container u-clearfix"> <span>By</span> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"> <li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-label="view author info" href="#author-0" data-author-popup="author-0" > Subhra Priyadarshini</a></li> </ul> <div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print cleared" data-test="author-info"> <ol class="c-article-authors-listing u-list-reset"> <li class="c-article-authors-listing__item"> <span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Subhra Priyadarshini</span> <div id="author-0"> <div class="c-article-authors-search__list"> <div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Subhra+Priyadarshini" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div> <div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"> <p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a 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<div class="js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile" data-track-context="article body"> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side c-nature-box--mobile" data-component="entitlement-box"> <p class="c-nature-box__text js-text" data-test="access-message"> You have full access to this article via <strong></strong>.</p> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body main-content"> <figure class="figure"><picture class="embed intensity--high"><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.nature.com/lw767/magazine-assets/d44151-025-00039-9/d44151-025-00039-9_50768320.png?as=webp 767w, //media.nature.com/lw319/magazine-assets/d44151-025-00039-9/d44151-025-00039-9_50768320.png?as=webp 319w" sizes="(max-width: 319px) 319px, (min-width: 1023px) 100vw, 767px"></source><img class="figure__image" alt="" loading="lazy" src="//media.nature.com/lw767/magazine-assets/d44151-025-00039-9/d44151-025-00039-9_50768320.png"></img><figcaption><p class="figure__caption u-sans-serif"><span class="mr10">A large portion of the Dal Lake in Srinagar is invaded by the Mexican water lily <i>Nymphaea mexicana</i>. Credit: Manzoor Shah</span><span></span></p></figcaption></picture></figure><p><div class="c-podcast u-sans-serif"><div class="embed intensity--high"><div class="c-podcast__container"><h3 class="c-podcast__audio-caption">Climate and human activity drive silent plant invasions</h3><audio controls="controls" preload="none"><source src="https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d44151-025-00039-9/d44151-025-00039-9_50760438.mpga">Your browser does not support the audio element.</source></audio></div><div class="c-podcast__download-transcript u-text14"><a download="nature-18 March 2025-MO0" class="c-podcast__download" href="https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d44151-025-00039-9/d44151-025-00039-9_50760438.mpga" data-track="click" data-track-category="magazine podcast" data-track-action="download" data-track-label="MP3 download">Download MP3</a><div class="c-podcast__transcript"><a class="c-podcast__audio-transcript-link" href="#MO0" data-track="click" data-track-category="magazine podcast" data-track-action="anchor-link" data-track-label="transcript">See transcript</a></div></div></div></div></p><p>Th<i>e Biolore </i>podcast series presents lesser-known stories from the history of biological sciences in India. This richly researched audio retrospect draws on expert insights, science archives, oral histories, literature reviews and field reportage. <i>Biolore</i> delves into foundational science, analyzing its lasting impact on humankind.</p><p>In this episode of <i>Biolore,</i> experts Ankila Hiremath, Manzoor Shah, and Ninad Mungi uncover the hidden impact of invasive plant species on India’s biodiversity. From the aggressive spread of <i>Lantana camara</i> choking forests to the unexpected dominance of Canadian horseweed in Kashmir, invasive species are altering landscapes, disrupting food webs, and affecting local economies. The discussion explores how history, climate, and human activity drive these invasions and why prevention is the key to control. Can policy, science, and grassroots action reverse the damage? Tune in to learn why these ‘silent invaders’ demand urgent attention.</p> </div> <p><em>doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d44151-025-00039-9</em></p><div class="c-article-endnote"><p><i>Host: </i><b><i>Subhra Priyadarshini</i></b><i>; Co-production: </i><b><i>Sahana Ghosh</i></b><i>; Sound editing and Biolore title music: </i><b><i>Prince George</i></b><i>; Biolore vocal: </i><b><i>Sarah Hyder Iqbal</i></b></p></div> <div id="references" class="c-article-references__container"> </div> <div class="c-article-transcript__container"> <h3 class="c-article-transcript__title" id="transcript">Transcript</h3> <h4 class="c-article-transcript__caption">Climate and human activity drive silent plant invasions</h4> <div id="MO0"><p>(Lightly edited for readability)</p><p><b>Speakers</b>: Ankila Hiremath, Manzoor Shah, Ninad Mungi</p><p><b>Support Announcement </b>00:01: This episode is produced with support from the National Center for Biological Sciences.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 00:07: Welcome back to <i>Biolore</i>. This is a Nature India podcast series where we unravel fascinating stories from the history of biological sciences in India. I am Subhra Priyadarshini, and today we are going to tackle a silent invasion -- plants that don't belong but refuse to leave. Invasive species, they are like those uninvited guests to your party who take over your snacks, the music and even the furniture. These plants spread aggressively. They disrupt ecosystems. They harm native species and even impact local economies. But how exactly do they spread? Where do they come from? What makes them so hard to control, and can we do anything about them at all? In the episode today are tales of large herbivores who resist these plant takeovers. We have tales of thorny <i>Lantana</i> and the surprising rise of Canadian horse weed. In all, we are basically exploring the good, the bad and the unexpected twists of biological invasions.</p><p>Picture yourself walking through the lush forests of the Western Ghats in India. You'd expect to see a rich variety of native plants. Instead, you find dense thickets of<i> Lantana camara,</i> its vibrant red, pink and yellow flowers, deceptively beautiful. This plant introduced by the British East India Company as an ornamental species in India has since spread like wildfire, choking native vegetation and making life harder for both wildlife and for people. Now, shift your focus to the Kashmir Himalaya, where another invader, the Canadian horse weed, or <i>Conyza canadensis,</i> has found a surprising advantage. It is originally from North America, but this plant thrives even better in its new environment than in its homeland. These invasions are just accidents of nature. They tell a bigger story of human movement, of colonial trade and global change. What can history teach us about managing these green invaders, and how are scientists and grass root movements working to reclaim native ecosystems?</p><p>Let's hear a little more about this from invasion biologist Ankila Hiremath.</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath </b>03:04: You know, anything that has been brought in from elsewhere or is in an environment to which it is not native is considered an alien species. A lot of alien species you know, exist in cultivation or as ornamentals or as forestry species, and that's it. But if an alien species is able to, say, escape cultivation and establish populations in natural ecosystems, it would be considered an established, or what is called a naturalized species. It's only once it starts to spread, and you know, at the expense of native vegetation that you start thinking of it as an invasive species. So there's an element of ability to start becoming widespread, and also an element of some sort of negative impact, whether it is on native biodiversity. Now more and more, there's also recognition that invasive species can have effects on human health, well being, food security. So it's a combination of the extent of spread and negative impacts that go into our recognizing something as an invasive species.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah: T</b>he way they change the ecosystem processes in the introduced range, the way they disrupt the food web, the way, for example, they lead to complete biotic homogenization, leaving us with a more homogenized world in place of a far diverse world. All these are basically the reasons that add to our worry about invasive species.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 04:38: That was another invasion biologist Manzoor Shah at the University of Kashmir. We will head there in a bit. But first, let's dial in Ninad Mungi at Aarhus University in Denmark to hear a little more on the stark scale of invasion in India.</p><p><b>Ninad Mungi </b>04:58: Our research found that over the last two decades, new invasions have impacted approximately 10,000 square kilometer of herbivore habitat and 6000 square kilometer of tiger habitat every year. But the impacts are not just limited to, of course, national systems and biodiversity. During the same period, around 150 million people, around 3 million livestock and a quarter million small hold agriculture land were exposed to a new invasive plant. Equally concerning but less discussed topic is of invasive animals. Animals such as free ranging domestic dogs in national landscapes are invasive. They hunt vulnerable species, including small deer, ground nesting birds and even rare wildlife like black buck. They outcompete many native predators like jackals and foxes and are known to spread diseases. In fact, we have a recent case study documenting wolf-dog hybrids, highlighting, you know, that they can have long term evolutionary consequences on species.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>06:04: Speaking of case studies, Ankila has a personal connection to Lantana from her childhood.</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath</b> 06:10: Well, I spent some of my childhood in Delhi, where at that time, Lantana was a very common hedge plant, and you saw it everywhere. It has its nice, attractive flowers. And then many, many years later, when I was visiting the Biligiri Rangan hills in Karnataka in South India, and I was part of an interaction with the local tribal community, the soligas. One of the questions put to them was, you know, what they perceived as the biggest threats to biodiversity and the forests around them.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>06:41 And let me guess, they mentioned Lantana?</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath </b>06:45: They mentioned lantana and fire. And I was very surprised by that, given my childhood memories of Lantana. But when I looked around, I saw that Lantana was a very different plant in these forests. It was, you know, several meters tall. It behaved like a climber, getting up into the tree crowns. It was almost like a it formed these dense thickets crowding out the understory. So I was very intrigued. And given what they said it was, I guess it's worth my curiosity to try and understand it and why it was behaving like this, and what it was doing to the forest.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 07:20: Surveys conducted across the Biligiri Rangan hills in the Bandipur forest range of Karnataka in 1997, then in 2008, and even 2018 revealed a sharp increase in Lantana. It rose from 5% to 30% of all woody vegetation between 1997 and 2008, and by 2018 Lantana accounted for nearly 50% of the woody vegetation. So how did it take root in India?</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath </b>07:54: Well, funny you should ask, because just about a year ago, I started delving into trying to understand or trying to see what was the earliest record I could find of Lantana. And that took me to something called the Natural History of Brazil, that was written in 1648. That's probably the earliest pictorial record of <i>Lantana camara</i> from Northeast Brazil, which was then a Dutch colony called New Holland. And apparently it was from there that Lantana initially was brought to Europe and probably grown in Botanical Gardens in the Netherlands and elsewhere. And then we find that throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, you see records of Lantana, not just <i>Lantana camara</i>, but other Lantana species also showing up in the records of these botanical gardens in Europe. We understand that Lantana had become a favoured ornamental plant in Europe at this time, presumably because of its colorful, attractive flowers. And then it seems to have been brought from Europe to India and also taken to other colonies of the European powers. So, you know, parts of Africa, Australia. So from what we understand, it was brought to India in the early part of the 19th century, so around 1807, or 1809.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>09:14: But wait, there's a twist in the story. The <i>Lantana camara</i>, introduced to India and other parts of the world, was not a single species, but more like a mix of different species and ornamental cultivars. Before reaching India, it had already undergone hybridization in Europe, where it was cultivated as an ornamental plant. When this <i>Lantana camara</i> was introduced to new regions like India and South Africa, it was already genetically diverse. The Lantana we see in these regions today is quite different from<i> Lantana camara</i> found in its native distribution. It varies in traits such as growth form, flower colours and the range of environments in which it actually grows.</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath </b>09:56: Another thing is that there are multiple records of introduction. It wasn't just a one time introduction, but different populations seem to have been introduced at different times. So what we see today is probably the result of a lot of interbreeding of these, you know, Lantanas from these different populations that were brought in, and probably also hybridization of different ornamental cultivars that were brought in. So what we have is actually something that biologists refer to as the <i>Lantana camara</i> species complex, rather than <i>Lantana camara</i> in a narrow sense. So I think this genetic diversity has probably enabled Lantana to spread across many more environments than it occurs in its native range.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 10:43: Now, Lantana also had help from birds that widely dispersed its seeds, while humans introduced it to botanical gardens and military towns. These factors basically helped it proliferate in India and in neighboring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Some populations may also have arrived directly from Europe.</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath </b>11:10: For instance, there is a record of Lantana being brought to India, one of the many introductions from Paradeniya in Sri Lanka to the Lalbagh Botanical Garden (in Bengaluru, India). So it may have been brought to Sri Lanka independently of being brought to India. And then, you know, transfers between countries as well.</p><p><b>Ninad Mungi </b>11:27: This in turn, impacts herbivores like the spotted deer. In fact, we have a case where excessive consumption of Lantana has led to fatal toxicity in India populations. That's in a central Indian Tiger Reserve in Kanha, when herbivore numbers decline, predators such as Tigers ar also affected, illustrating how a single invasive plants can disrupt the entire food web. And we have very parallel and similar cases of, you know, aquatic plants, floating plants like Pistia and Eichhornia, choking Indian lakes and rivers and depleting the oxygen levels of waters, leading to fish die offs. This has devastating consequences on local fisheries and livelihoods of communities.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>12:18: Unlike Lantana, <i>Conyza canadensis</i> in Kashmir has a very different story. Invasion isn't always about being aggressive. Sometimes it's just about finding the right weather, as Mansoor Shah at the University of Kashmir discovered. Historical records, phylogeography and genomic studies helped Manzoor and colleagues shed more light.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah </b>12:42: So for as <i>Conyza canadensis</i> is concerned, this is a slightly different species. In native regions in North America, if you just hang around the roads, you will see the species, quite weedy type, also there. But the kind of proportions that it attains here in the invaded landscapes, it has been invaded not only in the Himalayas, but also 40 countries across the world.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>13:06: <i>Conyza canadensis</i> was introduced in Europe as early as the 1700s when it was noted for its role in stabilizing sandy soils. However, what was once considered beneficial in Europe has become a very serious threat in the Himalaya, it spread from North America to Europe over 350 years ago, largely because its seeds were transported with cotton and cereals. Similarly, war time disturbances such as the bombing of London during World War II, likely facilitated its spread by creating disturbed, open habitats such as rubble, vacant plots, precisely the environments created by wartime destruction.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah </b>13:52: In 1942, Salisbury listed <i>Conyza canadensis</i> as one of the six earliest and most abundant weeds that colonized London just by bombing during the World War II.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>14:04: Now, Manzoor and colleagues from different parts of the world started comparing how the species behaves in its native habitat versus in regions where it has been introduced, whether its relationships change depending on the environment. This would be the start of many eureka moments.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah </b>14:23: Despite looking kind of weedy at both the places, I must tell you, we were really surprised to see a complete negative relationship of this species in the non native regions, so far as its impact on the native species are concerned. But in the native range, that was not the case. We had no such negative relationship. And sometimes it was a positive relationship, a facilitation kind of relationship that told us, no, these species behave differently. And now coming to the question that we actually asked: What are the genomic signatures, for example, so what is driving this change? We thought probably it is probably more genetically, you know, diverse in the non native regions as compared to the native regions, and that is probably one of the reasons. But what we found was very different. What we found was the genetic diversity was very low in both the regions, not that high. Selfing rates were very high for this species. And both these things, genetic diversity and selfing, they were almost comparable between the native and the non native regions. Now the question is, what is the difference? Then it was not necessarily the range difference, but the climate of a particular place from which it originated is a major driver of its behavior. And a series of more studies on this species have been published that this species in the non native regions enters into an entirely different kind of interaction, friendly interaction, with the soil biota, mycorrhizals, especially so. These are all sorts of reasons for these species to proliferate in the non native regions. Most of the management strategies across the world have not really worked with these species. There are some successes, but not to the extent you know, that can be replicated at a large scale.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 15:59: Now, as is natural, people often don't pay attention until it's too late. By the time an invasion becomes obvious, managing it is way more expensive and in some cases nearly impossible. Raising awareness and getting policy makers to act before things reach such a crisis point is the key. That's what happened with the Mexican water lily and Lantana.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah</b> 16:23: And there are many tools through which you can predict it at the very outset, at this stage of introduction, for example, when it has not overspread. And at that point in time, if you talk to our policy makers, that this is a problem, we need to address because this is the scientific reason behind this. They do not pay much heed because it is not visibly a problem until it attains that proportion of completely taking over the landscapes. For example, in Dal Lake, this <i>Nymphaea mexicana</i>, once it spread across the whole expanse of the lake, it caught the attention of everybody who goes around. We have our administrators, or seasons. But at that stage, like cancer in the most advanced last stage, you cannot basically cure it. You have to just manage it, right?</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath</b> 17:07: I think as a country, we've woken up rather late to the problem of Lantana. I mean, I think it's been an issue for several decades now, but it's only in the last decade or so that where we've become aware of the issue. So I think so far, we've been tackling it in a rather piecemeal fashion. So you know, forest departments in different states have taken on the job of trying to manage Lantana and restore habitats. There are good examples from different parts of the country. But you know, removal alone is not sufficient. And I think there are enough observations that if you remove Lantana and walk away, it will be back in three or four years. Removal has to be accompanied by restoration, continued monitoring and often repeat removals. And I think we need to evolve scalable restoration interventions that can follow large scale removal, and I think this is something that's still under development.</p><p><b>Ninad Mungi </b>18:09: It is possible to manage and mitigate the impacts of Invasive alien species, but we need an evidence-based approach, rather than reactive. We need to be very strategic in doing so. And another key point from the whole assessment was, you know, people are at the root of this problem, and they are at the heart of its solution. So we need to engage more, device cohesive policies, actions, and streamline resources in a meaningful way to solve it.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 18:41: So Ninad is talking about the IPBES assessment on invasive species.</p><p><b>Ninad Mungi </b>18:48: A long term monitoring is paramount in the country for this invasion. And one of the major takeaways, actually, from the invasion perspective, would be a project called DAISIE, Delivering Alien Invasive Species in Europe. It is a major project. If you look at the outcome of that project, Pan European, it is huge, not only in terms of inventories, but also in terms of understanding the biology, the impacts and the management. So that could be one of the, you know, learnings from the European continent, the way we can run our project here in the Indian context.</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath </b>19:19: Well, people have attempted to look at, you know, various forms of risk assessment. Because I should also add that not all introduced species are where the plant or animal necessarily become invasive. It's only a small proportion that go on to do so, and usually that involves, you know, evolving adaptations to the new environment into which they've been introduced. That could entail forming alliances with native species that help pollinate a plant or disperse a plant. So people have looked at a set of characteristics that are associated with something that might become invasive. You know, whether it's already invasive elsewhere, the type of reproductive traits it might have, the type of growth traits it might have. So not necessarily just genetic characteristics, but a whole range of characteristics go into trying to determine what species might be at greater risk of becoming invasive. And these risk assessments are already in use in different parts of the world, although not so in India yet.</p><p><b>Nina Mungi </b>20:26: But mapping that extent in a vast and diverse country like India comes with a major challenge. The most accessible tools, such as satellite imagery, often fall short because invasive plants look very similar to native species. For an example, in dry systems, many native Acacia plants are structurally and in reflectance, similar to invasive Prosopis plants, making it incredibly difficult to distinguish from space. That's why systematic on ground sampling is absolutely essential. Fortunately, India has an extensive network of these long term vegetation monitoring plots, around 150,000 plots spread across 20 states that are established as part of the National Tiger monitoring programme. These plots are monitored every four years since 2006 and have provided some unparalleled data sets on invasive plants using a very sophisticated big data approach. We discovered that invasive plants have already taken over 66% of India's national landscapes, and they are still expanding every year. Around 700 square kilometer of new areas are invaded. Some species like <i>Chromolaena odorata</i> are expanding at thousands of square kilometer every year. These findings were published in many journals, but they are more importantly, picked by the state forest departments and the National Tiger Conservation Authority now to guide invasive species management and ecosystem restoration.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini</b> 21:54: And so what happens if you look at repurposing them for, say, economic or ecological benefits? Is that a possibility at all.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah </b>22:04: So there are a whole range of products that are now in line, which seems to be a very promising, new sort of startup, and a very different direction this research can take. And I believe we need to, you know, engage our marginalized communities, especially in the use of this biomass for making different valued products for helping their livelihoods and also helping us manage these species through utilization based management.</p><p><b>Ankila Hiremath</b> 22:31: I'm a little hesitant there, because I think if you try and create a use on a large scale for something like Lantana, then I think it could have perverse outcomes. So, you know, there are already efforts to make, Lantana furniture. There's also these beautiful Lantana sculptures, elephants, for example, that people are making. But these are more localized efforts, and the idea is to try and control, or locally control or contain Lantana rather than to create a market for it or make it a resource.</p><p><b>Manzoor Shah </b>23:10: As ecologists, we can never recommend cultivation of these invasive species. Of course, not at all, because this is one of their economic, say, positive sides, but then ecological follow-ups are still there.</p><p><b>Ninad Mungi </b>23:21: Now, one big challenge is that negative results are rarely published. So if a control method doesn't work, it often goes undocumented, leaving future efforts to repeat the same mistakes. And this has made it really difficult to refine and improve management strategies over time. One area where India lags behind other regions, like Africa and Australia, is this long term experimentation with invasion control using nature-based solutions. I strongly believe that India needs to invest in this direction and have field trials to determine some more systematic evidences for using it. And here's the tough truth, India is not prepared to understand or to act about what to do with this. And that's because, you know, other regions have invested in long term ecological experiments, but Indian academia needs to break its conventional lab control approaches and single mechanism focus in the era of these rapid global changes. And with the luxury of sophisticated research infrastructure, I think we must shift our focus to more complex field trials and Institute experiments. And this research amnesia is also something that is reflected in policy frameworks, impedes timely actions and misses the opportunities for safeguarding both ecosystems and their services. And what ecosystems we want to imagine in the future is also a question. We have absolutely opposite example where invasive alien plants put together form sustainable ecosystems in India. For example, the Bharatpur National Park is totally a human, anthropogenic ecosystem, right? And most of the birds perch and nest on invasive <i>Prosopis juliflora</i>, and many herbivores eat pods of the same species. And that, to me, is a novel ecosystem. Sometimes when alien species become integrated into the native communities in a way that puts it into a trajectory of novel ecological interactions. And maybe, if that supports local biodiversity and societal needs, that is something we might aspire for. But then we also have an example where people thought, you know, 70 years ago, that they would want to green the deserts because they did not like the barren deserts. And then they accorded <i>Prosopis</i> <i>juliflora</i> royal status and propagated it. And today we are in a scenario where native grasses, which are very important for the pastoral lifestyles and communities, are depleted because of <i>Prosopis</i> <i>juliflora</i>. We have very contextual takes and examples, and that's why I think integrating more people into decision making can help to imagine the outcomes and devise effective interventions.</p><p><b>Subhra Priyadarshini </b>26:11: So all in all, that's the story of invasive plant species in India, a very silent but very powerful force reshaping ecosystems, livelihoods and biodiversity. As we heard from the experts Ankila, Ninad and Manzoor, the bottom line is prevention. Once an invasive species takes hold, controlling it becomes an uphill battle. Raising awareness, enforcing science-backed policies and restoring ecosystems alongside removal efforts could be the key to turning the tide. Thanks for joining us on this episode. 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Episode 42: Biolore: India's most aggressive botanical invaders