CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>HIV and pregnancy - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"c3d7c70f-771c-4ac6-b536-273361971039","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"HIV_and_pregnancy","wgTitle":"HIV and pregnancy","wgCurRevisionId":1256807399,"wgRevisionId":1256807399,"wgArticleId":43456997,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government","HIV/AIDS","Midwifery"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"HIV_and_pregnancy","wgRelevantArticleId":43456997,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[], "wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3537721","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="HIV and pregnancy - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-HIV_and_pregnancy rootpage-HIV_and_pregnancy skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=HIV+and+pregnancy" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=HIV+and+pregnancy" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=HIV+and+pregnancy" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=HIV+and+pregnancy" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism_of_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism_of_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Mechanism of transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanism_of_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_or_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_or_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Signs or symptoms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signs_or_symptoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Signs or symptoms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Signs_or_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Maternal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Infant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis/screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis/screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Diagnosis/screening </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis/screening-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis/screening subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis/screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pregnancy_planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy_planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pregnancy planning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testing_in_pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testing_in_pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Testing in pregnancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testing_in_pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment/management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment/management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Treatment/management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment/management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Treatment/management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment/management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prenatal_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Prenatal care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prevention_of_mother-to-child_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention_of_mother-to-child_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Prevention of mother-to-child transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention_of_mother-to-child_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_and_delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_and_delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Labor and delivery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_and_delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Immunizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_evaluation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_evaluation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Further evaluation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_evaluation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiretroviral_medications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiretroviral_medications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Antiretroviral medications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiretroviral_medications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-exposure_prophylaxis_(PrEP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-exposure_prophylaxis_(PrEP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-exposure_prophylaxis_(PrEP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutritional_supplements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutritional_supplements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Nutritional supplements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutritional_supplements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postnatal_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postnatal_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Postnatal care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postnatal_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal_follow-up" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_follow-up"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Maternal follow-up </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_follow-up-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infant_Treatment_and_Follow-Up" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infant_Treatment_and_Follow-Up"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Infant Treatment and Follow-Up </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infant_Treatment_and_Follow-Up-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breastfeeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breastfeeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Breastfeeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breastfeeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Societal impacts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societal_impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Societal impacts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Societal_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Health considerations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_disparities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_disparities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Health disparities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_disparities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Support groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">HIV and pregnancy</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 7 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-7" aria-hidden="true" > 7 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84" title="فيروس العوز المناعي البشري والحمل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيروس العوز المناعي البشري والحمل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_du_VIH_%C3%A0_l%27accouchement" title="Transmission du VIH à l'accouchement – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Transmission du VIH à l'accouchement" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B0%84%EB%A9%B4%EC%97%AD%EA%B2%B0%ED%95%8D_%EB%B0%94%EC%9D%B4%EB%9F%AC%EC%8A%A4%EC%99%80_%EC%9E%84%EC%8B%A0" title="인간면역결핍 바이러스와 임신 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인간면역결핍 바이러스와 임신" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D4%BB%D4%B1%D5%8E_%D6%87_%D5%B0%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="ՄԻԱՎ և հղիություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="ՄԻԱՎ և հղիություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95-HIV" title="היריון ו-HIV – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היריון ו-HIV" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/OIV_va_homiladorlik" title="OIV va homiladorlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="OIV va homiladorlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%98%D0%A7_%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="ВИЧ и беременность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="ВИЧ и беременность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3537721#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:HIV_and_pregnancy" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/HIV_and_pregnancy" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/HIV_and_pregnancy" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&oldid=1256807399" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=HIV_and_pregnancy&id=1256807399&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHIV_and_pregnancy">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHIV_and_pregnancy">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3537721" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">HIV transmission route</div> HIV in pregnancy is the presence of an <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> infection in a woman while she is pregnant. There is a risk of <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> transmission from mother to child in three primary situations: <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>, and while <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>. This topic is important because the risk of <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viral</a> transmission can be significantly reduced with appropriate medical intervention, and without treatment HIV/AIDS can cause significant illness and death in both the mother and child. This is exemplified by data from <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">The Centers for Disease Control</a> (CDC): In the United States and Puerto Rico between the years of 2014–2017, where prenatal care is generally accessible, there were 10,257 infants in the United States and Puerto Rico who were exposed to a maternal HIV infection in utero who did not become infected and 244 exposed infants who did become infected.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_HIV_Surveillence-1">[1]</a> The burden of the <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a>, including mother-to-child transmission of HIV, disproportionately affects <a href="/wiki/Low_and_middle_income_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Low and middle income countries">low- and middle-income countries</a>, in particular the countries of Southern Africa.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">The World Health Organization</a> (WHO) estimates that 1.3 million women and girls living with HIV become pregnant each year.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The risks of both neonatal HIV infection and maternal illness are reduced by appropriate prenatal screening, treatment of the HIV infection with <a href="/wiki/Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">antiretroviral therapy</a> (ART), and adherence to recommendations after birth. Notably, without antiretroviral medications, obstetrical interventions, and breastfeeding recommendations, there is approximately a 30% risk of mother-to-child HIV transmission.<a href="#cite_note-Workowski_2015-4">[4]</a> This risk is reduced to less than 1% when the previously mentioned interventions are employed.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) therefore recommends HIV testing as a routine component of both pre-pregnancy and first trimester prenatal care to ensure expedient and appropriate interventions.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG_2018-6">[6]</a> HIV infection is not a <a href="/wiki/Contraindication" title="Contraindication">contraindication</a> to pregnancy. Women with HIV may choose to become pregnant if they so desire, however, they are encouraged to talk with their doctors beforehand. Notably, 20-34% of women in the United States living with HIV are unaware of their diagnosis until they become pregnant and undergo prenatal screening.<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism_of_transmission">Mechanism of transmission</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanism of transmission">edit</a>]</div> HIV can be transmitted from an infected mother to the neonate in three circumstances: across the placenta during pregnancy (in utero), at birth due to fetal contact with infected maternal genital secretions and blood, or postnatally through the breast milk.<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a> This type of viral transmission is also known of as <a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">vertical transmission</a>. It is thought that mother-to-child HIV transmission most commonly occurs at the time of delivery when the baby comes into direct contact with the mother's infected blood or genital secretions/fluid in the birth canal.<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a> Maternal treatment with ART therapy prior to delivery decreases the <a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">viral load</a>, or the amount of virus present in the mother's blood and other body fluids, which significantly reduces the chance of viral transmission to the fetus during labor.<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_or_symptoms">Signs or symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Signs or symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maternal">Maternal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Maternal">edit</a>]</div> HIV infections in adults typically follow a 3-stage course, as described below: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg/220px-Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg/330px-Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg/440px-Cross_Reaction_Rash_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Maculopapular Rash, note: this image shows a nonspecific rash that is not necessarily associated with an acute HIV infection</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png/220px-Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png/330px-Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png/440px-Early_Symptoms_of_HIV_Diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="697" /></a><figcaption>Early Symptoms of HIV Diagram.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Early, acute stage</dt> <dd>The early stage of an HIV infection involves rapid viral replication and infection.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_About_Hiv-9">[9]</a> This stage typically lasts for 2–4 weeks following an infection and subsequently resolves spontaneously. Between 50 and 90% of adults experience symptoms during this phase of infection.<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-AAP_2018-11">[11]</a> At this time, women can experience fever, sore throat, lethargy, swollen lymph nodes, diarrhea, and a rash. The rash is described as maculopapular, which means it is composed of flat and raised skin lesions, and it appears on the trunk, arms and legs but does not appear on the palms of the hands or sole of the feet.<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a></dd> <dt>Middle, chronic/latent stage</dt> <dd>The middle stage of an HIV infection can last for 7–10 years in a patient who is not being treated with ART therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a> During this time, the virus itself is not latent or inactive, but it is sequestered inside of the lymph nodes, where it is replicating at low levels.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_About_Hiv-9">[9]</a> Women are generally asymptomatic during this period but some can experience persistent fevers, fatigue, weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes, which is known as the AIDS-related complex (ARC).<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a></dd> <dt>Late, advanced/immunodeficient stage</dt> <dd>AIDS is caused by the progressive destruction of CD4 <a href="/wiki/T-helper_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="T-helper cells">T-helper cells</a> of the immune system by the HIV virus. AIDS is defined by either a CD4 cell count of less than 200 cells per microliter (which is indicative of severe immunodeficiency), or the development of an AIDS-specific condition.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_About_Hiv-9">[9]</a> Because they are immunocompromised, women in this stage are at risk for serious, <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunistic infections">opportunistic infections</a> that the general population either does not contract or contracts very mildly. These types of infections cause significant illness and death in patients with HIV/AIDS.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_HIV_Surveillence-1">[1]</a> People with such advanced HIV infections are also at greater risk for developing neurological symptoms (for example <a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">dementia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy" title="Peripheral neuropathy">neuropathy</a>), and certain cancers (for example <a href="/wiki/Non-Hodgkin%27s_Lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma">Non-Hodgkin's B-Cell Lymphoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's Sarcoma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection" title="Human papillomavirus infection">HPV</a>-associated cancers including <a href="/wiki/Anal_cancer" title="Anal cancer">anal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_cancer" title="Head and neck cancer">oral, pharyngeal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penile_cancer" title="Penile cancer">penile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulvar_cancer" title="Vulvar cancer">vulvar cancer</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">[8]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infant">Infant</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Infant">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg/220px-Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg/330px-Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg/440px-Human_tongue_infected_with_oral_candidiasis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1934" data-file-height="2513" /></a><figcaption>Oral Candidiasis (oral thrush) in a child.</figcaption></figure> The clinical presentation of HIV in untreated infants is less predictable and specific than that of an adult infection. Notably, if an HIV diagnosis is diagnosed and appropriately treated, symptoms and complications in the infant are rare. Without ART therapy, infants born with HIV have a poor prognosis. If symptoms develop, the most common include persistent fevers, generalized lymph node swelling, enlarged spleen and/or liver, growth failure, and diarrhea. These children can also develop <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic infections</a>, notably including recurrent oral thrush (<a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">Candidiasis</a>) and/or Candida diaper rash, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, or invasive bacterial, viral, parasitic, or fungal infections. Neurologic symptoms, particularly <a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">HIV encephalopathy</a>, are common in infants with untreated HIV.<a href="#cite_note-AAP_2018-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis/screening">Diagnosis/screening</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Diagnosis/screening">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy_planning">Pregnancy planning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pregnancy planning">edit</a>]</div> The main factors to consider in pregnancy planning for HIV positive individuals are the risk of disease transmission between the sexual partners themselves and the risk of disease transmission to the fetus. Both risks can be mitigated with appropriate perinatal planning and preventative care.<a href="#cite_note-:21-12">[12]</a> ACOG and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommends all couples in which one or both partners are HIV positive seek pre-pregnancy counseling and consult experts in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Infectious Disease, and possibly reproductive endocrinology and infertility to ensure couples are getting appropriate, individualized guidance based on their specific disease states and weighing the risks to the fetus associated with taking ART medications.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> Couples in which only one partner is HIV positive are at risk of transmitting HIV to the uninfected partner. These couples are known as <a href="/wiki/Serodiscordant" title="Serodiscordant">serodiscordant</a> couples. The CDC reports that HIV positive people who are able to sustain undetectable viral loads while taking ART therapy have a negligible risk of transmitting HIV to their partner through sex based on observational data from multiple large scale studies, most notably the <a href="/wiki/HPTN_052" title="HPTN 052">HPTN052 clinical trial</a>, the PARTNER study, the PARTNER2 study, and the Opposites Attract Study.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The NIH therefore advises that HIV positive people who maintain an undetectable viral load via adherence to long-term ART therapy can attempt conception via condomless sex with minimal risk of disease transmission to the HIV negative partner.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> The NIH further recommends that aligning condomless sex with peak fertility, which occurs at ovulation, via ovulation test kits and consultation with clinical experts can maximize the chance for conception.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:In_vitro_fertilization.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/In_vitro_fertilization.jpg/220px-In_vitro_fertilization.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/In_vitro_fertilization.jpg/330px-In_vitro_fertilization.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/In_vitro_fertilization.jpg/440px-In_vitro_fertilization.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>In-Vitro Fertilization.</figcaption></figure> When the HIV positive individual in a serodiscordant partnership has not achieved viral suppression or his or her viral status is unknown, there are other options for preventing transmission amongst partners. The first option includes administering <a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis ART Therapy (PrEP)</a> to the HIV negative partner, which involves once daily dosing of a combination drug to prevent the transmission of HIV following condomless sex.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> The NIH advises administering PrEP to serodiscordant couples who are going to attempt conception via condomless sex, however, they emphasize that adherence is absolutely necessary to effectively protect the HIV negative partner.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> The other option for achieving conception while simultaneously preventing HIV transmission amongst partners is reproductive assistance. When the female attempting to conceive is HIV positive, she can undergo assisted insemination with semen from her partner to reduce the risk of transmission.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> When the man in the partnership is HIV positive, the couple can choose to use donor sperm or utilize sperm preparation techniques (for example, <a href="/wiki/Sperm_washing" title="Sperm washing">sperm washing</a> and subsequent viral testing of the sample) and intrauterine or <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilization</a> to achieve conception to reduce the risk of transmission to his partner.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> In couples where the male and female are both HIV positive, conception may occur normally without concern for disease transmission amongst each other. However, it is vital for any HIV positive mother to initiate and maintain appropriate ART therapy under the guidance of an HIV expert prior to and throughout pregnancy to reduce the risk of perinatal transmission to the fetus.<a href="#cite_note-:14-14">[14]</a> Although assisted reproductive techniques are available for serodiscordant couples, there are still limitations to achieving a successful pregnancy. women with HIV have been shown to have decreased fertility, which can affect the available reproductive options.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> women with HIV are also more likely to be infected with other sexually transmitted diseases, placing them at higher risk for infertility. Males with HIV appear to have decreased semen volume and sperm motility, which decreases their fertility.<a href="#cite_note-:02-17">[17]</a> ART may also affect both male and female fertility and some drugs can be <a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">toxic</a> to embryos.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testing_in_pregnancy">Testing in pregnancy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Testing in pregnancy">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS">Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg/220px-HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg/330px-HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg/440px-HIV_Rapid_Test_being_administered.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>HIV Rapid Test being administered to a patient.</figcaption></figure> Early identification of maternal HIV infection and initiation of ART in pregnancy is vital in preventing viral transmission to the fetus and protecting maternal health, as HIV-infected women who do not receive testing are more likely to transmit the infection to their children.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG_2018-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC_Opt_Out-19">[19]</a> The CDC, NIH, ACOG, and American Academy of Pediatrics each recommend first trimester <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS">HIV testing</a> for all pregnant women as a part of routine prenatal care.<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC_HIV_Surveillence-1">[1]</a> The NIH further elaborates on this recommendation, indicating that HIV testing should be conducted as early as possible wherever a woman seeks care and initially determines she is pregnant (for example, in the Emergency Department).<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a> First trimester HIV testing is conducted simultaneously with other routine, early pregnancy lab work in the United States, including: a complete blood count, blood typing and Rhesus factor, urinalysis, urine culture, rubella titer, hepatitis B and C titers, sexually transmitted infection testing, and tuberculosis testing.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> ACOG advises that prenatal caregivers repeat third trimester HIV testing prior to 36 weeks gestation for the following women: those who remain at high risk for contracting an HIV infection, those who reside in areas with a high incidence of HIV infection in pregnancy, those who are incarcerated, or those with symptoms suggestive of an acute HIV infection.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG_2018-6">[6]</a> For women who have not received prenatal care or who have not been previously tested for HIV infection during pregnancy, ACOG and the NIH suggest performing rapid HIV screening in the labor and delivery unit prior to delivery or immediately postpartum.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG_2018-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a> HIV testing in the United States is currently offered on an opt-out basis, per the CDC's recommendation.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_Opt_Out-19">[19]</a> Opt-out testing involves educating the patient on the impact of an HIV infection on pregnancy, notifying the patient that HIV screening is recommended for all pregnant women, and informing her that she will automatically receive the test with her other routine lab work unless she explicitly declines the test and signs a consent form to have it removed from her lab panel.<a href="#cite_note-ACOG_2018-6">[6]</a> The alternative model, known as the opt-in model, involves counseling women on HIV testing, following which they elect to receive the test by signing a consent form. The opt-in model is not recommended by the CDC, as it is associated with lower testing rates.<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a> If a woman chooses to decline testing, she will not receive the test. However, she will continue to receive HIV counseling throughout pregnancy so that she may be as informed as possible about the disease and its potential impact. She will be offered HIV testing at all stages of her pregnancy in case she changes her mind.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The most updated HIV testing protocols recommend using the HIV-1 and HIV-2 antigen/antibody combination immunoassay as the initial screening test for an HIV infection.<a href="#cite_note-Branson14-22">[22]</a> This blood test assesses whether or not the mother has created <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, which are disease-fighting proteins of the immune system, against the HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses. These antibodies will only be present if the patient has been exposed to HIV, therefore, they act as a marker of infection. This test also detects a protein called p24 in maternal blood, which is a specific component of the HIV virus itself and also acts as an early marker of an HIV infection. If this test is positive, the CDC recommends performing follow-up testing using a test called the HIV-1/HIV-2 antibody differentiation immunoassay that both confirms the diagnosis and determines the specific type of HIV infection the patient has to specifically tailor further management of the patient.<a href="#cite_note-Branson14-22">[22]</a> Sometimes, however, a person may be infected with HIV but the body has not produced enough antibodies to be detected by the test.<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a> If a woman has risk factors for HIV infection or symptoms of an acute infection but tests negative on the initial screening test, she should be retested in 3 months to confirm that she does not have HIV, or she should receive further testing with an HIV RNA assay, which can be positive earlier than the antibody/antigen immunoassay.<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-23">[23]</a> Antiretroviral medications should be initiated at the time of maternal HIV diagnosis and they should be continued indefinitely.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment/management">Treatment/management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Treatment/management">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prenatal_care">Prenatal care</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Prenatal care">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prevention_of_mother-to-child_transmission">Prevention of mother-to-child transmission</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission">edit</a>]</div> The risk of HIV transmission from mother to child is most directly related to the plasma <a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">viral load</a> of the mother. Untreated mothers with a high (HIV RNA greater than 100,000 copies/mL) have a transmission risk of over 50%.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> For women with a lower viral load (HIV RNA less than 1000 copies/mL), the risk of transmission is less than 1%.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In general, the lower the viral load, the lower the risk of transmission. For this reason, ART is recommended throughout the pregnancy so that viral load levels remain as low as possible and the risk of transmission is reduced.<a href="#cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> The usage of ART drugs that effectively cross the placenta can also act as <a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">pre-exposure prophylaxis</a> for the infant, as they can achieve adequate ART drug levels in the fetus to prevent acquisition of the viral illness.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> Finally, it is recommended that ART drugs be administered to the infant following birth to continue to provide protection from the virus that the infant could have been exposed to during labor and delivery.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_(27423001115).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_%2827423001115%29.png/220px-Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_%2827423001115%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_%2827423001115%29.png/330px-Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_%2827423001115%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_%2827423001115%29.png/440px-Antiretroviral_Therapy_for_HIV_Infection_%2827423001115%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2049" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>Modern-day antiretroviral therapy</figcaption></figure> All pregnant women who test positive for HIV should begin and continue ART therapy regardless of CD4 counts or viral load to reduce the risk of viral transmission.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> The earlier ART is initiated, the more likely the viral load will be suppressed by the time of delivery.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Some women are concerned about using ART early in the pregnancy, as babies are most susceptible to drug toxicities during the first trimester. However, delaying ART initiation may be less effective in reducing infection transmission.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiretroviral_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiretroviral therapy">Antiretroviral therapy</a> is most importantly used at the following times in pregnancy to reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: <ul><li>During pregnancy: pregnant women infected with HIV receive an oral regimen of at least three different anti-HIV medications.<a href="#cite_note-aidsinfo2012-31">[31]</a></li> <li>During labor and delivery: pregnant women infected with HIV who are already on triple ART should continue with their oral regimen. If their viral load is high (HIV RNA greater than 1,000 copies/mL), or there is question about whether medications have been taken consistently, then <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenous</a> <a href="/wiki/Zidovudine" title="Zidovudine">zidovudine</a> (AZT) is added at the time of delivery.<a href="#cite_note-lvguidelines-32">[32]</a> Pregnant women who have not been on ART prior to delivery or who have been on ART for less than four weeks should also be given intravenous AZT or a single dose of <a href="/wiki/Nevirapine" title="Nevirapine">nevirapin</a> (sdNVP), tenofovir (TDF) and emtricitabine (FTC) and a three-hourly dose of AZT.<a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a></li></ul> According to current recommendations by the WHO, CDC and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), all individuals with HIV should begin ART as soon as they are diagnosed with HIV. The recommendation is stronger in the following situations:<a href="#cite_note-:4-34">[34]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD4_count" class="mw-redirect" title="CD4 count">CD4 count</a> below 350 cells/mm3</li> <li>High viral load (HIV RNA greater than 100,000 copies/mL)</li> <li>Progression of HIV to AIDS</li> <li>Development of HIV-related infections and illnesses</li> <li>Pregnancy</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Labor_and_delivery">Labor and delivery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Labor and delivery">edit</a>]</div> Women should continue taking their ART regimen on schedule and as prescribed throughout both the prenatal period and childbirth. The viral load helps determine which mode of delivery is safest for both the mother and the baby.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> According to the NIH, when the mother has been receiving ART and her viral load is low (HIV RNA less than 1000 copies/mL) at the time of delivery, the risk of viral transmission during childbirth is very low and a <a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">vaginal delivery</a> may be performed. A <a href="/wiki/Cesarean_delivery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesarean delivery">cesarean delivery</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Induction of labor">induction of labor</a> should only be performed in this patient population if they are medically necessary for non-HIV-related reasons.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> If the maternal viral load is high (HIV RNA greater than 1000 copies/mL) or if her HIV viral load is unknown around the time of delivery (more than 34 weeks gestation), it is appropriate to schedule a cesarean delivery at 38 weeks to reduce the risk of HIV transmission during childbirth. In these situations, this is the appropriate management guideline regardless of whether or not the mother has taken prenatal ART.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> Sometimes, women who have a high viral load who should receive a caesarean delivery will present to the hospital when their <a href="/wiki/Ruptured_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruptured membranes">water breaks</a> or they are in labor, and management for these patients is specific to each patient and will be determined at the time of presentation, as a cesarean delivery may not significantly reduce the risk of infection transmission.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> The NIH recommends that healthcare providers in the United States contact the National Perinatal HIV/AIDS Clinical Consultation Center at 1-888-448-8765 for further recommendations in these situations.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> All women who present to the hospital in labor and their HIV status is unknown or they are at high risk of contracting an HIV infection but have not received repeat third trimester testing should be tested for HIV using a rapid HIV antigen/antibody test.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> If the rapid screening is positive, <a href="/wiki/Intravenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous">intravenous</a> (IV) zidovudine should be initiated in the mother immediately and further confirmatory testing should be performed.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> IV <a href="/wiki/Zidovudine" title="Zidovudine">Zidovudine</a> is an antiretroviral drug that should be administered to women at or near the time of delivery in the following situations:<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> <ul><li>High viral load (HIV RNA greater than 1000 copies/mL)</li> <li>Unknown viral load</li> <li>Clinical suspicion for maternal noncompliance with prenatal ART regimen</li> <li>Positive rapid HIV antigen/antibody test at labor or prior to a scheduled caesarean delivery</li></ul> Administration of IV Zidovudine can be considered on a case-by-case basis for women who have a moderate viral load (HIV RNA greater than or equal to 50 copies/mL AND less than 1000 copies/mL) near the time of delivery. IV Zidovudine is only not administered if women are both compliant with their prescribed ART regimen throughout pregnancy and have maintained a low viral load near the time of delivery (HIV RNA less than 50 copies/mL between 34 and 36 weeks gestation). Further considerations for managing HIV positive women during labor and delivery include the following recommendations to reduce the risk of HIV transmission:<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> <ul><li>Avoid fetal scalp electrodes for fetal monitoring, particularly if the maternal viral load is greater than 50 copies/mL.</li> <li>Avoid artificial rupture of membranes and <a href="/wiki/Operative_vaginal_delivery" title="Operative vaginal delivery">operative vaginal delivery</a> (using forceps or a vacuum extractor) if at all possible, particularly in women who have not achieved viral suppression. If these methods need to be employed, they should be conducted carefully and following obstetric standards.</li> <li>The potential interactions between the specific ART drugs taken by the mother and those administered during labor should be considered by healthcare providers prior to drug administration.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Immunizations">Immunizations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Immunizations">edit</a>]</div> All pregnant women should receive the inactivated <a href="/wiki/Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">influenza vaccine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/DPT_vaccine" title="DPT vaccine">TdaP vaccine</a>, which covers <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Whooping_cough" title="Whooping cough">pertussis</a> (whooping cough) during the first trimester, regardless of their HIV status.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> If a pregnant woman tests positive for HIV, she should also be administered the <a href="/wiki/Pneumococcal_vaccine" title="Pneumococcal vaccine">pneumococcal vaccine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meningococcal_vaccine" title="Meningococcal vaccine">meningococcal vaccine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A_vaccine" title="Hepatitis A vaccine">Hepatitis A vaccine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine" title="Hepatitis B vaccine">Hepatitis B vaccine</a> following a conversation with her provider.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> is important to prevent serious infectious complications associated with the aforementioned diseases, which patients with HIV are at higher risk of contracting.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a> Pregnant women should notably not receive <a href="/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine" title="Attenuated vaccine">live vaccines</a>, including the Human papilloma virus <a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">(HPV) vaccine</a>, measles mumps and rubella <a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine" title="MMR vaccine">(MMR) vaccine</a>, live influenza vaccine, and v<a href="/wiki/Varicella_vaccine" title="Varicella vaccine">aricella (Chicken pox) vaccine</a> regardless of their HIV statuses, as these vaccines can potentially harm the fetus.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Further_evaluation">Further evaluation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further evaluation">edit</a>]</div> The following monitoring tests are recommended for women who are diagnosed with HIV prior to or during pregnancy:<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">HIV Viral Load</a> (via HIV RNA Levels) at the initial prenatal visit, 2–4 weeks after starting or changing ART, monthly until viral load is undetectable, at least every 3 months subsequently throughout pregnancy, and between 34 and 36 weeks to inform decisions regarding labor and delivery.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4 Count</a> at the initial prenatal visit. This lab should be repeated every 3 months for pregnant women have been on ART for less than 2 years, have inconsistent ART compliance, CD4 counts less than 300 cells per millimeter cubed, or a high viral load. Otherwise, CD4 count does not need to be monitored following the initial visit.</li> <li>HIV <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug Resistance</a> Testing should be performed prior to initiating ART in any pregnant woman including those who have and have not taken antiretroviral medications before, and when modifying failing ART regimens for pregnant women. Note, ART should be initiated prior to receiving the results of drug resistance testing.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li>Standard Glucose Screening to monitor for <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_function_tests" title="Liver function tests">Liver Function Tests</a> within 2–4 weeks after initiating or changing ART drugs and every 3 months subsequently.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a></li> <li>Monitoring for ART Toxicities based on the specific drugs that have been prescribed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a> Screening should initially be offered via noninvasive methods. If these tests are abnormal or an abnormal ultrasound is performed, invasive testing via <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villus sampling</a> can be performed once an ART has been initiated and the HIV viral load is undetectable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">Hepatitis</a> A, B, and C Screening should be performed in all pregnant women with HIV because coinfection is common.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a></li> <li>Further <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually Transmitted Infection</a> (STI) Screening should be performed as HIV positive women are at a higher risk for co-infection than the general population, and exposure to other STIs is associated with stillbirth, preterm delivery, low birth weight, and other complications. Screening should include syphilis, gonococcal, chlamydial, and trichomonal infection.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> Testing as HIV positive patients are at high risk for developing active tuberculosis.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a></li> <li>Testing for prior <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma</a> Exposure should be performed in HIV infected pregnant women, as reactivation of Toxoplasma gondii infection can occur with a low CD4 count (less than 100 cells per microliter), and has the potential to cause congenital toxoplasmosis in the fetus, which has many associated birth complications.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-41">[41]</a></li> <li>Testing for <a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus" title="Cytomegalovirus">Cytomegalovirus</a> (CMV) Exposure should similarly be performed, as CMV is the most common congenital infection and is associated with congenital hearing loss, major handicaps, and death in exposed infants.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-41">[41]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiretroviral_medications">Antiretroviral medications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Antiretroviral medications">edit</a>]</div> The goals of antiretroviral administration during pregnancy are to reduce the risk of transmission of HIV from mother to child, to slow maternal disease progression, and to reduce the risks of maternal opportunistic infection and death. It is important to choose medications that are as safe as possible for the mother and the fetus, and are effective at decreasing the total viral load. Certain antiretroviral drugs carry a risk of toxicity for the fetus. However, the overall benefits of an effective ART regimen outweigh the risks and all women are encouraged to use ART for the duration of their pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> It is important to note that the associations between birth defects and antiretroviral drugs are confounded by several important factors that could also contribute to these complications, for example: exposure to folate antagonists, nutritional and folate status, and tobacco, alcohol, and drug use during pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> The recommended ART regimen for HIV-positive pregnant women is similar to that of the general population. In the United States, the favored ART regimen is a three-drug routine in which the first two drugs are NRTIs and the third is either a protease inhibitor, an integrase inhibitor, or an NNRTI.<a href="#cite_note-:6-43">[43]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside_reverse_transcriptase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor">Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors</a> (NRTIs) are considered the "backbone" of ART and 2 of these medications are generally used in combination. <ul><li>Due to its known safety profile and extensive use in pregnant patients, <a href="/wiki/Zidovudine" title="Zidovudine">zidovudine</a>-<a href="/wiki/Lamivudine" title="Lamivudine">lamivudine</a> is the preferred choice as the NRTI backbone. Zidovudine may worsen <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> so anemic patients are advised to use an alternative agent.</li> <li>For women who are coinfected with <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tenofovir" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenofovir">tenofovir</a> with either <a href="/wiki/Emtricitabine" title="Emtricitabine">emtricitabine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lamivudine" title="Lamivudine">lamivudine</a> is the preferred NRTI backbone.<a href="#cite_note-:6-43">[43]</a></li> <li>NRTI use may cause a life-threatening complication called <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acidosis" title="Lactic acidosis">lactic acidosis</a> in some women, so it is important to monitor patients for this problem. Deaths from lactic acidosis and liver failure have been primarily associated with two specific NRTIs, <a href="/wiki/Stavudine" title="Stavudine">stavudine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Didanosine" title="Didanosine">didanosine</a>. Therefore, combinations involving these drugs should be avoided in pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-aidsinfo2012-31">[31]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protease_inhibitor_(pharmacology)" title="Protease inhibitor (pharmacology)">Protease inhibitors</a> (PIs) have been studied extensively in pregnancy and are therefore the preferred third drug in the regimen. <a href="/wiki/Atazanavir" title="Atazanavir">Atazanavir</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ritonavir" title="Ritonavir">ritonavir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darunavir" title="Darunavir">darunavir</a>-ritonavir are two of the most common PIs used during pregnancy. <ul><li>There is conflicting data regarding the association between protease inhibitors with preterm births. Boosted <a href="/wiki/Lopinavir" title="Lopinavir">lopinavir</a> has the strongest correlation with this outcome, so women who are at a high risk for premature delivery are advised not to use this drug.<a href="#cite_note-:17-44">[44]</a></li> <li>Some PIs have been associated with high blood sugar (<a href="/wiki/Hyperglycemia" title="Hyperglycemia">hyperglycemia</a>) but is unclear whether or not they contribute to the development of <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aidsinfo2012-31">[31]</a></li> <li>Some PIs have been noted to cause <a href="/wiki/Hyperbilirubinemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbilirubinemia">hyperbilirubinemia</a> and nausea, so these side effects should be monitored for closely.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrase_inhibitor" title="Integrase inhibitor">Integrase inhibitors</a> (IIs) are generally the third drug in the regimen when a PI cannot be used. They rapidly reduce the viral load and for this reason, they are often used in women who are diagnosed with HIV late in their pregnancy. <a href="/wiki/Raltegravir" title="Raltegravir">Raltegravir</a> (RAL) is the most commonly used.<a href="#cite_note-:17-44">[44]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-nucleoside_reverse_transcriptase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor">Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors</a> (NNRTIs) may be used during pregnancy, however, there are significant toxicities associated with their use. NNRTIs are therefore them less desirable options for ART. The most commonly administered NNRTIs in pregnancy are <a href="/wiki/Efavirenz" title="Efavirenz">efavirenz</a> (EFV) and <a href="/wiki/Nevirapine" title="Nevirapine">nevirapine</a> (NVP).<a href="#cite_note-:17-44">[44]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-exposure_prophylaxis_(PrEP)">Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_(48610083847).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_%2848610083847%29.jpg/220px-Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_%2848610083847%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_%2848610083847%29.jpg/330px-Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_%2848610083847%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_%2848610083847%29.jpg/440px-Gilead_Truvada_for_HIV_PrEP_-_Blue_Pills_%2848610083847%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7952" data-file-height="5304" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis</a> (PrEP) should be offered in the form of oral combination <a href="/wiki/Tenofovir_disoproxil" title="Tenofovir disoproxil">tenofovir disoproxil</a> fumarate/emtricitabine (TDF/FTC) to patients who are at risk of acquiring HIV and are trying to become pregnant, who are pregnant, who are postpartum/breastfeeding. People who are considered at risk for developing HIV are those who participate in condom-less sex with a partner who is HIV positive, patients who have been diagnosed with a recent sexually transmitted infection (STI), and patients who engage in injection drug use. PrEP is notably optional if a patient's HIV positive partner has been reliably on ART and has an undetectable viral load. PrEP can reduce the risk of both mother and fetal acquisition of HIV. Patients who take PrEP should be counseled on the importance of strict medication adherence and tested for HIV every three months and be aware of the symptoms of an acute HIV infection in case of viral contraction.<a href="#cite_note-:21-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nutritional_supplements">Nutritional supplements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nutritional supplements">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Vitamin A</a> plays a role in the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> and has been suggested as a low-cost intervention that could help with preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV. However, analysis of 5 large studies that utilized Vitamin A supplementation to prevent HIV transmission showed that said supplementation likely has little or no effect on transmission of the virus in pregnant women. Vitamin A supplementation has been largely superseded by antiretroviral therapy on a global basis.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Furthermore, high doses of natural Vitamin A can be toxic to the fetus, which is important to consider in management of HIV in pregnant women.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postnatal_care">Postnatal care</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Postnatal care">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maternal_follow-up">Maternal follow-up</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Maternal follow-up">edit</a>]</div> The most important component of maternal follow-up for HIV positive mothers in the postnatal period is ART. All mothers should continue their antiretroviral medications following hospital discharge, and any changes to their regimens should be made in consultation with the physicians who coordinate their HIV care. The NIH also advises that providers should be wary of the unique challenges to medication compliance that mothers face in the postpartum period when designing a discharge ART regimen for their patients.<a href="#cite_note-:20-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infant_Treatment_and_Follow-Up">Infant Treatment and Follow-Up</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Infant Treatment and Follow-Up">edit</a>]</div> All newborns who were exposed to HIV in utero should receive postpartum antiretroviral drugs within 6 hours of delivery, and their dosing should be based on the newborn's gestational age. <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Premature newborns</a> should only receive zidovudine, lamivudine, and/or nevirapine based on toxicity testing.<a href="#cite_note-:18-48">[48]</a> Newborns who were exposed to HIV in utero and whose mothers were on ART prior to and during pregnancy and achieved viral suppression by delivery should be administered zidovudine for 4 weeks to continue preventing HIV transmission following delivery. If a pregnant woman presents in labor with an unknown HIV status and a positive rapid HIV test result or an infant has a high risk of HIV transmission in utero (for example, the mother was not taking antiretroviral drugs in the pre-pregnancy period or during pregnancy, the mother had not achieved viral suppression, or the mother experienced an acute HIV infection during pregnancy or while breastfeeding), the infant should be started on a presumptive three drug ART regimen for treatment of the infection until the infant's test results are available. If the infant has a documented HIV infection after birth, they should be started on 3-drug ART at treatment doses that will be continued indefinitely.<a href="#cite_note-:18-48">[48]</a> In infants younger than 18 months, HIV testing must consist of virologic assays that directly detect the HIV virus, not HIV antibody testing, as it is less reliable in the postpartum period. The results of these tests can be affected by antiretroviral drugs, so they should be repeated. All infants exposed to HIV in utero should be tested at three ages: 14–21 days, 1–2 months, and 4–6 months. Any positive HIV testing should be repeated as soon as possible. HIV cannot be excluded as a diagnosis in an HIV-exposed, non-breastfed infant until the infant has had either two or more negative virologic tests at at least 1 month and 4 months of age, or two negative HIV antibody tests at at least 6 months of age.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Other important testing for newborns includes a <a href="/wiki/Complete_blood_count" title="Complete blood count">complete blood count</a> at birth to determine a baseline for the infant's blood cell numbers. The infant should then be followed with appropriate laboratory monitoring based on their gestational age and clinical condition, and both the fetal and maternal drug regimens. Important hematologic anomalies being monitored include <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutropenia" title="Neutropenia">neutropenia</a>. If either of these complications occur, the infant may need to discontinue their ART regimen under physician supervision. Infants exposed to HIV in utero should also be receive preventative drugs against <a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis_jirovecii" title="Pneumocystis jirovecii">Pneumocystis jirovecii</a> pneumonia between 4–6 weeks old after completing their 4-week course of antiretroviral medications, as this is a life-threatening complication of HIV.<a href="#cite_note-:19-50">[50]</a> Although the risk is very low, HIV can also be transmitted to a baby through food that was previously chewed by a mother or caretaker infected with HIV. To be safe, babies should not be fed pre-chewed food.<a href="#cite_note-:19-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Breastfeeding">edit</a>]</div> While maternal compliance with ART reduces the chance of HIV transmission to the infant, there is still a risk of viral transmission via <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">the breastmilk</a>. Furthermore, there is concern that maternal antiretroviral drugs can enter the breastmilk and cause toxicity issues in the infant or future drug resistance. For these reasons, the NIH, CDC, and the AAP each discourage <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a> amongst HIV-positive women in the United States and other developed nations because there are safe, affordable feeding alternatives and clean drinking water.<a href="#cite_note-:20-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In fact, ACOG lists maternal HIV infection as one of very few <a href="/wiki/Contraindication" title="Contraindication">contraindications</a> to breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Despite these recommendations, some women in developed countries chose to breastfeed. In these situations, it is important that mothers adhere strictly to their ART regimens and it is advised that infants are administered antiretroviral drugs for the prevention of possible viral transmission for at least 6 weeks. Notably, when mothers do not comply with their ART regimens, there is a 15-20% risk of infant HIV acquisition from breastfeeding over 2 years. Both infants and mothers should be regularly tested every throughout breastfeeding to ensure appropriate viral suppression and lack of HIV transmission. Maternal monitoring should be done with an assessment of HIV viral load, and infant testing should be done with virologic HIV testing.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The WHO dictates that in developing nations, the decision about whether or not mothers breastfeed their infants must weigh the risk of preventing HIV acquisition in the infant against the increased risk of death from malnutrition, diarrhea, and serious non-HIV infection if the infant is not breastfed.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In developing nations, clean water and formula are not as readily available, therefore, breastfeeding is often encouraged to provide children with adequate food and nutrients because the benefit of nourishment outweighs the risk of HIV transmission.<a href="#cite_note-who2013-56">[56]</a> The WHO's 2010 HIV and Infant Feeding Recommendations intend to increase the rate of HIV-survival and reduce non-HIV related risk in infants and mothers, and they include the following:<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <ul><li>National health authorities in each country should recommend one, specific, universal infant feeding practice for mothers with HIV, as mothers will need persistent counselling while feeding their infants and this is better promoted when national authorities are unified in the guidance they administer. The choices for feeding include either breastfeeding while receiving antiretroviral medications or avoidance of all breastfeeding.</li> <li>When national health authorities chose the feeding practice they intend to promote and determine how to implement it, they should consider HIV prevalence, infant and child mortality rates due to non-HIV causes, current infant and young child feeding, the nutritional status of children, water quality, sanitation resources, and quality of health services.</li> <li>women who breastfeed while receiving ART should exclusively breastfeed their infants for 6 months and then continue breastfeeding for until the infant is 12 months of age. They used to be advised to discontinue breastfeeding at 6 months, however, this recommendation has been changed to improve long-term nutritional outcomes.</li> <li>Mixed feeding (when a baby is fed formula and breastmilk) should be avoided to reduce the risk of HIV transmission and avoid diarrhea and malnutrition.</li></ul> In developing nations, If the mother has a high HIV <a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">viral load</a> (HIV RNA more than 1000 copies/L), replacement feeding with formula is only initiated as per the <a href="/wiki/UNAIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="UNAIDS">UNAIDS</a> guidelines, termed the AFASS criteria, "where replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable, and safe."<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a>:95-6 A mother should only give infant formula, as explained by the WHO, if the following conditions are met:<a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a> <ul><li>"Safe water and sanitation are assured at the household level and in the community; and</li> <li>the mother or other caregiver can reliably provide sufficient infant formula milk to support the normal growth and development of the infant; and</li> <li>the mother or caregiver can prepare it cleanly and frequently enough so that it is safe and carries a low risk of diarrhea and malnutrition; and</li> <li>the mother or caregiver can exclusively give infant formula milk in the first six months; and</li> <li>the family is supportive of this practice; and</li> <li>the mother or caregiver can access health care that offers comprehensive child health services."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societal_impacts">Societal impacts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Societal impacts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrimination">Discrimination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Discrimination">edit</a>]</div> Despite advances made in preventing transmission, HIV-positive women still face discrimination regarding their reproductive choices.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In Asia, it was found that half the women living with HIV were advised not to have children and as many as 42% report being denied health services because of their HIV status.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilisation</a> in an attempt to limit mother-to-child transmission has been practiced in Africa, Asia, and Latin American.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> women are forced to undergo sterilisation without their knowledge or <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, and misinformation and incentives are often used in order to coerce them into accepting the procedure. The forced sterilisation of HIV-positive women is internationally recognized as a violation of human rights.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Legal advocacy against this practice has occurred in some countries. In Namibia, litigation was brought against the government by three HIV-positive women who claimed they were coerced during labour into signing consent forms that gave permission for the hospital to perform a sterilisation.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/LM_%26_Others_v_Government_of_Namibia" title="LM & Others v Government of Namibia">LM & Others v Government of Namibia</a> case is the first of its kind in sub-Saharan African to deal with coerced sterilisation of HIV-positive women. The court ruled that these women were sterilised without their consent but failed to find that this was due to their HIV status.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> A 2010 case in Chile have also aimed to seek government accountability for violation of sexual and reproductive rights of women living with HIV.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_considerations">Health considerations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Health considerations">edit</a>]</div> Pregnant women with HIV may still receive the trivalent inactivated <a href="/wiki/Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">influenza vaccine</a> and the tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis (Tdap) vaccination during pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-MadhiCutland2014-70">[70]</a> Many patients who are HIV positive also have other health conditions known as <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a>. Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, tuberculosis and injection drug use are some of the most common comorbidities associated with HIV. women who screen positive for HIV should also be tested for these conditions so that they may be adequately treated or controlled during the pregnancy. The comorbidities may have serious adverse effects on the mother and child during pregnancy, so it is extremely important to identify them early during the pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_disparities">Health disparities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Health disparities">edit</a>]</div> There are well documented disparities with regards to who is affected by HIV/AIDS during pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[73]</a> For example, a study of Florida births from 1998 to 2007 showed parents who were identified as Hispanic or Black in the medical records were more likely to have HIV during pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[73]</a> Though more research is needed, poverty is a significant structural inequity that can drive these differences in HIV rates.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Furthermore, there are large disparities in access to antiretroviral therapies, medications important in preventing the transmission of HIV from parent to child.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_2013-77">[77]</a> Not receiving antiretroviral therapies was significantly associated with restricted Medicaid eligibility.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_2013-77">[77]</a> This data suggests that improved insurance coverage to diagnose, screen, and treat pregnant individuals with HIV would help increase access to essential medications and reduce transmission of HIV from parent to child.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_2013-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Support_groups">Support groups</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Support groups">edit</a>]</div> Bateganya et al. studied the impact of support groups for people living with HIV and found that 18/20 (90%) of papers reviewed showed support groups had a significant positive outcome.<a href="#cite_note-:24-78">[78]</a> Studies show that support groups reduce morbidity (having disease or symptoms of disease), reduce mortality (likelihood of dying), increase quality of life, and increase use of healthcare.<a href="#cite_note-:24-78">[78]</a> There is also research showing that support groups, in the short term, have a significant positive impact for pregnant women living with HIV.<a href="#cite_note-:25-79">[79]</a> Mundell et al. showed that pregnant women enrolled in a support group had 1) improved self-esteem, 2) a greater ability to cope with their medical diagnoses, and 3) were more likely to follow up with healthcare services and share their HIV diagnosis with others than those not enrolled in a support group.<a href="#cite_note-:25-79">[79]</a> This research suggests pregnant women living with HIV may benefit from peer support groups. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CDC_HIV_Surveillence-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_HIV_Surveillence_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_HIV_Surveillence_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_HIV_Surveillence_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance.html">"HIV Surveillance Report"</a>. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention.&rft.atitle=HIV+Surveillance+Report&rft.date=2020-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhiv%2Flibrary%2Freports%2Fhiv-surveillance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/09_ChildrenandpregnantwomenlivingwithHIV.pdf">Children and Pregnant Women Living with HIV</a> (PDF). UNAIDS. 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9253-062-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9253-062-4"><bdi>978-92-9253-062-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1248404125">1248404125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children+and+Pregnant+Women+Living+with+HIV&rft.pub=UNAIDS&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1248404125&rft.isbn=978-92-9253-062-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unaids.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fmedia_asset%2F09_ChildrenandpregnantwomenlivingwithHIV.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/teams/global-hiv-hepatitis-and-stis-programmes/hiv/prevention/mother-to-child-transmission-of-hiv">"Mother-to-child transmission of HIV"</a>. www.who.int. Retrieved 2022-08-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.who.int&rft.atitle=Mother-to-child+transmission+of+HIV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fteams%2Fglobal-hiv-hepatitis-and-stis-programmes%2Fhiv%2Fprevention%2Fmother-to-child-transmission-of-hiv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Workowski_2015-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Workowski_2015_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorkowskiBolan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Workowski KA, Bolan GA (June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/tg-2015-print.pdf">"Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015"</a> (PDF). MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5885289">5885289</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26042815">26042815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MMWR.+Recommendations+and+Reports&rft.atitle=Sexually+transmitted+diseases+treatment+guidelines%2C+2015&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=RR-03&rft.pages=1-137&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5885289%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26042815&rft.aulast=Workowski&rft.aufirst=KA&rft.au=Bolan%2C+GA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fstd%2Ftg2015%2Ftg-2015-print.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/preventing-perinatal-transmission-hiv">"Preventing Perinatal Transmission of HIV | NIH"</a>. hivinfo.nih.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hivinfo.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Preventing+Perinatal+Transmission+of+HIV+%7C+NIH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhivinfo.nih.gov%2Funderstanding-hiv%2Ffact-sheets%2Fpreventing-perinatal-transmission-hiv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACOG_2018-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ACOG_2018_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACOG_2018_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACOG_2018_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACOG_2018_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACOG_2018_6-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acog.org/en/Clinical/Clinical%20Guidance/Committee%20Opinion/Articles/2018/09/Prenatal%20and%20Perinatal%20Human%20Immunodeficiency%20Virus%20Testing">"ACOG Committee Opinion No. 752: Prenatal and Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing"</a>. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 132 (3): e138–e142. September 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FAOG.0000000000002825">10.1097/AOG.0000000000002825</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30134428">30134428</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52070003">52070003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Obstetrics+and+Gynecology&rft.atitle=ACOG+Committee+Opinion+No.+752%3A+Prenatal+and+Perinatal+Human+Immunodeficiency+Virus+Testing&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e138-e142&rft.date=2018-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52070003%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30134428&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FAOG.0000000000002825&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acog.org%2Fen%2FClinical%2FClinical%2520Guidance%2FCommittee%2520Opinion%2FArticles%2F2018%2F09%2FPrenatal%2520and%2520Perinatal%2520Human%2520Immunodeficiency%2520Virus%2520Testing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OAR_Clinical_Info-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OAR_Clinical_Info_7-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanel_on_Treatment_of_Pregnant_Women_with_HIV_Infection_and_Prevention_of_Perinatal_Transmission." class="citation web cs1">Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/maternal-hiv-testing-and-identification-perinatal-hiv-exposure?view=full">"Maternal HIV Testing and Identification of Perinatal HIV Exposure"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Maternal+HIV+Testing+and+Identification+of+Perinatal+HIV+Exposure&rft.au=Panel+on+Treatment+of+Pregnant+Women+with+HIV+Infection+and+Prevention+of+Perinatal+Transmission.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fmaternal-hiv-testing-and-identification-perinatal-hiv-exposure%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levinson_2020-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_2020_8-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2020" class="citation book cs1">Levinson WE (2020). "Human Immunodeficiency Virus". In Levinson W, Chin-Hong P, Joyce EA, Nussbaum J, Schwartz B (eds.). Review of medical microbiology & immunology: a guide to clinical infectious diseases (16th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 377–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-260-11671-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-260-11671-7"><bdi>978-1-260-11671-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1315883332">1315883332</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Human+Immunodeficiency+Virus&rft.btitle=Review+of+medical+microbiology+%26+immunology%3A+a+guide+to+clinical+infectious+diseases&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=377-89&rft.edition=16th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1315883332&rft.isbn=978-1-260-11671-7&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Warren+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDC_About_Hiv-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_About_Hiv_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_About_Hiv_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_About_Hiv_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/whatishiv.html">"About HIV/AIDS"</a>. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-11-03. Retrieved 2021-01-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=About+HIV%2FAIDS&rft.date=2020-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhiv%2Fbasics%2Fwhatishiv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiuSteinSchnittman1993" class="citation journal cs1">Niu MT, Stein DS, Schnittman SM (December 1993). "Primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: review of pathogenesis and early treatment intervention in humans and animal retrovirus infections". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 168 (6): 1490–501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Finfdis%2F168.6.1490">10.1093/infdis/168.6.1490</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8245534">8245534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Primary+human+immunodeficiency+virus+type+1+infection%3A+review+of+pathogenesis+and+early+treatment+intervention+in+humans+and+animal+retrovirus+infections&rft.volume=168&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1490-501&rft.date=1993-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Finfdis%2F168.6.1490&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8245534&rft.aulast=Niu&rft.aufirst=MT&rft.au=Stein%2C+DS&rft.au=Schnittman%2C+SM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAP_2018-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AAP_2018_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAP_2018_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Academy_of_Pediatrics._Human2018" class="citation book cs1">American Academy of Pediatrics. Human (2018). "Immunodeficiency Virus Infection 111". In Kimberlin DW, Brady MT, Jackson MA, Long SS (eds.). Red Book: 2018 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases (31st ed.). American Academy of Pediatrics. pp. 459–476. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61002-146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61002-146-3"><bdi>978-1-61002-146-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1035556489">1035556489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Immunodeficiency+Virus+Infection+111&rft.btitle=Red+Book%3A+2018+Report+of+the+Committee+on+Infectious+Diseases.&rft.pages=459-476&rft.edition=31st&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1035556489&rft.isbn=978-1-61002-146-3&rft.au=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics.+Human&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:21-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:21_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:21_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/prep">"Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) to Reduce the Risk of Acquiring HIV During Periconception, Antepartum, and Postpartum Periods | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Pre-exposure+Prophylaxis+%28PrEP%29+to+Reduce+the+Risk+of+Acquiring+HIV+During+Periconception%2C+Antepartum%2C+and+Postpartum+Periods+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fprep&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acog.org/en/Clinical/Clinical%20Guidance/Committee%20Opinion/Articles/2019/01/Prepregnancy%20Counseling">"Prepregnancy Counseling"</a>. www.acog.org. Retrieved 2021-01-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.acog.org&rft.atitle=Prepregnancy+Counseling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acog.org%2Fen%2FClinical%2FClinical%2520Guidance%2FCommittee%2520Opinion%2FArticles%2F2019%2F01%2FPrepregnancy%2520Counseling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_14-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/reproductive-options-couples-when-one-or-both-partners-are-living-hiv?view=full">"Preconception Counseling and Care for Women of Childbearing Age with HIV"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Preconception+Counseling+and+Care+for+Women+of+Childbearing+Age+with+HIV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Freproductive-options-couples-when-one-or-both-partners-are-living-hiv%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/risk/art/cdc-hiv-art-viral-suppression.pdf">"Evidence of HIV treatment and viral suppression in preventing the sexual transmission of HIV"</a> (PDF). U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. December 2020. Retrieved 21 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention.&rft.atitle=Evidence+of+HIV+treatment+and+viral+suppression+in+preventing+the+sexual+transmission+of+HIV.&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhiv%2Fpdf%2Frisk%2Fart%2Fcdc-hiv-art-viral-suppression.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlynnBuvéCaraëlKahindo2000" class="citation journal cs1">Glynn JR, Buvé A, Caraël M, Kahindo M, Macauley IB, Musonda RM, et al. (December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00126334-200012010-00008">"Decreased fertility among HIV-1-infected women attending antenatal clinics in three African cities"</a>. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 25 (4): 345–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00126334-200012010-00008">10.1097/00126334-200012010-00008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11114835">11114835</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22980353">22980353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Acquired+Immune+Deficiency+Syndromes&rft.atitle=Decreased+fertility+among+HIV-1-infected+women+attending+antenatal+clinics+in+three+African+cities&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=345-52&rft.date=2000-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22980353%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11114835&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00126334-200012010-00008&rft.aulast=Glynn&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Buv%C3%A9%2C+A&rft.au=Cara%C3%ABl%2C+M&rft.au=Kahindo%2C+M&rft.au=Macauley%2C+IB&rft.au=Musonda%2C+RM&rft.au=Jungmann%2C+E&rft.au=Tembo%2C+F&rft.au=Zekeng%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252F00126334-200012010-00008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-17"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_LeeuwenPrinsJurriaansBoer2007" class="citation journal cs1">van Leeuwen E, Prins JM, Jurriaans S, Boer K, Reiss P, Repping S, van der Veen F (2007-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdml052">"Reproduction and fertility in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection"</a>. Human Reproduction Update. 13 (2): 197–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdml052">10.1093/humupd/dml052</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17099206">17099206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Reproduction+Update&rft.atitle=Reproduction+and+fertility+in+human+immunodeficiency+virus+type-1+infection&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-206&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdml052&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17099206&rft.aulast=van+Leeuwen&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Prins%2C+JM&rft.au=Jurriaans%2C+S&rft.au=Boer%2C+K&rft.au=Reiss%2C+P&rft.au=Repping%2C+S&rft.au=van+der+Veen%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fhumupd%252Fdml052&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKushnirLewis2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kushnir VA, Lewis W (September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165097">"Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and infertility: emerging problems in the era of highly active antiretrovirals"</a>. Fertility and Sterility. 96 (3): 546–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2011.05.094">10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.05.094</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165097">3165097</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21722892">21722892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fertility+and+Sterility&rft.atitle=Human+immunodeficiency+virus%2Facquired+immunodeficiency+syndrome+and+infertility%3A+emerging+problems+in+the+era+of+highly+active+antiretrovirals&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=546-53&rft.date=2011-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3165097%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21722892&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2011.05.094&rft.aulast=Kushnir&rft.aufirst=VA&rft.au=Lewis%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3165097&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDC_Opt_Out-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_Opt_Out_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_Opt_Out_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/gender/pregnantwomen/opt-out.html">"An Opt-Out Approach to HIV Screening"</a>. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2015-11-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=An+Opt-Out+Approach+to+HIV+Screening&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhiv%2Fgroup%2Fgender%2Fpregnantwomen%2Fopt-out.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acog.org/en/Womens%20Health/FAQs/Routine%20Tests%20During%20Pregnancy">"Routine Tests During Pregnancy"</a>. www.acog.org. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.acog.org&rft.atitle=Routine+Tests+During+Pregnancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acog.org%2Fen%2FWomens%2520Health%2FFAQs%2FRoutine%2520Tests%2520During%2520Pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120105083106/http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/HIVTestingandPregnancy_FS_en.pdf">"Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States"</a> (PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/hivtestingandpregnancy_fs_en.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recommendations+for+Use+of+Antiretroviral+Drugs+in+Pregnant+HIV-1-Infected+Women+for+Maternal+Health+and+Interventions+to+Reduce+Perinatal+HIV+Transmission+in+the+United+States.&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services+%28HHS%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faidsinfo.nih.gov%2Fcontentfiles%2Fhivtestingandpregnancy_fs_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Branson14-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Branson14_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Branson14_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenters_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention_(U.S.)Bernard_M.Association_of_Public_Health_LaboratorieS._Michele2014" class="citation report cs1">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.); Bernard M., Branson; Association of Public Health Laboratorie; S. Michele, Owen; Laura G., Wesolowski; Berry, Bennett; Barbara G., Werner; Kelly E., Wroblewski; Michael A., Pentella (2014-06-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/23447">Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection : updated recommendations</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15620%2Fcdc.23447">10.15620/cdc.23447</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Laboratory+testing+for+the+diagnosis+of+HIV+infection+%3A+updated+recommendations&rft.date=2014-06-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15620%2Fcdc.23447&rft.au=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention+%28U.S.%29&rft.au=Bernard+M.%2C+Branson&rft.au=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratorie&rft.au=S.+Michele%2C+Owen&rft.au=Laura+G.%2C+Wesolowski&rft.au=Berry%2C+Bennett&rft.au=Barbara+G.%2C+Werner&rft.au=Kelly+E.%2C+Wroblewski&rft.au=Michael+A.%2C+Pentella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstacks.cdc.gov%2Fview%2Fcdc%2F23447&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-23"><a href="#cite_ref-:22_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornettKirn2013" class="citation journal cs1">Cornett JK, Kirn TJ (September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit281">"Laboratory diagnosis of HIV in adults: a review of current methods"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 57 (5): 712–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit281">10.1093/cid/cit281</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23667267">23667267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Laboratory+diagnosis+of+HIV+in+adults%3A+a+review+of+current+methods&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=712-8&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit281&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23667267&rft.aulast=Cornett&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Kirn%2C+TJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fcid%252Fcit281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bhiva.org/file/5bfd30be95deb/BHIVA-guidelines-for-the-management-of-HIV-in-pregnancy.pdf">"British HIV Association guidelines for the management of HIV in pregnancy and postpartum 2018"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 14 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+HIV+Association+guidelines+for+the+management+of+HIV+in+pregnancy+and+postpartum+2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bhiva.org%2Ffile%2F5bfd30be95deb%2FBHIVA-guidelines-for-the-management-of-HIV-in-pregnancy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarciaKalishPittMinkoff1999" class="citation journal cs1">Garcia PM, Kalish LA, Pitt J, Minkoff H, Quinn TC, Burchett SK, et al. (August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199908053410602">"Maternal levels of plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and the risk of perinatal transmission. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group"</a>. The New England Journal of Medicine. 341 (6): 394–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199908053410602">10.1056/NEJM199908053410602</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10432324">10432324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Maternal+levels+of+plasma+human+immunodeficiency+virus+type+1+RNA+and+the+risk+of+perinatal+transmission.+Women+and+Infants+Transmission+Study+Group&rft.volume=341&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=394-402&rft.date=1999-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJM199908053410602&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10432324&rft.aulast=Garcia&rft.aufirst=PM&rft.au=Kalish%2C+LA&rft.au=Pitt%2C+J&rft.au=Minkoff%2C+H&rft.au=Quinn%2C+TC&rft.au=Burchett%2C+SK&rft.au=Kornegay%2C+J&rft.au=Jackson%2C+B&rft.au=Moye%2C+J&rft.au=Hanson%2C+C&rft.au=Zorrilla%2C+C&rft.au=Lew%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252FNEJM199908053410602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornePatelFiorePeckham2005" class="citation journal cs1">Thorne C, Patel D, Fiore S, Peckham C, Newell ML, et al. (European Collaborative Study) (February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/7687/1/8687.pdf">"Mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy"</a> (PDF). Clinical Infectious Diseases. 40 (3): 458–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F427287">10.1086/427287</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15668871">15668871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Mother-to-child+transmission+of+HIV+infection+in+the+era+of+highly+active+antiretroviral+therapy&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=458-65&rft.date=2005-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F427287&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15668871&rft.aulast=Thorne&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Patel%2C+D&rft.au=Fiore%2C+S&rft.au=Peckham%2C+C&rft.au=Newell%2C+ML&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2F7687%2F1%2F8687.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/overview?view=full">"Overview | General Principles Regarding Use of Antiretroviral Drugs during Pregnancy | Antepartum Care | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Overview+%7C+General+Principles+Regarding+Use+of+Antiretroviral+Drugs+during+Pregnancy+%7C+Antepartum+Care+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Foverview%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/antiretroviral-management-newborns-perinatal-hiv-exposure-or-hiv-infection?view=full">"Antiretroviral Management of Newborns with Perinatal HIV Exposure or HIV Infection | Management of Infants Born to Women with HIV Infection | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Antiretroviral+Management+of+Newborns+with+Perinatal+HIV+Exposure+or+HIV+Infection+%7C+Management+of+Infants+Born+to+Women+with+HIV+Infection+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fantiretroviral-management-newborns-perinatal-hiv-exposure-or-hiv-infection%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownsendByrneCortina-BorjaThorne2014" class="citation journal cs1">Townsend CL, Byrne L, Cortina-Borja M, Thorne C, de Ruiter A, Lyall H, et al. (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FQAD.0000000000000212">"Earlier initiation of ART and further decline in mother-to-child HIV transmission rates, 2000-2011"</a>. AIDS. 28 (7): 1049–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FQAD.0000000000000212">10.1097/QAD.0000000000000212</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24566097">24566097</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19123848">19123848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AIDS&rft.atitle=Earlier+initiation+of+ART+and+further+decline+in+mother-to-child+HIV+transmission+rates%2C+2000-2011&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1049-57&rft.date=2014-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19123848%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24566097&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FQAD.0000000000000212&rft.aulast=Townsend&rft.aufirst=CL&rft.au=Byrne%2C+L&rft.au=Cortina-Borja%2C+M&rft.au=Thorne%2C+C&rft.au=de+Ruiter%2C+A&rft.au=Lyall%2C+H&rft.au=Taylor%2C+GP&rft.au=Peckham%2C+CS&rft.au=Tookey%2C+PA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252FQAD.0000000000000212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmanBlackTechnauvan_der_Merwe2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffman RM, Black V, Technau K, van der Merwe KJ, Currier J, Coovadia A, Chersich M (May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880466">"Effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy duration and regimen on risk for mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Johannesburg, South Africa"</a>. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 54 (1): 35–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FQAI.0b013e3181cf9979">10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181cf9979</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880466">2880466</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20216425">20216425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Acquired+Immune+Deficiency+Syndromes&rft.atitle=Effects+of+highly+active+antiretroviral+therapy+duration+and+regimen+on+risk+for+mother-to-child+transmission+of+HIV+in+Johannesburg%2C+South+Africa&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-41&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2880466%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20216425&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FQAI.0b013e3181cf9979&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=RM&rft.au=Black%2C+V&rft.au=Technau%2C+K&rft.au=van+der+Merwe%2C+KJ&rft.au=Currier%2C+J&rft.au=Coovadia%2C+A&rft.au=Chersich%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2880466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aidsinfo2012-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aidsinfo2012_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aidsinfo2012_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aidsinfo2012_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF(HHS)_Panel_on_Treatment_of_HIV-Infected_Pregnant_Women_and_Prevention_of_Perinatal_Transmission,_a_working_group_of_the_Office_of_AIDS_Research_Advisory_Council_(OARAC)" class="citation web cs1">(HHS) Panel on Treatment of HIV-Infected Pregnant Women and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission, a working group of the Office of AIDS Research Advisory Council (OARAC). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150421024106/http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/perinatal_FS_en.pdf">"HIV and Pregnancy"</a> (PDF). aidsinfo.nih.gov. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/perinatal_FS_en.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aidsinfo.nih.gov&rft.atitle=HIV+and+Pregnancy&rft.au=%28HHS%29+Panel+on+Treatment+of+HIV-Infected+Pregnant+Women+and+Prevention+of+Perinatal+Transmission%2C+a+working+group+of+the+%27%27Office+of+AIDS+Research+Advisory+Council%27%27+%28OARAC%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faidsinfo.nih.gov%2Fcontentfiles%2Fperinatal_FS_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lvguidelines-32"><a href="#cite_ref-lvguidelines_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanel_on_Treatment_of_HIV-Infected_Pregnant_Women_and_Prevention_of_Perinatal_Transmission." class="citation web cs1">Panel on Treatment of HIV-Infected Pregnant Women and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/PerinatalGL.pdf">"Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 20 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recommendations+for+Use+of+Antiretroviral+Drugs+in+Pregnant+HIV-1-Infected+Women+for+Maternal+Health+and+Interventions+to+Reduce+Perinatal+HIV+Transmission+in+the+United+States&rft.au=Panel+on+Treatment+of+HIV-Infected+Pregnant+Women+and+Prevention+of+Perinatal+Transmission.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faidsinfo.nih.gov%2Fcontentfiles%2Flvguidelines%2FPerinatalGL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahivsoc.org/Files/ART%20Guidelines%2015052015.pdf">National Consolidated Guidelines for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) and the management of HIV in children, adolescents and adults</a> (PDF). National Department of Health, South Africa. April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Consolidated+Guidelines+for+the+prevention+of+mother-to-child+transmission+of+HIV+%28PMTCT%29+and+the+management+of+HIV+in+children%2C+adolescents+and+adults&rft.pub=National+Department+of+Health%2C+South+Africa&rft.date=2015-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahivsoc.org%2FFiles%2FART%2520Guidelines%252015052015.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-34"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/education-materials/fact-sheets/21/52/when-to-start-antiretroviral-therapy">"When to Start Antiretroviral Therapy | HIV/AIDS Fact Sheets | Education Materials | AIDSinfo"</a>. AIDSinfo. Retrieved 2015-11-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AIDSinfo&rft.atitle=When+to+Start+Antiretroviral+Therapy+%7C+HIV%2FAIDS+Fact+Sheets+%7C+Education+Materials+%7C+AIDSinfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faidsinfo.nih.gov%2Feducation-materials%2Ffact-sheets%2F21%2F52%2Fwhen-to-start-antiretroviral-therapy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_35-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/intrapartum-antiretroviral-therapyprophylaxis?view=full">"Intrapartum Care for Women with HIV | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Intrapartum+Care+for+Women+with+HIV+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fintrapartum-antiretroviral-therapyprophylaxis%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_36-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pregnancy/downloads/immunizations-preg-chart.pdf">Summary of Maternal Immunization Recommendations</a>. ACOG and CDC. Published December 2018. Accessed 25 January 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/concerns/vaccines-during-pregnancy.html#Not">"Vaccine Safety: Vaccines During Pregnancy FAQs"</a>. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 24 August 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=Vaccine+Safety%3A+Vaccines+During+Pregnancy+FAQs&rft.date=2020-08-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fvaccinesafety%2Fconcerns%2Fvaccines-during-pregnancy.html%23Not&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/monitoring-woman-and-fetus-during-pregnancy?view=full">"Monitoring of the Woman and Fetus During Pregnancy | Antepartum Care | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Monitoring+of+the+Woman+and+Fetus+During+Pregnancy+%7C+Antepartum+Care+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fmonitoring-woman-and-fetus-during-pregnancy%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/antiretroviral-drug-resistance-and-resistance-testing-pregnancy?view=full">"Antiretroviral Drug Resistance and Resistance Testing in Pregnancy | Antepartum Care | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Antiretroviral+Drug+Resistance+and+Resistance+Testing+in+Pregnancy+%7C+Antepartum+Care+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fantiretroviral-drug-resistance-and-resistance-testing-pregnancy%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/hepatitis-b-virushiv-coinfection?view=full">"Hepatitis B Virus/HIV Coinfection | Special Populations | Antepartum Care | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Hepatitis+B+Virus%2FHIV+Coinfection+%7C+Special+Populations+%7C+Antepartum+Care+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fhepatitis-b-virushiv-coinfection%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acog.org/en/Clinical/Clinical%20Guidance/Practice%20Bulletin/Articles/2015/06/Cytomegalovirus%20Parvovirus%20B19%20Varicella%20Zoster%20and%20Toxoplasmosis%20in%20Pregnancy">"Cytomegalovirus, Parvovirus B19, Varicella Zoster, and Toxoplasmosis in Pregnancy"</a>. www.acog.org. Retrieved 2021-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.acog.org&rft.atitle=Cytomegalovirus%2C+Parvovirus+B19%2C+Varicella+Zoster%2C+and+Toxoplasmosis+in+Pregnancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acog.org%2Fen%2FClinical%2FClinical%2520Guidance%2FPractice%2520Bulletin%2FArticles%2F2015%2F06%2FCytomegalovirus%2520Parvovirus%2520B19%2520Varicella%2520Zoster%2520and%2520Toxoplasmosis%2520in%2520Pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/table/table-8-antiretroviral-drug-use-pregnant-women-hiv-infection-pharmacokinetic-and-toxicity">"Table 10. Antiretroviral Drug Use in Pregnant Women with HIV: Pharmacokinetic and Toxicity Data in Human Pregnancy and Recommendations for Use in Pregnancy | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Table+10.+Antiretroviral+Drug+Use+in+Pregnant+Women+with+HIV%3A+Pharmacokinetic+and+Toxicity+Data+in+Human+Pregnancy+and+Recommendations+for+Use+in+Pregnancy+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Ftable%2Ftable-8-antiretroviral-drug-use-pregnant-women-hiv-infection-pharmacokinetic-and-toxicity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125144008/https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/sites/default/files/guidelines/documents/Perinatal_GL_2020.pdf">"Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Transmission in the United States"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/sites/default/files/guidelines/documents/Perinatal_GL_2020.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Panel+on+Treatment+of+Pregnant+Women+with+HIV+Infection+and+Prevention+of+Perinatal+Transmission.+Recommendations+for+Use+of+Antiretroviral+Drugs+in+Transmission+in+the+United+States.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fguidelines%2Fdocuments%2FPerinatal_GL_2020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:17_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/combination-antiretroviral-drug-regimens-and-maternal-and-neonatal-outcomes?view=full">"Antiretroviral Drug Regimens and Maternal and Neonatal Outcomes | General Principles Regarding Use of Antiretroviral Drugs during Pregnancy | Antepartum Care | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Antiretroviral+Drug+Regimens+and+Maternal+and+Neonatal+Outcomes+%7C+General+Principles+Regarding+Use+of+Antiretroviral+Drugs+during+Pregnancy+%7C+Antepartum+Care+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fcombination-antiretroviral-drug-regimens-and-maternal-and-neonatal-outcomes%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiysongeNdzeKongnyuyShey2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wiysonge CS, Ndze VN, Kongnyuy EJ, Shey MS (September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5618453">"Vitamin A supplements for reducing mother-to-child HIV transmission"</a>. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 9 (9): CD003648. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD003648.pub4">10.1002/14651858.CD003648.pub4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5618453">5618453</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28880995">28880995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cochrane+Database+Syst+Rev&rft.atitle=Vitamin+A+supplements+for+reducing+mother-to-child+HIV+transmission&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=CD003648&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5618453%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28880995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD003648.pub4&rft.aulast=Wiysonge&rft.aufirst=CS&rft.au=Ndze%2C+VN&rft.au=Kongnyuy%2C+EJ&rft.au=Shey%2C+MS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5618453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothmanMooreSingerNguyen1995" class="citation journal cs1">Rothman KJ, Moore LL, Singer MR, Nguyen US, Mannino S, Milunsky A (November 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199511233332101">"Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake"</a>. The New England Journal of Medicine. 333 (21): 1369–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199511233332101">10.1056/NEJM199511233332101</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7477116">7477116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Teratogenicity+of+high+vitamin+A+intake&rft.volume=333&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=1369-73&rft.date=1995-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJM199511233332101&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7477116&rft.aulast=Rothman&rft.aufirst=KJ&rft.au=Moore%2C+LL&rft.au=Singer%2C+MR&rft.au=Nguyen%2C+US&rft.au=Mannino%2C+S&rft.au=Milunsky%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252FNEJM199511233332101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:20_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/postpartum-follow-women-living-hiv-infection?view=full">"Postpartum Follow-Up of Women with HIV | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Postpartum+Follow-Up+of+Women+with+HIV+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fpostpartum-follow-women-living-hiv-infection%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:18-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:18_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:18_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/pediatric-arv/antiretroviral-management-newborns-perinatal-hiv-exposure-or-hiv-infection">"Antiretroviral Management of Newborns with Perinatal HIV Exposure or HIV Infection | Pediatric ARV | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Antiretroviral+Management+of+Newborns+with+Perinatal+HIV+Exposure+or+HIV+Infection+%7C+Pediatric+ARV+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fpediatric-arv%2Fantiretroviral-management-newborns-perinatal-hiv-exposure-or-hiv-infection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/diagnosis-hiv-infection-infants-and-children?view=full">"Diagnosis of HIV Infection in Infants and Children | Management of Infants Born to Women with HIV Infection | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Diagnosis+of+HIV+Infection+in+Infants+and+Children+%7C+Management+of+Infants+Born+to+Women+with+HIV+Infection+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fdiagnosis-hiv-infection-infants-and-children%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:19-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:19_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:19_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/initial-postnatal-management-neonate-exposed-hiv?view=full">"Initial Postnatal Management of the Neonate Exposed to HIV | Management of Infants Born to Women with HIV Infection | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Initial+Postnatal+Management+of+the+Neonate+Exposed+to+HIV+%7C+Management+of+Infants+Born+to+Women+with+HIV+Infection+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Finitial-postnatal-management-neonate-exposed-hiv%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee_on_Pediatric_AIDS2013" class="citation journal cs1">Committee on Pediatric AIDS (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/2/391">"Infant feeding and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in the United States"</a>. Pediatrics. 131 (2): 391–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-3543">10.1542/peds.2012-3543</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23359577">23359577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Infant+feeding+and+transmission+of+human+immunodeficiency+virus+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=391-6&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-3543&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23359577&rft.au=Committee+on+Pediatric+AIDS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpediatrics.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F131%2F2%2F391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/breastfeeding-special-circumstances/maternal-or-infant-illnesses/hiv.html">"Breastfeeding: HIV"</a>. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. February 4, 2020. Retrieved January 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=Breastfeeding%3A+HIV&rft.date=2020-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fbreastfeeding%2Fbreastfeeding-special-circumstances%2Fmaternal-or-infant-illnesses%2Fhiv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acog.org/en/Clinical/Clinical%20Guidance/Committee%20Opinion/Articles/2018/10/Optimizing%20Support%20for%20Breastfeeding%20as%20Part%20of%20Obstetric%20Practice">"Optimizing Support for Breastfeeding as Part of Obstetric Practice"</a>. www.acog.org. Retrieved 2021-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.acog.org&rft.atitle=Optimizing+Support+for+Breastfeeding+as+Part+of+Obstetric+Practice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acog.org%2Fen%2FClinical%2FClinical%2520Guidance%2FCommittee%2520Opinion%2FArticles%2F2018%2F10%2FOptimizing%2520Support%2520for%2520Breastfeeding%2520as%2520Part%2520of%2520Obstetric%2520Practice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/perinatal/counseling-and-managing-women-living-hiv-united-states-who-desire-breastfeed?view=full">"Counseling and Managing Women Living with HIV in the United States Who Desire to Breastfeed | Perinatal | ClinicalInfo"</a>. Clinical Info HIV gov. Office of AIDS Research (OAR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2021-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Info+HIV+gov&rft.atitle=Counseling+and+Managing+Women+Living+with+HIV+in+the+United+States+Who+Desire+to+Breastfeed+%7C+Perinatal+%7C+ClinicalInfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclinicalinfo.hiv.gov%2Fen%2Fguidelines%2Fperinatal%2Fcounseling-and-managing-women-living-hiv-united-states-who-desire-breastfeed%3Fview%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/279781/WHO-NMH-NHD-18.14-eng.pdf?ua=1">"World Health Organization. Breastfeeding and HIV"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 14 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Health+Organization.+Breastfeeding+and+HIV.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10665%2F279781%2FWHO-NMH-NHD-18.14-eng.pdf%3Fua%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-who2013-56"><a href="#cite_ref-who2013_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/arv2013/download/en/">Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection</a>. World Health Organization. 2013. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-150572-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-150572-7"><bdi>978-92-4-150572-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883365796">883365796</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24716260">24716260</a>. NBK195400.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consolidated+guidelines+on+the+use+of+antiretroviral+drugs+for+treating+and+preventing+HIV+infection&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F883365796&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24716260&rft.isbn=978-92-4-150572-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fhiv%2Fpub%2Fguidelines%2Farv2013%2Fdownload%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/75152/FWC_MCA_12.1_eng.pdf">"HIV and Infant Feeding 2010: An Updated Framework for Priority Action"</a> (PDF). World Health Organization. 2012. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F75152">10665/75152</a>. Retrieved January 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HIV+and+Infant+Feeding+2010%3A+An+Updated+Framework+for+Priority+Action&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F75152&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10665%2F75152%2FFWC_MCA_12.1_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180906161736/https://www.unicef.org/programme/breastfeeding/feeding.htm">"WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF infant feeding guidelines"</a>. www.unicef.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicef.org/programme/breastfeeding/feeding.htm">the original</a> on 2018-09-06. Retrieved 2018-09-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unicef.org&rft.atitle=WHO%2FUNAIDS%2FUNICEF+infant+feeding+guidelines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicef.org%2Fprogramme%2Fbreastfeeding%2Ffeeding.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-59"><a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246260/9789241549707-eng.pdf?sequence=1">Guideline: Updates on HIV and infant feeding</a> (PDF). World Health Organisation, UNICEF. 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guideline%3A+Updates+on+HIV+and+infant+feeding&rft.pub=World+Health+Organisation%2C+UNICEF&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10665%2F246260%2F9789241549707-eng.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIliyasuGaladanciIbrahimBabashani2017" class="citation journal cs1">Iliyasu Z, Galadanci HS, Ibrahim YA, Babashani M, Mijinyawa MS, Simmons M, Aliyu MH (2017-05-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aogh.2017.05.001">"Should They Also Have Babies? Community Attitudes Toward Sexual and Reproductive Rights of People Living With HIV/AIDS in Nigeria"</a>. Annals of Global Health. 83 (2): 320–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aogh.2017.05.001">10.1016/j.aogh.2017.05.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28619407">28619407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Global+Health&rft.atitle=Should+They+Also+Have+Babies%3F+Community+Attitudes+Toward+Sexual+and+Reproductive+Rights+of+People+Living+With+HIV%2FAIDS+in+Nigeria&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=320-7&rft.date=2017-05-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.aogh.2017.05.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28619407&rft.aulast=Iliyasu&rft.aufirst=Z&rft.au=Galadanci%2C+HS&rft.au=Ibrahim%2C+YA&rft.au=Babashani%2C+M&rft.au=Mijinyawa%2C+MS&rft.au=Simmons%2C+M&rft.au=Aliyu%2C+MH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.aogh.2017.05.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKontomanolisMichalopoulosGkasdarisFasoulakis2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kontomanolis EN, Michalopoulos S, Gkasdaris G, Fasoulakis Z (2017-05-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5490433">"The social stigma of HIV-AIDS: society's role"</a>. HIV/AIDS: Research and Palliative Care. 9: 111–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FHIV.S129992">10.2147/HIV.S129992</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5490433">5490433</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28694709">28694709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=HIV%2FAIDS%3A+Research+and+Palliative+Care&rft.atitle=The+social+stigma+of+HIV-AIDS%3A+society%27s+role&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=111-8&rft.date=2017-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5490433%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28694709&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2147%2FHIV.S129992&rft.aulast=Kontomanolis&rft.aufirst=EN&rft.au=Michalopoulos%2C+S&rft.au=Gkasdaris%2C+G&rft.au=Fasoulakis%2C+Z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5490433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2011/20110829_PLHIVStigmaIndex">"People Living with HIV Stigma Index: Asia Pacific Regional Analysis 2011"</a>. www.unaids.org. Retrieved 2019-12-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unaids.org&rft.atitle=People+Living+with+HIV+Stigma+Index%3A+Asia+Pacific+Regional+Analysis+2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unaids.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Fdocuments%2F2011%2F20110829_PLHIVStigmaIndex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0968-8080%2812%2939646-8">"Positive and pregnant — how dare you: a study on access to reproductive and maternal health care for women living with HIV in Asia: by Women of the Asia Pacific Network of People Living with HIV, March 2012"</a>. Reproductive Health Matters. 20 (sup39): 110–8. January 2012. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0968-8080%2812%2939646-8">10.1016/S0968-8080(12)39646-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0968-8080">0968-8080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reproductive+Health+Matters&rft.atitle=Positive+and+pregnant+%E2%80%94+how+dare+you%3A+a+study+on+access+to+reproductive+and+maternal+health+care+for+women+living+with+HIV+in+Asia%3A+by+Women+of+the+Asia+Pacific+Network+of+People+Living+with+HIV%2C+March+2012&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=sup39&rft.pages=110-8&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0968-8080%2812%2939646-8&rft.issn=0968-8080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0968-8080%252812%252939646-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosemanAhmedGatsi-Mallet2012" class="citation journal cs1">Roseman MJ, Ahmed A, Gatsi-Mallet J (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2220800">"'At the Hospital There are No Human Rights': Reproductive and Sexual Rights Violations of Women Living with HIV in Namibia"</a>. SSRN Working Paper Series. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2220800">10.2139/ssrn.2220800</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2047%2Fd20002882">2047/d20002882</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Working+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=%27At+the+Hospital+There+are+No+Human+Rights%27%3A+Reproductive+and+Sexual+Rights+Violations+of+Women+Living+with+HIV+in+Namibia&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2047%2Fd20002882&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2220800&rft.aulast=Roseman&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Ahmed%2C+A&rft.au=Gatsi-Mallet%2C+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2220800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendallAlbert2015" class="citation journal cs1">Kendall T, Albert C (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4374084">"Experiences of coercion to sterilize and forced sterilization among women living with HIV in Latin America"</a>. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 18 (1): 19462. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7448%2FIAS.18.1.19462">10.7448/IAS.18.1.19462</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4374084">4374084</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25808633">25808633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+AIDS+Society&rft.atitle=Experiences+of+coercion+to+sterilize+and+forced+sterilization+among+women+living+with+HIV+in+Latin+America&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19462&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4374084%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25808633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7448%2FIAS.18.1.19462&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Albert%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4374084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ijrcenter.org/2019/03/21/forced-sterilization-as-a-human-rights-violation-recent-developments/">"Forced sterilisation as a human rights violation: recent developments"</a>. ijrcenter.org. 21 March 2019. Retrieved 2019-12-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ijrcenter.org&rft.atitle=Forced+sterilisation+as+a+human+rights+violation%3A+recent+developments&rft.date=2019-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fijrcenter.org%2F2019%2F03%2F21%2Fforced-sterilization-as-a-human-rights-violation-recent-developments%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://namiblii.org/na/judgment/supreme-court/2014/19">"Government of the Republic of Namibia v LM and Others (SA 49/2012) [2014] NASC 19 (03 November 2014); | Namibia Legal Information Institute"</a>. namiblii.org. Retrieved 2019-12-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=namiblii.org&rft.atitle=Government+of+the+Republic+of+Namibia+v+LM+and+Others+%28SA+49%2F2012%29+%5B2014%5D+NASC+19+%2803+November+2014%29%3B+%7C+Namibia+Legal+Information+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnamiblii.org%2Fna%2Fjudgment%2Fsupreme-court%2F2014%2F19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/judge-rules-namibia-women-coerced-being-sterilised-368349">"Namibia Women Coerced into Being Sterilised"</a>. International Business Times UK. 2012-07-30. Retrieved 2019-12-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Business+Times+UK&rft.atitle=Namibia+Women+Coerced+into+Being+Sterilised&rft.date=2012-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibtimes.co.uk%2Fjudge-rules-namibia-women-coerced-being-sterilised-368349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardhrj.com/2010/10/litigating-against-the-forced-sterilization-of-hiv-positive-women-recent-developments-in-chile-and-namibia/">"Harvard Human Rights Law Journal — Litigating against the Forced Sterilization of HIV-Positive Women: Recent Developments in Chile and Namibia. 2010"</a>. Harvard Human Rights Journal. Namibia. 2010. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2210-7975_HRD-9944-0037">10.1163/2210-7975_HRD-9944-0037</a> – via BRILL.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Human+Rights+Journal&rft.atitle=Harvard+Human+Rights+Law+Journal+%E2%80%94+Litigating+against+the+Forced+Sterilization+of+HIV-Positive+Women%3A+Recent+Developments+in+Chile+and+Namibia.+2010.&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2210-7975_HRD-9944-0037&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharvardhrj.com%2F2010%2F10%2Flitigating-against-the-forced-sterilization-of-hiv-positive-women-recent-developments-in-chile-and-namibia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MadhiCutland2014-70"><a href="#cite_ref-MadhiCutland2014_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadhiCutlandKuwandaWeinberg2014" class="citation journal cs1">Madhi SA, Cutland CL, Kuwanda L, Weinberg A, Hugo A, Jones S, et al. (September 2014). "Influenza vaccination of pregnant women and protection of their infants". The New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (10): 918–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa1401480">10.1056/NEJMoa1401480</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2263%2F42412">2263/42412</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25184864">25184864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Influenza+vaccination+of+pregnant+women+and+protection+of+their+infants&rft.volume=371&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=918-31&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2263%2F42412&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25184864&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMoa1401480&rft.aulast=Madhi&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=Cutland%2C+CL&rft.au=Kuwanda%2C+L&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+A&rft.au=Hugo%2C+A&rft.au=Jones%2C+S&rft.au=Adrian%2C+PV&rft.au=van+Niekerk%2C+N&rft.au=Treurnicht%2C+F&rft.au=Ortiz%2C+JR&rft.au=Venter%2C+M&rft.au=Violari%2C+A&rft.au=Neuzil%2C+KM&rft.au=Sim%C3%B5es%2C+EA&rft.au=Klugman%2C+KP&rft.au=Nunes%2C+MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomonHawcroftNarasimhanSubbaraman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Solomon SS, Hawcroft CS, Narasimhan P, Subbaraman R, Srikrishnan AK, Cecelia AJ, et al. (May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5638642">"Comorbidities among HIV-infected injection drug users in Chennai, India"</a>. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 127 (5): 447–52. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5638642">5638642</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18653907">18653907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Journal+of+Medical+Research&rft.atitle=Comorbidities+among+HIV-infected+injection+drug+users+in+Chennai%2C+India&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=447-52&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5638642%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18653907&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=SS&rft.au=Hawcroft%2C+CS&rft.au=Narasimhan%2C+P&rft.au=Subbaraman%2C+R&rft.au=Srikrishnan%2C+AK&rft.au=Cecelia%2C+AJ&rft.au=Suresh+Kumar%2C+M&rft.au=Solomon%2C+S&rft.au=Gallant%2C+JE&rft.au=Celentano%2C+DD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5638642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Racial/ethnic disparities in diagnoses of HIV/AIDS—33 states, 2001–2004". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 55 (5): 121–5. February 2006. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16467777">16467777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MMWR+Morb+Mortal+Wkly+Rep&rft.atitle=Racial%2Fethnic+disparities+in+diagnoses+of+HIV%2FAIDS%E2%80%9433+states%2C+2001%E2%80%932004&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=121-5&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16467777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.295.13.1508">"Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Diagnoses of HIV/AIDS—33 States, 2001–2004"</a>. JAMA. 295 (13): 1508. 2006-04-05. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.295.13.1508">10.1001/jama.295.13.1508</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0098-7484">0098-7484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Racial%2FEthnic+Disparities+in+Diagnoses+of+HIV%2FAIDS%E2%80%9433+States%2C+2001%E2%80%932004&rft.volume=295&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=1508&rft.date=2006-04-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.295.13.1508&rft.issn=0098-7484&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1001%252Fjama.295.13.1508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_73-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalihuStanleyMbahAugust2010" class="citation journal cs1">Salihu HM, Stanley KM, Mbah AK, August EM, Alio AP, Marty PJ (November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fqai.0b013e3181f0cccf">"Disparities in rates and trends of HIV/AIDS during pregnancy across the decade, 1998-2007"</a>. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 55 (3): 391–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fqai.0b013e3181f0cccf">10.1097/qai.0b013e3181f0cccf</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20729744">20729744</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34024641">34024641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Acquired+Immune+Deficiency+Syndromes&rft.atitle=Disparities+in+rates+and+trends+of+HIV%2FAIDS+during+pregnancy+across+the+decade%2C+1998-2007&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-6&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34024641%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20729744&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2Fqai.0b013e3181f0cccf&rft.aulast=Salihu&rft.aufirst=HM&rft.au=Stanley%2C+KM&rft.au=Mbah%2C+AK&rft.au=August%2C+EM&rft.au=Alio%2C+AP&rft.au=Marty%2C+PJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252Fqai.0b013e3181f0cccf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrawczykFunkhouserKilbyVermund2009" class="citation journal cs1">Krawczyk CS, Funkhouser E, Kilby JM, Vermund SH (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763374">"Delayed access to HIV diagnosis and care: Special concerns for the Southern United States"</a>. AIDS Care. 18 (Suppl 1): S35-44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09540120600839280">10.1080/09540120600839280</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763374">2763374</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16938673">16938673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AIDS+Care&rft.atitle=Delayed+access+to+HIV+diagnosis+and+care%3A+Special+concerns+for+the+Southern+United+States&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=S35-44&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763374%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16938673&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09540120600839280&rft.aulast=Krawczyk&rft.aufirst=CS&rft.au=Funkhouser%2C+E&rft.au=Kilby%2C+JM&rft.au=Vermund%2C+SH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnriquezFarnanSimpsonGrantello2007" class="citation journal cs1">Enriquez M, Farnan R, Simpson K, Grantello S, Miles MS (2007). "Pregnancy, Poverty, and HIV". The Journal for Nurse Practitioners. 3 (10): 687–693. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nurpra.2007.08.015">10.1016/j.nurpra.2007.08.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1555-4155">1555-4155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+for+Nurse+Practitioners&rft.atitle=Pregnancy%2C+Poverty%2C+and+HIV&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=687-693&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nurpra.2007.08.015&rft.issn=1555-4155&rft.aulast=Enriquez&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Farnan%2C+R&rft.au=Simpson%2C+K&rft.au=Grantello%2C+S&rft.au=Miles%2C+MS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruegerWoodDiehrMaxwell1990" class="citation journal cs1">Krueger LE, Wood RW, Diehr PH, Maxwell CL (August 1990). "Poverty and HIV seropositivity: the poor are more likely to be infected". AIDS. 4 (8): 811–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00002030-199008000-00015">10.1097/00002030-199008000-00015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2261136">2261136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AIDS&rft.atitle=Poverty+and+HIV+seropositivity%3A+the+poor+are+more+likely+to+be+infected&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=811-4&rft.date=1990-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00002030-199008000-00015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2261136&rft.aulast=Krueger&rft.aufirst=LE&rft.au=Wood%2C+RW&rft.au=Diehr%2C+PH&rft.au=Maxwell%2C+CL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhang_2013-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_2013_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_2013_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_2013_77-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangSenteioFelizzolaRust2013" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang S, Senteio C, Felizzola J, Rust G (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3828964">"Racial/ethnic disparities in antiretroviral treatment among HIV-infected pregnant Medicaid enrollees, 2005-2007"</a>. American Journal of Public Health. 103 (12): e46-53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.2013.301328">10.2105/ajph.2013.301328</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3828964">3828964</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24134365">24134365</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Racial%2Fethnic+disparities+in+antiretroviral+treatment+among+HIV-infected+pregnant+Medicaid+enrollees%2C+2005-2007&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e46-53&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3828964%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24134365&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2Fajph.2013.301328&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Senteio%2C+C&rft.au=Felizzola%2C+J&rft.au=Rust%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3828964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:24-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:24_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBateganyaAmanyeiweRoxoDong2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bateganya MH, Amanyeiwe U, Roxo U, Dong M (April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4709521">"Impact of support groups for people living with HIV on clinical outcomes: a systematic review of the literature"</a>. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 68 (Supplement 3): S368-74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fqai.0000000000000519">10.1097/qai.0000000000000519</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4709521">4709521</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25768876">25768876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Acquired+Immune+Deficiency+Syndromes&rft.atitle=Impact+of+support+groups+for+people+living+with+HIV+on+clinical+outcomes%3A+a+systematic+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=Supplement+3&rft.pages=S368-74&rft.date=2015-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4709521%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25768876&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2Fqai.0000000000000519&rft.aulast=Bateganya&rft.aufirst=MH&rft.au=Amanyeiwe%2C+U&rft.au=Roxo%2C+U&rft.au=Dong%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4709521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:25-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:25_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMundellVisserMakinKershaw2011" class="citation journal cs1">Mundell JP, Visser MJ, Makin JD, Kershaw TS, Forsyth BW, Jeffery B, Sikkema KJ (August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017076">"The impact of structured support groups for pregnant South African women recently diagnosed HIV positive"</a>. Women & Health. 51 (6): 546–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03630242.2011.606356">10.1080/03630242.2011.606356</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017076">4017076</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21973110">21973110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Women+%26+Health&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+structured+support+groups+for+pregnant+South+African+women+recently+diagnosed+HIV+positive&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=546-65&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4017076%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21973110&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03630242.2011.606356&rft.aulast=Mundell&rft.aufirst=JP&rft.au=Visser%2C+MJ&rft.au=Makin%2C+JD&rft.au=Kershaw%2C+TS&rft.au=Forsyth%2C+BW&rft.au=Jeffery%2C+B&rft.au=Sikkema%2C+KJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4017076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHIV+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/">aidsinfo.nih.gov</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322035857/https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/">Archived</a> 2021-03-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from websites or documents of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government">United States Government</a>. <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="HIV/AIDS_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:HIV_and_AIDS" title="Template:HIV and AIDS"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:HIV_and_AIDS" title="Template talk:HIV and AIDS"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:HIV_and_AIDS" title="Special:EditPage/Template:HIV and AIDS"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="HIV/AIDS_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">HIV</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lentivirus" title="Lentivirus">Lentivirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_and_genome_of_HIV" title="Structure and genome of HIV">structure and genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtypes_of_HIV" title="Subtypes of HIV">subtypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDC_classification_system_for_HIV_infection" title="CDC classification system for HIV infection">CDC classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV_disease_progression_rates" title="HIV disease progression rates">disease progression rates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Addiction_and_HIV_Data_Archive_Program" title="National Addiction and HIV Data Archive Program">National Addiction and HIV Data Archive Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS">diagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Pathophysiology of HIV/AIDS">pathophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevention_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Prevention of HIV/AIDS">prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_research" title="HIV/AIDS research">research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV_vaccine" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV vaccine">vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis_for_HIV_prevention" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention">PrEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO_disease_staging_system_for_HIV_infection_and_disease" title="WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease">WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WHO_Disease_Staging_System_for_HIV_Infection_and_Disease_in_Children" title="WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease in Children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO_Disease_Staging_System_for_HIV_Infection_and_Disease_in_Adults_and_Adolescents" title="WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease in Adults and Adolescents">Teens / Adults</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_HIV/AIDS_adult_prevalence_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate">Countries by AIDS prevalence rate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Signs and symptoms of HIV/AIDS">Signs and symptoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIDS-defining_clinical_condition" title="AIDS-defining clinical condition">AIDS-defining clinical condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_infiltrative_lymphocytosis_syndrome" title="Diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome">Diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_lipodystrophy" title="HIV-associated lipodystrophy">Lipodystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_nephropathy" title="HIV-associated nephropathy">Nephropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_cardiomyopathy" title="HIV-associated cardiomyopathy">Cardiomyopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">Neurocognitive disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_pruritus" title="HIV-associated pruritus">Pruritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV_superinfection" title="HIV superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis co-infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV_Drug_Resistance_Database" title="HIV Drug Resistance Database">HIV Drug Resistance Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innate_resistance_to_HIV" title="Innate resistance to HIV">Innate resistance to HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serostatus" title="Serostatus">Serostatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-positive_people" title="HIV-positive people">HIV-positive people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_challenges_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Nutritional challenges of HIV/AIDS">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">Epidemiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners" title="Multiple sex partners">Multiple sex partners</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Timeline of HIV/AIDS">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_AIDS_Museum_and_Educational_Center" title="World AIDS Museum and Educational Center">World AIDS Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Ray_Brown" title="Timothy Ray Brown">Timothy Ray Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Patient" title="Berlin Patient">Berlin Patient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Castillejo" title="Adam Castillejo">The London Patient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Edmonds_(patient)" title="Paul Edmonds (patient)">City of Hope Patient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Women and HIV/AIDS">Women and HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="HIV and men who have sex with men">HIV and homosexual men</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDS_orphan" title="AIDS orphan">AIDS orphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Religion and HIV/AIDS">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision_and_HIV" title="Circumcision and HIV">Circumcision and HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_transmission_of_HIV" title="Criminal transmission of HIV">Criminal transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">Discrimination against people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Economic impact of HIV/AIDS">Economic impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_HIV_treatment" title="Cost of HIV treatment">Cost of treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV-affected_community" title="HIV-affected community">HIV-affected community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_activism" title="HIV/AIDS activism">HIV/AIDS activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_ribbon" title="Red ribbon">Red ribbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_HIV-positive_people" title="List of HIV-positive people">List of HIV-positive people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_With_AIDS" title="People With AIDS">People With AIDS Self-Empowerment Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections_in_the_pornography_industry" title="Sexually transmitted infections in the pornography industry">HIV/AIDS in the porn industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV.gov" title="HIV.gov">HIV.gov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAMES_Project_AIDS_Memorial_Quilt" title="NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt">AIDS Memorial Quilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_Red" title="Product Red">Product Red</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discredited_HIV/AIDS_origins_theories" title="Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories">Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_and_Developing_Countries_Clinical_Trials_Partnership" title="European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership">European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elton_John_AIDS_Foundation" title="Elton John AIDS Foundation">Elton John AIDS Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_AIDS_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="International AIDS Conference">International AIDS Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_AIDS_Society" title="International AIDS Society">International AIDS Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_United_Nations_Programme_on_HIV/AIDS" title="Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS">Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Media portrayal of HIV/AIDS">Media portrayal of HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misconceptions_about_HIV/AIDS" title="Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS">Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Emergency_Plan_for_AIDS_Relief" title="President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief">President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sing_campaign" title="Sing campaign">The SING Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidays" title="Solidays">Solidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_Action_Campaign" title="Treatment Action Campaign">Treatment Action Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Global_Fund_to_Fight_AIDS,_Tuberculosis_and_Malaria" title="The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria">The Global Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_AIDS_Day" title="World AIDS Day">World AIDS Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_Against_AIDS" title="Youth Against AIDS">YAA/Youthforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Me_(Sia_song)" title="Free Me (Sia song)">"Free Me"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Kramer" title="Larry Kramer">Larry Kramer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GMHC" title="GMHC">Gay Men's Health Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACT_UP" title="ACT UP">ACT UP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reports_from_the_Holocaust" title="Reports from the Holocaust">Reports from the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIDS%E2%80%93Holocaust_metaphor" title="AIDS–Holocaust metaphor">AIDS–Holocaust metaphor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silence%3DDeath_Project" title="Silence=Death Project">Silence=Death Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_Without_Art" title="Day Without Art">Day Without Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freddie_Mercury_Tribute_Concert" title="The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert">The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayds" title="Ayds">Ayds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">Locations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Angola" title="HIV/AIDS in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Benin" title="HIV/AIDS in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Botswana" title="HIV/AIDS in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="HIV/AIDS in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Egypt" title="HIV/AIDS in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Eswatini" title="HIV/AIDS in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Ethiopia" title="HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Ghana" title="HIV/AIDS in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Guinea" title="HIV/AIDS in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Ivory_Coast" title="HIV/AIDS in Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Kenya" title="HIV/AIDS in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Lesotho" title="HIV/AIDS in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Madagascar" title="HIV/AIDS in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Malawi" title="HIV/AIDS in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Mali" title="HIV/AIDS in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Mozambique" title="HIV/AIDS in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Namibia" title="HIV/AIDS in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Niger" title="HIV/AIDS in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Nigeria" title="HIV/AIDS in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Rwanda" title="HIV/AIDS in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Senegal" title="HIV/AIDS in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Tanzania" title="HIV/AIDS in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Uganda" title="HIV/AIDS in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Zambia" title="HIV/AIDS in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Zimbabwe" title="HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Asia" title="HIV/AIDS in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Armenia" title="HIV/AIDS in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Bangladesh" title="HIV/AIDS in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Bhutan" title="HIV/AIDS in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Cambodia" title="HIV/AIDS in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">China (PRC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Yunnan" title="HIV/AIDS in Yunnan">Yunnan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_East_Timor" title="HIV/AIDS in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_India" title="HIV/AIDS in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Indonesia" title="HIV/AIDS in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Iraq" title="HIV/AIDS in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Japan" title="HIV/AIDS in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Jordan" title="HIV/AIDS in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Laos" title="HIV/AIDS in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Malaysia" title="HIV/AIDS in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Myanmar" title="HIV/AIDS in Myanmar">Myanmar (Burma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Nepal" title="HIV/AIDS in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Pakistan" title="HIV/AIDS in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_Philippines" title="HIV/AIDS in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Taiwan" title="HIV/AIDS in Taiwan">Taiwan (ROC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Thailand" title="HIV/AIDS in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="HIV/AIDS in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Vietnam" title="HIV/AIDS in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Europe" title="HIV/AIDS in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="HIV/AIDS in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Russia" title="HIV/AIDS in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Ukraine" title="HIV/AIDS in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_North_America" title="HIV/AIDS in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Canada" title="HIV/AIDS in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Mexico" title="HIV/AIDS in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_El_Salvador" title="HIV/AIDS in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Guatemala" title="HIV/AIDS in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Honduras" title="HIV/AIDS in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Nicaragua" title="HIV/AIDS in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_United_States" title="HIV/AIDS in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_New_York_City" title="HIV/AIDS in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_Caribbean" title="HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Haiti" title="HIV/AIDS in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Jamaica" title="HIV/AIDS in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="HIV/AIDS in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_South_America" title="HIV/AIDS in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Argentina" title="HIV/AIDS in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Bolivia" title="HIV/AIDS in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Brazil" title="HIV/AIDS in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Colombia" title="HIV/AIDS in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Guyana" title="HIV/AIDS in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Peru" title="HIV/AIDS in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Uruguay" title="HIV/AIDS in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Australia" title="HIV/AIDS in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_New_Zealand" title="HIV/AIDS in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="HIV/AIDS in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_HIV/AIDS_adult_prevalence_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate">List of countries by HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_HIV/AIDS_cases_and_deaths_registered_by_region" title="List of HIV/AIDS cases and deaths registered by region">List of HIV/AIDS cases and deaths registered by region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pregnancy_and_childbirth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pregnancy" title="Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pregnancy" title="Template talk:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pregnancy_and_childbirth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_family_planning" title="Natural family planning">Natural family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Conception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">fertility medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">partner-assisted reproduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HCG_pregnancy_strip_test" class="mw-redirect" title="HCG pregnancy strip test">home testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_testing" title="Prenatal testing">Prenatal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging_in_pregnancy" title="Medical imaging in pregnancy">Medical imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_pregnancy" title="Cervical pregnancy">Cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptic_pregnancy" title="Cryptic pregnancy">Cryptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pregnancy" title="Abdominal pregnancy">Abdominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotopic_pregnancy" title="Heterotopic pregnancy">Heterotopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molar_pregnancy" title="Molar pregnancy">Molar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_pregnancy" title="Ovarian pregnancy">Ovarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_pregnancy" title="Interstitial pregnancy">Interstitial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudimentary_horn_pregnancy" title="Rudimentary horn pregnancy">Rudimentary horn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_method_of_natural_childbirth" title="Bradley method of natural childbirth">Bradley method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy_in_childbirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnotherapy in childbirth">Hypnobirthing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamaze_technique" title="Lamaze technique">Lamaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Nesting instinct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Newborn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_attendant" title="Birth attendant">Birth attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_role_in_childbirth" title="Men's role in childbirth">Men's roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_nurse_midwife" title="Auxiliary nurse midwife">Auxiliary nurse midwife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Perinatal nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_birth_attendant" title="Traditional birth attendant">Traditional birth attendant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delivery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelvimetry" title="Pelvimetry">Pelvimetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bishop_score" title="Bishop score">Bishop score</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_dilation" title="Cervical dilation">cervical dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_effacement" title="Cervical effacement">cervical effacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_(obstetrics)" title="Position (obstetrics)">position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_show" title="Bloody show">Bloody show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">Vaginal delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentation_(obstetrics)" title="Presentation (obstetrics)">Presentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breech_birth" title="Breech birth">breech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalic_presentation" title="Cephalic presentation">cephalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_presentation" title="Shoulder presentation">shoulder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupture_of_membranes" title="Rupture of membranes">Rupture of membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth_positions" title="Childbirth positions">Childbirth positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_birth" title="Home birth">Home birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_induction" title="Labor induction">Labor induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">Multiple birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_childbirth" title="Natural childbirth">Natural childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_birth" title="Silent birth">Silent birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassisted_childbirth" title="Unassisted childbirth">Unassisted childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_birth" title="Water birth">Water birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_expulsion" title="Placental expulsion">Placental expulsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prenatal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">Amniotic fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">Amniotic sac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_embryonic_development" title="Human embryonic development">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">Fundal height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">Maternal physiological changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Care</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li>Nutrition <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development" title="Environmental toxicants and fetal development">environmental toxicants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_pregnancy" title="Nutrition and pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_nutrition" title="Prenatal nutrition">prenatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_depression" title="Antenatal depression">Prenatal depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization_during_pregnancy" title="Immunization during pregnancy">Immunization</a></li> <li>Concomitant conditions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anemia_in_pregnancy" title="Anemia in pregnancy">Anemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability_in_pregnancy" title="Hypercoagulability in pregnancy">Hypercoagulability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Substance use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_pregnancy" title="Cannabis in pregnancy">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioids_and_pregnancy" title="Opioids and pregnancy">Opioids</a></li></ul></li> <li>Endocrine diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_and_pregnancy" title="Diabetes and pregnancy">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Thyroid disease in pregnancy">Thyroid disease</a></li></ul></li> <li>Liver diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_fatty_liver_of_pregnancy" title="Acute fatty liver of pregnancy">Acute fatty liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrahepatic_cholestasis_of_pregnancy" title="Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy">Intrahepatic cholestasis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infections <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy" title="COVID-19 in pregnancy">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCV_in_children_and_pregnancy" title="HCV in children and pregnancy">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Malaria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Skin diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_and_pregnancy" title="Lupus and pregnancy">Lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruritic_folliculitis_of_pregnancy" title="Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy">Pruritic folliculitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatoses_of_pregnancy" title="Dermatoses of pregnancy">Dermatoses</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">Vaginal flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy">Motor vehicle emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">Pre-existing disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_and_sleep" title="Pregnancy and sleep">Sleep</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maternal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lochia" title="Lochia">Lochia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_after_pregnancy" title="Sex after pregnancy">Sex after pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Psychiatric disorders of childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_visitor" title="Health visitor">Health visitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultant" title="Lactation consultant">Lactation consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_nurse" title="Monthly nurse">Monthly nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny#Maternity_nurse_/_newborn_care_specialists_/_confinement_nanny" title="Nanny">Confinement nanny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">Adaptation to extrauterine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apgar_score" title="Apgar score">Apgar score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">Congenital disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obstetric history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&oldid=1256807399">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&oldid=1256807399</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:HIV/AIDS" title="Category:HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Midwifery" title="Category:Midwifery">Midwifery</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_public_domain_works_of_the_United_States_Government" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 November 2024, at 17:40 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HIV_and_pregnancy&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-7j489","wgBackendResponseTime":161,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.961","walltime":"1.068","ppvisitednodes":{"value":4701,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":264120,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":468,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":3,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":331629,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 873.022 1 -total"," 62.26% 543.521 1 Template:Reflist"," 28.72% 250.705 41 Template:Cite_web"," 19.61% 171.242 31 Template:Cite_journal"," 13.59% 118.660 7 Template:Navbox"," 11.33% 98.909 1 Template:HIV_and_AIDS"," 10.77% 94.013 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.60% 57.637 2 Template:Pagetype"," 4.00% 34.916 6 Template:Cite_book"," 2.55% 22.231 3 Template:Main_other"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.571","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":5268292,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-486j8","timestamp":"20241122153130","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"HIV and pregnancy","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV_and_pregnancy","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3537721","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3537721","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2014-08-02T18:44:21Z","dateModified":"2024-11-11T17:40:52Z","headline":"HIV transmission route"}</script> </body> </html>