Law of War Questions Raised by Exploding Pagers in Lebanon

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by Exploding Pagers in Lebanon </h1> </div> </div> </div><div class="columns-wrap pagewidth pw1400 clearfix"><div id="secondary-left" class="secondary"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/finucanebrian/" title="Profile and articles by Brian Finucane" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brian Finucane</a></p><p class="date">September 18, 2024</p><div class="sharedaddy sd-sharing-enabled"><div class="robots-nocontent sd-block sd-social sd-social-icon sd-sharing"><h3 class="sd-title">Share this:</h3><div class="sd-content"><ul><li class="share-bluesky"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-bluesky-100193" class="share-bluesky sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/100193/law-war-exploding-pagers-lebanon/?share=bluesky" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Bluesky" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Bluesky (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-twitter"><a 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window)</span></a></li><li class="share-end"></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/communications/" rel="tag">communications</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/distinction/" rel="tag">Distinction</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/hezbollah/" rel="tag">Hezbollah</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-humanitarian-law/" rel="tag">International Humanitarian Law (IHL)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-law/" rel="tag">International Law</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/israel/" rel="tag">Israel</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/idf/" rel="tag">Israel Defense Forces (IDF)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/law-of-armed-conflict-loac/" rel="tag">Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/laws-of-war/" rel="tag">Laws of War</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/lebanon/" rel="tag">Lebanon</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/precautions/" rel="tag">precautions</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/proportionality/" rel="tag">proportionality</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/terrorism/" rel="tag">terrorism</a></p></div></div><main id="primary" tabindex="-1" class="content-body clearfix" role="main"><article class="client-ui clearfix"><div class="print-authors"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/finucanebrian/" title="Profile and articles by Brian Finucane" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brian Finucane</a></p><p class="date">September 18, 2024</p></div><p><a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-planted-explosives-hezbollahs-taiwan-made-pagers-say-sources-2024-09-18/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Thousands</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of pagers exploded across southern Lebanon and Beirut on Sept. 17,</span><a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/hezbollah-pagers-expolsion-lebanon-handheld-devices-rcna171457"> <span style="font-weight: 400;">reportedly</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> killing nine people, including a child, and injuring thousands. The explosions occurred amidst ongoing hostilities between Lebanese Hezbollah and Israel, the current round of which began on</span><a href="https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/east-mediterranean-mena/lebanon-israelpalestine/deterrence-between-israel"> <span style="font-weight: 400;">Oct. 8</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of last year, when Hezbollah, in a show of solidarity with Hamas, launched an attack against an Israeli military base in Shebaa Farms. Subsequent fighting between Hezbollah and Israel has displaced tens of thousands in southern Lebanon and northern Israel.</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Although no party has claimed credit for the action, Hezbollah, which appears to have been the target of the attacks,</span><a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/dozens-hezbollah-members-wounded-lebanon-when-pagers-exploded-sources-witnesses-2024-09-17/"> <span style="font-weight: 400;">blamed Israel</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. U.S. officials speaking on background have </span><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/18/world/asia/taiwan-pagers-lebanon.html"><span style="font-weight: 400;">asserted</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that Israel intercepted a shipment of pagers and inserted explosives in them. According to </span><a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-planted-explosives-hezbollahs-taiwan-made-pagers-say-sources-2024-09-18/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Reuters</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, “Hezbollah opted to distribute pagers to its members across the group’s various branches – from fighters to medics working in its relief services.” Axios </span><a href="https://www.axios.com/2024/09/18/hezbollah-pager-explosions-israel-suspicions"><span style="font-weight: 400;">cited</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> a former Israeli official who said Israeli intelligence services had originally planned to use the modified pagers as a “surprise opening blow in an all out war to try to cripple Hezbollah.” Unnamed U.S. officials told </span><a href="https://www.axios.com/2024/09/18/hezbollah-pager-explosions-israel-suspicions"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Axios</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that Israel decided to detonate the pagers now due to fears Hezbollah had discovered they had been altered and thus Israel had to “use or lose” the capability. </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The attacks raise concerns about civilian harm and whether further escalation in the hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah is likely to ensue. Alongside those concerns, the exploding pagers in Lebanon raise a number of factual and legal questions related to the law of armed conflict, or international humanitarian law (IHL), given that Israel and Hezbollah are engaged in an ongoing armed conflict. (Professor Kevin Jon Heller touched on some related issues in his</span><a href="https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1409&context=ils"> <span style="font-weight: 400;">article</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> examining the 2008 killing of then-head of Hezbollah’s international operations, Imad Mughniyah.) </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><br /> </span></p> <p><b>Factual Questions: Who did what to whom and why?</b></p> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Who is responsible for the explosion of these pagers? </span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Was this a covert supply chain operation and if so, at what point in the supply chain were the pagers altered? Were there any cyber-enabled aspects to it?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Who were the expected recipients of the altered pagers?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Was the distribution of these altered devices targeted (i.e., limited to Hezbollah fighters)? Or were the devices more broadly distributed either within Hezbollah or to civilians in the general public in Lebanon? </span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Was it anticipated that civilians, including Hezbollah members who are not fighters, would receive the devices?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">What was the intended target of the attacks—the pagers themselves and by extension Hezbollah’s communications or the individuals carrying the pagers? Or both?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">What were the anticipated effects in terms of blast strength and radius of the exploding pagers? Was it anticipated that they would injure or kill their holders? Others in their vicinity?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Who specifically was killed or injured as a result of this action?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Was this action in fact taken prematurely due to concerns the modification of the pagers had been discovered? </span></li> </ul> <p><b>Law of War Questions</b></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The following is a non-exhaustive list of questions that arise pertaining to whether the attacks violated the IHL obligations of the attacker.</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> </span></p> <p><b><i>Distinction:</i></b></p> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">If the carriers of the pagers were the intended targets, were the individuals targeted lawful targets, either on the basis of their status as fighters in an organized armed group that is party to a conflict with the attacker, or due to their direct participation in hostilities (DPH) in such an armed conflict?</span> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="2"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Note: There are differing views as to what types of conduct are sufficient to conclude that an individual is directly participating in hostilities or is appropriately deemed to be a fighter in an organized armed group such that they may lawfully be made the object of attack. What standard did the attacker employ in determining DPH or armed group membership status if that was indeed relied upon as a basis for concluding individuals were targetable?</span></li> </ul> </li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Did this action constitute an indiscriminate attack, or a series of such attacks? That is attacks: (a) which are not directed at a specific military objective; or (b) which employ a method or means of combat which cannot be directed at a specific military objective?</span></li> </ul> <p><b><i>Proportionality:</i></b></p> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">How did the attacking party assess the anticipated concrete and direct military advantage from the attacks?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">How did the attacking party assess whether the expected harm to civilians and civilian objects from this attack would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">How were these assessments affected if Israel did indeed accelerate its timeline for detonating the devices (and the military benefit was not an opening blow in an all out war)?</span></li> </ul> <p><b><i>Precautions:</i></b></p> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">What feasible precautions were taken to protect civilians from the effects of these explosions? </span></li> </ul> <p><b><i>Prohibited Use of Certain Weapons:</i></b></p> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Do the pagers constitute “booby-traps” under <a href="https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1996/05/19960503%2001-38%20AM/Ch_XXVI_02_bp.pdf">Amended Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons</a> (to which both Israel and Lebanon are parties), as a “device or material which is designed, constructed, or adapted to kill or injure, and which functions unexpectedly when a person disturbs or approaches an apparently harmless object or performs an apparently safe act?”</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Did this attack violate Article 7(2) of Amended Protocol II, which prohibits the “use of booby-traps or other devices in the form of harmless portable objects which are specifically designed and constructed to contain explosive material?”</span> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="2"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Note: The U.S. Department of Defense’s</span><a href="https://media.defense.gov/2023/Jul/31/2003271432/-1/-1/0/DOD-LAW-OF-WAR-MANUAL-JUNE-2015-UPDATED-JULY%202023.PDF"> <span style="font-weight: 400;">Law of War Manual</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> identifies exploding World War II-era communications headsets as an example of such a prohibited booby-trap.</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="2"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Would the modification of pagers through the addition of explosive material qualify as “specifically designed and constructed”?</span></li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="2"><span style="font-weight: 400;">(The United States submitted an</span><a href="https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-2-b&chapter=26&clang=_en#EndDec"> <span style="font-weight: 400;">understanding</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to Amended Protocol II that “the prohibition contained in Article 7(2) of the Amended Mines Protocol does not preclude the expedient adaptation or adaptation in advance of other objects for use as booby-traps or other devices.”)</span></li> </ul> </li> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Did this attack violate Article 7(3) of Amended Protocol II?</span> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="2"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Article 7(3) prohibits use of “weapons to which this Article applies [booby-traps] in any city, town, village or other area containing a similar concentration of civilians in which combat between ground forces is not taking place or does not appear to be imminent, unless either:</span></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <p style="padding-left: 120px;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">(a) they are placed on or in the close vicinity of a military objective; or</span></p> <p style="padding-left: 120px;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">(b) measures are taken to protect civilians from their effects, for example, the posting of warning sentries, the issuing of warnings or the provision of fences.”</span></p> <ul> <li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1"><span style="font-weight: 400;">To the extent the pagers were carried by Hezbollah fighters, would that satisfy the exception under Article 7(3)(a)?</span></li> </ul> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;"> </span></p> <h6><strong><em>IMAGE: Ambulances are surrounded by people at the entrance of the American University of Beirut Medical Center, on September 17, 2024, after explosions hit locations in several Hezbollah strongholds around Lebanon amid ongoing cross-border tensions between Israel and Hezbollah fighters. (Photo by Anwar AMRO / AFP)</em></strong></h6> <div class="icon-end-post"></div><div class="mobile-post-tags"><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/communications/" rel="tag">communications</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/distinction/" rel="tag">Distinction</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/hezbollah/" rel="tag">Hezbollah</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-humanitarian-law/" rel="tag">International Humanitarian Law (IHL)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-law/" rel="tag">International Law</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/israel/" rel="tag">Israel</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/idf/" rel="tag">Israel Defense Forces (IDF)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/law-of-armed-conflict-loac/" rel="tag">Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/laws-of-war/" rel="tag">Laws of War</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/lebanon/" rel="tag">Lebanon</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/precautions/" rel="tag">precautions</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/proportionality/" rel="tag">proportionality</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/terrorism/" rel="tag">terrorism</a></p></div></div></article></main><div id="secondary-right" class="secondary" role="complementary"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/early-edition-signup/" class="button has-icon icon-pm">Signups for A.M. & P.M. 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Kramer</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kellyian/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador (ret) Ian Kelly" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador (ret) Ian Kelly</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 11th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105627/syria-freedom-governance-local-approach-constitutionalism/">Syrians’ Pursuit of Freedom and Self-Governance: Prioritizing a Locally-Driven and Incremental Approach to Constitutionalism</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/alrwishdideyaa/" title="Profile and articles by Deyaa Alrwishdi" class="author url fn" rel="author">Deyaa Alrwishdi</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hamiltonrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Hamilton" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Hamilton</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 11th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105593/foreign-agent-laws-impact/">The Spreading Impact of Restrictive ‘Foreign Agent’ Laws and How to Stop Them</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/cameronjasmine/" title="Profile and articles by Jasmine D. 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Nicola</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105064/mapping-state-reactions-icc/">Mapping State Reactions to the ICC Arrest Warrants for Netanyahu and Gallant</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ingberrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Ingber" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Ingber</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105552/public-framing-mass-deportation/">The Public Framing of Mass Deportation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/coxadam/" title="Profile and articles by Adam Cox" class="author url fn" rel="author">Adam Cox</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 9th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105538/interpol-transparency-reform/">Interpol General Assembly Inches Forward on Transparency, Still Needs Reform Strategy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bromundted/" title="Profile and articles by Ted R. 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Herbst</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105321/military-immigration-enforcement-deportation/">Deployment of the U.S. Military for Immigration Enforcement: A Primer</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goiteinelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Goitein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Goitein</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105181/drones-graves-mexicos-disappeared/">Camera-Fitted Drones May Help Locate Graves of Mexico’s Disappeared</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/garciareyeskarina/" title="Profile and articles by Karina García-Reyes" class="author url fn" rel="author">Karina García-Reyes</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/moctezumamiguel/" title="Profile and articles by Miguel Moctezuma" class="author url fn" rel="author">Miguel Moctezuma</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105176/birthright-citizenship-undocumented-immigrants-2/">Birthright Citizenship and Undocumented Immigrants</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/sominilya/" title="Profile and articles by Ilya Somin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ilya Somin</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105048/icc-arrest-warrants/">Nuts & Bolts of the International Criminal Court Arrest Warrants in the ‘Situation in Palestine’</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/dannenbaumtom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Dannenbaum" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Dannenbaum</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105019/trump-ukraine-policy-peace-talks/">To ‘End’ War in Ukraine, Trump Might Be Tougher on Putin Than Critics Think</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 21st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104929/ukraine-biden-trump-missiles/">Biden’s Final Efforts on Ukraine — and Trump’s First Moves</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/frieddaniel/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador Daniel Fried" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador Daniel Fried</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104770/new-technology-atrocity-prevention/">Thinking Beyond Risks: A Symposium on Tech and Atrocity Prevention</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104800/sanctions-effectiveness-models/">Do Sanctions Work? It Depends. Burma and the West Bank Might Be Models.</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bradbrooksrubin/" title="Profile and articles by Brad Brooks-Rubin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brad Brooks-Rubin</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 13th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104728/ukraine-constitution-conscientious-objectors/">As Ukraine Struggles for Troops, Its Constitutional Court Considers the Rights of Conscientious Objectors</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nekoliakandrii/" title="Profile and articles by Andrii Nekoliak" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrii Nekoliak</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 12th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104676/american-ai-leadership-requires-support-open-source/">The United States Must Win The Global Open Source AI Race</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mcbridekeegan/" title="Profile and articles by Keegan McBride" class="author url fn" rel="author">Keegan McBride</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/woodleyballdean/" title="Profile and articles by Dean W. Ball" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dean W. Ball</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104622/journalist-in-exile-laments-kyrgyzstan-crackdown-now-extending-to-his-12-year-old-son/">Journalist in Exile Laments Kyrgyzstan Crackdown, Now Extending to His 12-Year-Old Son</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/temirovbolot/" title="Profile and articles by Bolot Temirov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Bolot Temirov</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 6th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104655/real-time-litigation-tracker-election/">Election 2024 Real-Time Litigation Tracker</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/vancejoyce/" title="Profile and articles by Joyce Vance" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joyce Vance</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/geemadison/" title="Profile and articles by Madison Gee" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madison Gee</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104564/election-top-10-nov-4/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104448/older-people-human-rights-africa/">A Historic Day for Older People and Human Rights Across Africa</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mugabowishemaelie/" title="Profile and articles by Elie Mugabowishema" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elie Mugabowishema</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/buchananjane/" title="Profile and articles by Jane Buchanan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jane Buchanan</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104398/new-interpol-chief-abuses-reforms/">As Interpol Gets New Secretary General, What are the Risks of Abuses Over Reforms?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bromundted/" title="Profile and articles by Ted R. Bromund" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ted R. Bromund</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/grossmansandra/" title="Profile and articles by Sandra Grossman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Sandra Grossman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenbergilan/" title="Profile and articles by Ilan Greenberg" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ilan Greenberg</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104416/congress-protect-americans-transnational-repression/">Congress Should Protect Americans from Transnational Repression</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ahmedrasheed/" title="Profile and articles by Rasheed Ahmed" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rasheed Ahmed</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104451/pentagon-plan-protect-civilians-promises/">Is The Pentagon’s Plan to Protect Civilians Living up to its Promises?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hunkemadison/" title="Profile and articles by Madison Hunke" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madison Hunke</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104393/election-top-10-oct-29/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 30th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104407/authoritarianism-plutocracy-press-freedom/">Rising Authoritarianism and Plutocracy Are a Dangerous Mix for Press Freedom</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kleinfeldrachel/" title="Profile and articles by Rachel Kleinfeld" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Kleinfeld</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 30th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104385/presumptive-privilege-trump-pence/">Does a “Presumptive” Privilege Protect President Trump from Prosecution for Pressuring Pence?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/alschuleralbert/" title="Profile and articles by Albert W. Alschuler" class="author url fn" rel="author">Albert W. Alschuler</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104255/frictionless-government-national-security-constitution/">Frictionless Government and the National Security Constitution</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/deeksashley/" title="Profile and articles by Ashley Deeks" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ashley Deeks</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eichensehrkristen/" title="Profile and articles by Kristen Eichensehr" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kristen Eichensehr</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 28th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104348/israel-strikes-against-iran/">Making Sense of International Law in Light of Israel and Iran’s Latest Round of “Retaliation”</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lieblicheliav/" title="Profile and articles by Eliav Lieblich" class="author url fn" rel="author">Eliav Lieblich</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104334/washington-post-endorsement-bezos/">On Dictatorship and Self-Censorship: Lessons the Owner of a Sudanese Newspaper Could Give Jeff Bezos</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hamiltonrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Hamilton" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Hamilton</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104328/dod-directive-changes/">Much Ado About Nothing: Recent Changes to Department of Defense Directive 5240.01</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nunnjoseph/" title="Profile and articles by Joseph Nunn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joseph Nunn</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goiteinelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Goitein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Goitein</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104242/memorandum-ai-national-security/">The U.S. National Security Memorandum on AI: Leading Experts Weigh In</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104206/fair-fast-asylum-processing-switzerland/">Fair and Fast Asylum Processing: Lessons from Switzerland</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ghezelbashdaniel/" title="Profile and articles by Daniel Ghezelbash" class="author url fn" rel="author">Daniel Ghezelbash</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hruschkaconstantin/" title="Profile and articles by Constantin Hruschka" class="author url fn" rel="author">Constantin Hruschka</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 24th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104174/election-top-10-oct-23/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. 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Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 16th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103743/lifting-russia-sanctions/">Lifting Russia Sanctions – What Can a President Do Unilaterally?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/markustaisa/" title="Profile and articles by Taisa Markus" class="author url fn" rel="author">Taisa Markus</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 16th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103918/jack-goldsmith-jack-smith-explanation/">Refuting the Latest Baseless Attacks Against Special Counsel Jack Smith</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/weissmannandrew/" title="Profile and articles by Andrew Weissmann" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrew Weissmann</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 15th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103838/un-future-summit-can-teach/">What the UN’s Summit of the Future Can Teach Us – When the Dust Settles</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/streetjordan/" title="Profile and articles by Jordan Street" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jordan Street</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 11th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103818/scenario-planning-january-6th/">The “War Game” Documentary, and Simulating a Worse January 6th</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rudesilldakota/" title="Profile and articles by Dakota S. Rudesill" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dakota S. Rudesill</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103777/maintaining-the-rule-of-law-in-the-age-of-ai/">Maintaining the Rule of Law in the Age of AI</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/szilagyikatie/" title="Profile and articles by Katie Szilagyi" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katie Szilagyi</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 9th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103478/2024-election-litigation-top-10/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 8th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103317/shattering-illusions-how-cyber-threat-intelligence-augments-legal-action-against-russias-influence-operations/">Shattering Illusions: How Cyber Threat Intelligence Augments Legal Action against Russia’s Influence Operations</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kruschmasonw/" title="Profile and articles by Mason W. Krusch" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mason W. Krusch</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 8th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103464/beyond-law-reaffirming-the-centrality-of-ethics-in-war/">Beyond Law: Reaffirming the Centrality of Ethics in War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzelke/" title="Profile and articles by Elke Schwarz" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elke Schwarz</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/renicneil/" title="Profile and articles by Neil Renic" class="author url fn" rel="author">Neil Renic</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103533/whos-who-jack-smith-immunity-brief/">Who’s Who in Jack Smith’s Immunity Brief</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/klasfeldadam/" title="Profile and articles by Adam Klasfeld" class="author url fn" rel="author">Adam Klasfeld</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103433/unlawful-private-militias-government-response/">The Threat from Unlawful Private Militias Has Evolved. 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Scott Adams</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103406/iran-israel-escalation/">Threats and Response Options in the Escalating Israel-Iran Conflict</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103380/un-future-pact-reform/">The UN’s New Pact for the Future: A Milestone That Can Set a Path for Change</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ponziorichard/" title="Profile and articles by Richard Ponzio" class="author url fn" rel="author">Richard Ponzio</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103339/artificial-intelligence-at-2024-united-nations/">AI at UNGA79: Recapping Key Themes</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/88039/trumps-legal-and-political-calendar-all-the-dates-you-need-to-know/">Master Calendar of Trump Court Dates: Criminal and Civil Cases</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. 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href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 14th, 2025</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/107087/tracker-litigation-legal-challenges-trump-administration/">Litigation Tracker: Legal Challenges to Trump Administration Actions</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 16th, 2025</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105064/mapping-state-reactions-icc/">Mapping State Reactions to the ICC Arrest Warrants for Netanyahu and Gallant</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ingberrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Ingber" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Ingber</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/81789/russias-eliminationist-rhetoric-against-ukraine-a-collection/">Russia’s Eliminationist Rhetoric Against Ukraine: A Collection</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/100235/unga-79-expert-analysis-resources/">UNGA 79: Expert Analysis & Resources</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nirmaya/" title="Profile and articles by Maya Nir" class="author url fn" rel="author">Maya Nir</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 19th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><aside id="js-scrolling-content-6" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Series</h3><div class="flexible-content posts custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:350px;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104770/new-technology-atrocity-prevention/">Thinking Beyond Risks: A Symposium on Tech and Atrocity Prevention</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96975/icc-prosecutor-policy-complementarity-cooperation/">Symposium: ICC Prosecutor Launches Policy on Complementarity and Cooperation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a 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Barela" class="author url fn" rel="author">Steven J. Barela</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fallonmark/" title="Profile and articles by Mark Fallon" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mark Fallon</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 1st, 2021</p> </li></ul></div></aside><div class="capitol-breaker"><h3 class="widget-title">Key Topics</h3><div class="sub-title">Scroll within to view all topics.</div></div><aside id="js-scrolling-content-2" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><div class="flexible-content links custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:255px;"><ul class="link-list"><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/artificial-intelligence/">Artificial Intelligence (AI)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84303/just-securitys-climate-archive/">Climate Change</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/congressional-oversight/">Congressional Oversight</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/counterterrorism/">Counterterrorism</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/cybersecurity/">Cybersecurity</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/democracy/">Democracy</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/diplomacy/">Diplomacy</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/disinformation/">Disinformation</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/human-rights/">Human Rights</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/immigration/">Immigration</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/intelligence/">Intelligence activities</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-criminal-law/">International Criminal Law</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/category/armed-conflict/israel-hamas-war/">Israel-Hamas War</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/january-6th-attack-on-us-capitol/">January 6th Attack on US Capitol</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/law-of-armed-conflict-loac/">Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/local-voices/">Local Voices</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/racial-justice/">Racial Justice</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/social-media-platforms/">Social Media Platforms</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/united-nations/">United Nations (UN)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/use-of-force/">Use of Force</a></li></ul></div></aside></div></div><div id="post-meta-after" class="pagewidth pw1400 clearfix"><div class="post-bottom-row about-authors clearfix"><div class="secondary-left"><h3>About the Author(s)</h3></div><div class="primary"><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/finucanebrian/">Brian <span>Finucane</span></a></h4><p>Brian Finucane (<a href="https://twitter.com/BCFinucane">@BCFinucane</a>) is senior adviser with the U.S. Program at the International Crisis Group and a Non-Resident Senior Fellow at the Reiss Center on Law and Security at NYU School of Law. Prior to joining Crisis Group in 2021, he served as an attorney-adviser in the Office of the Legal Adviser at the U.S. Department of State.</p> </div><p class="clearfix"> <a href="mailto:lte@justsecurity.org" class="button has-icon icon-fa"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-o" aria-hidden="true"></i> Send A Letter To The Editor </a> </p></div></div><div class="post-bottom-row related-posts clearfix"><div class="secondary-left"><h3>Read these related stories next:</h3></div><div class="primary archive-wrap"><div class="result-entry type-post"> <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105451/trumps-endgame-ukraine-war/" class="thumb" style="background-image:url(https://i0.wp.com/www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/GettyImages-1152460290-scaled-e1733326565387.jpg?fit=768%2C372&ssl=1);"></a> <h3><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105451/trumps-endgame-ukraine-war/">Trump’s Endgame for the War in Ukraine</a></h3> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kelly/" title="Profile and articles by Michael J. 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Law of War Questions Raised by Exploding Pagers in Lebanon