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href="#Springfield,_Massachusetts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Springfield, Massachusetts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Springfield,_Massachusetts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 New York </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Actions_in_Kansas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actions_in_Kansas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Actions in Kansas </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Actions_in_Kansas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Actions in Kansas subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Actions_in_Kansas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Move_to_Kansas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Move_to_Kansas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Move to Kansas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Move_to_Kansas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pottawatomie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pottawatomie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Pottawatomie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pottawatomie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palmyra_and_Osawatomie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palmyra_and_Osawatomie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Palmyra and Osawatomie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palmyra_and_Osawatomie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raid_at_Harpers_Ferry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raid_at_Harpers_Ferry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Raid at Harpers Ferry </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Raid_at_Harpers_Ferry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Raid at Harpers Ferry subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Raid_at_Harpers_Ferry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brown's_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown's_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Brown's plans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown's_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Preparations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Financial_and_political_backing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_and_political_backing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Financial and political backing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_and_political_backing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Virginia_scheme"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Virginia_scheme""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 "Virginia scheme" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Virginia_scheme"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_convention_in_Ontario" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_convention_in_Ontario"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Constitutional convention in Ontario </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_convention_in_Ontario-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.5 Crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continue_to_organize_funds_and_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continue_to_organize_funds_and_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.6 Continue to organize funds and forces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continue_to_organize_funds_and_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brown's_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown's_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Brown's forces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown's_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_raid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_raid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 The raid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_raid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 The trial </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_trial-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The trial subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-November_2_to_December_2,_1859" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#November_2_to_December_2,_1859"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 November 2 to December 2, 1859 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-November_2_to_December_2,_1859-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rescue_and_Victor_Hugo's_pardon_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rescue_and_Victor_Hugo's_pardon_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Rescue and Victor Hugo's pardon plans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rescue_and_Victor_Hugo's_pardon_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_words,_death_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_words,_death_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Last words, death and aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Last_words,_death_and_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Last words, death and aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Last_words,_death_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funeral_and_burial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funeral_and_burial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Funeral and burial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funeral_and_burial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Senate_investigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Senate_investigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Senate investigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Senate_investigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_of_the_raid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_of_the_raid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Aftermath of the raid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_of_the_raid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viewpoints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viewpoints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Viewpoints </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Viewpoints-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Viewpoints subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Viewpoints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Contemporaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historians_and_other_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historians_and_other_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Historians and other writers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historians_and_other_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Brown_Day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Brown_Day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 John Brown Day </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Brown_Day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meetings_in_honor_of_John_Brown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meetings_in_honor_of_John_Brown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Meetings in honor of John Brown </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meetings_in_honor_of_John_Brown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Museums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Museums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Museums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Museums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Statues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Streets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Streets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Streets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Streets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Storer_College" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storer_College"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Storer College </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storer_College-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_John_Brown_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_John_Brown_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Other John Brown sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_John_Brown_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paintings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paintings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 Paintings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paintings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.10 Historical markers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archival_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archival_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Archival material </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Archival_material-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Archival material subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Archival_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Court_material_and_related_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court_material_and_related_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Court material and related documents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court_material_and_related_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondence_and_other_archival_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence_and_other_archival_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Correspondence and other archival material </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence_and_other_archival_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Bibliographies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Secondary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 Historical fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.5 Movie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.6 Opera </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.7 Plays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.8 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_online_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_online_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.9 Further online resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_online_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">John Brown (abolitionist)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(aktivis)" title="John Brown (aktivis) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="John Brown (aktivis)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%86%E1%8A%95_%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%8D%E1%8A%95" title="ጆን ብራውን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጆን ብራውን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86" title="جون براون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون براون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Braun" title="Con Braun – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Con Braun" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD" title="Джон Браўн – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джон Браўн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Джон Браун – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Браун" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolicionista)" title="John Brown (abolicionista) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="John Brown (abolicionista)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Brown (abolitionist)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(Abolitionist)" title="John Brown (Abolitionist) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Brown (Abolitionist)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolicionista)" title="John Brown (abolicionista) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Brown (abolicionista)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86" title="جان براون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان براون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(daonfhuascailteoir)" title="John Brown (daonfhuascailteoir) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="John Brown (daonfhuascailteoir)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%9A%B4" title="존 브라운 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 브라운" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6_(%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF)" title="Ջոն Բրաուն (աբոլիցիոնիստ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջոն Բրաուն (աբոլիցիոնիստ)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolisionis)" title="John Brown (abolisionis) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Brown (abolisionis)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionista)" title="John Brown (abolitionista) – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="John Brown (abolitionista)" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(attivista)" title="John Brown (attivista) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John Brown (attivista)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9F" title="ג'ון בראון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון בראון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Джон Браун – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джон Браун" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Brown_(abolitionista)" title="Ioannes Brown (abolitionista) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Brown (abolitionista)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEons_Brauns" title="Džons Brauns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džons Brauns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(politikus,_1800%E2%80%931859)" title="John Brown (politikus, 1800–1859) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="John Brown (politikus, 1800–1859)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A8_(%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80)" title="जॉन ब्राउन (मुक्तिवादी) – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जॉन ब्राउन (मुक्तिवादी)" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86_(%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84)" title="جون براون (رجال اعمال) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون براون (رجال اعمال)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Brown (abolitionist)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A6%E3%83%B3_(%E5%A5%B4%E9%9A%B7%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6%E5%BB%83%E6%AD%A2%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E5%AE%B6)" title="ジョン・ブラウン (奴隷制度廃止運動家) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・ブラウン (奴隷制度廃止運動家)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braun_Jon" title="Braun Jon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Braun Jon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86" title="جان براون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جان براون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolicionista)" title="John Brown (abolicionista) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Brown (abolicionista)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" title="John Brown – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="John Brown" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82)" title="Браун, Джон (аболиционист) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Браун, Джон (аболиционист)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Brown (abolitionist)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolicionista)" title="John Brown (abolicionista) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="John Brown (abolicionista)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolicionist)" title="John Brown (abolicionist) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="John Brown (abolicionist)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Џон Браун – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џон Браун" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolicionist)" title="John Brown (abolicionist) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="John Brown (abolicionist)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionisti)" title="John Brown (abolitionisti) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="John Brown (abolitionisti)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(slaverimotst%C3%A5ndare)" title="John Brown (slaverimotståndare) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="John Brown (slaverimotståndare)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99_%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C" title="จอห์น บราวน์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จอห์น บราวน์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brown_(lider)" title="John Brown (lider) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="John Brown (lider)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Джон Браун – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джон Браун" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%97_(%E5%BA%9F%E5%A5%B4%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E8%80%85)" title="约翰·布朗 (废奴主义者) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="约翰·布朗 (废奴主义者)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%E1%BB%8Dn_Brown" title="Jọn Brown – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Jọn Brown" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q189366#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">John Brown</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:1846-47_John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington_(without_frame).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1846-47_John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington_%28without_frame%29.jpg/220px-1846-47_John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington_%28without_frame%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1846-47_John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington_%28without_frame%29.jpg/330px-1846-47_John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington_%28without_frame%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/1846-47_John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington_%28without_frame%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="629" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Brown in a photograph by <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Washington" title="Augustus Washington">Augustus Washington</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1846–1847</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1800-05-09)May 9, 1800 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Torrington,_Connecticut" title="Torrington, Connecticut">Torrington, Connecticut</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">December 2, 1859(1859-12-02) (aged 59) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Town,_West_Virginia" title="Charles Town, West Virginia">Charles Town, Virginia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>), U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Execution_by_hanging" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution by hanging">Execution by hanging</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a>, U.S. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=John_Brown_(abolitionist)&params=44.25224_N_73.971799_W_">44°15′08″N 73°58′18″W / 44.252240°N 73.971799°W / 44.252240; -73.971799</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Monuments</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>Various:</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Statues in <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Kansas" title="Kansas City, Kansas">Kansas City, Kansas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tragic_Prelude" title="Tragic Prelude">Tragic Prelude</a>, mural in the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_State_Capitol" title="Kansas State Capitol">Kansas State Capitol</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a>, North Elba, New York; <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Museum">John Brown Museum</a> and John Brown Historic Park, <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a>; <a href="/wiki/The_Summit_County_Historical_Society_of_Akron,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="The Summit County Historical Society of Akron, Ohio">Museum and Statue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akron,_Ohio" title="Akron, Ohio">Akron, Ohio</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Tannery_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Tannery Site">John Brown Tannery Site</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guys_Mills,_Pennsylvania" title="Guys Mills, Pennsylvania">Guys Mills, Pennsylvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Involvement in <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">Raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Movement</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criminal charge(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Treason_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Treason laws in the United States">Treason</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Virginia">Commonwealth of Virginia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Murder_(United_States_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder (United States law)">murder</a>; <a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">inciting</a> <a href="/wiki/Slave_insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave insurrection">slave insurrection</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Dianthe Lusk</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1820; died 1832)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Day_Brown" title="Mary Ann Day Brown">Mary Ann Day</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1833)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">20, including <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Watson_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="Watson Brown (abolitionist)">Watson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1771)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1771)">Owen Brown</a> (father)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_Brown_signature.svg/150px-John_Brown_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_Brown_signature.svg/225px-John_Brown_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_Brown_signature.svg/300px-John_Brown_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="94" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> John Brown (May 9, 1800 – December 2, 1859) was a prominent leader in the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">American abolitionist movement</a> in the decades preceding the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. First reaching national prominence in the 1850s for his radical abolitionism and fighting in <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a>, Brown was captured, tried, and executed by the <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Commonwealth of Virginia</a> for a <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">raid and incitement of a slave rebellion at Harpers Ferry</a> in 1859. An <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelical Christian</a> of strong religious convictions, Brown was profoundly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritan faith</a> of his upbringing.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005aIntroduction-2">[2]</a> He believed that he was "an instrument of God,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a248-3">[3]</a> raised to strike the "death blow" to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a>, a "sacred obligation."<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Brown was the leading exponent of violence in the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">American abolitionist movement</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975426-5">[5]</a> believing it was necessary to end slavery after decades of peaceful efforts had failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1895323-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Brown said that in working to free the enslaved, he was following <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule#Christianity" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Herald-8">[8]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, which states that "all men are created equal."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton2011637-9">[9]</a> He stated that in his view, these two principles "meant the same thing."<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Brown first gained national attention when he led <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">anti-slavery</a> volunteers and his sons during the <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> crisis of the late 1850s, a state-level civil war over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">slave state or a free state</a>. He was dissatisfied with abolitionist pacifism, saying of pacifists, "These men are all talk. What we need is action – action!" In May 1856, Brown and his sons killed five supporters of slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_massacre" title="Pottawatomie massacre">Pottawatomie massacre</a>, a response to the <a href="/wiki/Sacking_of_Lawrence" title="Sacking of Lawrence">sacking of Lawrence</a> by pro-slavery forces. Brown then commanded anti-slavery forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Black_Jack" title="Battle of Black Jack">Battle of Black Jack</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Osawatomie" title="Battle of Osawatomie">Battle of Osawatomie</a>. In October 1859, Brown <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">led a raid</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Armory" title="Harpers Ferry Armory">federal armory</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia" title="Harpers Ferry, West Virginia">Harpers Ferry, Virginia</a> (which later became part of <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>), intending to start a slave liberation movement that would spread south; he had prepared a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_(John_Brown)" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Constitution (John Brown)">Provisional Constitution</a> for the revised, slavery-free United States that he hoped to bring about. He seized the armory, but seven people were killed and ten or more were injured. Brown intended to arm slaves with weapons from the armory, but only a few slaves joined his revolt. Those of Brown's men who had not fled were killed or captured by local <a href="/wiki/United_States_Militia" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Militia">militia</a> and <a href="/wiki/U.S._Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Marines">U.S. Marines</a>, the latter led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a>. Brown was tried for <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Virginia">Commonwealth of Virginia</a>, the murder of five men, and inciting a slave insurrection. He was found guilty of all charges and was hanged on December 2, 1859, the first person executed for <a href="/wiki/Treason_laws_in_the_United_States#State" title="Treason laws in the United States">treason against a U.S. state</a> in the history of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Treason-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179-12">[12]</a> The Harpers Ferry raid and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Brown's trial</a>, both covered extensively in national newspapers, escalated tensions that in the next year led to the <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States#Confederate_States_of_America" title="Secession in the United States">South's long-threatened secession</a> from the United States and the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. Southerners feared that others would soon follow in Brown's footsteps, encouraging and arming slave rebellions. He was a hero and icon in the North. <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> soldiers marched to the new song "<a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a>" that portrayed him as a heroic <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a>. Brown has been variously described as a heroic martyr and visionary, and as a madman and <a href="/wiki/Terrorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist">terrorist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watson-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-CHOWDER-15">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_family">Early life and family</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_and_childhood">Family and childhood</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg/220px-John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg/330px-John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg/440px-John_Brown%27s_birthplace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1987" data-file-height="1142" /></a><figcaption>The house in which Brown was born, in <a href="/wiki/Torrington,_Connecticut" title="Torrington, Connecticut">Torrington, Connecticut</a>, was photographed in 1896 and destroyed by fire in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> </figcaption></figure> John Brown was born May 9, 1800, in <a href="/wiki/Torrington,_Connecticut" title="Torrington, Connecticut">Torrington, Connecticut</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> the son of <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(1771)" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Brown (1771)">Owen Brown</a> (1771–1856)<a href="#cite_note-22">[a]</a> and Ruth Mills (1772–1808).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787-23">[22]</a> Owen Brown's father was Capt. John Brown, of English descent, who died in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">Revolutionary War</a> in New York on September 3, 1776.<a href="#cite_note-Early-24">[23]</a> His mother, of Dutch and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Welsh</a> descent,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18785-25">[24]</a> was the daughter of Gideon Mills, an officer in the Revolutionary Army.<a href="#cite_note-Early-24">[23]</a> Although Brown described his parents as "poor but respectable" at some point,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787-23">[22]</a> Owen Brown became a leading and wealthy citizen of Hudson, Ohio.<a href="#cite_note-Early-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant-26">[25]</a> He operated a tannery and employed <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Grant" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesse Grant">Jesse Grant</a>, father of President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>. Jesse lived with the Brown family for some years.<a href="#cite_note-Grant-26">[25]</a> The founder of Hudson, <a href="/wiki/David_Hudson_(pioneer)" title="David Hudson (pioneer)">David Hudson</a>, with whom John's father had frequent contact, was an abolitionist and an advocate of "forcible resistance by the slaves."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown187817-27">[26]</a> The fourth child of Owen and Ruth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[b]</a> Brown's other siblings included Anna Ruth (born in 1798), Salmon (born 1802), and Oliver Owen (born in 1804).<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> Frederick, identified by Owen as his sixth son, was born in 1807.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191014-31">[29]</a> Frederick visited Brown when he was in jail, awaiting execution.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> He had an adopted brother, Levi Blakeslee (born some time before 1805).<a href="#cite_note-Turzillo-33">[31]</a> Salmon became a lawyer, politician, and newspaper editor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191014-31">[29]</a> While Brown was very young, his father moved the family briefly to his hometown, <a href="/wiki/West_Simsbury,_Connecticut" title="West Simsbury, Connecticut">West Simsbury, Connecticut</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Early-24">[23]</a> In 1805, the family moved, again, to <a href="/wiki/Hudson,_Ohio" title="Hudson, Ohio">Hudson, Ohio</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Reserve">Western Reserve</a>, which at the time was mostly wilderness;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18785,_7-34">[32]</a> it became the most anti-slavery region of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199519-35">[33]</a> Owen hated slavery<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a12-36">[34]</a> and participated in Hudson's anti-slavery activity and debate, offering a <a href="/wiki/Safe_house" title="Safe house">safe house</a> to <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">fugitives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> Owen became a supporter of <a href="/wiki/Oberlin_College" title="Oberlin College">Oberlin College</a> after <a href="/wiki/Western_Reserve_Academy" title="Western Reserve Academy">Western Reserve College</a> would not allow a Black man to enroll in the school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191015-38">[36]</a> Owen was an Oberlin trustee from 1835 to 1844.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191015-38">[36]</a> Other Brown family members were abolitionists, but John and his eccentric brother Oliver were the most active and forceful.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> John's mother Ruth died a few hours after the death of her newborn girl in December 1808.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191013–14-40">[38]</a> In his memoir, Brown wrote that he mourned his mother for years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427-42">[40]</a> While he respected his father's new wife,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427-42">[40]</a> Sallie Root,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191014-31">[29]</a> he never felt an emotional bond with her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427-42">[40]</a> Owen married a third time to Lucy Hinsdale, a formerly married woman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191014-31">[29]</a> Owen had a total of 6 daughters and 10 sons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191014-31">[29]</a> With no school beyond the elementary level in Hudson at that time, Brown studied at the school of the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</a> Elizur Wright, father of the famous <a href="/wiki/Elizur_Wright" title="Elizur Wright">Elizur Wright</a>, in nearby <a href="/wiki/Tallmadge,_Ohio" title="Tallmadge, Ohio">Tallmadge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191017-43">[41]</a> In a story he told to his family, when he was 12 years old and away from home moving cattle, Brown worked for a man with a colored boy, who was beaten before him with an iron shovel. He asked the man why he was treated thus, and the answer was that he was a slave. According to Brown's son-in-law Henry Thompson, it was that moment when John Brown decided to dedicate his life to improving African Americans' condition.<a href="#cite_note-Nixson-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-PBS_timeline-45">[43]</a> As a child in Hudson, John got to know local Native Americans and learned some of their language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787-23">[22]</a> He accompanied them on hunting excursions and invited them to eat in his home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Young_adulthood">Young adulthood</h3></div> At 16, Brown left his family for New England to acquire a liberal education and become a Gospel minister.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> He consulted and conferred with Jeremiah Hallock, then clergyman at <a href="/wiki/Canton,_Connecticut" title="Canton, Connecticut">Canton, Connecticut</a>, whose wife was a relative of Brown's, and as advised proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Plainfield,_Massachusetts" title="Plainfield, Massachusetts">Plainfield, Massachusetts</a>, where, under the instruction of Moses Hallock, he prepared for college. He would have continued at <a href="/wiki/Amherst_College" title="Amherst College">Amherst College</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191017-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton201113-49">[47]</a> but he suffered from inflammation of the eyes which ultimately became chronic and precluded further studies. He returned to Ohio.<a href="#cite_note-Early-24">[23]</a> Back in Hudson, Brown taught himself surveying from a book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201522-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[c]</a> He worked briefly at his father's tannery before opening a successful tannery outside of town with his adopted brother Levi Blakeslee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191017-43">[41]</a> The two kept bachelor's quarters, and Brown was a good cook.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191017-43">[41]</a> He had his bread baked by a widow, Mrs. Amos Lusk. As the tanning business had grown to include journeymen and apprentices, Brown persuaded her to take charge of his housekeeping. She and her daughter Dianthe moved into his log cabin. Brown married Dianthe in 1820.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191018-52">[49]</a> There is no known picture of her,<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> but he described Dianthe as "a remarkably plain, but neat, industrious and economical girl, of excellent character, earnest piety, and practical common sense".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201510-54">[51]</a> Their first child, <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Jr.</a>, was born 13 months later. During 12 years of married life Dianthe gave birth to seven children, among them <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen</a>, and died from complications of childbirth in 1832.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191018–19-55">[52]</a> Brown knew the Bible thoroughly and could catch even small errors in Bible recitation. He never used tobacco nor drank tea, coffee, or alcohol. After the Bible, his favorite books were the series of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a> and he enjoyed reading about <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-56">[53]</a> He felt that "truly successful men" were those with their own libraries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a86-57">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm,_Tannery_%26_Museum" title="John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum">John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg/220px-John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg/330px-John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg/440px-John_Brown%27s_Tannery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3874" data-file-height="2526" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm,_Tannery_%26_Museum" title="John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum">John Brown's Tannery</a>, in 1885</figcaption></figure> Brown left <a href="/wiki/Hudson,_Ohio" title="Hudson, Ohio">Hudson, Ohio</a>, where he had a successful tannery, to be better situated to operate a safe and productive <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> station.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1952-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nps-59">[56]</a> He moved to <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Township,_Crawford_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Richmond Township, Crawford County, Pennsylvania">Richmond Township</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crawford_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Crawford County, Pennsylvania">Crawford County, Pennsylvania</a>, in 1825<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1952-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nps-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[d]</a> and lived there until 1835,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> longer than he did anywhere else.<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> He bought 200 acres (81 hectares) of land, cleared an eighth of it, and quickly built a cabin, a two-story tannery with 18 vats, and a barn; in the latter was a secret, well-ventilated room to hide escaping slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1952-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nps-59">[56]</a> He transported refugees across the state border into New York and to an important Underground Railroad connection in <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_New_York" title="Jamestown, New York">Jamestown</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> about 55 miles (89 km) from Richmond Township.<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> The escapees were hidden in the wagon he used to move the mail, hides for his tannery, and survey equipment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> For ten years, his farm was an important stop on the Underground Railroad,<a href="#cite_note-Tannery-64">[60]</a> during which, it is estimated to have helped 2,500 enslaved people on their journey to Canada, according to the Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development.<a href="#cite_note-Tannery-64">[60]</a> Brown recruited other Underground Railroad stationmasters to strengthen the network.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> Brown made money surveying new roads. He was involved in erecting a school, which first met in his home—he was its first teacher<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a85-65">[61]</a>—, and attracting a preacher<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191023-66">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Congregational_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational Society">Congregational Society</a> in Richmond. Their first meetings were held at the farm and tannery compound.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19526-68">[64]</a> He also helped to establish a post office, and in 1828 President <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> named him the first <a href="/wiki/Postmaster" title="Postmaster">postmaster</a> of <a href="/wiki/Randolph_Township,_Pennsylvania" title="Randolph Township, Pennsylvania">Randolph Township, Pennsylvania</a>; he was reappointed by President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, serving until he left Pennsylvania in 1835.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191023-66">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Overland-69">[65]</a> He carried the mail for some years from <a href="/wiki/Meadville,_Pennsylvania" title="Meadville, Pennsylvania">Meadville, Pennsylvania</a>, through Randolph to <a href="/wiki/Riceville,_Pennsylvania" title="Riceville, Pennsylvania">Riceville</a>, some 20 miles (32 km).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19527-70">[66]</a> He paid a fine at Meadville for declining to serve in the militia. During this period, Brown operated an interstate cattle and leather business along with a kinsman, Seth Thompson, from eastern Ohio.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19527-70">[66]</a> In 1829, some white families asked Brown to help them drive off Native Americans who hunted annually in the area. Calling it a mean act, Brown declined, even saying "I would sooner take my gun and help drive you out of the country."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005168–169-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg/220px-Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg/330px-Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg/440px-Marybrown_wifeofJohnBrown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>Mary Ann Brown (née Day), wife of John Brown, married in 1833, with Annie (left) and Sarah (right) in 1851</figcaption></figure> In 1831, Brown's son Frederick (I) died, at the age of 4. Brown fell ill, and his businesses began to suffer, leaving him in severe debt. In mid-1832, shortly after the death of a newborn son, his wife Dianthe also died, either in childbirth or as an immediate consequence of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath186035-73">[69]</a> He was left with the children <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Jr.</a>, Jason, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen</a>, Ruth and Frederick (II).<a href="#cite_note-NPS_Wives_and_children-74">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[e]</a> On July 14, 1833, Brown married 17-year-old <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Day_Brown" title="Mary Ann Day Brown">Mary Ann Day</a> (1817–1884), originally from <a href="/wiki/Washington_County,_New_York" title="Washington County, New York">Washington County, New York</a>;<a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a> she was the younger sister of Brown's housekeeper at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19528-78">[73]</a> They eventually had 13 children,<a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a> seven of whom were sons who worked with their father in the fight to abolish slavery.<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Back_to_Ohio">Back to Ohio</h3></div> In 1836, Brown moved his family from Pennsylvania to <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Mills,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Mills, Ohio">Franklin Mills, Ohio</a>, where he taught <a href="/wiki/Sunday_school" title="Sunday school">Sunday school</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a98-82">[77]</a> He borrowed heavily to buy land in the area, including property along canals being built, and entered into a partnership with <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Kent#Relatives" title="Marvin Kent">Zenas Kent</a> to construct a tannery along the <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_River" title="Cuyahoga River">Cuyahoga River</a>, though Brown left the partnership before the tannery was completed.<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-pathways-84">[79]</a> Brown continued to work on the Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> Brown became a bank director and was estimated to be worth US$20,000 (equivalent to about $590,710 in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201520,_39-85">[80]</a> Like many businessmen in Ohio, he invested too heavily in credit and state bonds and suffered great financial losses in the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a>. In one episode of property loss, Brown was jailed when he attempted to retain ownership of a farm by occupying it against the claims of the new owner.<a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG/220px-Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG/330px-Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG/440px-Lovejoyat1837AltonIllinoisRiot.JPG 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>Wood engraving of the pro-slavery mob setting fire to <a href="/wiki/Winthrop_Sargent_Gilman#Career" title="Winthrop Sargent Gilman">Gilman & Godfrey</a>'s warehouse, where <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a> hid his printing press</figcaption></figure> In November 1837, <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a> was murdered in <a href="/wiki/Alton,_Illinois" title="Alton, Illinois">Alton, Illinois</a> for printing an abolitionist newspaper. Brown, deeply upset about the incident, became more militant in his behavior, comparable with Reverend <a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> Brown publicly vowed after the incident: "Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery!"<a href="#cite_note-Missouri_law-87">[82]</a> Brown objected to Black congregants being relegated to the balcony at his church<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> in Franklin Mills. According to daughter Ruth Brown's husband Henry Thompson, whose brother was killed at Harpers Ferry: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">[H]e and his three sons, John, Jason, and Owen, were expelled from the Congregational church at Kent, then called Franklin, Ohio, for taking a colored man into their own pew; and the deacons of the church tried to persuade him to concede his error. My wife and various members of the family afterward joined the Wesley Methodists, but John Brown never connected himself with any church again.<a href="#cite_note-Nixson-44">[42]</a></blockquote> For three or four years he seemed to flounder hopelessly, moving from one activity to another without plan. He tried many different business efforts attempting to get out of debt. He bred horses briefly, but gave it up when he learned that buyers were using them as race horses.<a href="#cite_note-Salmon-88">[83]</a> He did some surveying, farming, and <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201519–23-89">[84]</a> Brown declared <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States" title="Bankruptcy in the United States">bankruptcy</a> in federal court on September 28, 1842.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_timeline-45">[43]</a> In 1843, three of his children — Charles, Peter, Austin — died of <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NPS_Wives_and_children-74">[70]</a> From the mid-1840s, Brown had built a reputation as an expert in fine sheep and wool. For about one year, he ran Captain Oviatt's farm,<a href="#cite_note-Salmon-88">[83]</a> and he then entered into a partnership with Colonel Simon Perkins of <a href="/wiki/Akron,_Ohio" title="Akron, Ohio">Akron, Ohio</a>, whose flocks and farms were managed by Brown and his sons.<a href="#cite_note-SCHS-90">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[f]</a> Brown eventually moved into a home with his family across the street from the <a href="/wiki/Perkins_Stone_Mansion" title="Perkins Stone Mansion">Perkins Stone Mansion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Springfield,_Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington,_1846-7.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington%2C_1846-7.png/170px-John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington%2C_1846-7.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington%2C_1846-7.png/255px-John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington%2C_1846-7.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington%2C_1846-7.png/340px-John_Brown_by_Augustus_Washington%2C_1846-7.png 2x" data-file-width="2334" data-file-height="3233" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">daguerreotype</a> of Brown taken by African-American photographer <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Washington" title="Augustus Washington">Augustus Washington</a> in <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1846–1847. Brown is holding the hand-colored flag of Subterranean Pass Way, his militant counterpart to the Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-93">[87]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1846, Brown moved to <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>, as an agent for Ohio <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a> growers in their relations with New England manufacturers of woolen goods, but "also as a means of developing his scheme of emancipation".<a href="#cite_note-theatlantic.com-94">[88]</a> The white leadership there, including "the publisher of <a href="/wiki/The_Republican_(Springfield,_Massachusetts)" title="The Republican (Springfield, Massachusetts)">The Republican</a>, one of the nation's most influential newspapers, were deeply involved and emotionally invested in the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">anti-slavery movement</a>".<a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a> Brown made connections in Springfield that later yielded financial support he received from New England's great merchants, allowed him to hear and meet nationally famous abolitionists like Douglass and <a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a>, and included the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Gileadites" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Gileadites">League of Gileadites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-theatlantic.com-94">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a> Brown's personal attitudes evolved in Springfield, as he observed the success of the city's Underground Railroad and made his first venture into militant, anti-slavery community organizing. In speeches, he pointed to the martyrs <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Lovejoy">Elijah Lovejoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Turner_Torrey" title="Charles Turner Torrey">Charles Turner Torrey</a> as white people "ready to help blacks challenge slave-catchers".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005124-96">[90]</a> In Springfield, Brown found a city that shared his own anti-slavery passions, and each seemed to educate the other. Certainly, with both successes and failures, Brown's Springfield years were a transformative period of his life that catalyzed many of his later actions.<a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a> Two years before Brown's arrival in Springfield, in 1844, the city's African-American abolitionists had founded the Sanford Street Free Church, now known as <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_Congregational_Church_%26_Parsonage-Parish_for_Working_Girls" title="St. John's Congregational Church & Parsonage-Parish for Working Girls">St. John's Congregational Church</a>, which became one of the most prominent abolitionist platforms in the United States. From 1846 until he left Springfield in 1850, Brown was a member of the Free Church, where he witnessed abolitionist lectures by the likes of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[91]</a> In 1847, after speaking at the Free Church, Douglass spent a night speaking with Brown, after which Douglass wrote, "From this night spent with John Brown in Springfield, Mass. [in] 1847, while I continued to write and speak against slavery, I became all the same less hopeful for its peaceful abolition."<a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a> During Brown's time in Springfield, he became deeply involved in transforming the city into a major center of abolitionism, and one of the safest and most significant stops on the Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-98">[92]</a> Brown contributed to the 1848 republication, by his friend <a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a>, of <a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a>'s <a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_to_the_Colored_Citizens_of_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World">An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World</a> (1829),<a href="#cite_note-Trodd-99">[93]</a> which he helped publicize.<a href="#cite_note-100">[94]</a> Before Brown left Springfield in 1850, the United States passed the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a>, a law mandating that authorities in free states aid in the return of escaped slaves and imposing penalties on those who aid in their escape. In response, Brown founded a militant group to prevent the recapture of fugitives, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Gileadites" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Gileadites">League of Gileadites</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Trodd-99">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[g]</a> operated by free Blacks—like the "strong-minded, brave, and dedicated" Eli Baptist, William Montague, and Thomas Thomas<a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[h]</a>—who risked being caught by slave catchers and sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> Upon leaving Springfield in 1850, he instructed the League to act "quickly, quietly, and efficiently" to protect slaves that escaped to Springfield – words that would foreshadow Brown's later actions preceding Harpers Ferry.<a href="#cite_note-zikibay.com-101">[95]</a> From Brown's founding of the League of Gileadites onward, not one person was ever taken back into slavery from Springfield.<a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a> His daughter Amelia died in 1846, followed by Emma in 1849.<a href="#cite_note-SCHS-90">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York">New York</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg/220px-House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg/330px-House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg/440px-House_at_John_Brown%27s_Farm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1793" data-file-height="1328" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown's farmhouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a>, now a historic site and <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">National Historic Landmark</a></figcaption></figure> In 1848, bankrupt and having lost the family's house, Brown heard of <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Adirondack_Mountains" title="Adirondack Mountains">Adirondack</a> land grants to poor black men, in so remote a location that Brown later called it <a href="/wiki/Timbuctoo,_New_York" title="Timbuctoo, New York">Timbuctoo</a>, and decided to move his family there to establish a farm where he could provide guidance and assistance to the blacks who were attempting to establish farms in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Nelba-104">[96]</a> He bought from Smith land in the town of <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Placid_(New_York)" title="Lake Placid (New York)">Lake Placid</a>), for $1 an acre ($2/ha).<a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a> It has a magnificent view<a href="#cite_note-Watson-14">[14]</a> and has been called "the highest arable spot of land in the State."<a href="#cite_note-106">[98]</a> After living with his family about two years in a small rented house, and returning for several years to Ohio, he had the current house – now a monument preserved by New York State – built for his family, viewing it as a place of refuge for them while he was away. According to youngest son Salmon, "frugality was observed from a moral standpoint, but one and all we were a well-fed, well-clad lot."<a href="#cite_note-107">[99]</a> After he was executed on December 2, 1859, his widow took <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_body" title="John Brown's body">his body there for burial</a>; the trip took five days, and he was buried on December 8. Watson's body was located and buried there in 1882. In 1899 the remains of 12 of Brown's other collaborators, including his son Oliver, were located and brought to North Elba. They could not be identified well enough for separate burials, so they are buried together in a single casket donated by the town of North Elba; there is a collective plaque there now. Since 1895, the <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a> has been owned by New York State and is now a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">National Historic Landmark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nelba-104">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Actions_in_Kansas">Actions in Kansas</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a> was in the midst of a state-level civil war from 1854 to 1860, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> period, between pro- and anti-slavery forces.<a href="#cite_note-34th_Congress_-_1st_Session-108">[100]</a> From 1854 to 1856, there had been eight killings in Kansas Territory attributable to slavery politics. There had been no organized action by abolitionists against pro-slavery forces by 1856.<a href="#cite_note-Watts-109">[101]</a> The issue was to be decided by the voters of Kansas, but who these voters were was not clear; there was widespread voting fraud in favor of the pro-slavery forces, as a Congressional investigation confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-34th_Congress_-_1st_Session-108">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Move_to_Kansas">Move to Kansas</h3></div> Five of Brown's sons — John Jr., Jason, Owen, Frederick, and Salmon — moved to <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a> in the spring of 1855. Brown, his son Oliver, and his son-in-law Henry Thompson followed later that year<a href="#cite_note-KHS-110">[102]</a> with a wagon loaded with weapons and ammunition.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-111">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[i]</a> Brown stayed with Florella (Brown) Adair and the Reverend Samuel Adair, his half-sister and her husband, who lived near <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie</a>. During that time, he rallied support to fight proslavery forces,<a href="#cite_note-KHS-110">[102]</a> and became the leader of the antislavery forces in Kansas.<a href="#cite_note-Brit-111">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198054-114">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pottawatomie">Pottawatomie</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_massacre" title="Pottawatomie massacre">Pottawatomie massacre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes,_1856.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes%2C_1856.png/220px-John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes%2C_1856.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes%2C_1856.png/330px-John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes%2C_1856.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes%2C_1856.png/440px-John_Brown_by_Southworth_%26_Hawes%2C_1856.png 2x" data-file-width="477" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>John Brown, quarter-plate daguerreotype, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Southworth_%26_Hawes" title="Southworth & Hawes">Southworth & Hawes</a>, Winter 1856, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Historical_Society" title="Massachusetts Historical Society">Massachusetts Historical Society</a></figcaption></figure> Brown and the free-state settlers intended to bring <a href="/wiki/Kansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kansas in the American Civil War">Kansas</a> into the union as a slavery-free state.<a href="#cite_note-115">[106]</a> After the winter snows thawed in 1856, the pro-slavery activists began a campaign to seize Kansas on their own terms. Brown was particularly affected by the <a href="/wiki/Sacking_of_Lawrence" title="Sacking of Lawrence">sacking of Lawrence</a>, the center of anti-slavery activity in Kansas, on May 21, 1856. A <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">sheriff</a>-led posse from Lecompton, the center of pro-slavery activity in Kansas, destroyed two <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</a> newspapers and the <a href="/wiki/The_Eldridge_Hotel" title="The Eldridge Hotel">Free State Hotel</a>. Only one man, a <a href="/wiki/Border_ruffian" title="Border ruffian">border ruffian</a>, was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005162-116">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Preston_Brooks" title="Preston Brooks">Preston Brooks</a>'s May 22 <a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">caning</a> of anti-slavery Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a>, news of which arrived by newswire (telegraph), also fueled Brown's anger. A pro-slavery writer, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Stringfellow_(1816%E2%80%931891)" title="Benjamin Franklin Stringfellow (1816–1891)">Benjamin Franklin Stringfellow</a>, of the Squatter Sovereign, wrote that "[pro-slavery forces] are determined to repel this Northern invasion, and make Kansas a <a href="/wiki/Slave_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave state">slave state</a>; though our rivers should be covered with the blood of their victims, and the carcasses of the abolitionists should be so numerous in the territory as to breed disease and sickness, we will not be deterred from our purpose".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005162-116">[107]</a> Brown was outraged by both the violence of the pro-slavery forces and what he saw as a weak and cowardly response by the antislavery partisans and the Free State settlers, whom he described as "cowards, or worse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005163–164-117">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_massacre" title="Pottawatomie massacre">Pottawatomie massacre</a> occurred during the night of May 24 and the morning of May 25, 1856. Under Brown's supervision, his sons and other abolitionist settlers took from their residences and killed five "professional slave hunters and militant pro-slavery" settlers.<a href="#cite_note-118">[109]</a> The massacre was the match in the powderkeg that precipitated the bloodiest period in "Bleeding Kansas" history, a three-month period of retaliatory raids and battles in which 29 people died.<a href="#cite_note-Watts-109">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay_Pate" title="Henry Clay Pate">Henry Clay Pate</a>, who was part of the sacking of Lawrence was, either during or shortly before, commissioned as a Deputy United States Marshal.<a href="#cite_note-HistKan-119">[110]</a> On hearing news of John Brown's actions at the <a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Pottawatomie Massacre">Pottawatomie Massacre</a>, Pate set out with a band of thirty men to hunt Brown down.<a href="#cite_note-WJB1-120">[111]</a> During the hunt for Brown, two of his sons (Jason and <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Junior</a>) were captured (either by Pate or another marshal), charged with murder, and thrown in irons.<a href="#cite_note-HistKan-119">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-WJB1-120">[111]</a> Brown and free-state militia gathered to confront Pate. Two of Pate's men were captured, which led to the conflict on June 2.<a href="#cite_note-121">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palmyra_and_Osawatomie">Palmyra and Osawatomie</h3></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Black_Jack" title="Battle of Black Jack">Battle of Black Jack</a> of June 2, 1856, John Brown, nine of his followers, and 20 local men successfully defended a Free State settlement at <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_Township,_Douglas_County,_Kansas" title="Palmyra Township, Douglas County, Kansas">Palmyra, Kansas</a>, against an attack by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay_Pate" title="Henry Clay Pate">Henry Clay Pate</a>. Pate and 22 of his men were taken prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005180–181,_186-122">[113]</a> In August, a company of over 300 Missourians under the command of General <a href="/wiki/John_W._Reid" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Reid">John W. Reid</a> crossed into Kansas and headed toward <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie</a>, intending to destroy the Free State settlements there and then march on <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lawrence,_Kansas" title="Lawrence, Kansas">Lawrence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005199-123">[114]</a> On the morning of August 30, 1856, they shot and killed Brown's son Frederick and his neighbor David Garrison on the outskirts of Osawatomie. Brown, outnumbered more than seven to one, arranged his 38 men behind natural defenses along the road. Firing from cover, they managed to kill at least 20 of Reid's men and wounded 40 more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005200–201-124">[115]</a> Reid regrouped, ordering his men to dismount and charge into the woods. Brown's small group scattered and fled across the <a href="/wiki/Marais_des_Cygnes_River" title="Marais des Cygnes River">Marais des Cygnes River</a>. One of Brown's men was killed during the retreat and four were captured. While Brown and his surviving men hid in the woods nearby, the Missourians plundered and burned Osawatomie. Though defeated, Brown's bravery and military shrewdness in the face of overwhelming odds brought him national attention and made him a hero to many Northern abolitionists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005201–202-125">[116]</a> On September 7, Brown entered Lawrence to meet with Free State leaders and help fortify against a feared assault. At least 2,700 pro-slavery Missourians were once again invading Kansas. On September 14, they skirmished near Lawrence. Brown prepared for battle, but serious violence was averted when the new governor of Kansas, <a href="/wiki/John_W._Geary" title="John W. Geary">John W. Geary</a>, ordered the warring parties to disarm and disband, and offered clemency to former fighters on both sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005203–204-126">[117]</a> Brown had become infamous and federal warrants were issued for his arrest due to his actions in Kansas. He became careful of how he travelled and whom he stayed with across the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198062-127">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Raid_at_Harpers_Ferry">Raid at Harpers Ferry</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sources_for_John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="List of sources for John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">List of sources for John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brown's_plans">Brown's plans</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_portrait,_1859.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg/170px-John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg/255px-John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg/340px-John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3095" data-file-height="4278" /></a><figcaption>Three-quarter length portrait of John Brown, salt print, reproduction of daguerreotype attributed to <a href="/wiki/Martin_M._Lawrence" title="Martin M. Lawrence">Martin M. Lawrence</a>, May 1859</figcaption></figure> Brown's plans for a major attack on American slavery began long before the raid. According to his wife Mary, interviewed while her husband was awaiting his execution, Brown had been planning the attack for 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a> Frederick Douglass noted that he made the plans before he fought in Kansas.<a href="#cite_note-129">[120]</a> For instance, he spent the years between 1842 and 1849 settling his business affairs, moving his family to the Negro community at <a href="/wiki/Timbuctoo,_New_York" title="Timbuctoo, New York">Timbuctoo, New York</a>, and organizing in his own mind an anti-slavery raid that would strike a significant blow against the entire slave system, running slaves off Southern plantations.<a href="#cite_note-130">[121]</a> According to his first biographer <a href="/wiki/James_Redpath" title="James Redpath">James Redpath</a>, "for thirty years, he secretly cherished the idea of being the leader of a servile insurrection: the American Moses, predestined by Omnipotence to lead the servile nations in our Southern States to freedom."<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a> An acquaintance said: "As Moses was raised up and chosen of God to deliver the Children of Israel out of Egyptian bondage, ...he was...fully convinced in his own mind that he was to be the instrument in the hands of God to effect the emancipation of the slaves."<a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a> Brown said that, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A few men in the right, and knowing that they are right, can overturn a mighty king. Fifty men, twenty men, in the Alleghenies would break slavery to pieces in two years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton2011426-133">[124]</a></blockquote> Brown kept his plans a secret, including the care he took not to share the plans with his men, according to Jeremiah Anderson, one of the participants in the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglass1882358-134">[125]</a> His son <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen</a>, the only one who survived of Brown's three participating sons, said in 1873 that he did not think his father wrote down the entire plan.<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-135">[126]</a> He did discuss his plans at length, for over a day, with Frederick Douglass, trying unsuccessfully to persuade Douglass, a black leader, to accompany him to Harpers Ferry (which Douglass thought a suicidal mission that could not succeed).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglass1882350–351,_355–356-136">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparations">Preparations</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Financial_and_political_backing">Financial and political backing</h4></div> To attain financial backing and political support for the raid on Harpers Ferry, Brown spent most of 1857 meeting with abolitionists in Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a240-137">[128]</a> Initially Brown returned to Springfield, where he received contributions, and also a letter of recommendation from a prominent and wealthy merchant, George Walker. Walker was the brother-in-law of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Benjamin_Sanborn" title="Franklin Benjamin Sanborn">Franklin Benjamin Sanborn</a>, the secretary for the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_State_Kansas_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts State Kansas Committee">Massachusetts State Kansas Committee</a>, who introduced Brown to several influential abolitionists in the Boston area in January 1857.<a href="#cite_note-theatlantic.com-94">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown1878-138">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amos_Adams_Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Amos Adams Lawrence">Amos Adams Lawrence</a>, a prominent Boston merchant, secretly gave Brown a large amount of cash.<a href="#cite_note-test-139">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth_Higginson" title="Thomas Wentworth Higginson">Thomas Wentworth Higginson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Parker" title="Theodore Parker">Theodore Parker</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gridley_Howe" title="Samuel Gridley Howe">Samuel Gridley Howe</a> also supported Brown,<a href="#cite_note-test-139">[130]</a> although Garrison, a pacificist, disagreed about the need to use violence to end slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a241-140">[131]</a> Most of the money for the raid came from the "<a href="/wiki/Secret_Six" title="Secret Six">Secret Six</a>",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a240-137">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_B._Sanborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin B. Sanborn">Franklin B. Sanborn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_G._Howe" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel G. Howe">Samuel G. Howe</a> M.D., businessman <a href="/wiki/George_L._Stearns" class="mw-redirect" title="George L. Stearns">George L. Stearns</a>, real estate tycoon <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a>, transcendentalist and reforming minister of the <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarian</a> church <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Parker" title="Theodore Parker">Theodore Parker</a>, and Unitarian minister <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth_Higginson" title="Thomas Wentworth Higginson">Thomas Wentworth Higginson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a240-137">[128]</a> Recent research has also highlighted the substantial contribution of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Pleasant" title="Mary Ellen Pleasant">Mary Ellen Pleasant</a>, an African American entrepreneur and abolitionist, who donated $30,000 (equivalent to $981,000 in 2023) toward the cause.<a href="#cite_note-142">[133]</a> In Boston, he met <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a241-140">[131]</a> Even with the Secret Six and other contributors, Brown had not collected all money needed to fund the raid. He wrote an appeal, Old Browns Farewell, to abolitionists in the east with some success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a241-140">[131]</a> In December 1857, an anti-slavery Mock Legislature, organized by Brown, met in <a href="/wiki/Springdale,_Iowa" title="Springdale, Iowa">Springdale, Iowa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1895231–232-143">[134]</a> On several of Brown's trips across Iowa he preached at <a href="/wiki/Reverend_George_B._Hitchcock_House" title="Reverend George B. Hitchcock House">Hitchcock House</a>, an Underground Railroad stop in <a href="/wiki/Lewis,_Iowa" title="Lewis, Iowa">Lewis, Iowa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Virginia_scheme"">"Virginia scheme"</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg/220px-Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg/330px-Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg/440px-Maxon_house_springdale_iowa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>William Maxon's house, near <a href="/wiki/Springdale,_Iowa" title="Springdale, Iowa">Springdale, Iowa</a>, where John Brown's associates lived and trained, 1857–1859. Brown lived at the home of <a href="/wiki/John_Hunt_Painter" title="John Hunt Painter">John Hunt Painter</a>, less than a mile away.</figcaption></figure> With a free-state victory in the October elections, Kansas was quiet. Brown made his men return to Iowa, where he told them tidbits of his Virginia scheme.<a href="#cite_note-145">[136]</a> In January 1858, Brown left his men in <a href="/wiki/Springdale,_Iowa" title="Springdale, Iowa">Springdale, Iowa</a>, and set off to visit <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a>. There he discussed his plans with Douglass, and reconsidered Forbes' criticisms.<a href="#cite_note-146">[137]</a> Brown wrote a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_(John_Brown)" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Constitution (John Brown)">Provisional Constitution</a> that would create a government for a new state in the region of his invasion. He then traveled to <a href="/wiki/Peterboro,_New_York" title="Peterboro, New York">Peterboro, New York</a>, and Boston to discuss matters with the Secret Six. In letters to them, he indicated that, along with recruits, he would go into the South equipped with weapons to do "Kansas work".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn1891519-147">[138]</a> While in Boston making secret preparations for his operation on Harper's Ferry, he was raising money for weapons that were manufactured in Connecticut. Abolitionist Chaplain <a href="/wiki/Photius_Fisk" title="Photius Fisk">Photius Fisk</a> gave him a sizable donation and obtained his autograph which he later gave to the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Historical_Society" title="Kansas Historical Society">Kansas Historical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[139]</a> Brown started to wear a beard, "to change his usual appearance".<a href="#cite_note-149">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weapons">Weapons</h4></div> The Massachusetts Committee pledged to provide 200 <a href="/wiki/Sharps_Rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharps Rifle">Sharps Rifles</a> and ammunition, which were being stored at <a href="/wiki/Tabor,_Iowa" title="Tabor, Iowa">Tabor, Iowa</a>. The rifles were originally intended for use by free-staters in Kansas. After negotiation between the officers of the Massachusetts Kansas Committee and the National Committee, the rifles were transferred to the Massachusetts Committee for use in the Harpers Ferry raid.<a href="#cite_note-150">[141]</a> Horatio N. Rust, a friend of Brown's, helped acquire for 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pikes</a> for the intended slave rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-151">[142]</a> Weapons were purchased and sent to <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farmhouse" title="Kennedy Farmhouse">Kennedy Farmhouse</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sharpsburg,_Maryland" title="Sharpsburg, Maryland">Sharpsburg, Maryland</a>, where they were stored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198091–93-152">[143]</a> Brown's plan was to make use of weapons, ammunition, and other military equipment stored at the armory, arsenal, and the rifle factory in Harpers Ferry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198047,_75,_88-153">[144]</a> There were an estimated 100,000 muskets and rifles at the armory and arsenal complex at the time.<a href="#cite_note-154">[145]</a> The more sophisticated weapons, like Sharps rifles and pistols, were to be used by Black and White officers. The remaining fighters would use spear-like pikes, <a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">shotguns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">muskets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198067-155">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constitutional_convention_in_Ontario">Constitutional convention in Ontario</h4></div> Brown and 12 of his followers, including his son <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen</a>, traveled to <a href="/wiki/Chatham-Kent,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatham-Kent, Ontario">Chatham</a>, Ontario, where he convened on May 10 a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_meeting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political meeting)">Constitutional Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[147]</a> The convention, with several dozen delegates including his friend <a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Bell" title="James Madison Bell">James Madison Bell</a>, was put together with the help of Dr. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin Delany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[148]</a> One-third of Chatham's 6,000 residents were fugitive slaves, and it was here that Brown was introduced to <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>, who helped him recruit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199599-158">[149]</a> The convention's 34 blacks and 12 whites adopted Brown's <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_(John_Brown)" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Constitution (John Brown)">Provisional Constitution</a>. Brown had long used the terminology of the Subterranean Pass Way from the late 1840s, so it is possible that Delany conflated Brown's statements over the years. Regardless, Brown was elected commander-in-chief and named <a href="/wiki/John_Henrie_Kagi" class="mw-redirect" title="John Henrie Kagi">John Henrie Kagi</a> his "Secretary of War". <a href="/wiki/Richard_Realf" title="Richard Realf">Richard Realf</a> was named "Secretary of State". Elder Monroe, a black minister, was to act as president until another was chosen. A. M. Chapman was the acting vice president; Delany, the corresponding secretary. In 1859, "A Declaration of Liberty by the Representatives of the Slave Population of the United States of America" was written.<a href="#cite_note-159">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crisis">Crisis</h4></div> While in New York City, Brown was introduced to Hugh Forbes, an English mercenary, who had experience as a military tactician fighting with <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>. Concerned about Brown's strategy, Forbes undermined and delayed the plans for the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a244-161">[152]</a> Although nearly all of the delegates signed the constitution, few volunteered to join Brown's forces, although it will never be clear how many Canadian expatriates actually intended to join Brown because of a subsequent "security leak" that threw off plans for the raid, creating a hiatus in which Brown lost contact with many of the Canadian leaders. This crisis occurred when Hugh Forbes, Brown's mercenary, tried to expose the plans to Massachusetts Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Henry Wilson</a> and others. The Secret Six feared their names would be made public. Howe and Higginson wanted no delays in Brown's progress, while Parker, Stearns, Smith and Sanborn insisted on postponement. Stearns and Smith were the major sources of funds, and their words carried more weight. To throw Forbes off the trail and invalidate his assertions, Brown returned to Kansas in June, and remained in that vicinity for six months. There he joined forces with <a href="/wiki/James_Montgomery_(colonel)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Montgomery (colonel)">James Montgomery</a>, who was leading raids into Missouri. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continue_to_organize_funds_and_forces">Continue to organize funds and forces</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3824" data-file-height="4592" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of John Brown, by <a href="/wiki/Ole_Peter_Hansen_Balling" title="Ole Peter Hansen Balling">Ole Peter Hansen Balling</a>, 1872, National Portrait Gallery</figcaption></figure> On December 20, Brown <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Spurs_(Kansas)" title="Battle of the Spurs (Kansas)">led his own raid</a>, in which he liberated 11 slaves, took captive two white men, and looted horses and wagons. The Governor of Missouri announced a reward of $3,000 (equivalent to $101,733 in 2023) for his capture. On January 20, 1859, he embarked on a lengthy journey to take the liberated slaves to Detroit and then on a ferry to Canada. While passing through Chicago, Brown met with abolitionists <a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Allan Pinkerton</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Jones_(abolitionist)" title="John Jones (abolitionist)">John Jones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_O._Wagoner" title="Henry O. Wagoner">Henry O. Wagoner</a> who arranged and raised the fare for the passage to Detroit<a href="#cite_note-162">[153]</a> and purchased supplies for Brown. Jones's wife and fellow abolitionist, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Jane_Richardson_Jones" title="Mary Jane Richardson Jones">Mary Jane Richardson Jones</a>, provided new clothes for Brown and his men, including the garb Brown <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown#Execution" title="Virginia v. John Brown">was hanged in</a> six months later.<a href="#cite_note-163">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-164">[155]</a> On March 12, 1859, Brown met with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> and Detroit abolitionists <a href="/wiki/George_DeBaptiste" title="George DeBaptiste">George DeBaptiste</a>, William Lambert, and others at William Webb's house in Detroit to discuss emancipation.<a href="#cite_note-165">[156]</a> DeBaptiste proposed that conspirators blow up some of the South's largest churches. The suggestion was opposed by Brown, who felt humanity precluded such unnecessary bloodshed.<a href="#cite_note-166">[157]</a> Over the course of the next few months, he traveled again through Ohio, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts to drum up more support for the cause. On May 9, he delivered a lecture in <a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord, Massachusetts</a>, that <a href="/wiki/Amos_Bronson_Alcott" title="Amos Bronson Alcott">Amos Bronson Alcott</a>, Emerson, and Thoreau attended. Brown reconnoitered with the Secret Six.<a href="#cite_note-whilbr-167">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HWFireHouseBrown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/HWFireHouseBrown.jpg/220px-HWFireHouseBrown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/HWFireHouseBrown.jpg/330px-HWFireHouseBrown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/HWFireHouseBrown.jpg/440px-HWFireHouseBrown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_Newspaper" title="Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper">Leslie's</a> illustration of U.S. Marines attacking John Brown's "Fort"</figcaption></figure> As he began recruiting supporters for an attack on slaveholders, Brown was joined by <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>, "General Tubman", as he called her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClinton2004129-168">[159]</a> Her knowledge of support networks and resources in the border states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and his planners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClinton2004126–28-169">[160]</a> She also raised funds for Brown.<a href="#cite_note-170">[161]</a> Some abolitionists, including <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a>, opposed his tactics, but Brown dreamed of fighting to create a new state for freed slaves and made preparations for military action. After he began the first battle, he believed, slaves would rise up and carry out a rebellion across the South.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClinton2004126–28-169">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brown's_forces">Brown's forces</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raiders" title="John Brown's raiders">John Brown's raiders</a></div> The men that fought with Brown in Kansas gathered at <a href="/wiki/Springdale,_Iowa" title="Springdale, Iowa">Springdale, Iowa</a>, a Quaker settlement, about January 1858, to prepare to execute Brown's Virginia scheme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198070-171">[162]</a> In June, Brown paid his last visit to his family in North Elba before departing for Harpers Ferry. He stayed one night en route in <a href="/wiki/Hagerstown,_Maryland" title="Hagerstown, Maryland">Hagerstown, Maryland</a>, at the Washington House, on West Washington Street. On June 30, 1859, the hotel had at least 25 guests, including I. Smith and Sons, Oliver Smith and Owen Smith, and Jeremiah Anderson, all from New York. From papers found in the Kennedy Farmhouse after the raid, it is known that Brown wrote to Kagi that he would sign into a hotel as I. Smith and Sons.<a href="#cite_note-whilbr-167">[158]</a> The men who prepared for the raid at Kennedy Farmhouse and participated in the raid with Brown included two groups of men: <dl><dd>A group that fought with him in Kansas and gathered at Springdale, Iowa, to prepare and drill for the raid,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198070–71,_101–104-172">[163]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Anderson_(abolitionist)" title="Jeremiah Anderson (abolitionist)">Jeremiah Goldsmith Anderson</a>, 26, born in Indiana, served with Brown in Kansas, killed in the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_101,_123-173">[164]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Brown_(abolitionist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Brown (abolitionist)">Oliver Brown</a>, 20, John Brown's son, served in Kansas. He was mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980101,_123-174">[165]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen Brown</a>, about 35, John Brown's son, fought in Kansas. He escaped the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_102-175">[166]</a></li> <li>John E. Cook, 29, reformer and former soldier, attended <a href="/wiki/Oberlin_College" title="Oberlin College">Oberlin College</a>, he initially escaped capture, but was found and hanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_102-175">[166]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hazlett" title="Albert Hazlett">Albert Hazlett</a>, 23, fought in Kansas, escaped following the raid, but was captured and hanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980103-176">[167]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Kagi" title="John Henry Kagi">John Henry Kagi</a>, about 24, a teacher, became Brown's second in command. Before the raid he printed copies of Brown's constitution in a printing shop he established in <a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton, Ontario</a>. He was mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_79,_103,_123-177">[168]</a></li> <li>William H. Leeman, 20, fought with the free-staters in Kansas for three years, beginning at the age of 17. He died during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_103-178">[169]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Dwight_Stevens" title="Aaron Dwight Stevens">Aaron Dwight Stevens</a>, about 28, was a former soldier and fighter in Kansas, who gave the men military training and drills. He was wounded during the raid, after which he was executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_104-179">[170]</a></li> <li>Charles Plummer Tidd, 25, fought in Kansas. He escaped the raid and later served during the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_104-179">[170]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Men he met when rounding up recruits for the raid:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198070–71,_101–104-172">[163]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Watson_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="Watson Brown (abolitionist)">Watson Brown</a>, son of John Brown, mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980123-180">[171]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Copeland_Jr." title="John Anthony Copeland Jr.">John Anthony Copeland Jr.</a> was a free black man who joined John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry. He was captured during the raid and was executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198099,_102-181">[172]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barclay_and_Edwin_Coppock" title="Barclay and Edwin Coppock">Barclay Coppoc</a>, 19, escaped capture following the raid. He fought in the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198072-182">[173]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barclay_and_Edwin_Coppock" title="Barclay and Edwin Coppock">Edwin Coppoc</a>, 24, captured and hanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198072,_102-183">[174]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shields_Green" title="Shields Green">Shields Green</a>, about 23, escaped slavery, captured and hanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980103-176">[167]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sheridan_Leary" title="Lewis Sheridan Leary">Lewis Sheridan Leary</a>, a harness maker freed by his white father, mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980103,_123-184">[175]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Jackson_Meriam" title="Francis Jackson Meriam">Francis Jackson Meriam</a>, 22, grandson of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Jackson_(abolitionist)" title="Francis Jackson (abolitionist)">Francis Jackson</a> who was a leader of Antislavery Societies. Meriam was an aristocrat. He escaped during the raid. Meriam led an African American infantry group during the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980103-176">[167]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Dangerfield Newby</a>, 44, born a slave, escaped slavery, returned to Virginia to fight in the raid, where he was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198071,_94,_104-185">[176]</a></li> <li>Stewart Taylor, 23, a wagonmaker from Canada, mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980104,_123-186">[177]</a></li> <li>Dauphin Thompson, 21, married to Ruth Brown, John Brown's daughter, mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980104,_123-186">[177]</a></li> <li>William Thompson, 26, mortally wounded during the raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980104,_123-186">[177]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Kennedy_Farmhouse,_1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_Kennedy_Farmhouse%2C_1902.jpg/220px-The_Kennedy_Farmhouse%2C_1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_Kennedy_Farmhouse%2C_1902.jpg/330px-The_Kennedy_Farmhouse%2C_1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_Kennedy_Farmhouse%2C_1902.jpg/440px-The_Kennedy_Farmhouse%2C_1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="1109" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farmhouse" title="Kennedy Farmhouse">Kennedy Farmhouse</a>, depicting Brown in his favorite spot in the yard, made posthumously in 1902</figcaption></figure> They were at <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farmhouse" title="Kennedy Farmhouse">Kennedy Farmhouse</a>, four to five miles away from Harpers Ferry. Brown's daughter and daughter-in-law, Anne and Martha, Oliver's wife, prepared food and kept the house for the men from August and throughout the month of September.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198091–93-152">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_raid">The raid</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry#Timeline_of_the_raid" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry § Timeline of the raid</a></div> Brown led his forces for Harper Ferry on the night of October 16, 1859.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980105–106-187">[178]</a> The objective was to take the armory, the arsenal, the town, and then the rifle factory. Then, they wanted to free all the slaves in Harpers Ferry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980106-188">[179]</a> After that, they would move south with those newly freed people wanted to join the fight to free other enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980108–112-189">[180]</a> Brown told his men to take prisoners who disobeyed them and to fight only in self-defense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1980106–108-190">[181]</a> Initially, they met no resistance entering the town. <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raiders" title="John Brown's raiders">John Brown's raiders</a> cut the telegraph wires and easily captured the armory, which was being defended by a single watchman. They next rounded up hostages from nearby farms, including <a href="/wiki/Colonel_Lewis_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonel Lewis Washington">Colonel Lewis Washington</a>, great-grandnephew of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>. They also spread the news to the local slaves that their liberation was at hand.<a href="#cite_note-191">[182]</a> When an eastbound <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad" title="Baltimore and Ohio Railroad">Baltimore and Ohio Railroad</a> train approached the town, Brown held it and then inexplicably allowed it to continue on its way. At the next station where the telegraph still worked, the conductor sent a telegram to B&O headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>. The railroad sent telegrams to President Buchanan and Virginia Governor <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Maryland-192">[183]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg/220px-John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg/330px-John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg/440px-John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the interior of the Fort immediately before the door is broken down. Note hostages on the left.</figcaption></figure> By the morning of October 18 the engine house, later known as <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</a>, was surrounded by a company of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">U.S. Marines</a> under the command of First Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Israel_Greene" title="Israel Greene">Israel Greene</a>, USMC, with Colonel <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> of the United States Army in overall command.<a href="#cite_note-193">[184]</a> Army First Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">J. E. B. Stuart</a> approached the engine-house to apprehend Brown and told the raiders their lives would be spared if they surrendered. Brown refused, saying, "No, I prefer to die here." Stuart then gave a signal and the Marines used sledgehammers and a makeshift battering ram to break down the engine room door. Lieutenant Israel Greene cornered Brown and struck him several times, wounding his head. In three minutes Brown and the survivors were captives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois2015167–169-194">[185]</a> Altogether, Brown's men killed four townspeople and one Marine. Ten people were wounded, one of whom was a Marine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200959-195">[186]</a> Four of Brown's men were not captured, the rest died during the raid or were captured and executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham198070–71,_101–104-172">[163]</a> Among the raiders killed were <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Kagi" title="John Henry Kagi">John Henry Kagi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sheridan_Leary" title="Lewis Sheridan Leary">Lewis Sheridan Leary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Dangerfield Newby</a>; those hanged besides Brown included <a href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Copeland,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John Anthony Copeland, Jr.">John Copeland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barclay_and_Edwin_Coppock" title="Barclay and Edwin Coppock">Edwin Coppock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Dwight_Stevens" title="Aaron Dwight Stevens">Aaron Stevens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shields_Green" title="Shields Green">Shields Green</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[188]</a> Most of the enslaved people were returned to their slaveholders, and some were able to escape capture. A man named Phil was captured with Brown, and a man named Jim drowned in the Shenandoah.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200957-198">[189]</a> Brown and the others captured were held in the office of the armory. On October 18, 1859, Virginia Governor <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a>, Virginia Senator <a href="/wiki/James_M._Mason" title="James M. Mason">James M. Mason</a>, and Representative <a href="/wiki/Clement_Vallandigham" title="Clement Vallandigham">Clement Vallandigham</a> of Ohio arrived in Harpers Ferry. Brown conceded that he did not receive the support he expected from White and Black people. The questioning lasted several hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200958–62-199">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_trial">The trial</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg/220px-John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg/330px-John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg/440px-John_Brown_being_interrogated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1887" data-file-height="1154" /></a><figcaption>Brown has just been captured and is interrogated by Virginia Gov. <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a> and others, October 18, 1859.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside,_1859.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png/220px-John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png/330px-John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png/440px-John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown,_Jefferson_County,_Virginia,_where_John_Brown_was_tried;_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_(1906).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_tried%3B_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_%281906%29.jpg/220px-The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_tried%3B_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_%281906%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_tried%3B_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_%281906%29.jpg/330px-The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_tried%3B_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_%281906%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_tried%3B_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_%281906%29.jpg/440px-The_old_Court_House_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_tried%3B_it_stands_diagonal_across_the_street_from_the_jail_%281906%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The old Court House at Charles Town, Jefferson County, Virginia, where John Brown was tried; it stands diagonally across the street from the jail (c. 1906).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_Jail_at_Charlestown,_Jefferson_County,_Virginia,_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Old_Jail_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg/220px-Old_Jail_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Old_Jail_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg/330px-Old_Jail_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Old_Jail_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg/440px-Old_Jail_at_Charlestown%2C_Jefferson_County%2C_Virginia%2C_where_John_Brown_was_imprisoned.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Two houses in Charles Town. The one on the right was the Jefferson County Jail, where John Brown was imprisoned during and after his trial. It has been torn down and is now the site of the Charles Town post office.</figcaption></figure> Brown was charged with treason and tried in a Virginia state court at Governor Wise's request. Accordingly, the charge was treason against Virginia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200912–13-200">[191]</a> President Buchanan did not object.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200912–14-201">[192]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The answer provided in 1859 was more political ~ than legal. The president of the United States and the governor of Virginia decided that Brown would be tried in Virginia for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, and that is where he was tried. This decision thrust Virginia rather than the United States into the role of the offended sovereign and contributed incalculably to the widening abyss between North and South. John Brown was condemned not as an enemy of the American people but as an enemy of Virginia and, by logical extension, of Southern slaveholders.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Brian McGinty, author of John Brown's Trial<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200914-202">[193]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Brown was tried with his men who had lived through the raid and had not escaped — Copeland, Coppoc, Green, and Stevens — on charges of murder, "conspiracy to foment a slave insurrection", and treason, as of October 26.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200985-203">[194]</a> On November 2, after a week-long trial in Charles Town, the county seat of Jefferson County,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty200958,_95-204">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath1860340–342-205">[196]</a> and 45 minutes of deliberation, the jury found Brown guilty on all three counts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath1860340–342-205">[196]</a> He was sentenced to be hanged in public on December 2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath1860340–342-205">[196]</a> He was the first person executed for treason in the history of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Treason-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179-12">[12]</a> The trial attracted reporters who were able to send their articles via the new <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">telegraph</a>. They were reprinted in numerous papers. It was the first trial in the U.S. to be nationally reported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGlone1989291-206">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="November_2_to_December_2,_1859">November 2 to December 2, 1859</h3></div> Before his conviction, reporters were not allowed access to Brown, as the judge and Andrew Hunter feared that his statements, if quickly published, would exacerbate tensions, especially among the enslaved. This was much to Brown's frustration, as he stated that he wanted to make a full statement of his motives and intentions through the press.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath1860212-207">[198]</a> Once he had been convicted, the restriction was lifted, and, glad for the publicity, he talked with reporters and anyone else who wanted to see him, except pro-slavery clergy.<a href="#cite_note-Lowry-75">[71]</a> Brown received more letters than he ever had in his life. He wrote replies constantly, hundreds of eloquent letters, often published in newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199543-208">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rescue_and_Victor_Hugo's_pardon_plans">Rescue and Victor Hugo's pardon plans</h3></div> There were well-documented and specific plans to rescue Brown, as Virginia Governor <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/President_Buchanan" class="mw-redirect" title="President Buchanan">President Buchanan</a>. Throughout the weeks Brown and six of his collaborators were in the Jefferson County Jail in Charles Town, the town was filled with various types of troops and militia, hundreds and sometimes thousands of them. Brown's trips from the jail to the courthouse and back, and especially the short trip from the jail to the gallows, were heavily guarded. Wise halted all non-military transportation on the <a href="/wiki/Winchester_and_Potomac_Railroad" title="Winchester and Potomac Railroad">Winchester and Potomac Railroad</a> (from Maryland south through Harpers Ferry to Charles Town and Winchester), from the day before through the day after the execution. Jefferson County was under <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-209">[200]</a> and the military orders in Charles Town for the execution day had 14 points.<a href="#cite_note-210">[201]</a> However, Brown said several times that he did not want to be rescued. He refused the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Silas_Soule" title="Silas Soule">Silas Soule</a>, a friend from Kansas who infiltrated the Jefferson County Jail one day by getting himself arrested for drunken brawling and offered to break him out during the night and flee northward to New York State and possibly Canada. Brown told Silas that, aged 59, he was too old to live a life on the run from the federal authorities as a fugitive and wanted to accept his execution as a martyr for the abolitionist cause. As Brown wrote his wife and children from jail, he believed that his "blood will do vastly more towards advancing the cause I have earnestly endeavoured to promote, than all I have done in my life before."<a href="#cite_note-211">[202]</a> "I am worth inconceivably more to hang than for any other purpose."<a href="#cite_note-212">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>, from exile on <a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a>, tried to obtain a <a href="/wiki/Clemency" class="mw-redirect" title="Clemency">pardon</a> for John Brown: he sent an <a href="/wiki/Open_letter" title="Open letter">open letter</a> that was published by the press on both sides of the Atlantic. This text, written at <a href="/wiki/Hauteville_House" title="Hauteville House">Hauteville House</a> on December 2, 1859, warned of a possible civil war: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Politically speaking, the murder of John Brown would be an uncorrectable sin. It would create in the Union a latent fissure that would in the long run dislocate it. Brown's agony might perhaps consolidate slavery in Virginia, but it would certainly shake the whole American democracy. You save your shame, but you kill your glory. Morally speaking, it seems a part of the human light would put itself out, that the very notion of justice and injustice would hide itself in darkness, on that day where one would see the assassination of Emancipation by Liberty itself.</blockquote> The letter was initially published in the London News[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:John_Brown_(abolitionist)#London_News" title="Talk:John Brown (abolitionist)">discuss</a>] and was widely reprinted. After Brown's execution, Hugo wrote a number of additional letters about Brown and the abolitionist cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005408–410-213">[204]</a> Abolitionists in the United States saw Hugo's writings as evidence of international support for the anti-slavery cause. The most widely publicized commentary on Brown to reach America from Europe was an 1861 pamphlet, John Brown par Victor Hugo, that included a brief biography and reprinted two letters by Hugo, including that of December 9, 1859. The pamphlet's frontispiece was an engraving of a hanged man by Hugo that became widely associated with the execution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman1995254-214">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Last_words,_death_and_aftermath">Last words, death and aftermath</h2></div> On December 1, 1859, Mary Ann Brown, who had stayed away from the prison due to Brown's concern for her safety, visited her husband for several hours with permission from Governor Wise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty2009256-215">[206]</a> On the day of his execution, December 2,<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-216">[207]</a> Brown read his Bible and wrote a final letter to his wife, which included the will he had written the previous day,<a href="#cite_note-Carton-217">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty2009256-215">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[209]</a> as <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown#Meetings" title="Virginia v. John Brown">large meetings</a> were held in many cities in the Northeast. In many of the cases, "Negroes were the chief actors in creating excitement".<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-216">[207]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg/220px-T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg/330px-T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg/440px-T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3207" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption>John Brown's last words, passed to a jailer on his way to the gallows. From an <a href="/wiki/Albumen_photograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Albumen photograph">albumen print</a>; location of the original is unknown.</figcaption></figure> Brown was well read and knew that the last words of prominent people are valued. That morning, Brown wrote and gave to his jailor Avis the words he wanted to be remembered by: <blockquote>I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood. I had, as I now think, vainly flattered myself that without very much bloodshed it might be done.<a href="#cite_note-Territorial_Kansas_Online-219">[210]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg/220px-John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg/330px-John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg/440px-John_Brown_on_his_way_to_be_executed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Brown sits on his coffin on his way to the gallows. Soldiers line up on both sides, to avoid a rescue.</figcaption></figure> At 11:00 a.m. Brown rode, sitting on his coffin in a furniture wagon, from the county jail through a crowd of 2,000 soldiers to a small field a few blocks away, where the gallows were.<a href="#cite_note-Carton-217">[208]</a> The military, prepared for an attack, lined the square where Brown was to be hanged, with "the greatest array of disciplined forces ever seen in Virginia", according to Major Preston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty2009256-215">[206]</a> Among the soldiers in the crowd were future Confederate general <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Stonewall Jackson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkes_Booth" title="John Wilkes Booth">John Wilkes Booth</a> (the latter borrowing a militia uniform to gain admission to the execution).<a href="#cite_note-Carton-217">[208]</a> Brown, who did not want to have a minister with him, displayed "the most complete fearlessness of & insensibility to danger & death" as he walked to the gallows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty2009256-215">[206]</a> Brown was hanged at 11:15 a.m. and was pronounced dead 35 minutes later by the coroner.<a href="#cite_note-220">[211]</a> The poet <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a>, in Year of Meteors, described viewing the execution.<a href="#cite_note-221">[212]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_last_speech" title="John Brown's last speech">John Brown's last speech</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funeral_and_burial">Funeral and burial</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_body" title="John Brown's body">John Brown's body</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg/220px-FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg/330px-FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg/440px-FMIB_43086_John_Brown%27s_Grave.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1559" data-file-height="1163" /></a><figcaption>Brown's grave, 1896</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg/220px-John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg/330px-John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg/440px-John_Brown%27s_Tombstone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="1981" /></a><figcaption>Brown's tombstone, North Elba, New York</figcaption></figure> Brown's desire, as told to the jailor in Charles Town, was that his body be burned, "the ashes urned", and his dead sons disinterred and treated likewise.<a href="#cite_note-222">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[214]</a> He wanted his epitaph to be: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>I have fought a good fight.</dd> <dd>I have finished my course.</dd> <dd>I have kept the faith. [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Timothy%204:7&version=nrsv">2 Timothy 4:7</a>]<a href="#cite_note-224">[215]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></blockquote> However, according to the sheriff of Jefferson County, Virginia law did not allow the burning of bodies, and Mrs. Brown did not want it. Brown's body was placed in a wooden coffin with the noose still around his neck, and the coffin was then put on a train to take it away from Virginia to <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">his family homestead</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a> for burial.<a href="#cite_note-225">[216]</a> His body needed to be prepared for burial; this was supposed to take place in Philadelphia. There were many Southern pro-slavery medical students and faculty in Philadelphia, and as a direct result, they left the city en masse on December 21, 1859, for Southern medical schools, never to return. When Mary and her husband's body arrived on December 3, Philadelphia Mayor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Henry_(Philadelphia)" title="Alexander Henry (Philadelphia)">Alexander Henry</a> met the train, with many policemen, and said public order could not be maintained if the casket remained in Philadelphia. In fact he "made a fake casket, covered with flowers and flags[,] which was carefully lifted from the coach"; the crowd followed the sham casket. The genuine casket was immediately sent onwards.<a href="#cite_note-226">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[218]</a> It was transported through places special to Brown during his life. His corpse was transported via <a href="/wiki/Troy,_New_York" title="Troy, New York">Troy, New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rutland_(city),_Vermont" title="Rutland (city), Vermont">Rutland, Vermont</a>, and across <a href="/wiki/Lake_Champlain" title="Lake Champlain">Lake Champlain</a> by boat. His corpse arrived at the Brown farm at North Elba, New York.<a href="#cite_note-Burial-228">[219]</a> Brown's body was washed, dressed, and placed, with difficulty, in a 5-foot-10-inch (1.78 m) walnut coffin, in New York.<a href="#cite_note-229">[220]</a> He was buried on December 8, 1859.<a href="#cite_note-Funeral-230">[221]</a> Abolitionist Rev. <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Young" title="Joshua Young">Joshua Young</a> gave a prayer, and <a href="/wiki/James_Miller_McKim" title="James Miller McKim">James Miller McKim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Wendell Phillips</a> spoke.<a href="#cite_note-Burial-228">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Funeral-230">[221]</a> In the North, large memorial meetings took place, church bells rang, minute guns were fired, and famous writers such as <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a> and <a href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">Thoreau</a> joined many Northerners in praising Brown.<a href="#cite_note-231">[222]</a> On July 4, 1860, family and admirers of Brown gathered <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">at his farm</a> for a memorial. This was the last time that the surviving members of Brown's family gathered together. The farm was sold, except for the burial plot. By 1882, <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen</a>, Jason, and Ruth, widow of Henry Thompson, lived in Ohio; his wife and their two unmarried daughters in California.<a href="#cite_note-232">[223]</a> By 1886, Owen, Jason, and Ruth were living near <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena, California</a>, where they were honored in a parade.<a href="#cite_note-233">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Senate_investigation">Senate investigation</h3></div> On December 14, 1859, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a> appointed a bipartisan committee to investigate the Harpers Ferry raid and to determine whether any citizens contributed arms, ammunition or money to John Brown's men. The Democrats attempted to implicate the Republicans in the raid; the Republicans tried to disassociate themselves from Brown and his acts.<a href="#cite_note-234">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-Senate_select-235">[226]</a> The Senate committee heard testimony from 32 witnesses, including Liam Dodson, one of the surviving abolitionists. The report, authored by chairman <a href="/wiki/James_Murray_Mason" class="mw-redirect" title="James Murray Mason">James Murray Mason</a>, a pro-slavery Democrat from Virginia, was published in June 1860. It found no direct evidence of a conspiracy, but implied that the raid was a result of Republican doctrines.<a href="#cite_note-Senate_select-235">[226]</a> The two committee Republicans published a <a href="/wiki/Dissenting_opinion" title="Dissenting opinion">minority report</a>, but were apparently more concerned about denying Northern culpability than clarifying the nature of Brown's efforts. Republicans such as <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> rejected any connection with the raid, calling Brown "insane".<a href="#cite_note-236">[227]</a> The investigation was performed in a tense environment in both houses of Congress. One senator wrote to his wife that "The members on both sides are mostly armed with deadly weapons and it is said that the friends of each are armed in the galleries." After a heated exchange of insults, a Mississippian attacked <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a> of Pennsylvania with a <a href="/wiki/Bowie_knife" title="Bowie knife">Bowie knife</a> in the House of Representatives. Stevens' friends prevented a fight.<a href="#cite_note-Oates-237">[228]</a> The Senate committee was very cautious in its questions of two of Brown's backers, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gridley_Howe" title="Samuel Gridley Howe">Samuel Howe</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Stearns</a>, out of fear of stoking violence. Howe and Stearns later said that the questions were asked in a manner that permitted them to give honest answers without implicating themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Oates-237">[228]</a> Civil War historian <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a> stated that "A historian reading their testimony, however, will be convinced that they told several falsehoods."<a href="#cite_note-238">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath_of_the_raid">Aftermath of the raid</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg/220px-Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg/330px-Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg/440px-Old_John_Brown%27s_Career.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1352" /></a><figcaption>Old John Brown's Career, 1860 poster</figcaption></figure> John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry was among the last in a series of events that led to the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[230]</a> Southern slaveowners, hearing initial reports that hundreds of abolitionists were involved, were relieved the effort was so small, but feared other abolitionists would emulate Brown and attempt to lead slave rebellions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds20056-240">[231]</a> Future Confederate President <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> feared "thousands of John Browns".<a href="#cite_note-Horwitz-241">[232]</a> Therefore, the South reorganized the decrepit militia system. These militias, well-established by 1861, became a ready-made <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate States">Confederate</a> army, making the South better prepared for war.<a href="#cite_note-Crofts-242">[233]</a> Southern Democrats charged that Brown's raid was an inevitable consequence of the political platform of what they invariably called "the Black Republican Party". In light of the upcoming elections in November 1860, the Republicans tried to distance themselves as much as possible from Brown, condemning the raid and dismissing its leader as an insane fanatic. As one historian explains, Brown was successful in polarizing politics: "Brown's raid succeeded brilliantly. It drove a wedge through the already tentative and fragile Opposition–Republican coalition and helped to intensify the sectional polarization that soon tore the Democratic party and the Union apart."<a href="#cite_note-Crofts-242">[233]</a> Many abolitionists in the North viewed Brown as a martyr, sacrificed for the sins of the nation. Immediately after the raid, <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a> published a column in <a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a>, judging Brown's raid "well-intended but sadly misguided" and "wild and futile".<a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a> However, he defended Brown's character from detractors in the Northern and Southern press and argued that those who supported the principles of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> could not consistently oppose Brown's raid. On the day Brown was hanged, Garrison reiterated the point in Boston: "whenever commenced, I cannot but wish success to all slave insurrections".<a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> believed that Brown's "zeal in the cause of my race was far greater than mine – it was as the burning sun to my taper light – mine was bounded by time, his stretched away to the boundless shores of eternity. I could live for the slave, but he could die for him."<a href="#cite_note-Storer-245">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Viewpoints">Viewpoints</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporaries">Contemporaries</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown#Aftermath" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown § Aftermath</a></div> Between 1859 and <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln's assassination</a> in 1865, Brown was the most famous American: <a href="/wiki/Emblem" title="Emblem">emblem</a> to the North, as <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Wendell Phillips</a> put it,<a href="#cite_note-246">[237]</a> and traitor to the South. According to <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, "He was with the troops during that war, he was seen in every camp fire, and our boys pressed onward to victory and freedom, timing their feet to the <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">stately stepping of Old John Brown</a> as his soul went marching on."<a href="#cite_note-247">[238]</a> Douglass called him "a brave and glorious old man. ...History has no better illustration of pure, disinterested benevolence."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005254-248">[239]</a> Other black leaders of the time—<a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin Delany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>—also knew and respected Brown. "Tubman thought Brown was the greatest white man who ever lived",<a href="#cite_note-249">[240]</a> and she said later he did more for American blacks than Lincoln did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199598-250">[241]</a> Black businesses across the North closed on the day of his execution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008180-251">[242]</a> Church bells tolled across the North.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179-12">[12]</a> In response to the death sentence, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> remarked that "[John Brown] will make the gallows glorious like the Cross."<a href="#cite_note-252">[243]</a> In 1863, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Ward_Howe" title="Julia Ward Howe">Julia Ward Howe</a> wrote the popular hymn the <a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a> to the tune of John Brown's body, which included a line "As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free", comparing Brown's sacrifice to that of Jesus Christ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179-12">[12]</a> Lincoln thought Brown had “shown great courage, rare unselfishness.” But, with most Americans of the day, Lincoln believed Brown had gone too far. “Old John Brown has just been executed for treason against the state. We cannot object,” Lincoln reasoned, “even though he agreed with us in thinking slavery wrong. According to <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> in his 1909 biography, <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(biography)" title="John Brown (biography)">John Brown</a>. Brown's raid stood as "a great white light – an unwavering, unflickering brightness, blinding by its all-seeing brilliance, making the whole world simply a light and a darkness – a right and a wrong."<a href="#cite_note-253">[244]</a> According to his friend and financier, the rich abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a>, "If I were asked to point out the man in all this world I think most truly a Christian, I would point to John Brown."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn1891467-254">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historians_and_other_writers">Historians and other writers</h3></div> Writers continue to vigorously debate Brown's personality, sanity, motivations, morality, and relation to abolitionism.<a href="#cite_note-CHOWDER-15">[15]</a> Once the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> had ended, with the country distancing itself from the anti-slavery cause, and <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> imposed in the South, the historical view of Brown changed. Historian <a href="/wiki/James_Loewen" class="mw-redirect" title="James Loewen">James Loewen</a> surveyed American history textbooks prior to 1995 and noted that until about 1890, historians considered Brown perfectly sane, but from about 1890 until 1970, he was generally portrayed as insane.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008173–203-256">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a>, the grandson of abolitionist <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a>, wrote a favorable 1910 biography of Brown, though it also added fuel to the anti-Brown fire by criticizing him as a muddled, pugnacious, bumbling, and homicidal madman.<a href="#cite_note-CHOWDER-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[248]</a> Villard himself was a pacifist and admired Brown in many respects, but his interpretation of the facts provided a paradigm for later anti-Brown writers. Similarly, a 1923 textbook stated, "The farther we getaway from the excitement of 1859 the more we are disposed to consider this extraordinary man the victim of mental delusions."<a href="#cite_note-258">[249]</a> In 1978, NYU historian Albert Fried concluded that historians who portrayed Brown as a dysfunctional figure are "really informing me of their predilections, their judgment of the historical event, their identification with the moderates and opposition to the 'extremists.'"<a href="#cite_note-259">[250]</a> This view of Brown has come to prevail in academic writing and in journalism. Biographer Louis DeCaro Jr. wrote in 2007, "there is no consensus of fairness with respect to Brown in either the academy or the media."<a href="#cite_note-260">[251]</a> Biographer <a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Stephen B. Oates</a> has described Brown as "maligned as a demented dreamer ... (but) in fact one of the most perceptive human beings of his generation".<a href="#cite_note-261">[252]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?186892-1/john-brown-abolitionist">Presentation by Reynolds on John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights, May 12, 2005</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Some writers describe Brown as a monomaniacal zealot, others as a hero. In 1931, the <a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a> erected a counter-monument, to <a href="/wiki/Heyward_Shepherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Heyward Shepherd">Heyward Shepherd</a>, a free black man who was the first fatality of the Harpers Ferry raid, claiming without evidence that he was a "representative of Negroes of the neighborhood, who would not take part".<a href="#cite_note-262">[253]</a> By the mid-20th century, some scholars were fairly convinced that Brown was a fanatic and killer, while some African Americans sustained a positive view of him.<a href="#cite_note-263">[254]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Oates" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Oates">Stephen Oates</a>, "unlike most Americans at his time, he had no racism. He treated blacks equally. ...He was a success, a tremendous success because he was a catalyst of the Civil War. He didn't cause it but he set fire to the fuse that led to the blow up."<a href="#cite_note-264">[255]</a> Journalist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen_Boyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Owen Boyer">Richard Owen Boyer</a> considered Brown "an American who gave his life that millions of other Americans might be free", and others held similarly positive views.<a href="#cite_note-265">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[258]</a> Some historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Paul Finkelman</a>, compare Brown to contemporary terrorists such as <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timothy_McVeigh" title="Timothy McVeigh">Timothy McVeigh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CHOWDER-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gilpin2011-269">[260]</a> Finkelman calling him "simply part of a very violent world" and further stating that Brown "is a bad tactician, a bad strategist, he's a bad planner, he's not a very good general – but he's not crazy".<a href="#cite_note-CHOWDER-15">[15]</a> Historian James Gilbert labels Brown a terrorist by 21st-century criteria.<a href="#cite_note-270">[261]</a> Gilbert writes: "Brown's deeds conform to contemporary definitions of terrorism, and his psychological predispositions are consistent with the terrorist model."<a href="#cite_note-271">[262]</a> In contrast, biographer <a href="/wiki/David_S._Reynolds" title="David S. Reynolds">David S. Reynolds</a> gives Brown credit for starting the Civil War or "killing slavery", and cautions others against identifying Brown with terrorism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005-272">[263]</a> Reynolds saw Brown as inspiring the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> a century later, adding "it is misleading to identify Brown with modern terrorists."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005-272">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[264]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> said that white people could not join his <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Afro-American_Unity" title="Organization of Afro-American Unity">Organization of Afro-American Unity</a>, but "if John Brown were still alive, we might accept him".<a href="#cite_note-Massaquoi-274">[265]</a> In his posthumous <a href="/wiki/The_Impending_Crisis,_1848%E2%80%931861" title="The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861">The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861</a> (1976), <a href="/wiki/David_M._Potter" title="David M. Potter">David Potter</a> argued that the emotional effect of Brown's raid exceeded the philosophical effect of the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a>, and reaffirmed a deep division between North and South.<a href="#cite_note-Massaquoi-274">[265]</a> Biographer Louis A. DeCaro Jr., who has debunked many historical allegations about Brown's early life and public career, concludes that although he "was hardly the only abolitionist to equate slavery with sin, his struggle against slavery was far more personal and religious than it was for many abolitionists, just as his respect and affection for black people was far more personal and religious than it was for most enemies of slavery".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a6-275">[266]</a> Historian and Brown documentary scholar Louis Ruchames wrote: "Brown's action was one of great idealism and placed him in the company of the great liberators of mankind."<a href="#cite_note-276">[267]</a> Several 21st-century works about Brown are notable for the absence of hostility that characterized similar works a century earlier (when Lincoln's anti-slavery views were de-emphasized).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008181–89-277">[268]</a> Journalist and documentary writer Ken Chowder considers Brown "stubborn ... egoistical, self-righteous, and sometimes deceitful; yet ... at certain times, a great man" and argues that Brown has been adopted by both the left and right, and his actions "spun" to fit the world view of the spinner at various times in American history.<a href="#cite_note-CHOWDER-15">[15]</a> The shift to an appreciative perspective moves many white historians toward the view long held by black scholars such as <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Quarles" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Quarles">Benjamin Quarles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lerone_Bennett,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Lerone Bennett, Jr.">Lerone Bennett, Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences">Influences</h2></div> The connection between John Brown's life and many of the slave uprisings in the Caribbean was clear from the outset. Brown was born during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, which saw Haitian slaves revolting against the French. The role the revolution played in helping formulate Brown's abolitionist views directly is not clear; however, the revolution had an obvious effect on the general view toward slavery in the northern United States, and in the Southern states, it was a warning of horror (as they viewed it) possibly to come. As <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> notes, the involvement of slaves in the American Revolutions, and the "upheaval in Hayti, and the new enthusiasm for human rights, led to a wave of emancipation which started in Vermont during the Revolution and swept through New England and Pennsylvania, ending finally in New York and New Jersey".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201536-279">[270]</a> The 1839 slave insurrection aboard the Spanish ship <a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">La Amistad</a>, off the coast of Cuba, provides a poignant example of John Brown's support and appeal toward Caribbean slave revolts. On La Amistad, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Cinqu%C3%A9" title="Joseph Cinqué">Joseph Cinqué</a> and approximately 50 other slaves captured the ship, slated to transport them from <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> to <a href="/wiki/Camag%C3%BCey" title="Camagüey">Puerto Príncipe</a>, Cuba, in July 1839, and attempted to return to Africa. However, through trickery, the ship ended up in the United States, where Cinque and his men stood trial. Ultimately, the courts acquitted the men because at the time, the international slave trade was illegal in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds200554-280">[271]</a> According to Brown's daughter, "<a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner" title="Nat Turner">Turner</a> and Cinque stood first in esteem" among Brown's black heroes. Furthermore, she noted Brown's "admiration of Cinques' character and management in carrying his points with so little bloodshed!"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath186046-281">[272]</a> In 1850, Brown would refer affectionately to the revolt, in saying "Nothing so charms the American people as personal bravery. Witness the case of Cinques, of everlasting memory, on board the Amistad."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds200554–55-282">[273]</a> The specific knowledge John Brown gained from the tactics employed in the Haitian Revolution, and other Caribbean revolts, was of paramount importance when Brown turned his sights to the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. As Brown's cohort <a href="/wiki/Richard_Realf" title="Richard Realf">Richard Realf</a> explained to a committee of the 36th Congress, "he had posted himself in relation to the wars of Toussaint L'Ouverture;<a href="#cite_note-283">[274]</a> he had become thoroughly acquainted with the wars in Hayti and the islands round about."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois2015107-284">[275]</a> By studying the slave revolts of the Caribbean region, Brown learned a great deal about how to properly conduct guerilla warfare. A key element to the prolonged success of this warfare was the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Maroon_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maroon (people)">maroon</a> communities, which are essentially colonies of runaway slaves. As a contemporary article notes, Brown would use these establishments to "retreat from and evade attacks he could not overcome. He would maintain and prolong a guerilla war, of which ... Haiti afforded" an example.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005106-285">[276]</a> The idea of creating maroon communities was the impetus for the creation of John Brown's "Provisional Constitution and Ordinances for the People of the United States", which helped to detail how such communities would be governed. However, the idea of maroon colonies of slaves is not an idea exclusive to the Caribbean region. In fact, maroon communities riddled the southern United States between the mid-1600s and 1864, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Great Dismal Swamp">Great Dismal Swamp</a> region of Virginia and North Carolina. Similar to the Haitian Revolution, the <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a>, fought in modern-day Florida, saw the involvement of maroon communities, which although outnumbered by native allies were more effective fighters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005106-285">[276]</a> Although the maroon colonies of North America undoubtedly had an effect on John Brown's plan, their impact paled in comparison to that of the maroon communities in places like Haiti, Jamaica, and Surinam. Accounts by Brown's friends and cohorts prove this idea. Richard Realf, a cohort of Brown in Kansas, noted that Brown not only studied the slave revolts in the Caribbean, but focused more specifically on the maroons of Jamaica and those involved in Haiti's liberation.<a href="#cite_note-286">[277]</a> Brown's friend Richard Hinton similarly noted that Brown knew "by heart" the occurrences in Jamaica and Haiti.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005107-287">[278]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth_Higginson" title="Thomas Wentworth Higginson">Thomas Wentworth Higginson</a>, a cohort of Brown's and a member of the <a href="/wiki/Secret_Six" title="Secret Six">Secret Six</a>, stated that Brown's plan involved getting "together bands and families of fugitive slaves" and "establish them permanently in those [mountain] fastnesses, like the Maroons of Jamaica and Surinam".<a href="#cite_note-288">[279]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown#Aftermath" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown § Aftermath</a></div> Of all the major figures associated with the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> Brown is one of the most studied and pondered.<a href="#cite_note-289">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[281]</a> "As a nation, we are unable to get over John Brown."<a href="#cite_note-Faust-291">[282]</a>: 89  <a href="/wiki/Kate_Field" title="Kate Field">Kate Field</a> raised money to give to the State of New York for what was to be, in her words, "John Brown's Grave and Farm" (now <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a>).<a href="#cite_note-292">[283]</a> At the centenary of the raid in 1959, a "sanitized" play about him was produced at Harper's Ferry.<a href="#cite_note-293">[284]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg/220px-John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="417" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg/330px-John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg/440px-John_Brown_statue_at_Quindaro_Township.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1994" data-file-height="3784" /></a><figcaption>A life-sized white marble statue of John Brown is on the former campus of the <a href="/wiki/Western_University_(Kansas)" title="Western University (Kansas)">Western University</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Quindaro_Townsite" title="Quindaro Townsite">Quindaro Townsite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Kansas" title="Kansas City, Kansas">Kansas City, Kansas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_University_Kansas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Western_University_Kansas.jpg/220px-Western_University_Kansas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Western_University_Kansas.jpg/330px-Western_University_Kansas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Western_University_Kansas.jpg/440px-Western_University_Kansas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1828" data-file-height="1242" /></a><figcaption>The Western University campus hosted the John Brown statue.</figcaption></figure> In 2007 Brown was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/National_Abolition_Hall_of_Fame" class="mw-redirect" title="National Abolition Hall of Fame">National Abolition Hall of Fame</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Peterboro,_New_York" title="Peterboro, New York">Peterboro, New York</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Brown_Day">John Brown Day</h3></div> <ul><li>May 1: In 1999, John Brown Day was celebrated on <a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May 1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[285]</a></li> <li>May 7: In 2016, John Brown Lives! Friends of Freedom celebrated May 7 as John Brown Day.<a href="#cite_note-295">[286]</a> In 2018, it was May 5. Spirit of John Brown Freedom Awards were given to environmentalist Jen Kretser, poet <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Espada" title="Martín Espada">Martín Espada</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Soffiyah_Elijah" title="Soffiyah Elijah">Soffiyah Elijah</a>, attorney and executive director of the Alliance of Families for Justice, which advocates for prison reform.<a href="#cite_note-296">[287]</a> In 2022, the day chosen was May 14.<a href="#cite_note-297">[288]</a></li> <li>May 9: The <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Tannery_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Tannery Site">John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Guys_Mills,_Pennsylvania" title="Guys Mills, Pennsylvania">Guys Mills, Pennsylvania</a>, holds community celebrations on John Brown's birthday, May 9.<a href="#cite_note-298">[289]</a></li> <li>August 17: In 1906, the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a>, predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, celebrated John Brown Day on August 17.</li> <li>October 16: In 2017, the Vermont Legislature designated October 16, the date of the raid, as John Brown Day.<a href="#cite_note-299">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[291]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meetings_in_honor_of_John_Brown">Meetings in honor of John Brown</h3></div> In 1946, the John Brown Memorial Association held its 24th annual pilgrimage to the grave in North Elba, where there were memorial services.<a href="#cite_note-301">[292]</a> At the 150th anniversary of the raid In 2009, a two-day symposium, "John Brown Comes Home", was held, on the influence of Brown's raid, using facilities in adjacent Lake Placid. Speakers included <a href="/wiki/Bernadine_Dohrn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernadine Dohrn">Bernadine Dohrn</a> and a great-great-great-granddaughter of Brown.<a href="#cite_note-302">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Museums">Museums</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_John_Brown_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Statue_of_John_Brown_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Statue_of_John_Brown_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Statue_of_John_Brown_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Statue_of_John_Brown_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Statue_of_John_Brown_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Statue_of_John_Brown_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A statue of Brown is in front of the <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Museum">John Brown Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>John Brown Museum, <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_National_Historical_Park" title="Harpers Ferry National Historical Park">Harpers Ferry National Historical Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia" title="Harpers Ferry, West Virginia">Harpers Ferry, West Virginia</a><a href="#cite_note-NPS-BrownMuseum-304">[295]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Tannery_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Tannery Site">John Brown Farm, Tannery, and Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guys_Mills,_Pennsylvania" title="Guys Mills, Pennsylvania">Guys Mills, Pennsylvania</a><a href="#cite_note-nris-305">[296]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_House_(Chambersburg,_Pennsylvania)" title="John Brown House (Chambersburg, Pennsylvania)">John Brown House (Chambersburg, Pennsylvania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Museum">John Brown Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy Farm">John Brown Raid Headquarters (Kennedy Farm)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samples_Manor,_Maryland" title="Samples Manor, Maryland">Samples Manor, Maryland</a></li></ul> All of these museums except the one in Harpers Ferry are places Brown lived or stayed. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barnum%27s_American_Museum" title="Barnum's American Museum">Barnum's American Museum</a> in New York, destroyed by fire in 1868, contained according to a November 7, 1859, advertisement "a full-length Wax Figure of OSAWATOMIE BROWN, taken from life, and a KNIFE found on the body of his son, at Harper's Ferry".<a href="#cite_note-306">[297]</a> An agent of Barnum traveled to Harpers Ferry in November, saw Brown, and offered him $100 (equivalent to $3,391 in 2023) for "his clothes and pike, and his certificate of their genuineness."<a href="#cite_note-307">[298]</a> By December 7 the exhibits included "his <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>autograph Commission to a Lieutenancy as well as TWO PIKES or spears taken at Harper's Ferry".<a href="#cite_note-308">[299]</a> On December 16 the Museum added, with document vouching for its authenticity, "the link of the shackles that Cook and Coppock cut in two...that consequently permitted them to escape."<a href="#cite_note-309">[300]</a> Also exhibited were the <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Washington" title="Augustus Washington">Augustus Washington</a> 1847 <a href="/wiki/Daguerrotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Daguerrotype">daguerrotype</a> of Brown (see <a href="#Springfield,_Massachusetts">above</a>) and the now-lost painting by Louis Ransom of the famous, apocryphal incident of Brown kissing a black baby on his way to the gallows, reproduced in an <a href="/wiki/Currier_%26_Ives" class="mw-redirect" title="Currier & Ives">Currier & Ives</a> print (see <a href="#Paintings">Paintings</a>). The latter was only exhibited for two months in 1863; Barnum withdrew it to save the building from destruction during the anti-Negro riot that broke out shortly.<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-216">[207]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statues">Statues</h3></div> <ul><li>Nothing came of the proposal that Kansas send a statue of Brown as one of its two representatives honored in the U.S. Capitol.</li> <li>The first statue of Brown, and the only one not at one of his residences, is that located on the (new) John Brown Memorial Plaza, on the former campus of the closed black <a href="/wiki/Western_University_(Kansas)" title="Western University (Kansas)">Western University</a>, site of a <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau#Education" title="Freedmen's Bureau">freedmen's school</a> founded in 1865, the first black school west of the Mississippi River. The statue is the one surviving structure of the entire <a href="/wiki/Quindaro_Townsite" title="Quindaro Townsite">Quindaro Townsite</a>, a ghost town today part of <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Kansas" title="Kansas City, Kansas">Kansas City, Kansas</a> (27th Street and Sewell Avenue), a major Underground Railroad station, a key port on the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri River</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slaves">fugitive slaves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">contrabands</a> escaping from the <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">slave state</a> of Missouri. The pillar and the life-sized statue of Brown were erected by descendants of slaves in 1911, at a cost of $2,000 (equivalent to $65,400 in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-310">[301]</a> Lettering reads: "Erected to the Memory of John Brown by a Grateful People". There is a bronze plaque. In March 2018, the statue was defaced with <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastikas</a> and "Hail Satan".<a href="#cite_note-311">[302]</a> <ul><li>At the <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Placid,_New_York" title="Lake Placid, New York">Lake Placid, New York</a>, there is a 1935 statue of Brown escorting a black child to freedom. The artist was <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pollia" title="Joseph Pollia">Joseph Pollia</a>. The cost of the statue and pedestal "was contributed in small sums by Negroes of the United States".<a href="#cite_note-Flick-312">[303]</a></li> <li>A statue (1933) is at the <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brown Museum">John Brown Museum</a>, Brown's home in <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a>. It was sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Relief_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's Relief Corps">Women's Relief Corps</a>, Department of Kansas.<a href="#cite_note-313">[304]</a></li> <li>The only other sculptures of Brown are two busts: the first by black sculptor <a href="/wiki/Edmonia_Lewis" title="Edmonia Lewis">Edmonia Lewis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-314">[305]</a> which she presented to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a>; and the other, at <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Brackett" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Brackett">Edward Brackett</a>.<a href="#cite_note-315">[306]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Streets">Streets</h3></div> <ul><li>Only one major street in the world honors Brown, the Avenue John Brown in <a href="/wiki/Port-au-Prince,_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Port-au-Prince, Haiti">Port-au-Prince, Haiti</a>, near an avenue honoring abolitionist Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a>. <ul><li>A rural John Brown Road is near <a href="/wiki/Torrington,_Connecticut" title="Torrington, Connecticut">Torrington, Connecticut</a>, his birthplace. Small roads near museums in <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guys_Mills,_Pennsylvania" title="Guys Mills, Pennsylvania">Guys Mills, Pennsylvania</a>, are named for Brown. There is a Harpers Ferry Street in <a href="/wiki/Davie,_Florida" title="Davie, Florida">Davie, Florida</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Ellwood_City,_Pennsylvania" title="Ellwood City, Pennsylvania">Ellwood City</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beaver_Falls,_Pennsylvania" title="Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania">Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Pennsylvania">Northwest Pennsylvania</a> near the Ohio border, near the route <a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen Brown</a> took seeking refuge after the raid in his brother <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Jr.</a>'s house in <a href="/wiki/Ashtabula_County,_Ohio" title="Ashtabula County, Ohio">Ashtabula County, Ohio</a>, there is a Harpers Ferry Road, and intersecting with it, a smaller John Brown Road. In <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a> is John Brown Highway.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storer_College">Storer College</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storer_College" title="Storer College">Storer College</a> began as the first graded school for blacks in West Virginia. Its location in Harpers Ferry was because of the importance of Brown and his raid. The Arsenal engine house, renamed <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</a>, was moved to the Storer <a href="/wiki/Campus" title="Campus">campus</a> in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-316">[307]</a> It was used as the college museum. <ul><li>A plaque honoring Brown was attached to the Fort in 1918, while it was on the Storer campus.</li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg/220px-John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg/330px-John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg/440px-John_Brown%27s_Fort_plaque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>A plaque is on John Brown's Fort which says "That this nation might have; new birth of freedom that slavery should be removed forever from American soil John Brown and his 21 men gave their lives to commemorate their heroism this tablet is placed on this building which has since been known as John Brown's fort by the alumni of storer college 1918".</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><dl><dd>In 1931, after years of controversy, <a href="/wiki/Heyward_Shepherd_memorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Heyward Shepherd memorial">a tablet was erected</a> in Harpers Ferry by the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a>, honoring the key "<a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause</a>" belief that their slaves were happy and neither wanted freedom nor supported John Brown. (See <a href="/wiki/Heyward_Shepherd_monument" title="Heyward Shepherd monument">Heyward Shepherd monument</a>.) The president of Storer participated in the dedication. In response, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._DuBois" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. DuBois">W. E. B. DuBois</a>, co-founder of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, wrote text for a new plaque in 1932. The Storer College administration would not allow it to be put it up, nor did the National Park Service after becoming owner of the Fort. In 2006, it was placed at the site on the former Storer campus where the Fort had been located.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_John_Brown_sites">Other John Brown sites</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_National_Historical_Park" title="Harpers Ferry National Historical Park">Harpers Ferry National Historical Park</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summit_County_Historical_Society_of_Akron,_Ohio" title="Summit County Historical Society of Akron, Ohio">The John Brown House</a>, where he lived from 1844 to 1854, and John Brown Memorial,<a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-317">[308]</a> the latter of which is located in the Perkins Park area of the <a href="/wiki/Akron_Zoo" title="Akron Zoo">Akron Zoo</a>. The memorial was not erected within the zoo; the zoo incorporated the land where it is. It is not well marked and is not normally open to the public.<a href="#cite_note-318">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[311]</a> When the monument was erected in 1910, 8,000 people attended<a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-317">[308]</a> and Jason Brown, at the time John Brown's oldest living child, spoke.<a href="#cite_note-321">[312]</a></li> <li>The wagon that carried Brown from jail to his execution is preserved by the <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_County,_West_Virginia" title="Jefferson County, West Virginia">Jefferson County, West Virginia</a>, Museum in Charles Town.<a href="#cite_note-Focus-322">[313]</a></li> <li>A wagon used by Brown when transporting freed slaves from Missouri across Iowa is preserved at the <a href="/wiki/Iowa_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa Historical Society">Iowa Historical Society</a><a href="#cite_note-Call-323">[314]</a></li> <li>An approximate replica of the firehouse was built in 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Park_of_America" title="Discovery Park of America">Discovery Park of America</a> museum park in <a href="/wiki/Union_City,_Tennessee" title="Union City, Tennessee">Union City, Tennessee</a>. There is a marker explaining the link with John Brown's raid.<a href="#cite_note-324">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[317]</a></li> <li>Iowa has set up the John Brown Freedom Trail, marking his journey across Iowa leaving Kansas, en route to <a href="/wiki/Chatham,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatham, Ontario">Chatham, Ontario</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[318]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis,_Iowa" title="Lewis, Iowa">Lewis, Iowa</a>: "Fighting Slavery – Aiding Runaways. John Brown Freedom Trail – December 20, 1858 – March 12, 1859."</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_House_(West_Des_Moines,_Iowa)" title="Jordan House (West Des Moines, Iowa)">Jordan House</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Des_Moines,_Iowa" title="West Des Moines, Iowa">West Des Moines, Iowa</a>.</li> <li>"Because of the impossibility of colored boys entering work shops where useful trades are taught", a John Brown Industrial College was planned at <a href="/wiki/Bonner_Springs,_Kansas" title="Bonner Springs, Kansas">Bonner Springs, Kansas</a>, a suburb of Kansas City, and 80 acres (32 ha) purchased.<a href="#cite_note-328">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[321]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3></div> Two notable screen portrayals of Brown were given by actor <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Massey" title="Raymond Massey">Raymond Massey</a>. The 1940 film <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Trail_(film)" title="Santa Fe Trail (film)">Santa Fe Trail</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Errol_Flynn" title="Errol Flynn">Errol Flynn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivia_de_Havilland" title="Olivia de Havilland">Olivia de Havilland</a>, depicted Brown completely unsympathetically as a villainous madman and Massey plays him with a constant, wild-eyed stare. The film gave the impression that he did not oppose slavery, even to the point of having a black "<a href="/wiki/Mammy_archetype" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammy archetype">mammy</a>" character say, after an especially fierce battle, "Mr. Brown done promised us freedom, but ... if this is freedom, I don't want no part of it". Massey portrayed Brown again in the little-known, low-budget <a href="/wiki/Seven_Angry_Men" title="Seven Angry Men">Seven Angry Men</a>, in which he was not only the main character, but depicted in a much more restrained, sympathetic way.<a href="#cite_note-331">[322]</a> Massey, along with <a href="/wiki/Tyrone_Power" title="Tyrone Power">Tyrone Power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Anderson" title="Judith Anderson">Judith Anderson</a>, starred in the acclaimed 1953 dramatic reading of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Vincent_Ben%C3%A9t" title="Stephen Vincent Benét">Stephen Vincent Benét</a>'s epic <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Poetry" title="Pulitzer Prize for Poetry">Pulitzer Prize</a>-winning poem <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body_(poem)" title="John Brown's Body (poem)">John Brown's Body</a> (1928).<a href="#cite_note-332">[323]</a> Numerous American poets have written poems about him, including <a href="/wiki/John_Greenleaf_Whittier" title="John Greenleaf Whittier">John Greenleaf Whittier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisa_May_Alcott" title="Louisa May Alcott">Louisa May Alcott</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinty2009289-333">[324]</a> The Polish poet <a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Kamil_Norwid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprian Kamil Norwid">Cyprian Kamil Norwid</a> wrote two poems praising Brown: "John Brown" and the better known "Do obywatela Johna Brown" ("To Citizen John Brown").<a href="#cite_note-334">[325]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marching_Song_(play)" title="Marching Song (play)">Marching Song</a> (1932) is an unpublished play about the legend of John Brown by <a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Orson Welles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-335">[326]</a> <a href="/wiki/Russell_Banks" title="Russell Banks">Russell Banks</a>'s 1998 <a href="/wiki/Biographical_novel" title="Biographical novel">biographical novel</a> about Brown, <a href="/wiki/Cloudsplitter" title="Cloudsplitter">Cloudsplitter</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a> finalist. It is narrated by Brown's surviving son Owen.<a href="#cite_note-336">[327]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_McBride_(writer)" title="James McBride (writer)">James McBride</a>'s 2013 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird" title="The Good Lord Bird">The Good Lord Bird</a> tells Brown's story through the eyes of a young slave, Henry Shackleford, who accompanies Brown to Harpers Ferry. The novel won the 2013 <a href="/wiki/National_Book_Award" title="National Book Award">National Book Award</a> for Fiction.<a href="#cite_note-337">[328]</a> A <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird_(miniseries)" title="The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)">limited episode series</a> based on the book was released starring <a href="/wiki/Ethan_Hawke" title="Ethan Hawke">Ethan Hawke</a> as John Brown.<a href="#cite_note-338">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paintings">Paintings</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg/220px-John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg/330px-John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg/440px-John_Brown_on_his_way_to_his_execution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>In a <a href="/wiki/Currier_and_Ives" title="Currier and Ives">Currier and Ives</a> print from 1863, John Brown is depicted as Christ-like, en route to his execution, with a black mother and <a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">her mulatto child</a>. Above his head is the flag of Virginia, and its motto, <a href="/wiki/Sic_semper_tyrannis" title="Sic semper tyrannis">Sic semper tyrannis</a>.</figcaption></figure> A well-known image of Brown in the later 19th century is a <a href="/wiki/Currier_and_Ives" title="Currier and Ives">Currier and Ives</a> print, based on a lost painting by Louis Ransom.<a href="#cite_note-339">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[331]</a> It portrays Brown as a Christ-like figure. The "Virgin and Child" typically depicted with Christ are here a black mother and <a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">mulatto child</a>. Legend says that Brown kissed the mythical baby but virtually all scholars agree that this did not in fact happen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199550-341">[332]</a> Above Brown's head, like a halo, is the flag of Virginia and its motto, <a href="/wiki/Sic_semper_tyrannis" title="Sic semper tyrannis">Sic semper tyrannis</a> ("Thus always to <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrants</a>"). <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_last_speech#Reactions_to_Brown's_speech" title="John Brown's last speech">According to Brown's supporters</a>, the government of Virginia was tyrannical and according to fugitive slaves, it "is as well the black man's, as the white man's motto".<a href="#cite_note-342">[333]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg/220px-The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg/330px-The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg/440px-The_Tragic_Prelude_John_Brown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="876" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Brown is in <a href="/wiki/Tragic_Prelude" title="Tragic Prelude">Tragic Prelude</a>, a mural in the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_State_Capitol" title="Kansas State Capitol">Kansas State Capitol</a>. He carries in one hand a Bible and in the other a <a href="/wiki/Beecher%27s_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Beecher's Bible">Beecher's Bible</a> rifle. Union and Confederate forces are fighting, with casualties. A tornado approaches in the background, as does a <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">prairie fire</a>, both common in Kansas.</figcaption></figure> In 1938, Kansas painter <a href="/wiki/John_Steuart_Curry" title="John Steuart Curry">John Steuart Curry</a> was commissioned to prepare murals for the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_State_Capitol" title="Kansas State Capitol">Kansas State Capitol</a> in <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka, Kansas</a>. He chose as his subject the Kansan John Brown, seen by many as the most important man in Kansas history. In the resulting mural, <a href="/wiki/Tragic_Prelude" title="Tragic Prelude">Tragic Prelude</a>, Brown holds a Bible in one hand and a <a href="/wiki/Beecher%27s_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Beecher's Bible">Beecher's Bible</a> rifle in the other. Behind him are <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> and Confederate troops, with dead soldiers; a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> period, which Brown was at the center of, and which was commonly seen to have been a <a href="/wiki/Dress_rehearsal" title="Dress rehearsal">dress rehearsal</a> or a tragic prelude to the increasingly inevitable <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-343">[334]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg/220px-Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg/330px-Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg/440px-Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1949" /></a><figcaption>Frederick Douglass argued against John Brown's plan to attack the arsenal at Harpers Ferry is a painting by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence" title="Jacob Lawrence">Jacob Lawrence</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence" title="Jacob Lawrence">Jacob Lawrence</a> illustrated Brown's life in The Legend of John Brown, a series of 22 <a href="/wiki/Gouache" title="Gouache">gouache</a> paintings. By 1977, these were in such fragile condition that they could not be displayed, and the <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Institute_of_Arts" title="Detroit Institute of Arts">Detroit Institute of Arts</a> had to commission Lawrence to recreate the series as <a href="/wiki/Silkscreen" class="mw-redirect" title="Silkscreen">silkscreen</a> prints. The result was a limited-edition portfolio of 22 hand-screened prints, published with a poem, John Brown, by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hayden" title="Robert Hayden">Robert Hayden</a>, commissioned specifically for the project. Though Brown had been a popular topic for many painters, The Legend of John Brown was the first series to explore his legacy from an African-American perspective.<a href="#cite_note-344">[335]</a> Paintings such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hovenden" title="Thomas Hovenden">Thomas Hovenden</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Moments_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Moments of John Brown">The Last Moments of John Brown</a> immortalize an apocryphal story in which a black woman offers the condemned Brown her baby to kiss on his way to the gallows. The tale was probably invented by journalist <a href="/wiki/James_Redpath" title="James Redpath">James Redpath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-345">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_markers">Historical markers</h3></div> <ul><li>According to the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Marker_Database" title="Historical Marker Database">Historical Marker Database</a>,<a href="#cite_note-346">[337]</a> Brown is mentioned on the following <a href="/wiki/Historical_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical marker">historical markers</a>: <ul><li>At his birthplace in <a href="/wiki/Torrington,_Connecticut" title="Torrington, Connecticut">Torrington, Connecticut</a>, on John Brown Road.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_City,_Kansas" title="Baldwin City, Kansas">Baldwin City, Kansas</a>: "<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Black_Jack" title="Battle of Black Jack">Battle of black Jack</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_County,_Kansas" title="Franklin County, Kansas">Franklin County, Kansas</a>: At the site of the <a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_massacre" title="Pottawatomie massacre">Pottawatomie massacre</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence,_Kansas" title="Lawrence, Kansas">Lawrence, Kansas</a>: "John Brown and the <a href="/wiki/Sacking_of_Lawrence" title="Sacking of Lawrence">Siege of Lawrence</a>, September 14–15, 1856"</li> <li>Near <a href="/wiki/Netawaka,_Kansas" title="Netawaka, Kansas">Netawaka, Kansas</a>: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Spurs_(Kansas)" title="Battle of the Spurs (Kansas)">Battle of the Spurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas" title="Osawatomie, Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a>: <ul><li>At the site of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Osawatomie" title="Battle of Osawatomie">Battle of Osawatomie</a>, in John Brown Memorial Park.</li> <li>"Soldiers' Monument". Commemorating the 5 persons killed, including one of Brown's sons. "This inscription is also in commemoration of the heroism of Capt. John Brown who commanded at the Battle of Osawatomie August 30, 1856; who died and conquered American slavery on the scaffold at Charlestown Va. Dec. 2, 1859."</li> <li>1935 plaque by The Woman's Relief Corps, Department of Kansas</li> <li>Old Stone Church Marker. "Built by Rev. Samuel Adair brother-in-law of John Brown" (1861).</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka, Kansas</a>: "Capital of Kansas" ("In the late 1850s negroes bound north on the 'underground railway' were hidden here by John Brown.")</li> <li>Near <a href="/wiki/Trading_Post,_Kansas" title="Trading Post, Kansas">Trading Post, Kansas</a>: <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Marais_des_Cygnes_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Marais des Cygnes Massacre">Marais des Cygnes Massacre</a>" – site of a "fort" built by Brown after the massacre</li> <li>"Murder on the Marais des Cygnes"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagerstown,_Maryland" title="Hagerstown, Maryland">Hagerstown, Maryland</a>: at the site of the Washington House Hotel, where Brown stayed on his way to Harpers Ferry.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyattsville,_Maryland" title="Hyattsville, Maryland">Hyattsville, Maryland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Osborne_Perry_Anderson" title="Osborne Perry Anderson">Osborne Perry Anderson</a>, who fought with Brown.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpsburg,_Maryland" title="Sharpsburg, Maryland">Sharpsburg, Maryland</a>: at the site of the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy Farm">Kennedy Farm</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlborough,_Massachusetts" title="Marlborough, Massachusetts">Marlborough, Massachusetts</a>: at the <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Bell" title="John Brown Bell">John Brown Bell</a>, once in Harpers Ferry, since 1892 on display in Marlborough. The second-most-famous American bell, after the <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Bell" title="Liberty Bell">Liberty Bell</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit,_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit, Michigan</a>: at the house of William Webb, site of the "Frederick Douglass – John Brown meeting".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson,_Ohio" title="Hudson, Ohio">Hudson, Ohio</a>: <ul><li>At his boyhood home.<a href="#cite_note-347">[338]</a></li> <li>First Congregational Church in Hudson: "At a November 1837 prayer meeting, church member and anti-slavery leader John Brown made his first public vow to destroy slavery." Another marker mentions Brown at the former site of the church.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chambersburg,_Pennsylvania" title="Chambersburg, Pennsylvania">Chambersburg, Pennsylvania</a>: "Abolitionist John Brown Boards in Chambersburg"</li> <li>In rural <a href="/wiki/Crawford_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Crawford County, Pennsylvania">Crawford County, Pennsylvania</a>, there is a John Brown Road, and on it two historical markers at the site of Brown's house and tannery.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana,_Pennsylvania" title="Indiana, Pennsylvania">Indiana, Pennsylvania</a>: marker for <a href="/wiki/Albert_Hazlett" title="Albert Hazlett">Albert Hazlett</a>, a member of Brown's party who was also hanged at Charles Town (in 1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Prussia,_Pennsylvania" title="King of Prussia, Pennsylvania">King of Prussia, Pennsylvania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Valley_Forge_National_Historic_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley Forge National Historic Park">Valley Forge National Historic Park</a>): "Knox's Quarters – John Brown Farm".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent,_Ohio" title="Kent, Ohio">Kent, Ohio</a>: marker for Underground Railroad stops mentions John Brown's residence in Kent (then called Franklin Mills) during the 1830s.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mont_Alto,_Pennsylvania" title="Mont Alto, Pennsylvania">Mont Alto, Pennsylvania</a>: "John Brown Raid", where John Cooke, one of Brown's followers, was captured. (Two markers.)</li> <li>Near <a href="/wiki/Amissville,_Virginia" title="Amissville, Virginia">Amissville, Virginia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Dangerfield Newby</a> marker.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia" title="Winchester, Virginia">Winchester, Virginia</a>: "A 'Malicious Design' – Burning the Winchester Medical College". The body of John Brown's son Watson was brought there for dissection by medical students.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Town,_West_Virginia" title="Charles Town, West Virginia">Charles Town, West Virginia</a>: <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Jefferson_County_Courthouse_(Charles_Town,_West_Virginia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jefferson County Courthouse (Charles Town, West Virginia)">Jefferson County Courthouse</a> – Where John Brown Was Tried"</li> <li>"Two Treason Trials". (The other had nothing to do with Brown.)</li> <li>"Hanging Site of John Brown. Creation of a Martyr. Prelude to War."</li> <li>"Site of the execution of John Brown"</li> <li>"Edge Hill Cemetery – John Brown Raid Victims"</li> <li>Beallair, home of Colonel <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Washington" title="Lewis Washington">Lewis Washington</a>, held hostage by Brown.</li> <li>Focus of Action – Jefferson County in the Civil War</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia" title="Harpers Ferry, West Virginia">Harpers Ferry, West Virginia</a>: <ul><li>"Pilgrimage." Marks the site of an 1896 visit by the <a href="/wiki/National_League_of_Colored_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="National League of Colored Women">National League of Colored Women</a>.</li> <li>"Holy Ground". Marks 1906 visit by members of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a>, predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, on what they called John Brown Day, August 17.</li> <li>"John Brown", plaque erected in 1918 by the alumni of <a href="/wiki/Storer_College" title="Storer College">Storer College</a>.</li> <li>"John Brown", plaque erected in 1932 by the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>.</li> <li>"John Brown Fort."</li> <li>"A Nation's Armory"</li> <li>"Arsenal Square"</li> <li>"'for the deposit of arms'"</li> <li>"John Brown Monument", on the site of the original location of "John Brown's Fort"</li> <li>"John Brown's Last Stand", at the same location.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Allstadt_House_and_Ordinary" title="Allstadt House and Ordinary">Allstadt House</a> – John Brown's Hostages – Prelude to War"</li> <li>"The John Brown Raiders", all those who participated in the raid.</li> <li>"In Honor of Private Luke Quinn" – killed during the capture of John Brown</li> <li>"The Murphy Farm", location of <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</a> between 1895 and 1910.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Heyward_Shepherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Heyward Shepherd">Hayward Shepard</a> – Another Perspective"</li> <li>"Heyward Shepherd"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatham,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatham, Ontario">Chatham, Ontario</a>: "John Brown's Convention 1858".</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archival_material">Archival material</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Court_material_and_related_documents">Court material and related documents</h3></div> The indictments, summons, sentences, bills of exception, and similar documents for Brown and his raiders are held by the Jefferson County Circuit Clerk, and have been digitized by West Virginia Archives and History.<a href="#cite_note-348">[339]</a> Two separate collections of relevant letters were published. The first is the messages, mostly telegrams, sent and received by Governor Wise.<a href="#cite_note-349">[340]</a> The Senate of Maryland published the many internal telegrams of the <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad" title="Baltimore and Ohio Railroad">Baltimore and Ohio Railroad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Maryland-192">[183]</a> Much material is missing. The order book, which had the minutes of John Brown's trial,<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2-350">[341]</a> was evidently possessed by Brown's judge <a href="/wiki/Richard_Parker_(congressman)" title="Richard Parker (congressman)">Richard Parker</a> in 1888.<a href="#cite_note-Quincy-351">[342]</a> As of 2022<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Brown_(abolitionist)&action=edit">[update]</a>, its location is unknown. Among the missing material used at his trial as evidence of sedition were bundles of printed copies of his <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Provisional_Constitution" title="John Brown's Provisional Constitution">Provisional Constitution</a>, prepared for the "state" Brown intended to set up in the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>. Even less known is Brown's "Declaration of Liberty", imitating the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2010162–163-352">[343]</a> According to Prosecutor <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hunter_(lawyer)" title="Andrew Hunter (lawyer)">Andrew Hunter</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">John Brown had with him when captured at Harpers Ferry a carpet-bag in which were his constitution for a provisional government and other papers. He had placed it in one corner of the engine house, and there it was found when the marines charged and captured the survivors. Mr. Hunter took possession of the carpet-bag and carried it to Charlestown. He kept it and its contents. He added to the papers the letters which were forwarded to the prisoners and not delivered to them. Ordinary letters were allowed to pass to the prisoners after Mr. Hunter had examined them. But those letters which seemed to contain information bearing upon the organization in the North, Mr. Hunter confiscated and kept. He had between seventy and eighty of these letters, and he placed them in John Brown's carpet-bag. Other important documents bearing upon the secret history of the case went into the same receptacle, and much of the matter nobody but Mr. Hunter saw.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter-353">[344]</a></blockquote> There was correspondence from <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a>, among many others. Hugh Forbes said that the carpet-bag may have contained "an abundant supply of my correspondence".<a href="#cite_note-354">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-355">[346]</a> (After Brown's arrest, Smith, Douglass, and future biographer and friend <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Sanborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Sanborn">Franklin Sanborn</a> began destroying correspondence and other documents because they feared criminal charges for aiding Brown.<a href="#cite_note-356">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sanborn2-357">[348]</a>) The carpet-bag also contained maps of Kentucky, North Carolina, and Virginia that showed the locations of State arsenals with proposed routes for attacks and retreats.<a href="#cite_note-Herald-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunter-353">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[349]</a> Hunter personally took the carpet-bag to Richmond, because he thought it would be safer there. He was at the time a member of the Virginia State Senate. In 1865, when Lee advised that he could no longer defend Richmond, Hunter did not want the "Yankees" to find the carpetbag. He thought that the Capitol was as safe a place as any in Richmond, and he asked Commonwealth Secretary <a href="/wiki/George_Wythe_Munford" title="George Wythe Munford">George Wythe Munford</a> if he could hide it in the Capitol. "Munford told me that he has taken the carpet-bag up to the cock-loft of the Capitol and had let down the bag between the wall and the plastering, and I believe those papers are there yet."<a href="#cite_note-Hunter-353">[344]</a> Wise sent attorney Henry Hudnall to Charles Town to put in order Hunter's documents. In a letter to Wise of November 17, he refers to "a large quantity of matter", including "nearly a half <a href="/wiki/Bushel" title="Bushel">bushel</a> of letters" just of Tidd alone.<a href="#cite_note-359">[350]</a> In 1907–08, there appeared in print a varied collection of letters and other documents a Union soldier from Massachusetts took from Hunter's office in the Charles Town courthouse in 1862, when it was being used as a Union barracks.<a href="#cite_note-Quincy-351">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-362">[353]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correspondence_and_other_archival_material">Correspondence and other archival material</h3></div> The West Virginia Archives and History owns the largest single collection on Brown, the Boyd B. Stutler Collection. A negative microfilm of the material is held by the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohio Historical Society">Ohio Historical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-363">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-364">[355]</a> The Hudson Library and Historical Society of <a href="/wiki/Hudson,_Ohio" title="Hudson, Ohio">Hudson, Ohio</a>, Brown's home town, prepared annotated listings of Brown's many ancestors, siblings, and children.<a href="#cite_note-365">[356]</a> Since John Brown moved around a lot, had a large family, and had a lot to say, he carried on a voluminous correspondence, including letters to editors,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2010167-366">[357]</a> and was repeatedly interviewed by reporters, as he made himself available. Archival material on him and his circle is therefore abundant, and widely scattered. There has never been a complete edition of his extant correspondence; the one scholarly attempt, from 1885, produced a book of 645 pages. Editor <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Benjamin_Sanborn" title="Franklin Benjamin Sanborn">F. B. Sanborn</a> stated that he had enough letters for another book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn1891vi-367">[358]</a> A 2015 book was published just of the letters Brown wrote in the last month of his life, from jail.<a href="#cite_note-368">[359]</a> Additional letters were found and published in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-369">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-Galbreath-371">[362]</a> Archival material concerning John Brown's time in <a href="/wiki/Crawford_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Crawford County, Pennsylvania">Crawford County, Pennsylvania</a>, including his tannery, is held by the Pelletier Library, <a href="/wiki/Allegheny_College" title="Allegheny College">Allegheny College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meadville,_Pennsylvania" title="Meadville, Pennsylvania">Meadville, Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-372">[363]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark Atlanta University</a> holds a small collection.<a href="#cite_note-373">[364]</a> Brown biographer <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</a> surveys the manuscript collections in his 1910 biography.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard1910-374">[365]</a> The archive of Villard is in the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia University Library">Columbia University Library</a>. Kansas Memory has a collection of materials regarding Brown's activities in Kansas.<a href="#cite_note-375">[366]</a> A project of the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Historical_Society" title="Kansas Historical Society">Kansas Historical Society</a>, it holds the collection of Brown biographer Richard J. Hinton.<a href="#cite_note-376">[367]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> John Brown moved his grandfather's tombstone to <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">his farm</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In 1857, Brown stated that he descended from <a href="/wiki/Peter_Browne_(Mayflower_passenger)" title="Peter Browne (Mayflower passenger)">Peter Browne</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Fathers">Pilgrim Fathers</a>, who landed from the <a href="/wiki/Mayflower" title="Mayflower">Mayflower</a> at <a href="/wiki/Plymouth,_Massachusetts" title="Plymouth, Massachusetts">Plymouth, Massachusetts</a>, in 1620. There are some historians that believe that his ancestor was Peter Brown, who arrived in Connecticut in 1650.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Brown was said by Sanbord to have been the fourth of eight children, but it's not clear who the other children of Owen and Ruth were and if the eight children included their adopted son, Levi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787-23">[22]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Brown eventually listed surveyor's implements in his will.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191017-43">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Snodgrass said that he lived in (nearby) <a href="/wiki/Randolph_Township,_Pennsylvania" title="Randolph Township, Pennsylvania">Randolph Township, Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">[57]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> According to a Pennsylvania friend who visited him in jail in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Town,_West_Virginia" title="Charles Town, West Virginia">Charles Town</a> just before his execution, he mentioned that <a href="/wiki/Crawford_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Crawford County, Pennsylvania">Crawford County, Pennsylvania</a>, was important to him because two of his children and his wife were buried there.<a href="#cite_note-Lowry-75">[71]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Later, in 1852, Brown received five first prizes for his sheep and cattle at the Ohio State Fair.<a href="#cite_note-Salmon-88">[83]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> In the Bible, <a href="/wiki/Gilead" title="Gilead">Mount Gilead</a> was the place where only the bravest of <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> gathered to face an invading enemy. Brown founded the League with the words, "Nothing so charms the American people as personal bravery. [Blacks] would have ten times the number [of white friends than] they now have were they but half as much in earnest to secure their dearest rights as they are to ape the follies and extravagances of their white neighbors, and to indulge in idle show, in ease, and in luxury."<a href="#cite_note-zikibay.com-101">[95]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Brown gave his rocking chair to the mother of his beloved black porter, Thomas Thomas, as a gesture of affection when he moved away from Springfield.<a href="#cite_note-masslive.com-95">[89]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Brown's wife Mary refused to relocate to Kansas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGlone19891188-112">[104]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRBS_(Rebecca_Buffum_Spring)1859" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Buffum_Spring" title="Rebecca Buffum Spring">RBS (Rebecca Buffum Spring)</a> (December 2, 1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/63692913/visit-by-mrs-spring/">"A Visit to John Brown. By a lady"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New-York_Tribune" title="New-York Tribune">New-York Tribune</a>. p. 6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210213220041/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/63692913/visit-by-mrs-spring/">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2021. Retrieved March 12, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New-York+Tribune&rft.atitle=A+Visit+to+John+Brown.+By+a+lady&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1859-12-02&rft.au=RBS+%28Rebecca+Buffum+Spring%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F63692913%2Fvisit-by-mrs-spring%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005aIntroduction-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005aIntroduction_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>, Introduction. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a248-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a248_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.library.wisc.edu/catalog/9910190620102121">The martyrdom of John Brown : the proceedings of a public meeting held in London, on the 2nd December, 1863, to commemorate the fourth anniversary of John Brown's death</a>. London: Emancipation Society. 1864.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+martyrdom+of+John+Brown+%3A+the+proceedings+of+a+public+meeting+held+in+London%2C+on+the+2nd+December%2C+1863%2C+to+commemorate+the+fourth+anniversary+of+John+Brown%27s+death&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Emancipation+Society&rft.date=1864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.library.wisc.edu%2Fcatalog%2F9910190620102121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> Within 22 page document. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975426-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975426_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWyatt-Brown1975">Wyatt-Brown 1975</a>, p. 426. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1895323-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1895323_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1895">Smith 1895</a>, p. 323. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_S._Foner" title="Philip S. Foner">Foner, Philip S.</a> (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DouglassSelectionsWritings/page/n11/mode/2up?q=John+brown">Frederick Douglass: Selections from His Writings</a>. New York: International Publishers. pp. 25–26. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/911783030">911783030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frederick+Douglass%3A+Selections+from+His+Writings&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=25-26&rft.pub=International+Publishers&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F911783030&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDouglassSelectionsWritings%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3DJohn%2Bbrown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herald-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herald_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herald_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59131494/interview-of-john-brown/">"The Harper's Ferry Outbreak"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Daily_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Daily Herald">New York Daily Herald</a>. October 21, 1859. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428032334/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59131494/interview-of-john-brown/">Archived</a> from the original on April 28, 2021. Retrieved September 14, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Daily+Herald&rft.atitle=The+Harper%27s+Ferry+Outbreak&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1859-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F59131494%2Finterview-of-john-brown%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a>, October 28, 1859 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton2011637-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinton2011637_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinton2011">Hinton 2011</a>, p. 637. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanbornc._1900" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Benjamin_Sanborn" title="Franklin Benjamin Sanborn">Sanborn, Franklin</a> (c. 1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=yul.11368345_000_00&view=1up&seq=11">John Brown and his friends</a>. Slavery and anti-slavery: A transnational archive. N.p. p. 7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220311152656/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=yul.11368345_000_00&view=1up&seq=11">Archived</a> from the original on March 11, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/HathiTrust" title="HathiTrust">HathiTrust</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown+and+his+friends&rft.place=N.p.&rft.series=Slavery+and+anti-slavery%3A+A+transnational+archive&rft.pages=7&rft.aulast=Sanborn&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dyul.11368345_000_00%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treason-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treason_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treason_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83030973/1859-12-03/ed-1/seq-2/">"Treason in the United States"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elizabethtown_Post&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elizabethtown Post (page does not exist)">Elizabethtown Post</a> (<a href="/wiki/Elizabethtown,_New_York" title="Elizabethtown, New York">Elizabethtown, New York</a>). December 3, 1859. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220413135927/https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83030973/1859-12-03/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> from the original on April 13, 2022. Retrieved March 18, 2022 – via NYS Historic Newspapers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Elizabethtown+Post+%28Elizabethtown%2C+New+York%29&rft.atitle=Treason+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-12-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyshistoricnewspapers.org%2Flccn%2Fsn83030973%2F1859-12-03%2Fed-1%2Fseq-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008179_12-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewen2008">Loewen 2008</a>, p. 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1861" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Osborne_Perry_Anderson" title="Osborne Perry Anderson">Anderson, Osborne Perry</a> (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ASPC0005194700/mode/2up?q=Phil">A Voice from Harper's Ferry</a>. Boston: Published by the author. pp. 5–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Voice+from+Harper%27s+Ferry&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=5-7&rft.pub=Published+by+the+author&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Osborne+Perry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FASPC0005194700%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3DPhil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watson_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watson_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspaperarchive.com/indianapolis-journal-oct-18-1882-p-2/">"Watson Brown's Remains"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indianapolis_Journal" title="Indianapolis Journal">Indianapolis Journal</a>. October 18, 1882. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116025051/https://newspaperarchive.com/indianapolis-journal-oct-18-1882-p-2/">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2020. Retrieved November 8, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspaperarchive.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspaperarchive.com">newspaperarchive.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indianapolis+Journal&rft.atitle=Watson+Brown%27s+Remains&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1882-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspaperarchive.com%2Findianapolis-journal-oct-18-1882-p-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CHOWDER-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CHOWDER_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CHOWDER_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CHOWDER_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CHOWDER_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CHOWDER_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CHOWDER_15-5">f</a> Ken Chowder. "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181107110506/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/father-american-terrorism?page=show">"The Father of American Terrorism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/father-american-terrorism?page=show">the original</a> on November 7, 2018. Retrieved November 17, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Father+of+American+Terrorism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fcontent%2Ffather-american-terrorism%3Fpage%3Dshow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988">". <a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_(magazine)" title="American Heritage (magazine)">American Heritage</a>. February/March 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82016014/1918-07-02/ed-1/seq-8/#date1=1891&sort=relevance&rows=20&words=Brown+Owen&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=8&state=&date2=1926&proxtext=%22Owen+brown%22&y=20&x=21&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=2">"John Brown House Burns – Birthplace of Famous Kansas Abolitionist in New England, No More"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Topeka_State_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Topeka State Journal">Topeka State Journal</a>. July 2, 1918. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210927150254/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82016014/1918-07-02/ed-1/seq-8/#date1=1891&sort=relevance&rows=20&words=Brown+Owen&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=8&state=&date2=1926&proxtext=%22Owen+brown%22&y=20&x=21&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=2">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Chronicling_America" title="Chronicling America">Chronicling America</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Topeka+State+Journal&rft.atitle=John+Brown+House+Burns+%E2%80%93+Birthplace+of+Famous+Kansas+Abolitionist+in+New+England%2C+No+More&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1918-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn82016014%2F1918-07-02%2Fed-1%2Fseq-8%2F%23date1%3D1891%26sort%3Drelevance%26rows%3D20%26words%3DBrown%2BOwen%26searchType%3Dbasic%26sequence%3D0%26index%3D8%26state%3D%26date2%3D1926%26proxtext%3D%2522Owen%2Bbrown%2522%26y%3D20%26x%3D21%26dateFilterType%3DyearRange%26page%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn84031311/1899-11-09/ed-1/seq-8/">"Historical cottage – House in which John Brown was born at West Torrington, Conn., still in existence"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Massena_Observer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Massena Observer (page does not exist)">Massena Observer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Massena,_New_York" title="Massena, New York">Massena, New York</a>. November 9, 1899. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216012432/https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn84031311/1899-11-09/ed-1/seq-8/">Archived</a> from the original on February 16, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2022 – via NYS Historic Newspapers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Massena+Observer&rft.atitle=Historical+cottage+%E2%80%93+House+in+which+John+Brown+was+born+at+West+Torrington%2C+Conn.%2C+still+in+existence&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1899-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyshistoricnewspapers.org%2Flccn%2Fsn84031311%2F1899-11-09%2Fed-1%2Fseq-8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83045592/1900-08-26/ed-1/seq-5/">"John Brown's birthplace to be preserved – 'His soul goes marching on'"</a>. The Argus. <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany, New York</a>. August 26, 1900. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216020243/https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83045592/1900-08-26/ed-1/seq-5/">Archived</a> from the original on February 16, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2022 – via NYS Historic Newspapers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Argus&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+birthplace+to+be+preserved+%E2%80%93+%27His+soul+goes+marching+on%27&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1900-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyshistoricnewspapers.org%2Flccn%2Fsn83045592%2F1900-08-26%2Fed-1%2Fseq-5%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorrington_Historical_Society2017" class="citation web cs1">Torrington Historical Society (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torringtonhistoricalsociety.org/the-site.html">"John Brown Birthplace Site"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181121203857/http://www.torringtonhistoricalsociety.org/the-site.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 21, 2018. Retrieved November 15, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Birthplace+Site&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Torrington+Historical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torringtonhistoricalsociety.org%2Fthe-site.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1999" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Phil (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pp-A-K2Wru0C&pg=PT91">Longstreet Highroad Guide to the New York Adirondacks</a>. Taylor Trade Publishing. p. PT91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-6198-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-6198-6"><bdi>978-1-4616-6198-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220406100902/https://books.google.com/books?id=pp-A-K2Wru0C&pg=PT91">Archived</a> from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longstreet+Highroad+Guide+to+the+New+York+Adirondacks&rft.pages=PT91&rft.pub=Taylor+Trade+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-4616-6198-6&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpp-A-K2Wru0C%26pg%3DPT91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorn2009" class="citation book cs1">Horn, Geoffrey M. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uF2rcLkUVFQC&pg=PA17">John Brown: Putting Actions Above Words</a>. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7787-4823-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7787-4823-6"><bdi>978-0-7787-4823-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220406100307/https://books.google.com/books?id=uF2rcLkUVFQC&pg=PA17">Archived</a> from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%3A+Putting+Actions+Above+Words&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Crabtree+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7787-4823-6&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuF2rcLkUVFQC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18787_23-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanbornBrown1878">Sanborn & Brown 1878</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-Early-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Early_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Early_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Early_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Early_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Early_24-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/66143121/john-browns-ancestry/">"John Brown's early history – Almost A D. D. [sic]"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a>. Boston, Massachusetts. November 25, 1859. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121829/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/66143121/john-browns-ancestry/">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved December 27, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Liberator&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+early+history+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BAlmost+A+D.+D.%26%2332%3B%26%2391%3Bsic%26%2393%3B&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1859-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F66143121%2Fjohn-browns-ancestry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18785-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18785_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanbornBrown1878">Sanborn & Brown 1878</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grant_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grant_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Park_Service2020" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/ulysses-s-grant-s-connection-to-john-brown.htm">"Ulysses S. Grant's Connection to John Brown"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210513142207/https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/ulysses-s-grant-s-connection-to-john-brown.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ulysses+S.+Grant%27s+Connection+to+John+Brown&rft.date=2020&rft.au=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farticles%2F000%2Fulysses-s-grant-s-connection-to-john-brown.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown187817-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown187817_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanbornBrown1878">Sanborn & Brown 1878</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorrington_Town_Clerk1859" class="citation news cs1">Torrington Town Clerk (November 3, 1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020071/1859-11-03/ed-1/seq-2/">"Letter to the editor"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Litchfield_Enquirer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Litchfield Enquirer (page does not exist)">Litchfield Enquirer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Litchfield,_Connecticut" title="Litchfield, Connecticut">Litchfield, Connecticut</a>. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220225161439/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020071/1859-11-03/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2022. Retrieved February 25, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Chronicling_America" title="Chronicling America">Chronicling America</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Litchfield+Enquirer&rft.atitle=Letter+to+the+editor&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-11-03&rft.au=Torrington+Town+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn84020071%2F1859-11-03%2Fed-1%2Fseq-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SDU18761014.2.56&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN-%22Salmon+brown%22-------1">"A reminiscence of John Brown's boyhood"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sacramento_Daily_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacramento Daily Union">Sacramento Daily Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sacramento,_California" title="Sacramento, California">Sacramento, California</a>. October 14, 1876. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220221140451/https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SDU18761014.2.56&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN-%22Salmon+brown%22-------1">Archived</a> from the original on February 21, 2022. Retrieved February 21, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/California_Digital_Newspaper_Collection" title="California Digital Newspaper Collection">California Digital Newspaper Collection</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sacramento+Daily+Union&rft.atitle=A+reminiscence+of+John+Brown%27s+boyhood&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1876-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdnc.ucr.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcdnc%3Fa%3Dd%26d%3DSDU18761014.2.56%26e%3D-------en--20--1--txt-txIN-%2522Salmon%2Bbrown%2522-------1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191014-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191014_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191014_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191014_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191014_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191014_31-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/95912238/john-brown-jr-son-frederick-brown/">"John Brown Jr"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Cleveland_Leader" title="The Cleveland Leader">Cleveland Daily Leader</a> (Cleveland, Ohio). November 26, 1859. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220221130833/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/95912238/john-brown-jr-son-frederick-brown/">Archived</a> from the original on February 21, 2022. Retrieved February 21, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Daily+Leader+%28Cleveland%2C+Ohio%29&rft.atitle=John+Brown+Jr.&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-11-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F95912238%2Fjohn-brown-jr-son-frederick-brown%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turzillo-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Turzillo_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurzillo2002" class="citation book cs1">Turzillo, Jane Ann (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HK2MpGWi-mUC&pg=PA43">Hudson, Ohio</a>. Arcadia Publishing. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-2004-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-2004-9"><bdi>978-0-7385-2004-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hudson%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7385-2004-9&rft.aulast=Turzillo&rft.aufirst=Jane+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHK2MpGWi-mUC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18785,_7-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18785,_7_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanbornBrown1878">Sanborn & Brown 1878</a>, pp. 5, 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199519-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199519_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFinkelman1995">Finkelman 1995</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a12-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a12_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/64e714ce42e24d7083ce6eeee14a65c6">"The Hudson Underground Railroad"</a>. ArcGIS StoryMaps. December 20, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220207173103/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/64e714ce42e24d7083ce6eeee14a65c6">Archived</a> from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved February 7, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ArcGIS+StoryMaps&rft.atitle=The+Hudson+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=2021-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstorymaps.arcgis.com%2Fstories%2F64e714ce42e24d7083ce6eeee14a65c6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191015-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191015_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191015_38-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiller1849" class="citation journal cs1">Filler, Louis (April 1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hebronhistoricalsociety.org/images/griffing/interview_with_charles_griffing_on_john_brown.pdf">"John Brown in Ohio. An Interview with Charles S. S. Griffing"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Archaeological_and_Historical_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly">Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly</a>. 58 (2): 213–218. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210928123625/https://hebronhistoricalsociety.org/images/griffing/interview_with_charles_griffing_on_john_brown.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ohio+Archaeological+and+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=John+Brown+in+Ohio.+An+Interview+with+Charles+S.+S.+Griffing&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=213-218&rft.date=1849-04&rft.aulast=Filler&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhebronhistoricalsociety.org%2Fimages%2Fgriffing%2Finterview_with_charles_griffing_on_john_brown.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191013–14-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191013–14_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, p. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanbornBrown18788_41-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanbornBrown1878">Sanborn & Brown 1878</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyatt-Brown1975427_42-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWyatt-Brown1975">Wyatt-Brown 1975</a>, p. 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191017-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191017_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191017_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191017_43-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191017_43-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191017_43-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nixson-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nixson_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nixson_44-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNixson1893" class="citation news cs1">Nixson, Una B. (July 23, 1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/76818707/the-brown-family-in-pasadena/">"John Brown's Family"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Inter_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="The Inter Ocean">The Inter Ocean</a>. Chicago, Illinois. p. 13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525051006/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/76818707/the-brown-family-in-pasadena/">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved May 3, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Inter+Ocean&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Family&rft.pages=13&rft.date=1893-07-23&rft.aulast=Nixson&rft.aufirst=Una+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F76818707%2Fthe-brown-family-in-pasadena%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS_timeline-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_timeline_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_timeline_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline-john-browns-life/">"American Experience: Timeline of John Brown's Life"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220406230039/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline-john-browns-life/">Archived</a> from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=American+Experience%3A+Timeline+of+John+Brown%27s+Life&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Ftimeline-john-browns-life%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGopnick2005" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Gopnik" title="Adam Gopnik">Gopnick, Adam</a> (April 2, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/john-browns-body">"John Brown's Body. (Review of John Brown, Abolitionist, by David S. Reynolds.)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020041821/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/john-browns-body">Archived</a> from the original on October 20, 2017. Retrieved April 2, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Body.+%28Review+of+John+Brown%2C+Abolitionist%2C+by+David+S.+Reynolds.%29&rft.date=2005-04-02&rft.aulast=Gopnick&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2005%2F04%2F25%2Fjohn-browns-body&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1859" class="citation news cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown, John</a> (December 31, 1859) [November 23, 1859]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/78792974/letter-from-john-brown/">"Letter from John Brown [to J. W. McFarland]"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Bugle" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Slavery Bugle">Anti-Slavery Bugle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lisbon,_Ohio" title="Lisbon, Ohio">Lisbon, Ohio</a>). p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215603/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/78792974/letter-from-john-brown/">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 2, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anti-Slavery+Bugle+%28Lisbon%2C+Ohio%29&rft.atitle=Letter+from+John+Brown+%5Bto+J.+W.+McFarland%5D&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-12-31&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F78792974%2Fletter-from-john-brown%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton201113-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinton201113_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinton2011">Hinton 2011</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201522-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201522_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDu_Bois2015">Du Bois 2015</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191018-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191018_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn86033359/1938-02-11/ed-1/seq-9/">"Granddaughter of John Brown compiles album"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lake_Placid_News" title="Lake Placid News">Lake Placid News</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lake_Placid,_New_York" title="Lake Placid, New York">Lake Placid, New York</a>). February 11, 1938. p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216010245/https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn86033359/1938-02-11/ed-1/seq-9/">Archived</a> from the original on February 16, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2022 – via NYS Historic Newspapers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lake+Placid+News+%28Lake+Placid%2C+New+York%29&rft.atitle=Granddaughter+of+John+Brown+compiles+album&rft.pages=9&rft.date=1938-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyshistoricnewspapers.org%2Flccn%2Fsn86033359%2F1938-02-11%2Fed-1%2Fseq-9%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201510-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201510_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDu_Bois2015">Du Bois 2015</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191018–19-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191018–19_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, pp. 18–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Jones_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1900" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Kenyon_Jones" title="Lloyd Kenyon Jones">Jones, Lloyd</a> (July 6, 1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96624300/sermon-on-john-brown/">"John Brown His Text"</a>. Kansas Agitator (<a href="/wiki/Garnett,_Kansas" title="Garnett, Kansas">Garnett, Kansas</a>). p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220228132848/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96624300/sermon-on-john-brown/">Archived</a> from the original on February 28, 2022. Retrieved February 28, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kansas+Agitator+%28Garnett%2C+Kansas%29&rft.atitle=John+Brown+His+Text&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1900-07-06&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F96624300%2Fsermon-on-john-brown%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> Also at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspaperarchive.com/tags/?pc=10825&psi=41&pci=7&pt=32233&pf=john&pl=brown&ob=1/">Newspaperarchive.com</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a86-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a86_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1952-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1952_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1952_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1952_58-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1952">Miller 1952</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nps-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nps_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nps_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nps_59-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Park_Service2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/people/john-brown.htm">"John Brown"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181219182608/https://www.nps.gov/people/john-brown.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 19, 2018. Retrieved December 19, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown&rft.date=2018&rft.au=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fpeople%2Fjohn-brown.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnodgrass200879_60-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFSnodgrass2008">Snodgrass 2008</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDaniel2011" class="citation journal cs1">McDaniel, W. Caleb (2011). "His Brothers' Keeper: John Brown, Moral Stewardship and Interracial Abolitionism". Slavery & Abolition. A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies. 32 (1): 38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039X.2011.538197">10.1080/0144039X.2011.538197</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1911%2F64545">1911/64545</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144604307">144604307</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Taylor_and_Francis" class="mw-redirect" title="Taylor and Francis">Taylor and Francis</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition.+A+Journal+of+Slave+and+Post-Slave+Studies&rft.atitle=His+Brothers%27+Keeper%3A+John+Brown%2C+Moral+Stewardship+and+Interracial+Abolitionism&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1911%2F64545&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144604307%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039X.2011.538197&rft.aulast=McDaniel&rft.aufirst=W.+Caleb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> From <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebsco.com/products/research-databases/academic-search-complete">Academic Research Database</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/maps/dir/41.750278,-80.016389/Jamestown,+New+York+14701/@41.9148738,-79.7157761,11z/data=!4m9!4m8!1m0!1m5!1m1!1s0x89d2a8e4143e8a2b:0x650f6a65c85e2b7b!2m2!1d-79.2353259!2d42.0970023!3e2?hl=en&entry=ttu">"New Richmond Township, Pennsylvania to Jamestown, New York"</a>. maps.google.com. Retrieved October 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=maps.google.com&rft.atitle=New+Richmond+Township%2C+Pennsylvania+to+Jamestown%2C+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fmaps%2Fdir%2F41.750278%2C-80.016389%2FJamestown%2C%2BNew%2BYork%2B14701%2F%4041.9148738%2C-79.7157761%2C11z%2Fdata%3D%214m9%214m8%211m0%211m5%211m1%211s0x89d2a8e4143e8a2b%3A0x650f6a65c85e2b7b%212m2%211d-79.2353259%212d42.0970023%213e2%3Fhl%3Den%26entry%3Dttu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tannery-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tannery_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tannery_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://visitpa.com/pa-museums/john-brown-farm-tannery-museum">"John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum"</a>. visitPA.com (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181219182403/https://visitpa.com/pa-museums/john-brown-farm-tannery-museum">Archived</a> from the original on December 19, 2018. Retrieved December 18, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Farm%2C+Tannery+%26+Museum&rft.pub=visitPA.com+%28Commonwealth+of+Pennsylvania+Department+of+Community+and+Economic+Development%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvisitpa.com%2Fpa-museums%2Fjohn-brown-farm-tannery-museum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a85-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a85_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard191023-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191023_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard191023_66-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, Anne W. (Fall 2002). "John Brown: From the Record. The Crawford County Years:1827–1835. The Young Family Man". Journal of Erie Studies. 31 (2): 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Erie+Studies&rft.atitle=John+Brown%3A+From+the+Record.+The+Crawford+County+Years%3A1827%E2%80%931835.+The+Young+Family+Man&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=52&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Anne+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19526-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller19526_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1952">Miller 1952</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Overland-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Overland_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapin1899" class="citation journal cs1">Chapin, Lou V. (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wmE4AAAAIAAJ&q=Brown">"The Last Days of Old John Brown (second series)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Overland_Monthly" title="Overland Monthly">Overland Monthly</a>. 33: 325. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201209093232/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Overland_Monthly_and_Out_West_Magazine/wmE4AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Brown">Archived</a> from the original on December 9, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Overland+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Last+Days+of+Old+John+Brown+%28second+series%29&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=325&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Chapin&rft.aufirst=Lou+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwmE4AAAAIAAJ%26q%3DBrown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19527-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller19527_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller19527_70-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1952">Miller 1952</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005168–169-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005168–169_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, pp. 168–169. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?186892-1/john-brown-abolitionist">"[John Brown, Abolitionist]"</a>. www.c-span.org. Retrieved October 6, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.c-span.org&rft.atitle=%5BJohn+Brown%2C+Abolitionist%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fvideo%2F%3F186892-1%2Fjohn-brown-abolitionist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath186035-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedpath186035_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRedpath1860">Redpath 1860</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-NPS_Wives_and_children-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPS_Wives_and_children_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPS_Wives_and_children_74-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/wives-and-children-of-john-brown.htm">"The Wives and Children of John Brown"</a>. U.S. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210213074915/https://www.nps.gov/articles/wives-and-children-of-john-brown.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2021. Retrieved April 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=The+Wives+and+Children+of+John+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farticles%2Fwives-and-children-of-john-brown.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lowry-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lowry_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lowry_75-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry1859" class="citation news cs1">Lowry, M. B. 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Prentice-Hall. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-510164-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-510164-3"><bdi>978-0-13-510164-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-13-510164-3&rft.aulast=Warch&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Fanton%2C+Jonathan+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCp12AAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter_Jackson2019" class="citation book cs1">Carter Jackson, Kellie (2019). Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 113.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Force+and+Freedom%3A+Black+Abolitionists+and+the+Politics+of+Violence.&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Carter+Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kellie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1895231–232-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1895231–232_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1895">Smith 1895</a>, pp. 231–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehistorylist.com/sites/hitchcock-house-lewis-iowa/the-underground-railroad-a-historic-america-road-trip">"Hitchcock House"</a>, www.thehistorylist.com, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125162210/https://www.thehistorylist.com/sites/hitchcock-house-lewis-iowa/the-underground-railroad-a-historic-america-road-trip">archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2021, retrieved May 25, 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.thehistorylist.com&rft.atitle=Hitchcock+House&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehistorylist.com%2Fsites%2Fhitchcock-house-lewis-iowa%2Fthe-underground-railroad-a-historic-america-road-trip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Jones, Louis Thomas (1914). The Quakers of Iowa. Iowa City: The State Historical Society of Iowa. p. 193: "A little over a year after his first visit to the Springdale neighborhood, Brown reappeared late in December, 1857 – this time with some ten companions and for purposes which he seemed not anxious to have known. The men were lodged with a Quaker, William Maxon, about three miles northeast of the village of Springdale, Brown agreeing to give in exchange for their keep such of his teams or wagons as might seem just and fair. Brown was taken into the home of John H. Painter, about a half-mile away; and all were welcomed with that unfeigned hospitality for which the Friends have always been known." </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Morel, Lucas E. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111007222911/http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/24657">"In Pursuit of Freedom"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/24657">the original</a> on October 7, 2011. 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Something about the Surviving Members of His Family"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Topeka_Daily_Capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Topeka Daily Capital">Topeka Daily Capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka, Kansas</a>). August 10, 1882. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417100827/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/69324628/topeka-daily-capital-10aug1882p2-jb/">Archived</a> from the original on April 17, 2021. Retrieved April 17, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Topeka+Daily+Capital+%28Topeka%2C+Kansas%29&rft.atitle=Old+John+Brown.+Something+about+the+Surviving+Members+of+His+Family&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1882-08-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F69324628%2Ftopeka-daily-capital-10aug1882p2-jb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/78449953/the-browns-honored-in-parade-of-grand/">"Ossawatomie Brown's children"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a>. August 19, 1886. p. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121811/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/78449953/the-browns-honored-in-parade-of-grand/">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved May 28, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Ossawatomie+Brown%27s+children&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1886-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F78449953%2Fthe-browns-honored-in-parade-of-grand%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/image/339104218/">"The National Era"</a>. December 22, 1859. p. 3. Retrieved October 2, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+National+Era&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1859-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fimage%2F339104218%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Senate_select-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Senate_select_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Senate_select_235-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/masonreport.html">"Senate Select Committee Report on the Harper's Ferry Invasion"</a>. West Virginia Division of Culture and History. June 15, 1860. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160710135118/http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/masonreport.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 10, 2016. Retrieved July 25, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=West+Virginia+Division+of+Culture+and+History&rft.atitle=Senate+Select+Committee+Report+on+the+Harper%27s+Ferry+Invasion&rft.date=1860-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wvculture.org%2Fhistory%2Fjbexhibit%2Fmasonreport.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald1995" class="citation book cs1">Donald, David Herbert (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fuTY3mxs9awC&q=239">Lincoln</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82535-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82535-9"><bdi>978-0-684-82535-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82535-9&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=David+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfuTY3mxs9awC%26q%3D239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oates-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oates_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oates_237-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOates1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Oates, Stephen B.</a> (1984). To Purge This Land with Blood: A Biography of John Brown. University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 359–360. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87023-458-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87023-458-7"><bdi>0-87023-458-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Purge+This+Land+with+Blood%3A+A+Biography+of+John+Brown&rft.pages=359-360&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-87023-458-7&rft.aulast=Oates&rft.aufirst=Stephen+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Battle_Cry_of_Freedom_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle Cry of Freedom (book)">Battle Cry of Freedom</a>. New York: Oxford University Press (1988), p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_M._Potter" title="David M. Potter">Potter, David M.</a> (1976). Fehrenbacher, Don Edward (ed.). The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861. Harper & Row. pp. 356–384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-131929-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-131929-5"><bdi>0-06-131929-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impending+Crisis%2C+1848%E2%80%931861&rft.pages=356-384&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-06-131929-5&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds20056-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds20056_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Horwitz-241"><a href="#cite_ref-Horwitz_241-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorwitz2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tony_Horwitz" title="Tony Horwitz">Horwitz, Tony</a> (December 2011). "Why John Brown still scares us: 150 years after the start of the Civil War, we wonder if he may have been right". <a href="/wiki/American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="American History">American History</a>. 46 (5): 38 – via <a href="/wiki/Gale_Academic_OneFile" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Academic OneFile">Gale Academic OneFile</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+History&rft.atitle=Why+John+Brown+still+scares+us%3A+150+years+after+the+start+of+the+Civil+War%2C+we+wonder+if+he+may+have+been+right&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2011-12&rft.aulast=Horwitz&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crofts-242">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crofts_242-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crofts_242-1">b</a> Daniel W. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (1989), pp. 70 ff </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison1859" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">Garrison, William Lloyd</a> (October 28, 1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/the-liberator/1859/10/28/the-tragedy-at-harpers-ferry">"The Tragedy at Harper's Ferry"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a>. Boston, Massachusetts. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060218064443/http://fair-use.org/the-liberator/1859/10/28/the-tragedy-at-harpers-ferry">Archived</a> from the original on February 18, 2006. Retrieved March 9, 2022 – via Fair-use.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Liberator&rft.atitle=The+Tragedy+at+Harper%27s+Ferry&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-10-28&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=William+Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffair-use.org%2Fthe-liberator%2F1859%2F10%2F28%2Fthe-tragedy-at-harpers-ferry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison1859" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">Garrison, Wm. Lloyd</a> (December 16, 1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/62929987/william-lloyd-garrison-on-john-browns/">"Speech of Wm. Lloyd Garrison, At the Meeting in Tremont Temple"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a>. Boston, Massachusetts. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201110122119/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/62929987/william-lloyd-garrison-on-john-browns/">Archived</a> from the original on November 10, 2020. Retrieved November 10, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Liberator&rft.atitle=Speech+of+Wm.+Lloyd+Garrison%2C+At+the+Meeting+in+Tremont+Temple&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-12-16&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Wm.+Lloyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F62929987%2Fwilliam-lloyd-garrison-on-john-browns%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Storer-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Storer_245-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglass1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Douglass, Frederick</a> (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnbrownaddress00doug/page/8/mode/2up">John Brown. An Address at the Fourteenth Anniversary of Storer College, May 30, 1881</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dover,_New_Hampshire" title="Dover, New Hampshire">Dover, New Hampshire</a>: Dover, N. H., Morning Star job printing house. p. 9. Retrieved March 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown.+An+Address+at+the+Fourteenth+Anniversary+of+Storer+College%2C+May+30%2C+1881&rft.place=Dover%2C+New+Hampshire&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Dover%2C+N.+H.%2C+Morning+Star+job+printing+house&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Douglass&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnbrownaddress00doug%2Fpage%2F8%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> Or: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnbrownaddress00doug/page/8/mode/2up">"John Brown. An address by Frederick Douglass..."</a> Project Gutenberg. 1881. p. 9. Retrieved March 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Project+Gutenberg&rft.atitle=John+Brown.+An+address+by+Frederick+Douglass....&rft.pages=9&rft.date=1881&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnbrownaddress00doug%2Fpage%2F8%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1863" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Phillips, Wendell</a> (1863). "Burial of John Brown". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XUUIAAAAQAAJ">Speeches, lectures, and letters</a>. Lee and Shepard. p. 292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0608406626" title="Special:BookSources/978-0608406626"><bdi>978-0608406626</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827091233/https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/XUUIAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on August 27, 2021. Retrieved August 22, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Burial+of+John+Brown&rft.btitle=Speeches%2C+lectures%2C+and+letters&rft.pages=292&rft.pub=Lee+and+Shepard&rft.date=1863&rft.isbn=978-0608406626&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Wendell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXUUIAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/22594248/democrat/">"John Brown"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Democrat_and_Chronicle" title="Democrat and Chronicle">Democrat and Chronicle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a>). January 27, 1874. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129152433/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/22594248/democrat/">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2021. Retrieved January 21, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Democrat+and+Chronicle+%28Rochester%2C+New+York%29&rft.atitle=John+Brown&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1874-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F22594248%2Fdemocrat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005254-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005254_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, p. 254. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordewich2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bordewich, Fergus M. (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/john-browns-day-of-reckoning-139165084/">"John Brown's Day of Reckoning"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian Magazine">Smithsonian Magazine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180428093448/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/john-browns-day-of-reckoning-139165084/">Archived</a> from the original on April 28, 2018. Retrieved August 16, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Day+of+Reckoning&rft.date=2009-10&rft.aulast=Bordewich&rft.aufirst=Fergus+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fjohn-browns-day-of-reckoning-139165084%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199598-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkelman199598_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFinkelman1995">Finkelman 1995</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008180-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008180_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewen2008">Loewen 2008</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlight" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">Blight, David W.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/120730">""He Knew How to Die": John Brown on the Gallows, December 2, 1859"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_News_Network" title="History News Network">History News Network</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210603010320/https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/120730">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved June 2, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%22He+Knew+How+to+Die%22%3A+John+Brown+on+the+Gallows%2C+December+2%2C+1859&rft.aulast=Blight&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorynewsnetwork.org%2Farticle%2F120730&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrothers2011" class="citation journal cs1">Crothers, A. Glenn (Fall 2011). "'To Bear our Righteous Testimonies against All Evil': Virginia Quakers' Response to John Brown". Quaker History. 100 (2): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fqkh.2011.0011">10.1353/qkh.2011.0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41947713">41947713</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161273093">161273093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaker+History&rft.atitle=%27To+Bear+our+Righteous+Testimonies+against+All+Evil%27%3A+Virginia+Quakers%27+Response+to+John+Brown&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161273093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41947713%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fqkh.2011.0011&rft.aulast=Crothers&rft.aufirst=A.+Glenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn1891467-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn1891467_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanborn1891">Sanborn 1891</a>, p. 467. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlow1932" class="citation journal cs1">Harlow, Ralph Volney (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1838063">"Gerrit Smith and the John Brown Raid"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 38 (1): 32–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1838063">10.2307/1838063</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1388063">1388063</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211230034914/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1838063">Archived</a> from the original on December 30, 2021. Retrieved April 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Gerrit+Smith+and+the+John+Brown+Raid&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-60&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1838063&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1388063%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harlow&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Volney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1838063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008173–203-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008173–203_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewen2008">Loewen 2008</a>, p. 173–203. </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlue2006" class="citation journal cs1">Blue, Frederick J. (April 2006). "No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics". The American Historical Review. 111 (2). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press: 482–483. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.111.2.482">10.1086/ahr.111.2.482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=No+Taint+of+Compromise%3A+Crusaders+in+Antislavery+Politics&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=482-483&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr.111.2.482&rft.aulast=Blue&rft.aufirst=Frederick+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassett1923" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Spencer_Bassett" title="John Spencer Bassett">Bassett, John Spencer</a> (1923). A Short History of the United States. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>. p. 502.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=502&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Bassett&rft.aufirst=John+Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFried1978" class="citation book cs1">Fried, Albert (1978). John Brown's Journey: Notes & Reflections on His America & Mine. Garden City, New York: Anchor/Doubleday. p. 272.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+Journey%3A+Notes+%26+Reflections+on+His+America+%26+Mine&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+New+York&rft.pages=272&rft.pub=Anchor%2FDoubleday&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Louis A. DeCaro Jr., John Brown – The Cost of Freedom: Selections from His Life & Letters (New York: International Publishers, 2007), pp. 16–17, </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070426012632/http://www.nps.gov/archive/hafe/jbrown/oates-text.htm">"Dr. Stephen B. Oates on John Brown (transcript)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. June 2, 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/archive/hafe/jbrown/oates-text.htm">the original</a> on April 26, 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+Stephen+B.+Oates+on+John+Brown+%28transcript%29&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=2005-06-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farchive%2Fhafe%2Fjbrown%2Foates-text.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/history/journal_wvh/wvh56-1.html">"An "Ever Present Bone of Contention": The Heyward Shepherd Memorial"</a>. www.wvculture.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080526082653/http://www.wvculture.org/HiStory/journal_wvh/wvh56-1.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 26, 2008. Retrieved January 9, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wvculture.org&rft.atitle=An+%22Ever+Present+Bone+of+Contention%22%3A+The+Heyward+Shepherd+Memorial&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wvculture.org%2Fhistory%2Fjournal_wvh%2Fwvh56-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeCaro2005b" class="citation book cs1">DeCaro, Louis A. Jr. (2005b). "Black People's Ally, White People's Bogeyman: A John Brown Story". In Taylor, Andrew; Herrington, Eldrid (eds.). The Afterlife of John Brown. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 11–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4039-7846-2_2">10.1007/978-1-4039-7846-2_2</a> (inactive November 1, 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+People%27s+Ally%2C+White+People%27s+Bogeyman%3A+A+John+Brown+Story&rft.btitle=The+Afterlife+of+John+Brown&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=11-26&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4039-7846-2_2&rft.aulast=DeCaro&rft.aufirst=Louis+A.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOates" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Oates, Stephen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090510102805/http://www.nps.gov/archive/hafe/jbrown/oates-text.htm">Dr. Stephen B. Oates on John Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_National_Historical_Park" title="Harpers Ferry National Historical Park">Harpers Ferry National Historical Park</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/archive/hafe/jbrown/oates-text.htm">the original</a> on May 10, 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dr.+Stephen+B.+Oates+on+John+Brown&rft.pub=National+Park+Service%2C+Harpers+Ferry+National+Historical+Park&rft.aulast=Oates&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farchive%2Fhafe%2Fjbrown%2Foates-text.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake2006" class="citation journal cs1">Blake, Russell (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170113092412/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=12597">"Review of Peterson, Merrill D., John Brown: The Legend Revisite"</a>. H-CivWar. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=12597">the original</a> on January 13, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=H-CivWar&rft.atitle=Review+of+Peterson%2C+Merrill+D.%2C+John+Brown%3A+The+Legend+Revisite&rft.date=2006-12&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowrev.php%3Fid%3D12597&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_Patrick_McCarthyJohn_Stauffer2012" class="citation book cs1">Timothy Patrick McCarthy; John Stauffer (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6UM4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PR29">Prophets Of Protest: Reconsidering The History Of American Abolitionism</a>. New Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1595588548" title="Special:BookSources/978-1595588548"><bdi>978-1595588548</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prophets+Of+Protest%3A+Reconsidering+The+History+Of+American+Abolitionism&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1595588548&rft.au=Timothy+Patrick+McCarthy&rft.au=John+Stauffer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6UM4AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnie_A._Miller_Sr.2008" class="citation book cs1">Connie A. Miller Sr. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ykO8sKDE30C&pg=PA166">Frederick Douglass American Hero: and International Icon of The Nineteenth Century</a>. Xlibris. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1441576491" title="Special:BookSources/978-1441576491"><bdi>978-1441576491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frederick+Douglass+American+Hero%3A+and+International+Icon+of+The+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Xlibris&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1441576491&rft.au=Connie+A.+Miller+Sr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9ykO8sKDE30C%26pg%3DPA166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLori_McManus2011" class="citation book cs1">Lori McManus (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1V9pV_Ljg0C&pg=PA15">Key People of the Civil War</a>. Capstone PressInc. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1432939199" title="Special:BookSources/978-1432939199"><bdi>978-1432939199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+People+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Capstone+PressInc&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1432939199&rft.au=Lori+McManus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY1V9pV_Ljg0C%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Finkelman, Paul (Spring 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2011/spring/brown.html">"John Brown: America's First Terrorist?"</a>. Prologue Magazine. 43 (1): 16–27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160623023130/http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2011/spring/brown.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 23, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2016. <q>says "no"</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prologue+Magazine&rft.atitle=John+Brown%3A+America%27s+First+Terrorist%3F&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=16-27&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fpublications%2Fprologue%2F2011%2Fspring%2Fbrown.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilpin2011-269"><a href="#cite_ref-Gilpin2011_269-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Blakeslee_Gilpin2011" class="citation book cs1">R. Blakeslee Gilpin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpVoPV6cAuoC&pg=PA198">John Brown Still Lives!: America's Long Reckoning With Violence, Equality, & Change</a>. U. of North Carolina Press. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807869277" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807869277"><bdi>978-0807869277</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160609194220/https://books.google.com/books?id=qpVoPV6cAuoC&pg=PA198">Archived</a> from the original on June 9, 2016. Retrieved November 22, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Still+Lives%21%3A+America%27s+Long+Reckoning+With+Violence%2C+Equality%2C+%26+Change&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=U.+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0807869277&rft.au=R.+Blakeslee+Gilpin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqpVoPV6cAuoC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoyerShackel2008" class="citation book cs1">Moyer, Teresa S.; <a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Shackel" title="Paul A. Shackel">Shackel, Paul A.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j4kkQAA0jqMC&pg=PA101">The Making of Harpers Ferry National Historical Park: A Devil, Two Rivers, and a Dream</a>. <a href="/wiki/AltaMira_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="AltaMira Press">AltaMira Press</a>. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0759110663" title="Special:BookSources/978-0759110663"><bdi>978-0759110663</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160503154049/https://books.google.com/books?id=j4kkQAA0jqMC&pg=PA101">Archived</a> from the original on May 3, 2016. Retrieved November 22, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Harpers+Ferry+National+Historical+Park%3A+A+Devil%2C+Two+Rivers%2C+and+a+Dream&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0759110663&rft.aulast=Moyer&rft.aufirst=Teresa+S.&rft.au=Shackel%2C+Paul+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj4kkQAA0jqMC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2005" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, James N. (2005). "A Behavioral Analysis of John Brown: Martyr or Terrorist?". In Russo, Peggy A.; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (eds.). Terrible Swift Sword. The Legacy of John Brown. <a href="/wiki/Athens,_Ohio" title="Athens, Ohio">Athens, Ohio</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ohio_University_Press" title="Ohio University Press">Ohio University Press</a>. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0821416308" title="Special:BookSources/0821416308"><bdi>0821416308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Behavioral+Analysis+of+John+Brown%3A+Martyr+or+Terrorist%3F&rft.btitle=Terrible+Swift+Sword.+The+Legacy+of+John+Brown&rft.place=Athens%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0821416308&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=James+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005_272-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> For historiography see Merrill D. Peterson, John Brown: The Legend Revisited (2002) and review by Aimee Lee Cheek, Journal of Southern History 70:2 (2004) pp. 435–436. </li> <li id="cite_note-Massaquoi-274">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Massaquoi_274-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Massaquoi_274-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassaquoi1964" class="citation magazine cs1">Massaquoi, Hans J. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JaT6tBKGK3sC&pg=PA40">"Mystery of Malcolm X"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ebony_(magazine)" title="Ebony (magazine)">Ebony</a>. p. 40. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140707074911/http://books.google.com/books?id=JaT6tBKGK3sC&pg=PA40">Archived</a> from the original on July 7, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ebony&rft.atitle=Mystery+of+Malcolm+X&rft.pages=40&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Massaquoi&rft.aufirst=Hans+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJaT6tBKGK3sC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a6-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeCaro2005a6_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCaro2005a">DeCaro 2005a</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Louis Ruchames, A John Brown Reader (New York: Abelard & Schuman, 1959), p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewen2008181–89-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewen2008181–89_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewen2008">Loewen 2008</a>, pp. 181–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuarles1972" class="citation book cs1">Quarles, Benjamin, ed. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blacksonjohnbrow00quar">Blacks on John Brown</a>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0252002458" title="Special:BookSources/978-0252002458"><bdi>978-0252002458</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blacks+on+John+Brown&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0252002458&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblacksonjohnbrow00quar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201536-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois201536_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDu_Bois2015">Du Bois 2015</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds200554-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds200554_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERedpath186046-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedpath186046_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRedpath1860">Redpath 1860</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds200554–55-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds200554–55_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClavin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Clavin, Matthew (June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A180861432/AONE?u=wikipedia&sid=AONE&xid=e4ef98b1">"A second Haitian revolution: John Brown, Toussaint Louverture, and the making of the American Civil War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Civil_War_History" title="Civil War History">Civil War History</a>. 54 (2): 117–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.0.0001">10.1353/cwh.0.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144628697">144628697</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121813/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=wikipedia&id=GALE%7CA180861432&v=2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=e4ef98b1">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved December 11, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Gale_Academic_Onefile" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Academic Onefile">Gale Academic Onefile</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=A+second+Haitian+revolution%3A+John+Brown%2C+Toussaint+Louverture%2C+and+the+making+of+the+American+Civil+War&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-145&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.0.0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144628697%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Clavin&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.gale.com%2Fapps%2Fdoc%2FA180861432%2FAONE%3Fu%3Dwikipedia%26sid%3DAONE%26xid%3De4ef98b1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois2015107-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois2015107_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDu_Bois2015">Du Bois 2015</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005106-285">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005106_285-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005106_285-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRealf1860" class="citation book cs1">Realf, Richard (1860). Report of the Select Committee of the Senate Appointed to Inquire in the Late Invasion and Seizure of the Public Property at Harper's Ferry. Washington D.C.: Select Committee of the Senate. p. 96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Select+Committee+of+the+Senate+Appointed+to+Inquire+in+the+Late+Invasion+and+Seizure+of+the+Public+Property+at+Harper%27s+Ferry&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Select+Committee+of+the+Senate&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Realf&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005107-287"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynolds2005107_287-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynolds2005">Reynolds 2005</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Howard N. (2000). The Magnificent Activist: The Writings of Thomas Wentworth Higginson (1823–1911). New York: Da Capo Press. p. 119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Magnificent+Activist%3A+The+Writings+of+Thomas+Wentworth+Higginson+%281823%E2%80%931911%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Howard+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeatherstonhaugh1897" class="citation journal cs1">Featherstonhaugh, Thomas (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nc01.ark:/13960/t50g5xn6g&view=1up&seq=206">"A Bibliography of John Brown"</a>. Publications of the Southern History Association. 1: 196–202. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121813/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nc01.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft50g5xn6g&view=1up&seq=206">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved July 21, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Southern+History+Association&rft.atitle=A+Bibliography+of+John+Brown&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=196-202&rft.date=1897&rft.aulast=Featherstonhaugh&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnc01.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft50g5xn6g%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeatherstonhaugh1899" class="citation journal cs1">Featherstonhaugh, Thomas (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001175616&view=1up&seq=310&q1=Winchester">"Bibliography of John Brown Part II"</a>. Publications of the Southern History Association. 3: 302–306. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121815/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001175616&view=1up&seq=310&q1=Winchester">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved October 2, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Southern+History+Association&rft.atitle=Bibliography+of+John+Brown+Part+II&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=302-306&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Featherstonhaugh&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duva.x001175616%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D310%26q1%3DWinchester&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Faust-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Faust_291-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaust2023" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Drew_Gilpin_Faust" title="Drew Gilpin Faust">Faust, Drew Gilpin</a> (December 2023). "The Men Who Started the War". <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>: 82–89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Men+Who+Started+the+War&rft.pages=82-89&rft.date=2023-12&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Drew+Gilpin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFField1892" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kate_Field" title="Kate Field">Field, Kate</a> (January 13, 1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3PYVAAAAIAAJ">"John Brown's Grave and Farm"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kate_Field" title="Kate Field">Kate Field's Washington</a>. Vol. 5, no. 2. pp. 17–18. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121814/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Kate_Field_s_Washington/3PYVAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved May 16, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kate+Field%27s+Washington&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Grave+and+Farm&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=17-18&rft.date=1892-01-13&rft.aulast=Field&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3PYVAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2018" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Eugene L. (2018). Five for Freedom. The African American Soldiers in John Brown's Army. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books (<a href="/wiki/Chicago_Review_Press" title="Chicago Review Press">Chicago Review Press</a>). p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1613735725" title="Special:BookSources/978-1613735725"><bdi>978-1613735725</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Five+for+Freedom.+The+African+American+Soldiers+in+John+Brown%27s+Army&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Lawrence+Hill+Books+%28Chicago+Review+Press%29&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1613735725&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Eugene+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn86033360/1999-04-15/ed-1/seq-3/">"John Brown Day set for May 1"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adirondack_Daily_Enterprise" title="Adirondack Daily Enterprise">Adirondack Daily Enterprise</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saranac_Lake,_New_York" title="Saranac Lake, New York">Saranac Lake, New York</a>)=. April 15, 1999. p. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216021434/https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn86033360/1999-04-15/ed-1/seq-3/">Archived</a> from the original on February 16, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2022 – via NYS Historic Newspapers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adirondack+Daily+Enterprise+%28Saranac+Lake%2C+New+York%29%3D&rft.atitle=John+Brown+Day+set+for+May+1&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1999-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyshistoricnewspapers.org%2Flccn%2Fsn86033360%2F1999-04-15%2Fed-1%2Fseq-3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ptny.org/newsandmedia/e-news-1/2016/06/celebrating-juneteenth-and-history-timbuctoo">"Celebrating Juneteenth and Timbuctoo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parks_%26_Trails_New_York" title="Parks & Trails New York">Parks & Trails New York</a>. June 6, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201023195441/https://www.ptny.org/newsandmedia/e-news-1/2016/06/celebrating-juneteenth-and-history-timbuctoo">Archived</a> from the original on October 23, 2020. Retrieved December 3, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Celebrating+Juneteenth+and+Timbuctoo&rft.pub=Parks+%26+Trails+New+York&rft.date=2016-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ptny.org%2Fnewsandmedia%2Fe-news-1%2F2016%2F06%2Fcelebrating-juneteenth-and-history-timbuctoo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirtanen2018" class="citation journal cs1">Virtanen, Michael (April 30, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.adirondackexplorer.org/stories/john-brown-celebration-at-the-farmstead">"John Brown celebration at the farmstead"</a>. Adirondack Explorer: 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220413135952/https://www.adirondackexplorer.org/stories/john-brown-celebration-at-the-farmstead">Archived</a> from the original on April 13, 2022. Retrieved March 16, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adirondack+Explorer&rft.atitle=John+Brown+celebration+at+the+farmstead&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2018-04-30&rft.aulast=Virtanen&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.adirondackexplorer.org%2Fstories%2Fjohn-brown-celebration-at-the-farmstead&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Brown_Lives!" class="citation web cs1">John Brown Lives!. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://johnbrownlives.org/about-jbl-events/johnbrownday/">"John Brown Day 2022"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220304213131/https://johnbrownlives.org/about-jbl-events/johnbrownday/">Archived</a> from the original on March 4, 2022. Retrieved March 2, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Day+2022&rft.au=John+Brown+Lives%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjohnbrownlives.org%2Fabout-jbl-events%2Fjohnbrownday%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.visitpa.com/region/john-brown-farm-tannery-museum">"John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum"</a>. Visit Pennsylvania. 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210502092027/https://www.visitpa.com/region/john-brown-farm-tannery-museum">Archived</a> from the original on May 2, 2021. Retrieved April 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Farm%2C+Tannery+%26+Museum&rft.pub=Visit+Pennsylvania&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.visitpa.com%2Fregion%2Fjohn-brown-farm-tannery-museum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathke2017" class="citation news cs1">Rathke, Lisa (October 7, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64512897/john-brown-day-in-vermont/">"John Brown Day to honor violent abolitionists legacy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/LNP_(newspaper)" title="LNP (newspaper)">LNP Always Lancaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Pennsylvania" title="Lancaster, Pennsylvania">Lancaster, Pennsylvania</a>). p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121813/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64512897/john-brown-day-in-vermont/">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved December 3, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=LNP+Always+Lancaster+%28Lancaster%2C+Pennsylvania%29&rft.atitle=John+Brown+Day+to+honor+violent+abolitionists+legacy&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2017-10-07&rft.aulast=Rathke&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F64512897%2Fjohn-brown-day-in-vermont%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathke2017" class="citation news cs1">Rathke, Lisa (October 8, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64513319/john-brown-day-in-vermont/">"John Brown Day will honor controversial abolitionist in Vt"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pensacola_News_Journal" title="Pensacola News Journal">Pensacola News Journal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola, Florida</a>). p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121816/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64513319/john-brown-day-in-vermont/">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved December 3, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pensacola+News+Journal+%28Pensacola%2C+Florida%29&rft.atitle=John+Brown+Day+will+honor+controversial+abolitionist+in+Vt.&rft.pages=5&rft.date=2017-10-08&rft.aulast=Rathke&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F64513319%2Fjohn-brown-day-in-vermont%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspaperarchive.com/crime-clipping-may-07-1946-2297525/">"Pilgrimage will honor John Brown"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_Herald_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Syracuse Herald Journal">Syracuse Herald Journal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>). May 7, 1946. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412075545/https://newspaperarchive.com/crime-clipping-may-07-1946-2297525/">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2021. Retrieved April 12, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspaperarchive.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspaperarchive.com">newspaperarchive.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Syracuse+Herald+Journal+%28Syracuse%2C+New+York%29&rft.atitle=Pilgrimage+will+honor+John+Brown&rft.date=1946-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspaperarchive.com%2Fcrime-clipping-may-07-1946-2297525%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74239183/john-bbrown-program-in-north-elba/">"Studying What John Brown Hath Wrought In The U.S."</a> <a href="/wiki/Hartford_Courant" title="Hartford Courant">Hartford Courant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hartford,_Connecticut" title="Hartford, Connecticut">Hartford, Connecticut</a>). December 2009. p. B06. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412075542/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74239183/john-bbrown-program-in-north-elba/">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2021. Retrieved April 12, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hartford+Courant+%28Hartford%2C+Connecticut%29&rft.atitle=Studying+What+John+Brown+Hath+Wrought+In+The+U.S.&rft.pages=B06&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F74239183%2Fjohn-bbrown-program-in-north-elba%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74250450/john-brown-program-lake-placid/">"Ex-Weatherman to speak at John Brown event"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Burlington_Free_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Burlington Free Press">Burlington Free Press</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burlington,_Vermont" title="Burlington, Vermont">Burlington, Vermont</a>). November 6, 2009. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412075554/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74250450/john-brown-program-lake-placid/">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2021. Retrieved April 12, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Burlington+Free+Press+%28Burlington%2C+Vermont%29&rft.atitle=Ex-Weatherman+to+speak+at+John+Brown+event&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2009-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F74250450%2Fjohn-brown-program-lake-placid%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPS-BrownMuseum-304"><a href="#cite_ref-NPS-BrownMuseum_304-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/places/000/john-brown-museum.htm">"John Brown Museum"</a>. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210725154454/https://www.nps.gov/places/000/john-brown-museum.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 25, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Museum&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fplaces%2F000%2Fjohn-brown-museum.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nris-305"><a href="#cite_ref-nris_305-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/nationalregister/database-research.htm">"Search: John Brown Tannery Site"</a>. National Register of Historic Places, U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved May 12, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Register+of+Historic+Places%2C+U.S.+National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=Search%3A+John+Brown+Tannery+Site&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fsubjects%2Fnationalregister%2Fdatabase-research.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/71754795/barnums-american-museum/">"Barnum's American Museum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New-York_Tribune" title="New-York Tribune">New-York Tribune</a>. November 7, 1859. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516154800/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/71754795/barnums-american-museum/">Archived</a> from the original on May 16, 2021. Retrieved February 22, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New-York+Tribune&rft.atitle=Barnum%27s+American+Museum&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F71754795%2Fbarnums-american-museum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94503332/barnum-in-charlestown-buying-john-brown/">"The Harper's Ferry Rebellion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Baltimore_Sun" title="The Baltimore Sun">The Baltimore Sun</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>). November 30, 1859. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220208155325/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94503332/barnum-in-charlestown-buying-john-brown/">Archived</a> from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Baltimore+Sun+%28Baltimore%2C+Maryland%29&rft.atitle=The+Harper%27s+Ferry+Rebellion&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F94503332%2Fbarnum-in-charlestown-buying-john-brown%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/71754699/barnum-american-museum/">"Barnum's Museum – Second Week"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New-York_Tribune" title="New-York Tribune">New-York Tribune</a>. December 7, 1859. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516154759/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/71754699/barnum-american-museum/">Archived</a> from the original on May 16, 2021. Retrieved February 22, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New-York+Tribune&rft.atitle=Barnum%27s+Museum+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BSecond+Week&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1859-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F71754699%2Fbarnum-american-museum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/102889545/barnums-museum/">"Barnum's Museum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Daily_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Daily Herald">New York Daily Herald</a>. 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The Firehouse. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022019/https://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=106065">Archived</a> from the original on November 21, 2018. Retrieved November 20, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Firehouse&rft.atitle=Historical+Markers+Database&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hmdb.org%2Fmarker.asp%3Fmarker%3D106065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIowa_Department_of_Historical_Affairs_and_State_Historical_Society_of_Iowa" class="citation web cs1">Iowa Department of Historical Affairs and State Historical Society of Iowa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iowaculture.gov/sites/default/files/History%20-%20Education%20-%20Lifelong%20Learning%20-%20Iowa%20Underground%20Railroad%20%28PDF%29.pdf">"Iowa and the Underground Railroad"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173628/https://iowaculture.gov/sites/default/files/History%20-%20Education%20-%20Lifelong%20Learning%20-%20Iowa%20Underground%20Railroad%20%28PDF%29.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved November 15, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iowa+and+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.au=Iowa+Department+of+Historical+Affairs+and+State+Historical+Society+of+Iowa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiowaculture.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FHistory%2520-%2520Education%2520-%2520Lifelong%2520Learning%2520-%2520Iowa%2520Underground%2520Railroad%2520%2528PDF%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/98010968/john-brown-industrial-college/">"The John Brown Industrial College"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leavenworth_Times" title="Leavenworth Times">Leavenworth Times</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leavenworth,_Kansas" title="Leavenworth, Kansas">Leavenworth, Kansas</a>). December 26, 1895. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220320172407/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/98010968/john-brown-industrial-college/">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2022. Retrieved March 20, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Leavenworth+Times+%28Leavenworth%2C+Kansas%29&rft.atitle=The+John+Brown+Industrial+College&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1895-12-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F98010968%2Fjohn-brown-industrial-college%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/98011985/john-brown-industrial-college/">"State news"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaylord_Herald&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaylord Herald (page does not exist)">Gaylord Herald</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaylord,_Kansas" title="Gaylord, Kansas">Gaylord, Kansas</a>). September 12, 1895. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220320174320/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/98011985/john-brown-industrial-college/">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2022. Retrieved March 20, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gaylord+Herald+%28Gaylord%2C+Kansas%29&rft.atitle=State+news&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1895-09-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F98011985%2Fjohn-brown-industrial-college%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFField1895" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kate_Field" title="Kate Field">Field, Kate</a> (January 12, 1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.c2605441&view=1up&seq=29">"The Colored Man's Need"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kate_Field%27s_Washington&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kate Field's Washington (page does not exist)">Kate Field's Washington</a>. 11 (2): 18. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220320175106/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.c2605441&view=1up&seq=29">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2022. 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Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 22–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1403978462" title="Special:BookSources/978-1403978462"><bdi>978-1403978462</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610110645/https://books.google.com/books?id=HebFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2016. 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(1963). "A Polish poet on John Brown". The Polish Review. 8 (3): 80–85. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25776494">25776494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Polish+Review&rft.atitle=A+Polish+poet+on+John+Brown&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=80-85&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25776494%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kliger&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Albrecht%2C+Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGilligan2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_McGilligan_(biographer)" title="Patrick McGilligan (biographer)">McGilligan, Patrick</a> (2015). 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Retrieved August 5, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=darkhorizons.com&rft.atitle=Diggs%2C+Russell+Join+Hawke%27s+%22Good+Lord+Bird%22&rft.date=2019-08-03&rft.au=Garth+Franklin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkhorizons.com%2Fdiggs-russell-join-hawkes-good-lord-bird%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher1940" class="citation journal cs1">Fletcher, Robert S. (November 1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kshs.org/p/ransom-s-john-brown-painting/12845">"Ransom's John Brown Painting"</a>. Kansas History. 9 (4): 343–346. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525051000/https://www.kshs.org/p/ransom-s-john-brown-painting/12845">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved April 3, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kansas+History&rft.atitle=Ransom%27s+John+Brown+Painting&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=343-346&rft.date=1940-11&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kshs.org%2Fp%2Fransom-s-john-brown-painting%2F12845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroderick2012" class="citation journal cs1">Broderick, Warren F. 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October 21, 1859. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525051008/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/77150798/more-on-harpers-ferry/">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved May 6, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+Exchange+%28Baltimore%2C+Maryland%29&rft.atitle=The+Harper%27s+Ferry+Insurrection&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1859-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F77150798%2Fmore-on-harpers-ferry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudnall1860" class="citation book cs1">Hudnall, Henry (1860) [November 17, 1859]. 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Retrieved May 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Gov.+Wise&rft.btitle=Appendix+to+Document+1&rft.pages=68-71&rft.pub=Fb%26c+Limited&rft.date=1860&rft.isbn=978-1-334-11446-5&rft.aulast=Hudnall&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forgottenbooks.com%2Fen%2Fbooks%2FAppendixtoMessageI_10551253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise1907" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Wise, Henry A.</a> (May 1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25079848">"Letter to A. Hunter"</a>. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 3rd. 1: 93–94. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25079848">25079848</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224056/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25079848">Archived</a> from the original on April 30, 2021. Retrieved April 29, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Massachusetts+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Letter+to+A.+Hunter&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=93-94&rft.date=1907-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25079848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Henry+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25079848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuincy1908" class="citation journal cs1">Quincy, Josiah P. (February 1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-25079946/page/n11/mode/2up">"The Harper's Ferry Affair"</a>. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society: 326–331. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25079946">25079946</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Massachusetts+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Harper%27s+Ferry+Affair&rft.pages=326-331&rft.date=1908-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25079946%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Quincy&rft.aufirst=Josiah+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjstor-25079946%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers1908" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers, Mrs. William B. (June 1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-25079950/page/n1/mode/2up">"Papers relating to the execution of John Brown and the Harper's Ferry Affair of October 1859"</a>. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society: 509–518. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25079950">25079950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Massachusetts+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Papers+relating+to+the+execution+of+John+Brown+and+the+Harper%27s+Ferry+Affair+of+October+1859&rft.pages=509-518&rft.date=1908-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25079950%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Mrs.+William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjstor-25079950%2Fpage%2Fn1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507042901/http://www.wvculture.org/history/johnbrown/johnbrown.html">"John Brown"</a>. www.wvculture.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/history/johnbrown/johnbrown.html">the original</a> on May 7, 2021. Retrieved February 5, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wvculture.org&rft.atitle=John+Brown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wvculture.org%2Fhistory%2Fjohnbrown%2Fjohnbrown.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhio_Historical_Society" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohio Historical Society">Ohio Historical Society</a>. "Appendix II: Brief inventory of the microfilm of the Boyd B. Stutler Collection of the John Brown Papers". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ancestry.com/imageviewer/collections/28302/images/dvm_LocHist012264-00032-0?ssrc=&backlabel=Return">Inventory and calendar of the John Brown, Jr., papers, 1830–1932</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ancestry.com" title="Ancestry.com">ancestry.com</a>. pp. 26–31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121906/https://www.ancestry.com/imageviewer/collections/28302/images/dvm_LocHist012264-00032-0?ssrc=&backlabel=Return">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved July 20, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+II%3A+Brief+inventory+of+the+microfilm+of+the+Boyd+B.+Stutler+Collection+of+the+John+Brown+Papers&rft.btitle=Inventory+and+calendar+of+the+John+Brown%2C+Jr.%2C+papers%2C+1830%E2%80%931932&rft.pages=26-31&rft.pub=ancestry.com&rft.au=Ohio+Historical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancestry.com%2Fimageviewer%2Fcollections%2F28302%2Fimages%2Fdvm_LocHist012264-00032-0%3Fssrc%3D%26backlabel%3DReturn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hudsonlibrary.org/historical-society/john-brown-resources/">"John Brown Resources"</a>. Hudson Library and Historical Society. 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304213039/https://www.hudsonlibrary.org/historical-society/john-brown-resources/">Archived</a> from the original on March 4, 2021. Retrieved February 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Resources&rft.pub=Hudson+Library+and+Historical+Society&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hudsonlibrary.org%2Fhistorical-society%2Fjohn-brown-resources%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2010167-366"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsai2010167_366-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsai2010">Tsai 2010</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn1891vi-367"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn1891vi_367-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanborn1891">Sanborn 1891</a>, p. vi. </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2015" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown, John</a> (2015). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_DeCaro_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis DeCaro Jr. (page does not exist)">DeCaro, Louis A. Jr.</a> (ed.). John Brown Speaks: Letters and Statements from Charlestown. <a href="/wiki/Lanham,_Maryland" title="Lanham, Maryland">Lanham, Maryland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Speaks%3A+Letters+and+Statements+from+Charlestown&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1929/02/13/91754747.html?pageNumber=15">"Finds Last Letter from John Brown"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. February 13, 1929. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121910/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1929/02/13/91754747.html?pageNumber=15">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved May 7, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Finds+Last+Letter+from+John+Brown&rft.date=1929-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1929%2F02%2F13%2F91754747.html%3FpageNumber%3D15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobart1929" class="citation news cs1">Hobart, Newton B. (March 17, 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyti.ms/3trXVyx">"John Brown's Letter"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. p. 64 (Section 3 (Editorial), p. 5). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121954/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1929/03/17/91763301.html?zoom=14.58">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved May 8, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Letter&rft.pages=64+%28Section+3+%28Editorial%29%2C+p.+5%29&rft.date=1929-03-17&rft.aulast=Hobart&rft.aufirst=Newton+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyti.ms%2F3trXVyx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galbreath-371"><a href="#cite_ref-Galbreath_371-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalbreath" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Burleigh_Galbreath" title="Charles Burleigh Galbreath">Galbreath, C. B.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://resources.ohiohistory.org/ohj/search/display.php?page=50&searchterm=shakers&vol=30&pages=184-289">"John Brown"</a>. Iowa Historical Journal. 30: 284. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210925182029/https://resources.ohiohistory.org/ohj/search/display.php?page=50&searchterm=shakers&vol=30&pages=184-289">Archived</a> from the original on September 25, 2021. Retrieved September 15, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iowa+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=John+Brown&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=284&rft.aulast=Galbreath&rft.aufirst=C.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresources.ohiohistory.org%2Fohj%2Fsearch%2Fdisplay.php%3Fpage%3D50%26searchterm%3Dshakers%26vol%3D30%26pages%3D184-289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Brown_Memorial_Association" class="citation cs2">John Brown Memorial Association, Papers, 1826–1958, Pelletier Library, Allegheny College, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44935229">44935229</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers%2C+1826%E2%80%931958&rft.pub=Pelletier+Library%2C+Allegheny+College&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44935229&rft.au=John+Brown+Memorial+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findingaids.auctr.edu/repositories/2/resources/6">"John Brown collection"</a>. Archives Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210429155035/http://findingaids.auctr.edu/repositories/2/resources/6">Archived</a> from the original on April 29, 2021. Retrieved April 29, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archives+Research+Center&rft.atitle=John+Brown+collection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindingaids.auctr.edu%2Frepositories%2F2%2Fresources%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVillard1910-374"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVillard1910_374-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVillard1910">Villard 1910</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/locate.php?categories=1245-4645&">"Kansas Memory"</a>. www.kansasmemory.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225142321/https://www.kansasmemory.org/locate.php?categories=1245-4645&">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved February 5, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kansasmemory.org&rft.atitle=Kansas+Memory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kansasmemory.org%2Flocate.php%3Fcategories%3D1245-4645%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> Kansas Memory, Kansas State Historical Society, holds John Brown letters and photos. </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kshs.org/archives/40384">"Richard Josiah Hinton papers"</a>. Kansas Historical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220406175513/https://www.kshs.org/archives/40384">Archived</a> from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kansas+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Richard+Josiah+Hinton+papers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kshs.org%2Farchives%2F40384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClinton2004" class="citation book cs1">Clinton, Catherine (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1riMlV2rtbwC&q=%2522General%2520Tubman%2522">Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom</a>. Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7595-0977-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7595-0977-1"><bdi>978-0-7595-0977-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harriet+Tubman%3A+The+Road+to+Freedom&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7595-0977-1&rft.aulast=Clinton&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1riMlV2rtbwC%26q%3D%252522General%252520Tubman%252522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeCaro2005a" class="citation book cs1">DeCaro, Louis A. Jr. (2005a). Fire From the Midst of You: A Religious Life of John Brown. <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814719220" title="Special:BookSources/978-0814719220"><bdi>978-0814719220</bdi></a>. <q>Introduction: As an evangelical Christian, he not only read the Bible as God's word, he read the Bible as God's word to John Brown. He believed that the scriptures continued to speak to life situations, radiating fresh truth and directives without obscuring its original and primary meaning. For him, God was speaking afresh on the enslavement of the African, and this was the ongoing theme of his devotional life. It guided his actions, guided his values, and gave him strength. His piety was inseparable from his deeply felt call to destroy slavery.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+From+the+Midst+of+You%3A+A+Religious+Life+of+John+Brown&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0814719220&rft.aulast=DeCaro&rft.aufirst=Louis+A.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglass1882" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Douglass, Frederick</a> (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifetimesoffrede1882doug/page/358/mode/2up">Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, Written by Himself</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hartford,_Connecticut" title="Hartford, Connecticut">Hartford, Connecticut</a>: Park Publishing Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Times+of+Frederick+Douglass%2C+Written+by+Himself&rft.place=Hartford%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Park+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Douglass&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifetimesoffrede1882doug%2Fpage%2F358%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois2015" class="citation book cs1">Du Bois, W. E. B. (2015) [1909]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wPPqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168">John Brown</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46679-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46679-6"><bdi>978-1-317-46679-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-46679-6&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwPPqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (1995). "Manufacturing Martyrdom: The Antislavery Response to John Brown's Raid". In <a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (ed.). His Soul Goes Marching On. Responses to John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid. <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville,_Virginia" title="Charlottesville, Virginia">Charlottesville, Virginia</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="University Press of Virginia">University Press of Virginia</a>. pp. 41–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813915368" title="Special:BookSources/0813915368"><bdi>0813915368</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Manufacturing+Martyrdom%3A+The+Antislavery+Response+to+John+Brown%27s+Raid&rft.btitle=His+Soul+Goes+Marching+On.+Responses+to+John+Brown+and+the+Harpers+Ferry+Raid&rft.place=Charlottesville%2C+Virginia&rft.pages=41-66&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0813915368&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinton2011" class="citation book cs1">Hinton, Richard (2011) [1894]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7851ys2NXBwC&q=%2522I%2520John%2520Brown%2522">John Brown and His Men</a>. Applewood Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4585-0106-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4585-0106-6"><bdi>978-1-4585-0106-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown+and+His+Men&rft.pub=Applewood+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4585-0106-6&rft.aulast=Hinton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7851ys2NXBwC%26q%3D%252522I%252520John%252520Brown%252522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewen2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Loewen" class="mw-redirect" title="James Loewen">Loewen, James W.</a> (2008). <a href="/wiki/Lies_My_Teacher_Told_Me" title="Lies My Teacher Told Me">Lies My Teacher Told Me</a>: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (Revised and updated ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/The_New_Press" title="The New Press">The New Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1595583260" title="Special:BookSources/978-1595583260"><bdi>978-1595583260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lies+My+Teacher+Told+Me%3A+Everything+Your+American+History+Textbook+Got+Wrong&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Revised+and+updated&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1595583260&rft.aulast=Loewen&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham1980" class="citation book cs1">Graham, Lorenz B. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/johnbrowncryforf0000grah">John Brown, A Cry for Freedom</a>. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-690-04023-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-690-04023-4"><bdi>978-0-690-04023-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%2C+A+Cry+for+Freedom&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thomas+Y.+Crowell&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-690-04023-4&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Lorenz+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnbrowncryforf0000grah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGinty2009" class="citation book cs1">McGinty, Brian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZQxEsFJV-IC&q=john+brown%27s+trial">John Brown's Trial</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03517-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03517-1"><bdi>978-0-674-03517-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+Trial&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03517-1&rft.aulast=McGinty&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaZQxEsFJV-IC%26q%3Djohn%2Bbrown%2527s%2Btrial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/bookreviewsoct09-pdf-1.pdf">review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGlone1989" class="citation journal cs1">McGlone, Robert E. (March 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1908635">"Rescripting a Troubled Past: John Brown's Family and the Harpers Ferry Conspiracy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a>. 75 (4): 1179–1200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1908635">10.2307/1908635</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/19908635">19908635</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531105212/https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/?next_url=/ezproxy/r/ezp.2aHR0cHM6Ly9kb2kub3JnLzEwLjIzMDcvMTkwODYzNQ--">Archived</a> from the original on May 31, 2022. Retrieved May 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Rescripting+a+Troubled+Past%3A+John+Brown%27s+Family+and+the+Harpers+Ferry+Conspiracy&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1179-1200&rft.date=1989-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1908635&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F19908635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McGlone&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%2F1908635&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1952" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Ernest C. (1952). John Brown Pennsylvania Citizen. The story of John Brown's ten years in northwestern Pennsylvania. <a href="/wiki/Warren,_Pennsylvania" title="Warren, Pennsylvania">Warren, Pennsylvania</a>: The Penn State Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown+Pennsylvania+Citizen.+The+story+of+John+Brown%27s+ten+years+in+northwestern+Pennsylvania&rft.place=Warren%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=The+Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Ernest+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedpath1860" class="citation book cs1">Redpath, James (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publiclifeofcapt00redprich">The Public Life of Captain John Brown</a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Thayer_and_Eldridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Thayer and Eldridge">Thayer and Eldridge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Public+Life+of+Captain+John+Brown&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Thayer+and+Eldridge&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Redpath&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpubliclifeofcapt00redprich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_S._Reynolds" title="David S. Reynolds">Reynolds, David S.</a> (2005). John Brown, Abolitionist. The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights. <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0375726152" title="Special:BookSources/0375726152"><bdi>0375726152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%2C+Abolitionist.+The+Man+Who+Killed+Slavery%2C+Sparked+the+Civil+War%2C+and+Seeded+Civil+Rights&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0375726152&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanborn1891" class="citation book cs1">Sanborn, Franklin Benjamin (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fekDAAAAYAAJ&q=john+brown+boston&pg=PA515">The Life and Letters of John Brown: Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a>: Roberts Brothers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121810/https://books.google.com/books?id=fekDAAAAYAAJ&q=john+brown+boston&pg=PA515">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved July 7, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Letters+of+John+Brown%3A+Liberator+of+Kansas%2C+and+Martyr+of+Virginia&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Roberts+Brothers&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Sanborn&rft.aufirst=Franklin+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfekDAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Djohn%2Bbrown%2Bboston%26pg%3DPA515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanbornBrown1878" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Benjamin_Sanborn" title="Franklin Benjamin Sanborn">Sanborn, F[ranklin] B[enjamin]</a>; <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown, John</a> (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009833098">Memoirs of John Brown, written for Rev. Samuel Orcutt's History of Torrington, Ct., by F. B. Sanborn, with memorial verses by William Ellery Channing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord, Massachusetts</a>: Printed by J. Munsell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525050953/https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009833098">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved March 26, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+John+Brown%2C+written+for+Rev.+Samuel+Orcutt%27s+History+of+Torrington%2C+Ct.%2C+by+F.+B.+Sanborn%2C+with+memorial+verses+by+William+Ellery+Channing&rft.place=Concord%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Printed+by+J.+Munsell&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Sanborn&rft.aufirst=F%5Branklin%5D+B%5Benjamin%5D&rft.au=Brown%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F009833098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1895" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Narcissa Macy (September 1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iIesXhfvOL4C&q=John%20brown">"Reminiscences of John Brown"</a>. The Midland Monthly. 4 (3): 323, 231–236. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721121906/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Midland_Monthly_Magazine/iIesXhfvOL4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=John+brown">Archived</a> from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved October 22, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Midland+Monthly&rft.atitle=Reminiscences+of+John+Brown&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323%2C+231-236&rft.date=1895-09&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Narcissa+Macy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIesXhfvOL4C%26q%3DJohn%2520brown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnodgrass2008" class="citation book cs1">Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/undergroundrailr0000snod">The Underground Railroad : an encyclopedia of people, places, and operations</a>. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-8093-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-8093-8"><bdi>978-0-7656-8093-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad+%3A+an+encyclopedia+of+people%2C+places%2C+and+operations&rft.place=Armonk%2C+New+York&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-8093-8&rft.aulast=Snodgrass&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ellen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fundergroundrailr0000snod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsai2010" class="citation journal cs1">Tsai, Robert L. (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3106&context=bclr">"John Brown's Constitution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boston_College_Law_Review" title="Boston College Law Review">Boston College Law Review</a>. 51 (1): 162–163. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525051011/https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3106&context=bclr">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved March 20, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+College+Law+Review&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Constitution&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=162-163&rft.date=2010-01&rft.aulast=Tsai&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawdigitalcommons.bc.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3106%26context%3Dbclr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillard1910" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Villard, Oswald Garrison</a> (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnbrownabiogr02villgoog">John Brown 1800–1859: A Biography Fifty Years After</a>. Houghton Mifflin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown+1800%E2%80%931859%3A+A+Biography+Fifty+Years+After&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Villard&rft.aufirst=Oswald+Garrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnbrownabiogr02villgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyatt-Brown1975" class="citation journal cs1">Wyatt-Brown, Bertram (Winter 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41177972">"John Brown, Weathermen, and the Psychology of Antinomian Violence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Soundings:_An_Interdisciplinary_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal">Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal</a>. 58 (4): 417–440. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41177972">41177972</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210914130149/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41177972">Archived</a> from the original on September 14, 2021. Retrieved September 14, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soundings%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Journal&rft.atitle=John+Brown%2C+Weathermen%2C+and+the+Psychology+of+Antinomian+Violence&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=417-440&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41177972%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wyatt-Brown&rft.aufirst=Bertram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41177972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sources_for_John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="List of sources for John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">List of sources for John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliographies">Bibliographies</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeatherstonhaugh1897" class="citation journal cs1">Featherstonhaugh, Thomas (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nc01.ark:/13960/t50g5xn6g&view=1up&seq=206">"A Bibliography of John Brown"</a>. Publications of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_History_Association" title="Southern History Association">Southern History Association</a>. 1: 196–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Southern+History+Association&rft.atitle=A+Bibliography+of+John+Brown&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=196-202&rft.date=1897&rft.aulast=Featherstonhaugh&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnc01.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft50g5xn6g%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeatherstonhaugh1899" class="citation journal cs1">Featherstonhaugh, Thomas (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001175616&view=1up&seq=310&q1=Winchester">"Bibliography of John Brown Part II"</a>. Publications of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_History_Association" title="Southern History Association">Southern History Association</a>. 3: 302–306.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Southern+History+Association&rft.atitle=Bibliography+of+John+Brown+Part+II&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=302-306&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Featherstonhaugh&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duva.x001175616%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D310%26q1%3DWinchester&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby2006" class="citation book cs1">Libby, Jean, ed. (2006). John Brown's family in California. <a href="/wiki/Palo_Alto,_California" title="Palo Alto, California">Palo Alto, California</a>: Allies for Freedom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9773638-2-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9773638-2-1"><bdi>0-9773638-2-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+family+in+California&rft.place=Palo+Alto%2C+California&rft.pub=Allies+for+Freedom&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-9773638-2-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>"Records pertaining to John Brown at the National Archives and Records Administration", pp. 20–23, by John M. Lawlor</li> <li>"Finding the Carpetbag: Documents in the Dreer Collection at the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Historical Society of Pennsylvania">Historical Society of Pennsylvania</a>, pp. 24–31, by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Ledell_Smith" title="Eric Ledell Smith">Eric Ledell Smith</a></li> <li>"The John Brown and Brown Family papers in the <a href="/wiki/Gilder_Lehrman_Institute_of_American_History" title="Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History">Gilder Lehrman</a> Collection at the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Historical Society">New York Historical Society</a>", pp. 32–33, by Louis A. DeCaro, Jr.</li> <li>"Bibliography of Mary Day Brown", pp. 18–19, by Jean Libby</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/jbprimarydocuments.html">Primary documents, West Virginia Archives & History</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Ledell_Smith" title="Eric Ledell Smith">Smith, Eric Ledell</a> (2006). "A list of the contents of the John Brown scrapbook in the Dreer Collection, <a href="/wiki/Historical_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Historical Society of Pennsylvania">Historical Society of Pennsylvania</a>, 1300 <a href="/wiki/Locust_Street" title="Locust Street">Locust Street</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>". John Brown's family in California. A journey by funeral train, covered wagon, through archives, to the Valley of Heart's Delight, including the years 1833–1926, and honoring descendants of the Woman Abolitionists of Santa Clara County, now known as Silicon Valley. Allies for Freedom. pp. 28–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+list+of+the+contents+of+the+John+Brown+scrapbook+in+the+Dreer+Collection%2C+Historical+Society+of+Pennsylvania%2C+1300+Locust+Street%2C+Philadelphia&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+family+in+California.+A+journey+by+funeral+train%2C+covered+wagon%2C+through+archives%2C+to+the+Valley+of+Heart%27s+Delight%2C+including+the+years+1833%E2%80%931926%2C+and+honoring+descendants+of+the+Woman+Abolitionists+of+Santa+Clara+County%2C+now+known+as+Silicon+Valley&rft.pages=28-31&rft.pub=Allies+for+Freedom&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Eric+Ledell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawler2006" class="citation book cs1">Lawler, John M. (2006). John Brown's family in California. A journey by funeral train, covered wagon, through archives, to the Valley of Heart's Delight, including the years 1833–1926, and honoring descendants of the Woman Abolitionists of Santa Clara County, now known as Silicon Valley. Allies for Freedom. pp. 32–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9773638-2-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9773638-2-1"><bdi>0-9773638-2-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+family+in+California.+A+journey+by+funeral+train%2C+covered+wagon%2C+through+archives%2C+to+the+Valley+of+Heart%27s+Delight%2C+including+the+years+1833%E2%80%931926%2C+and+honoring+descendants+of+the+Woman+Abolitionists+of+Santa+Clara+County%2C+now+known+as+Silicon+Valley&rft.pages=32-33&rft.pub=Allies+for+Freedom&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-9773638-2-1&rft.aulast=Lawler&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> (May 1886). "John Brown's Heroic Character", Speech given at Clinton Street Baptist Church in Brooklyn, New York. In <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Hamm" title="Theodore Hamm">Hamm, Theodore</a>, ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.akashicbooks.com/catalog/frederick-douglass-in-brooklyn/">Frederick Douglass in Brooklyn</a>. Brooklyn, New York: <a href="/wiki/Akashic_Books" title="Akashic Books">Akashic Books</a>, 2017.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051103073709/http://www.adena.com/adena/usa/cw/cw234.htm">What John Brown Did in Kansas</a> (December 12, 1859): a speech to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, December 12, 1859. Originally published in The Congressional Globe, The Official Proceedings of Congress, Published by John C. Rives, Washington, D.C. Thirty-Sixth Congress, 1st Session, New Series ... No. 7, Tuesday, December 13, 1859, pp. 105–106.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Benjamin_Sanborn" title="Franklin Benjamin Sanborn">Franklin Benjamin Sanborn</a>, ed. (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DKC0110">The Life and Letters of John Brown, Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stauffer_(professor)" title="John Stauffer (professor)">John Stauffer</a> and Zoe Trodd, eds. The Tribunal: Responses to John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/bookrev-jul13-pdf-1.pdf">Review by Paul Finkelman</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2013/03/07/terrorist-or-martyr/">Review by Christopher Benfey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> (1859). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" class="extiw" title="s:A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Barney, William L. "Brown, John". The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Student Companion. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2001.</li> <li>DeCaro, Louis A. Jr. Freedom's Dawn: The Last Days of John Brown in Virginia. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Witt1859" class="citation book cs1">De Witt, Robert M. (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifetrialandexe00cogoog/page/n6/mode/2up">The Life, Trial and Execution of Captain John Brown, Known as "Old Brown of Ossawatomie"</a>. New York: Robert M. De Witt.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life%2C+Trial+and+Execution+of+Captain+John+Brown%2C+Known+as+%22Old+Brown+of+Ossawatomie%22&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+M.+De+Witt&rft.date=1859&rft.aulast=De+Witt&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifetrialandexe00cogoog%2Fpage%2Fn6%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuBois1909" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._DuBois" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. DuBois">DuBois, W. E. B.</a> (1909). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/John_Brown_(1909)">John Brown </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=DuBois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> [<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index:John_Brown_(W._E._B._Du_Bois).djvu" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Index:John Brown (W. E. B. Du Bois).djvu">scan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Wikisource link" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a>, ed. His Soul Goes Marching On: Responses to John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid (1995).</li> <li>Goodrich, Thomas War to the Knife: Bleeding Kansas, 1854–1861 (1998).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Horwitz" title="Tony Horwitz">Horwitz, Tony</a>. Midnight Rising: John Brown and the Raid That Sparked the Civil War. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2011.</li> <li>Hotchkiss, Jed. "John Brown's Raid." The Confederate Military History. October 27, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civilwarhome.com/johnbrown.htm%20">John Brown's Raid</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100310152643/http://www.civilwarhome.com/johnbrown.htm">Archived</a> March 10, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26312178/brown-john-1882-10-24/">"John Brown — A Reunion of his Surviving Associates"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Topeka_Daily_Capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Topeka Daily Capital">Topeka Daily Capital</a>. Topeka, Kansas. October 24, 1882. p. 4 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Topeka+Daily+Capital&rft.atitle=John+Brown+%E2%80%94+A+Reunion+of+his+Surviving+Associates&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1882-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F26312178%2Fbrown-john-1882-10-24%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Laughlin-Schultz, Bonnie. The Tie that Bound Us: The Women of John Brown's Family and the Legacy of Radical Abolitionism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Long, Roderick (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Brown, John (1800–1859)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 39–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n26">10.4135/9781412965811.n26</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Brown%2C+John+%281800%E2%80%931859%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=39-40&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n26&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Malin, James. John Brown and the Legend of Fifty-Six (1942) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8383-1021-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8383-1021-4">0-8383-1021-4</a>)</li> <li>McGlone, Robert E. John Brown's War Against Slavery. Cambridge, CUP, 2009.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Nevins, Allan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ordeal_of_the_Union" title="Ordeal of the Union">Ordeal of the Union</a>. 2 vols. (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Franklin_Nichols" title="Roy Franklin Nichols">Nichols, Roy F.</a> "The Kansas-Nebraska Act: A Century of Historiography." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43 (September 1956): 187–212. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1902683">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Nudelman, Franny. John Brown's Body: Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War (2004).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Oates, Stephen B.</a> Our Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln, John Brown, and the Civil War Era (1979).</li> <li>Peterson, Merrill D. (2002). John Brown: The Legend Revisited (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8139-2132-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8139-2132-5">0-8139-2132-5</a>)</li> <li>Poland Jr., Charles P. (2020). America's Good Terrorist: John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-925-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-925-4">978-1-61200-925-4</a>)</li> <li>Renehan, Edward J. The Secret Six: The True Tale of the Men Who Conspired with John Brown. 1995.</li> <li>Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuane,_Michael_E.2009" class="citation news cs1">Ruane, Michael E. (October 14, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/14/AR2009101402520.html">"150 Years Later, John Brown's Failed Slave Revolt Marches On"</a>. The Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=150+Years+Later%2C+John+Brown%27s+Failed+Slave+Revolt+Marches+On&rft.date=2009-10-14&rft.au=Ruane%2C+Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F10%2F14%2FAR2009101402520.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Scott" title="Otto Scott">Scott, Otto</a>. The Secret Six: John Brown and The Abolitionist Movement (1979).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenGupta2001" class="citation journal cs1">SenGupta, Gunja (Winter 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kshs.org/publicat/history/2001winter_sengupta.pdf">"Bleeding Kansas: A Review Essay"</a> (PDF). Kansas History (24): 318–341.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kansas+History&rft.atitle=Bleeding+Kansas%3A+A+Review+Essay&rft.ssn=winter&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=318-341&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=SenGupta&rft.aufirst=Gunja&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kshs.org%2Fpublicat%2Fhistory%2F2001winter_sengupta.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Smith, Ted A. Weird John Brown: Divine Violence and the Limits of Ethics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Holst1889" class="citation book cs1">Von Holst, Hermann (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnbrown00vonh">John Brown</a>. Boston, Cupples and Hurd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown&rft.pub=Boston%2C+Cupples+and+Hurd&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Von+Holst&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnbrown00vonh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_fiction">Historical fiction</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Banks" title="Russell Banks">Banks, Russell</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cloudsplitter" title="Cloudsplitter">Cloudsplitter</a> (1998).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Bisson" title="Terry Bisson">Bisson, Terry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fire_on_the_Mountain_(1988_novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire on the Mountain (1988 novel)">Fire on the Mountain</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_Brooks_(writer)" title="Geraldine Brooks (writer)">Brooks, Geraldine</a>. March: A Love Story in a Time of War (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Cliff" title="Michelle Cliff">Cliff, Michelle</a>. Free Enterprise. (1993)</li> <li>Ehrlich, Leonard. God's Angry Man (1932).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Flint" title="Eric Flint">Flint, Eric</a>. <a href="/wiki/1824:_The_Arkansas_War" title="1824: The Arkansas War">1824: The Arkansas War</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_MacDonald_Fraser" title="George MacDonald Fraser">Fraser, George Macdonald</a>. <a href="/wiki/Flashman_and_the_Angel_of_the_Lord" title="Flashman and the Angel of the Lord">Flashman and the Angel of the Lord</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McBride_(writer)" title="James McBride (writer)">McBride, James</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird" title="The Good Lord Bird">The Good Lord Bird</a> (2013). In 2020 <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird_(miniseries)" title="The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)">The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)</a> was presented by <a href="/wiki/Showtime_(TV_network)" title="Showtime (TV network)">Showtime</a>.</li> <li>Olds, Bruce. Raising Holy Hell (1995).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Rinaldi" title="Ann Rinaldi">Rinaldi, Ann</a>. Mine Eyes Have Seen. (1997)</li> <li>Summers, Kevin G. "His Soul Goes Marching On" in Tales of Moreauvia, Issue One (2008).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Movie">Movie</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird_(miniseries)" title="The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)">The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Trail_(film)" title="Santa Fe Trail (film)">Santa Fe Trail</a> (1940)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opera">Opera</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMechem" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kirke_Mechem" title="Kirke Mechem">Mechem, Kirke</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kirkemechem.com/johnbrown.html">John Brown</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220101171853/https://www.kirkemechem.com/johnbrown.html">archived</a> from the original on January 1, 2022, retrieved May 15, 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown&rft.aulast=Mechem&rft.aufirst=Kirke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirkemechem.com%2Fjohnbrown.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Based on the opera is Songs of the Slave, 1994. "Dear husband", an aria sung by <a href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Harriet Newby</a>, with words taken from her letters, has been separately performed. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMechem" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kirke_Mechem" title="Kirke Mechem">Mechem, Kirke</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alliesforfreedom.org/files/DearHusbandProgramInside.pdf">'Dear husband': The life and words of Harriet Newby</a> (PDF), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195451/http://www.alliesforfreedom.org/files/DearHusbandProgramInside.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on January 28, 2022, retrieved May 15, 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Dear+husband%27%3A+The+life+and+words+of+Harriet+Newby&rft.aulast=Mechem&rft.aufirst=Kirke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alliesforfreedom.org%2Ffiles%2FDearHusbandProgramInside.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plays">Plays</h3></div> <ul><li>Gallows Glorious (1933), by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Gow" title="Ronald Gow">Ronald Gow</a></li> <li>In Splendid Error by <a href="/wiki/William_B._Branch" title="William B. Branch">William B. Branch</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgess" class="citation web cs1">Burgess, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchguides.plattsburgh.edu/c.php?g=262170&p=1752037">"LibGuides: John Brown: In Splendid Error"</a>. researchguides.plattsburgh.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210715002616/https://researchguides.plattsburgh.edu/c.php?g=262170&p=1752037">Archived</a> from the original on July 15, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=researchguides.plattsburgh.edu&rft.atitle=LibGuides%3A+John+Brown%3A+In+Splendid+Error&rft.aulast=Burgess&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchguides.plattsburgh.edu%2Fc.php%3Fg%3D262170%26p%3D1752037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>The Prophet, by Edwin Wallace Dace, was presented at the 1959 centenary of John Brown's raid.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/80469180/centenary-of-john-browns-raid-play/">"Harper's Ferry To Reenact Raid"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Raleigh_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh Register">Raleigh Register</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beckley,_West_Virginia" title="Beckley, West Virginia">Beckley, West Virginia</a>). October 9, 1959. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210629094103/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/80469180/centenary-of-john-browns-raid-play/">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2021. Retrieved June 29, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Raleigh+Register+%28Beckley%2C+West+Virginia%29&rft.atitle=Harper%27s+Ferry+To+Reenact+Raid&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1959-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F80469180%2Fcentenary-of-john-browns-raid-play%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry">Poetry</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenét" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Vincent_Ben%C3%A9t" title="Stephen Vincent Benét">Benét, Stephen Vincent</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks07/0700461.txt">"John Brown's Body (1928)"</a>. Introduction by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bacon" title="Leonard Bacon">Leonard Bacon</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110813193535/http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks07/0700461.txt">Archived</a> from the original on August 13, 2011. Retrieved October 14, 2008 – via <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+Body+%281928%29&rft.aulast=Ben%C3%A9t&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.net.au%2Febooks07%2F0700461.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown+%28abolitionist%29" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Poetry" title="Pulitzer Prize for Poetry">Pulitzer Prize for Poetry</a>, 1929.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/233/711.html">John Brown, by Edwin Arlington Robinson, 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Kamil_Norwid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprian Kamil Norwid">Cyprian Kamil Norwid</a>, Do obywatela Johna Brown (To Citizen John Brown), 1859 (in Polish)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_online_resources">Further online resources</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45903/the-portent">The Portent</a> by <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/dec/03/john-brown-anniversary">"John Brown, the good 'fanatic'" by Clinton Cox (2009)</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abolitionist-john-brown.blogspot.com/">Louis DeCaro: "John Brown the Abolitionist" -- a blog.</a> Many links to Brown materials.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/jbrown/master.html">John Brown and the Valley of the Shadow"</a>. John Brown home page at the University of Virginia</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> John Brown at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/John_Brown" class="extiw" title="c:John Brown">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" class="extiw" title="q:John Brown (abolitionist)">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Brown_(1800%E2%80%931859)" class="extiw" title="s:Author:John Brown (1800–1859)">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189366" class="extiw" title="d:Q189366">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Brown%2C%20John%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20Brown%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Brown%2C%20John%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20Brown%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20Brown%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Brown%2C%20John%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20Brown%22%29%20OR%20%28%221800-1859%22%20AND%20Brown%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about John Brown</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.famous-trials.com/johnbrown/614-browconstitution">Collection of primary materials on John Brown</a>, Douglas O. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Brown%27s_Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="Template:John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Brown%27s_Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="Template talk:John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Brown%27s_Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Brown&#039;s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raiders" title="John Brown's raiders">John Brown's raiders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osborne_Perry_Anderson" title="Osborne Perry Anderson">Osborne Perry Anderson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Brown</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_body" title="John Brown's body">body</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Brown_(abolitionist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Brown (abolitionist)">Oliver Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen Brown (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watson_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="Watson Brown (abolitionist)">Watson Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Copeland_Jr." title="John Anthony Copeland Jr.">John Anthony Copeland Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barclay_Coppock" class="mw-redirect" title="Barclay Coppock">Barclay Coppock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Coppock" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Coppock">Edwin Coppock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shields_Green" title="Shields Green">Shields Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hazlett" title="Albert Hazlett">Albert Hazlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Kagi" title="John Henry Kagi">John Henry Kagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sheridan_Leary" title="Lewis Sheridan Leary">Lewis Sheridan Leary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Jackson_Meriam" title="Francis Jackson Meriam">Francis Jackson Meriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Dangerfield Newby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Dwight_Stevens" title="Aaron Dwight Stevens">Aaron Dwight Stevens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secret_Six" title="Secret Six">Secret Six</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth_Higginson" title="Thomas Wentworth Higginson">Thomas Wentworth Higginson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gridley_Howe" title="Samuel Gridley Howe">Samuel Gridley Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Parker" title="Theodore Parker">Theodore Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Benjamin_Sanborn" title="Franklin Benjamin Sanborn">Franklin Benjamin Sanborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other individuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkes_Booth" title="John Wilkes Booth">John Wilkes Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Day_Brown" title="Mary Ann Day Brown">Mary Ann Day Brown</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1771)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1771)">Owen Brown (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Junior" title="John Brown Junior">John Brown, Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chilton" title="Samuel Chilton">Samuel Chilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_E.P._Daingerfield" title="John E.P. Daingerfield">John E.P. Daingerfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Greene" title="Israel Greene">Israel Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Hoyt" title="George Henry Hoyt">George Henry Hoyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hunter_(lawyer)" title="Andrew Hunter (lawyer)">Andrew Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Stonewall Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Mason" title="James M. Mason">James M. Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parker_(congressman)" title="Richard Parker (congressman)">Richard Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Wendell Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Realf" title="Richard Realf">Richard Realf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Redpath" title="James Redpath">James Redpath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sennott" title="George Sennott">George Sennott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heyward_Shepherd_monument" title="Heyward Shepherd monument">Heyward Shepherd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._Steuart_(militia_general)" title="George H. Steuart (militia general)">George H. Steuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">J. E. B. Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Washington" title="Lewis Washington">Lewis Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allstadt_House_and_Ordinary" title="Allstadt House and Ordinary">Allstadt House and Ordinary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_%26_O_Railroad_Potomac_River_Crossing" title="B & O Railroad Potomac River Crossing">B & O Railroad Potomac River Crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beall-Air" title="Beall-Air">Beall-Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Town,_West_Virginia" title="Charles Town, West Virginia">Charles Town, West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibson-Todd_House" title="Gibson-Todd House">Gibson-Todd House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Armory" title="Harpers Ferry Armory">Harpers Ferry Armory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia" title="Harpers Ferry, West Virginia">Harpers Ferry, West Virginia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Historic_District" title="Harpers Ferry Historic District">Historic District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy Farm">Kennedy Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook,_Maryland" title="Sandy Hook, Maryland">Sandy Hook, Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia" title="Winchester, Virginia">Winchester, Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Afterwards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Winchester_Medical_College" title="Burning of Winchester Medical College">Burning of Winchester Medical College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_National_Historical_Park" title="Harpers Ferry National Historical Park">Harpers Ferry National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heyward_Shepherd_monument" title="Heyward Shepherd monument">Heyward Shepherd monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(biography)" title="John Brown (biography)">John Brown (biography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site" title="John Brown Farm State Historic Site">John Brown Farm State Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Farm,_Tannery_%26_Museum" title="John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum">John Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Summit_County_Historical_Society_of_Akron,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="The Summit County Historical Society of Akron, Ohio">John Brown House (Akron, Ohio)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_Museum_(Osawatomie,_Kansas)" title="John Brown Museum (Osawatomie, Kansas)">John Brown Museum (Osawatomie, Kansas)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_body" title="John Brown's body">John Brown's body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body_(poem)" title="John Brown's Body (poem)">John Brown's Body (poem)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body (song)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_last_speech" title="John Brown's last speech">John Brown's last speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Provisional_Constitution" title="John Brown's Provisional Constitution">John Brown's Provisional Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Days of John Brown">The Last Days of John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Moments_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Moments of John Brown">The Last Moments of John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remarks_After_the_Hanging_of_John_Brown" title="Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown">Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragic_Prelude" title="Tragic Prelude">Tragic Prelude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">La Amistad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Black_Jack" title="Battle of Black Jack">Battle of Black Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Spurs_(Kansas)" title="Battle of the Spurs (Kansas)">Battle of the Spurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Bell" title="James Madison Bell">James Madison Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudsplitter" title="Cloudsplitter">Cloudsplitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Curry" class="mw-redirect" title="John Stuart Curry">John Stuart Curry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_DeBaptiste" title="George DeBaptiste">George DeBaptiste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson#Civil_War_years" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_on_the_Mountain_(Bisson_novel)" title="Fire on the Mountain (Bisson novel)">Fire on the Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wm._Lloyd_Garrison" class="mw-redirect" title="Wm. Lloyd Garrison">Wm. Lloyd Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird" title="The Good Lord Bird">The Good Lord Bird (book, </a><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird_(miniseries)" title="The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)">miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_P._Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah P. Lovejoy">Elijah P. Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marching_Song_(play)" title="Marching Song (play)">Marching Song (play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Montgomery_(colonel)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Montgomery (colonel)">James Montgomery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Osawatomie" title="Battle of Osawatomie">Battle of Osawatomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quindaro_Townsite" title="Quindaro Townsite">Quindaro Townsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Allan Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_massacre" title="Pottawatomie massacre">Pottawatomie massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Trail_(film)" title="Santa Fe Trail (film)">Santa Fe Trail (film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Angry_Men" title="Seven Angry Men">Seven Angry Men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storer_College" title="Storer College">Storer College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau#Later_years,_1851–1862" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakarusa_War" title="Wakarusa War">Wakarusa War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester_and_Potomac_Railroad" title="Winchester and Potomac Railroad">Winchester and Potomac Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="American_Civil_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Civil_War" title="Template talk:American Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="American_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Origins" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Origins</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline leading to the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas-Nebraska_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas-Nebraska Act">Kansas-Nebraska Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Popular sovereignty in the United States">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Declaration_of_Secession" title="South Carolina Declaration of Secession">South Carolina Declaration of Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Positive good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Birney" title="James G. Birney">James G. Birney</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_Debates_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lane Debates on Slavery">Lane Debates on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Sella_Martin" title="J. Sella Martin">J. Sella Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="CombatantsTheatersCampaignsBattlesStates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Combatants</li><li>Theaters</li><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li><li>States</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Combatants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_army" title="Union army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy" title="Confederate States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Marine_Corps" title="Confederate States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Theaters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_seaboard_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War">Lower Seaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War">Pacific Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union naval blockade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Campaigns of the American Civil War">campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">Blockade runners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_campaign" title="New Mexico campaign">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%27s_Valley_campaign" title="Jackson's Valley campaign">Jackson's Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_campaign" title="Peninsula campaign">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_campaign" title="Northern Virginia campaign">Northern Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_campaign" title="Maryland campaign">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_campaign" title="Vicksburg campaign">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullahoma_campaign" title="Tullahoma campaign">Tullahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_campaign" title="Gettysburg campaign">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid" title="Morgan's Raid">Morgan's Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristoe_campaign" title="Bristoe campaign">Bristoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_campaign" title="Knoxville campaign">Knoxville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_campaign" title="Red River campaign">Red River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">Valley 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred_campaign" title="Bermuda Hundred campaign">Bermuda Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Richmond-Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_campaign" title="Franklin–Nashville campaign">Franklin–Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%27s_Missouri_Expedition" title="Price's Missouri Expedition">Price's Missouri Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Carolinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign of the Carolinas">Carolinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_campaign_(1865)" title="Mobile campaign (1865)">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_campaign" title="Appomattox campaign">Appomattox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_battles" title="List of American Civil War battles">battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">1st Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Wilson's Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Fort Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pea_Ridge" title="Battle of Pea Ridge">Pea Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth" title="Siege of Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines" title="Battle of Seven Pines">Seven Pines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles" title="Seven Days Battles">Seven Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">2nd Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Antietam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville" title="Battle of Perryville">Perryville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Chickamauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_campaign" title="Chattanooga campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor" title="Battle of Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Crater" title="Battle of the Crater">Crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_(1864)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Franklin (1864)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Five_Forks" title="Battle of Five Forks">Five Forks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Involvement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">States and territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Alabama in the American Civil War">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Arkansas in the American Civil War">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Arizona" title="Confederate Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="California in the American Civil War">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado in the American Civil War">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Connecticut in the American Civil War">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory#Dakota_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware#Delaware_in_the_Civil_War" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Florida in the American Civil War">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Georgia in the American Civil War">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hawaii and the American Civil War">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho in the American Civil War">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Illinois in the American Civil War">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indiana in the American Civil War">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Iowa in the American Civil War">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kansas in the American Civil War">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kentucky in the American Civil War">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maine in the American Civil War">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maryland in the American Civil War">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Massachusetts in the American Civil War">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Michigan in the American Civil War">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota#Civil_War_era_and_Dakota_War_of_1862" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Mississippi in the American Civil War">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Missouri in the American Civil War">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Montana in the American Civil War">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nebraska Territory in the American Civil War">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nevada in the American Civil War">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire#Civil_War:_1861–1865" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Jersey in the American Civil War">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New York in the American Civil War">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="North Carolina in the American Civil War">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Ohio in the American Civil War">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Oregon in the American Civil War">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pennsylvania in the American Civil War">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Rhode Island in the American Civil War">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Tennessee in the American Civil War">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Texas in the American Civil War">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah in the American Civil War">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Vermont in the American Civil War">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington in the American Civil War">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="West Virginia in the American Civil War">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Wisconsin in the American Civil War">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Charleston in the American Civil War">Charleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Chattanooga in the American Civil War">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Orleans in the American Civil War">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Winchester, Virginia in the American Civil War">Winchester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">Leaders</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Anderson_(general)" title="Richard H. Anderson (general)">R. H. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Beauregard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Bragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Buchanan" title="Franklin Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(general)" title="Samuel Cooper (general)">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubal_Early" title="Jubal Early">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Ewell" title="Richard S. Ewell">Ewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gorgas" title="Josiah Gorgas">Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Hill" title="A. P. Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston" title="Albert Sidney Johnston">A. S. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">J. E. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet" title="James Longstreet">Longstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan" title="John Hunt Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Mosby" title="John S. Mosby">Mosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_Polk" title="Leonidas Polk">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_Price" title="Sterling Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Semmes" title="Raphael Semmes">Semmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Kirby_Smith" title="Edmund Kirby Smith">E. K. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(Confederate_general)" title="Richard Taylor (Confederate general)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wheeler" title="Joseph Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Bocock" title="Thomas S. Bocock">Bocock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mallory" title="Stephen Mallory">Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Memminger" title="Christopher Memminger">Memminger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Seddon" title="James Seddon">Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Stephens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Civil_War)" title="Robert Anderson (Civil War)">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Buell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside" title="Ambrose Burnside">Burnside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Francis_Du_Pont" title="Samuel Francis Du Pont">Du Pont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Foote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Halleck" title="Henry Halleck">Halleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt" title="Henry Jackson Hunt">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvin_McDowell" title="Irvin McDowell">McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs" title="Montgomery C. Meigs">Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">D. D. Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">Rosecrans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Sheridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">Ericsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wade" title="Benjamin Wade">Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">Alabama Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax riot of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_colonies" title="Confederate colonies">Confederate refugees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederados" title="Confederados">Confederados</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Eufaula riot of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank" title="Freedman's Savings Bank">Freedman's Savings Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a> of 1873</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Andrew_Johnson" title="Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson">efforts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Timeline of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">first inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">second inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">impeachment managers investigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_White_Camelia" title="Knights of the White Camelia">Knights of the White Camelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans riot of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski (Tennessee) riot of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of February 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of April 1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">Reconstruction military districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Reconstruction Treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_Council" title="Fort Smith Council">Indian Council at Fort Smith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Claims_Commission" title="Southern Claims Commission">Southern Claims Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Post- Reconstruction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Centennial" title="American Civil War Centennial">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Discovery_Trail" title="Civil War Discovery Trail">Civil War Discovery Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Roundtable" title="Civil War Roundtable">Civil War Roundtables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trails_Program" title="Civil War Trails Program">Civil War Trails Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil War Trust">Civil War Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_History_Month" title="Confederate History Month">Confederate History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Day" title="Confederate Memorial Day">Confederate Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Day" title="Memorial Day">Decoration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_reenactment" title="American Civil War reenactment">Historical reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Day" title="Robert E. Lee Day">Robert E. Lee Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">Historiographic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_display_of_the_Confederate_battle_flag" title="Modern display of the Confederate battle flag">Modern display of the Confederate flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Union_Veterans_of_the_Civil_War" title="Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War">Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Historical_Society" title="Southern Historical Society">Southern Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of the Confederacy">Children of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Monuments and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Union_Civil_War_monuments_and_memorials" title="List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="List of memorials to the Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of memorials to Abraham Lincoln">memorials to Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Confederate monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_artworks_in_the_United_States_Capitol" title="Confederate artworks in the United States Capitol">artworks in Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Jefferson_Davis" title="List of memorials to Jefferson Davis">memorials to Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Robert_E._Lee" title="List of memorials to Robert E. Lee">memorials to Lee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" title="Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials">Removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Cemeteries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Memorial_Association" title="Ladies' Memorial Association">Ladies' Memorial Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Era_National_Cemeteries_MPS" title="Civil War Era National Cemeteries MPS">U.S. national cemeteries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Veterans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1913_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1913 Gettysburg reunion">1913 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1938 Gettysburg reunion">1938 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Veteran" title="Confederate Veteran">Confederate Veteran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Order_of_the_Loyal_Legion_of_the_United_States" title="Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States">Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_soldiers%27_home" title="Old soldiers' home">Old soldiers' homes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_of_Honor" title="Southern Cross of Honor">Southern Cross of Honor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">Arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Campaign_Medal" title="Civil War Campaign Medal">Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cavalry in the American Civil War">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Home_Guard" title="Confederate Home Guard">Confederate Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_railroads_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Confederate railroads in the American Civil War">Confederate railroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_revolving_cannon" title="Confederate revolving cannon">Confederate revolving cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Field artillery in the American Civil War">Field artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients">Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Medicine in the American Civil War">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of naval battles of the American Civil War">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Records_of_the_Union_and_Confederate_Armies" title="Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies">Official Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_Ranger_Act" title="Partisan Ranger Act">Partisan rangers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">POW camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foods_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foods of the American Civil War">Rations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Signal Corps in the American Civil War">Signal Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Corps_Badges" title="American Civil War Corps Badges">Union corps badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">U.S. Balloon Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Guard_(Union)" title="Home Guard (Union)">U.S. Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Railroad" title="United States Military Railroad">U.S. Military Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_the_Conduct_of_the_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War">Committee on the Conduct of the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate States presidential election">Confederate States presidential election of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copperhead_(politics)" title="Copperhead (politics)">Copperheads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_(1863)" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863)">Habeas Corpus Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_politicians_killed_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of politicians killed in the American Civil War">Politicians killed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_League" title="Union League">Union Leagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">U.S. Presidential Election of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Music of the American Civil War">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_(song)" title="Dixie (song)">Dixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Lincoln_Portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="A Lincoln Portrait">A Lincoln Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marching_Through_Georgia" title="Marching Through Georgia">Marching Through Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland,_My_Maryland" title="Maryland, My Maryland">Maryland, My Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home" title="When Johnny Comes Marching Home">When Johnny Comes Marching Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daar_kom_die_Alibama" title="Daar kom die Alibama">Daar kom die Alibama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ethnicity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catawba_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Catawba in the American Civil War">Catawba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Seminole in the American Civil War">Seminole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1861" title="Baltimore riot of 1861">Baltimore riot of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_battlefield_preservation" title="American Civil War battlefield preservation">Battlefield preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_war_finance" title="Confederate war finance">Confederate war finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_dollar" title="Confederate States dollar">Confederate States dollar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_spies" title="American Civil War spies">Espionage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Secret_Service" title="Confederate Secret Service">Confederate Secret Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army_revival" title="Confederate States Army revival">Great Revival of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_issues_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Gender issues in the American Civil War">Gender issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">Naming the war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_gold_hoax" title="Civil War gold hoax">New York City Gold Hoax of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographers_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Photographers of the American Civil War">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_bread_riots" title="Southern bread riots">Richmond riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Salt in the American Civil War">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Supreme Court cases of the American Civil War">Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_token" title="Civil War token">Tokens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Sanitary_Commission" title="United States Sanitary Commission">U.S. Sanitary Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_American_Civil_War_soldiers" title="List of female American Civil War soldiers">Women soldiers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_and_television_shows_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of films and television shows about the American Civil War">List of films and television shows about the American Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:American_Civil_War" title="Category:American Civil War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Underground_Railroad" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Underground_Railroad" title="Template:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underground_Railroad" title="Template talk:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underground_Railroad" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underground_Railroad" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_people" title="Category:Underground Railroad people">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Brinkley_(Underground_Railroad)" title="William Brinkley (Underground Railroad)">William Brinkley</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1771)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1771)">Owen Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Burris" title="Samuel Burris">Samuel Burris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Coffin" title="Levi Coffin">Levi Coffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dillingham" title="Richard Dillingham">Richard Dillingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Fairbank" title="Calvin Fairbank">Calvin Fairbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_S._Flint" title="Isaac S. Flint">Isaac S. Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Garrett" title="Thomas Garrett">Thomas Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Harper" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Harper">Frances Harper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Smith_Haviland" title="Laura Smith Haviland">Laura Smith Haviland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hudson_(pioneer)" title="David Hudson (pioneer)">David Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hughes_(underground_railroad)" title="Daniel Hughes (underground railroad)">Daniel Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peg_Leg_Joe" title="Peg Leg Joe">Peg Leg Joe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cooper_Nell" title="William Cooper Nell">William Cooper Nell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Forten_Purvis" title="Harriet Forten Purvis">Harriet Forten Purvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Purvis" title="Robert Purvis">Robert Purvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rankin_(abolitionist)" title="John Rankin (abolitionist)">John Rankin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetty_Reckless" title="Hetty Reckless">Hetty Reckless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ellis_Stowe" title="Calvin Ellis Stowe">Calvin Ellis Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Turner_Torrey" title="Charles Turner Torrey">Charles Turner Torrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delia_Webster" title="Delia Webster">Delia Webster</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Ursa_major_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/110px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/165px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/220px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="110" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_locations" title="Category:Underground Railroad locations">Places</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Underground_Railroad_sites" title="List of Underground Railroad sites">List of Underground Railroad sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Houses_on_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Houses on the Underground Railroad">houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Churches_on_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Churches on the Underground Railroad">churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_in_Indiana" title="Underground Railroad in Indiana">Underground Railroad in Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_Salem_Chapel" title="British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel">British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emeline_and_Samuel_Hawkins" title="Emeline and Samuel Hawkins">Emeline and Samuel Hawkins</a> flight (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_incident" title="Pearl incident">Pearl incident</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_raid_in_Cass_County_(1847)" title="Kentucky raid in Cass County (1847)">Kentucky raid in Cass County</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_Modlin#The_South_Bend_Fugitive_Slave_Case" title="Wright Modlin">The South Bend Fugitive Slave Case</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiana_Riot" title="Christiana Riot">Christiana Riot</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rescue" title="Jerry Rescue">Jerry Rescue</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a> (1852 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Glover" title="Joshua Glover">Joshua Glover rescue</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a> (1856 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Eight" title="Dover Eight">Dover Eight</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin%E2%80%93Wellington_Rescue" title="Oberlin–Wellington Rescue">Oberlin–Wellington Rescue</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilly_Escape" title="Tilly Escape">Tilly Escape</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Maria_Jackson" title="Ann Maria Jackson">Ann Maria Jackson and her seven children</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> (1865)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">opponents of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_abolitionists" title="List of African-American abolitionists">African-American opponents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism#Abolitionist_publications" title="Abolitionism">publications</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave laws">Fugitive slave laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">1850</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quilts_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Quilts of the Underground Railroad">Quilts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Underground_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse Underground Railroad">Reverse Underground Railroad</a></li> <li>Signals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawn_jockey" title="Lawn jockey">lawn jockey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a> (1872 book)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Underground_Railroad_Freedom_Center" title="National Underground Railroad Freedom Center">National Underground Railroad Freedom Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Memorial_(Boston)" title="Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)">Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_State_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_Visitor_Center" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Visitor Center">visitor center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Underground_Railroad_Heritage_Center" title="Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center">Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_Bicycle_Route" title="Underground Railroad Bicycle Route">Underground Railroad Bicycle Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Railroad_to_Freedom:_A_Story_of_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War">The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War</a> (1932 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Woman_Called_Moses" title="A Woman Called Moses">A Woman Called Moses</a> (1978 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roots_of_Resistance:_The_Story_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Roots of Resistance: The Story of the Underground Railroad">Roots of Resistance</a> (1989 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quest_for_Freedom" title="The Quest for Freedom">The Quest for Freedom</a> (1992 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom:_The_Underground_Railroad" title="Freedom: The Underground Railroad">Freedom: The Underground Railroad</a> (2013 board game)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_North_Star_(2016_film)" title="The North Star (2016 film)">The North Star</a> (2016 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_(TV_series)" title="Underground (TV series)">Underground</a> (2016 TV series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_(film)" title="Harriet (film)">Harriet</a> (2019 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(miniseries)" title="The Underground Railroad (miniseries)">The Underground Railroad</a> (2021 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189366#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189366#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189366#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118674439">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79045540">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119851887">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119851887">BnF data</a></li><li>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/MODV164560">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35022751">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0004114&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058620175906706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/796771">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118674439">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027911551">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6kf2n06">SNAC</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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[\"CITEREFBridgmanParsons1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroderick2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1859\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgess\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaccamo2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter_Jackson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarvalho_III2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaudle2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapin1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChild1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClavin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClinton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnie_A._Miller_Sr.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoughlin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrothers2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeCaro2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeCaro2005b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Witt1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDi_Paol2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonaldson1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglass1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglass1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglass1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuBois1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDu_Bois2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaust2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeatherstonhaugh1897\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFeatherstonhaugh1899\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFField1892\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFField1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiller1849\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkelman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkelman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlick1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFried1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurnas1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalbreath\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrison1859\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGarth_Franklin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGopnick2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarlow1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinton2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobart1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodge1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorn2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorwitz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudnall1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson_Quester_chapters1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuyett2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIowa_Department_of_Historical_Affairs_and_State_Historical_Society_of_Iowa\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsely1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._M._Hopper,_General_Furnishing_Undertaker1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Brown_Lives!\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Brown_Memorial_Association\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJunger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKansas_City_Star_Editorial_Board2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeeler1874\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKligerAlbrecht1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLa_MoySanborn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLibby2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLong2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLori_McManus2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowry1859\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMackey2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMassaquoi1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDaniel2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGilligan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinty2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGlone1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMechem\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinzesheimer,_Bob2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoyerShackel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Park_Service2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Park_Service2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNixson1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOates\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOates1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhio_Historical_Society\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnion2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1888\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuarles1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuarles1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuincy1908\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFR._Blakeslee_Gilpin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRBS_(Rebecca_Buffum_Spring)1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRathke2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRealf1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedpath1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes1892\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogers1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuane,_Michael_E.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanborn1872\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanborn1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanborn1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanbornBrown1878\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanbornc._1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharff2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenGupta2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnodgrass2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimothy_Patrick_McCarthyJohn_Stauffer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorrington_Historical_Society2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorrington_Town_Clerk1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrodd2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruel1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsai2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurzillo2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFU._S._House_of_Representatives_–_34th_Congress_–_1st_Session1856\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVillard1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVirtanen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVon_Holst1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarchFanton1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitman1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_T._Leonard1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWise1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWise1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyatt-Brown1975\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"American Civil War\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bible\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Circa\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 71,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 76,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 63,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Brown, John\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 9,\n [\"Em dash\"] = 2,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 4,\n [\"Infobox person\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 2,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 175,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 14,\n [\"US$\"] = 1,\n [\"Underground Railroad\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","19.1"],["?","260","13.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","260","13.8"],["recursiveClone 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