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id="toc-Colonial_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Colonial rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Ethnicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationalist_movement_and_Congolese_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalist_movement_and_Congolese_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Nationalist movement and Congolese politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalist_movement_and_Congolese_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congolese_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congolese_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Congolese nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congolese_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kalonji-Lumumba_split_and_polarisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kalonji-Lumumba_split_and_polarisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Kalonji-Lumumba split and polarisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kalonji-Lumumba_split_and_polarisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Secession</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Secession-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Secession subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Secession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persecution_of_the_Baluba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution_of_the_Baluba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Persecution of the Baluba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution_of_the_Baluba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secession_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secession_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Secession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secession_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>International support</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kalonji_as_Mulopwe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kalonji_as_Mulopwe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Kalonji as <i>Mulopwe</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kalonji_as_Mulopwe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_and_reintegration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_and_reintegration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Collapse and reintegration</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Collapse_and_reintegration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Collapse and reintegration subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Collapse_and_reintegration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Campaign_of_August–September_1960" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_of_August–September_1960"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Campaign of August–September 1960</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_of_August–September_1960-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coexistence_and_attempted_reconciliation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coexistence_and_attempted_reconciliation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Coexistence and attempted reconciliation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coexistence_and_attempted_reconciliation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kalonji's_arrest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kalonji's_arrest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Kalonji's arrest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kalonji's_arrest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coup_d'état_of_September–October_1962" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coup_d'état_of_September–October_1962"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Coup d'état of September–October 1962</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coup_d'état_of_September–October_1962-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Kasai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Kasai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>In Kasai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Kasai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Congo_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Congo_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>End of the Congo Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Congo_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes and references subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-News" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#News"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>News</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-News-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كاساي الجنوبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كاساي الجنوبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_del_Sur" title="Kasai del Sur – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Kasai del Sur" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A6%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="گونئی کاسای – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="گونئی کاسای" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_del_Sud" title="Kasai del Sud – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kasai del Sud" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%BEn%C3%AD_Kasai" title="Jižní Kasai – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jižní Kasai" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCd-Kasai" title="Süd-Kasai – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Süd-Kasai" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_del_Sur" title="Kasai del Sur – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kasai del Sur" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda_Kasaio" title="Suda Kasaio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Suda Kasaio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sud-Kasa%C3%AF" title="Sud-Kasaï – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sud-Kasaï" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_do_Sur" title="Kasai do Sur – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Kasai do Sur" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_Selatan" title="Kasai Selatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kasai Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sud-Kasai" title="Sud-Kasai – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sud-Kasai" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet%C5%B3_Kasajus" title="Pietų Kasajus – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pietų Kasajus" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mijnstaat_Zuid-Kasa%C3%AF" title="Mijnstaat Zuid-Kasaï – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mijnstaat Zuid-Kasaï" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E3%82%AB%E3%82%B5%E3%82%A4%E9%89%B1%E5%B1%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="南カサイ鉱山国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南カサイ鉱山国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8r-Kasa%C3%AF" title="Sør-Kasaï – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sør-Kasaï" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_Po%C5%82udniowe" title="Kasai Południowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kasai Południowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassai_do_Sul" title="Cassai do Sul – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cassai do Sul" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B8" title="Южное Касаи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Южное Касаи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju%C5%BEn%C3%BD_Kasai" title="Južný Kasai – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Južný Kasai" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etel%C3%A4-Kasai" title="Etelä-Kasai – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Etelä-Kasai" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydkasai" title="Sydkasai – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sydkasai" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCney_Kasai" title="Güney Kasai – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Güney Kasai" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%97" title="Південне Касаї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Південне Касаї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam_Kasai" title="Nam Kasai – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nam Kasai" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E9%96%8B%E8%B3%BD" title="南開賽 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="南開賽" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q639073#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=South_Kasai&params=06_09_S_23_36_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">06°09′S</span> <span class="longitude">23°36′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">6.150°S 23.600°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-6.150; 23.600</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1960–1962 unrecognised state in Africa</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">South Kasai</div><div class="ib-country-names"><i>Sud-Kasaï</i></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1960–1962</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_South_Kasai.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of South Kasai"><img alt="Flag of South Kasai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_South_Kasai.svg/250px-Flag_of_South_Kasai.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div>Flag</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of South Kasai"><img alt="Coat of arms of South Kasai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg/85px-Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg/128px-Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg/170px-Emblem_of_South_Kasai.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="627" /></a></span></div> <div>Coat of arms</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Congo in 1961 with South Kasai highlighted in red, bordered by secessionist Katanga to the south."><img alt="Map of the Congo in 1961 with South Kasai highlighted in red, bordered by secessionist Katanga to the south." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg/250px-South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg/375px-South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg/500px-South_Kasai_in_Congo_1961.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="1095" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Map of the Congo in 1961 with South Kasai highlighted in red, bordered by <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">secessionist Katanga</a> to the south.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_unrecognized_states" title="List of historical unrecognized states">Unrecognised state</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mbuji-Mayi" title="Mbuji-Mayi">Bakwanga</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/De_Jure" class="mw-redirect" title="De Jure">De Jure</a></i>:<br />Autonomous <a href="/wiki/Federated_state" title="Federated state">federated state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Republic of the Congo</a><br /> <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">De facto</a></i>:<br />Independent <a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">semi-presidential</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">ethnocracy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">President/Emperor</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1960–1962 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis#Independence" title="Congo Crisis">Congolese independence</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 June 1960</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Unilateral secession </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 August 1960</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Monarchy proclaimed </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12 April 1961</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Arrest of Kalonji </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 December 1961</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Coup d'état </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29 September 1962</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis#United_Nations_escalation_and_the_end_of_the_Katangese_secession" title="Congo Crisis">Dissolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 October 1962</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1962 est.;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Congolese_franc" title="Congolese franc">Congolese franc</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_%281960%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conflicts_in_DR_Congo23270" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Congo" title="Template:Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Congo" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Congo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conflicts_in_DR_Congo23270" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Background</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">during WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Kivu_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="1944 Kivu uprising">1944 Kivu uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opoldville_riots" title="Léopoldville riots">Léopoldville riots</a></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Template:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Congo_Crisis2570" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">Force Publique mutinies</a></li> <li>Secession crisis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Congo-Stanleyville</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch"><i>Rum Punch</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemba_ambush" title="Niemba ambush">Niemba ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabalo" title="Battle of Kabalo">Battle of Kabalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Jadotville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unokat" title="Operation Unokat"><i>UNOKAT</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Camp_Massart" title="Attack on Camp Massart">Camp Massart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam"><i>Grandslam</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_rebellion" title="Kwilu rebellion">Kwilu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge"><i>Dragon Rouge</i></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Dragon_Noir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Dragon Noir (page does not exist)"><i>Dragon Noir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_White_Giant" title="Operation White Giant"><i>White Giant</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Violettes_Imperiales" title="Operation Violettes Imperiales"><i>Violettes Imperiales</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_South" title="Operation South"><i>South</i></a></li></ul></li> <p><b>Other major events</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">Dissolution of the Lumumba Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#Final_days_and_assassination" title="Patrice Lumumba">Torture and killing of Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Dag Hammarskjöld">Death of Dag Hammarskjöld</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Shaba_Invasions544" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War#Shaba_Invasions" title="Angolan Civil War"><span class="wrap">Shaba Invasions</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">Shaba II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolwezi" title="Battle of Kolwezi">Battle of Kolwezi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact_of_1979" title="Non-aggression pact of 1979">Non-aggression pact of 1979</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="First_Congo_War1612" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War"><span class="wrap">First Congo War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Background</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_Invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaba Invasions">Shaba Invasions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Uganda_(1986%E2%80%931994)" title="War in Uganda (1986–1994)">War in Uganda (1986–1994)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Zaire_unrest" title="1991 Zaire unrest">1991 Zaire unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundian_Civil_War" title="Burundian Civil War">Burundian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Habyarimana" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of Habyarimana">Assassination of Habyarimana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Great Lakes refugee crisis">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>War</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AFDL" title="AFDL">Formation of the AFDL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Thunderbolt_(1997)" title="Operation Thunderbolt (1997)"><i>Thunderbolt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Lubumbashi" title="Capture of Lubumbashi">Lubumbashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kinsangani_(1997)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kinsangani (1997)">Kinsangani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko#Overthrow" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Overthrow of Mobutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Ascension of Laurent Kabila</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Second_Congo_War4554" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War"><span class="wrap">Second Congo War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kitona" title="Operation Kitona">Operation Kitona</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusaka_Ceasefire_Agreement" title="Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement">Lusaka Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gbadolite_Agreement" title="Gbadolite Agreement">Gbadolite Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_City_Agreement" title="Sun City Agreement">Sun City Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War_(2000)" title="Six-Day War (2000)">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisangani_massacre" title="Kisangani massacre">Kisangani massacre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogoro_massacre" title="Bogoro massacre">Bogoro massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretoria_Accord" title="Pretoria Accord">Pretoria Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MONUSCO" title="MONUSCO">MONUSCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">ICC investigation</a></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Ituri_Conflict" title="Template:Campaignbox Ituri Conflict"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Ituri_Conflict" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Ituri Conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Ituri_Conflict" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Ituri Conflict"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ituri_conflict1215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Ituri_conflict" title="Ituri conflict">Ituri conflict</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogoro_massacre" title="Bogoro massacre">Bogoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Artemis" title="Operation Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_North_Night_Final" title="Operation North Night Final">North Night Final</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marabho_attack" title="Marabho attack">Marabho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndjala_massacre" title="Ndjala massacre">Ndjala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_2020_Ituri_offensive" title="October 2020 Ituri offensive">October 2020 offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boga_and_Tchabi_massacres" title="Boga and Tchabi massacres">Boga and Tchabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaine_Savo_massacre" title="Plaine Savo massacre">Plaine Savo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyamamba_and_Mbogi_mass_graves" title="Nyamamba and Mbogi mass graves">Nyamamba and Mbogi</a></li> <dl><dt>Response</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1484" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1484">UN 1484</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Kivu_Conflict" title="Template:Campaignbox Kivu Conflict"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Kivu_Conflict" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Kivu Conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Kivu_Conflict" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Kivu Conflict"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kivu_conflict3488" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="font-size:98%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lemera_massacre" title="Lemera massacre">Lemera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasika_massacre" title="Kasika massacre">Kasika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makobola_massacre" title="Makobola massacre">Makobola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makombo_massacre" title="Makombo massacre">Makombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Nord-Kivu_campaign" title="2008 Nord-Kivu campaign">2008 Nord-Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Eastern_Congo_offensive" title="2009 Eastern Congo offensive">2009 Eastern Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion_(2012%E2%80%932013)" title="M23 rebellion (2012–2013)">M23 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_North_Kivu_offensive" title="2014 North Kivu offensive">2014 North Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_CNPSC_offensive" title="2017 CNPSC offensive">2017 CNPSC offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Uvira_clashes" title="2017 Uvira clashes">Uvira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_2020_Oicha_massacres" title="January 2020 Oicha massacres">Oicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2020_Virunga_National_Park_massacre" title="April 2020 Virunga National Park massacre">Virunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipupu_massacre" title="Kipupu massacre">Kipupu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Kangbayi_prison_break" title="2020 Kangbayi prison break">Kangbayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisasa_massacre" title="Lisasa massacre">Lisasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingwe_massacre" title="Tingwe massacre">Tingwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932024_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_attacks" title="2021–2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo attacks">2021–2024 attacks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mwenda_massacre" title="Mwenda massacre">Mwenda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Bulongo_massacre" title="2021 Bulongo massacre">Bulongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimoya_highway_massacre" title="Maimoya highway massacre">Maimoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasanzi_attack" title="Kasanzi attack">Kasanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makutano_massacre" title="Makutano massacre">Makutano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagogo_ambush" title="Kagogo ambush">Kagogo ambush</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="M23 offensive (2022–present)">M23 offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-MONUSCO_protests" title="Anti-MONUSCO protests">Anti-MONUSCO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishishe_massacre" title="Kishishe massacre">Kishishe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Kitshanga" title="First Battle of Kitshanga">1st Kitshanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kitshanga" title="Second Battle of Kitshanga">2nd Kitshanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Goma_offensive" title="2025 Goma offensive">Goma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Bukavu_offensive" title="2025 Bukavu offensive">Bukavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Uvira_offensive" title="2025 Uvira offensive">2nd Uvira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Butembo_offensive" title="2025 Butembo offensive">Butembo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Walikale_offensive" title="2025 Walikale offensive">Walikale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masambo_attack" title="Masambo attack">Masambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomabere_attack" title="Otomabere attack">Otomabere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2022_North_Kivu_attacks" title="August 2022 North Kivu attacks">2022 North Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasindi_church_bombing" title="Kasindi church bombing">Kasindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makugwe_massacre" title="Makugwe massacre">Makugwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukondi_massacre" title="Mukondi massacre">Mukondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirindera_massacre" title="Kirindera massacre">Kirindera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasanga_massacre" title="Kasanga massacre">Kasanga</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other1236" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Other</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katanga_insurgency" title="Katanga insurgency">Katanga insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Democratic_Forces_insurgency" title="Allied Democratic Forces insurgency">Allied Democratic Forces insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shujaa" title="Operation Shujaa">Operation Shujaa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongo_conflict" title="Dongo conflict">Dongo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état attempt">2011 coup d'etat attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batwa%E2%80%93Luba_clashes" title="Batwa–Luba clashes">Batwa–Luba clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_2013_Kinshasa_attacks" title="December 2013 Kinshasa attacks">2013 Kinshasa attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamwina_Nsapu_rebellion" title="Kamwina Nsapu rebellion">Kamwina Nsapu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_DR_Congo_clashes" title="Western DR Congo clashes">Western DR Congo clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_soldiers_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Child soldiers in the Congo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Congo_Crisis2583" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Template:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Congo_Crisis2583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">Force Publique mutinies</a></li> <li>Secession crisis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Congo-Stanleyville</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch"><i>Rum Punch</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemba_ambush" title="Niemba ambush">Niemba ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabalo" title="Battle of Kabalo">Battle of Kabalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Jadotville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unokat" title="Operation Unokat"><i>UNOKAT</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Camp_Massart" title="Attack on Camp Massart">Camp Massart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam"><i>Grandslam</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_rebellion" title="Kwilu rebellion">Kwilu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge"><i>Dragon Rouge</i></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Dragon_Noir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Dragon Noir (page does not exist)"><i>Dragon Noir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_White_Giant" title="Operation White Giant"><i>White Giant</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Violettes_Imperiales" title="Operation Violettes Imperiales"><i>Violettes Imperiales</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_South" title="Operation South"><i>South</i></a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>Other major events</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">Dissolution of the Lumumba Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#Final_days_and_assassination" title="Patrice Lumumba">Torture and killing of Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Dag Hammarskjöld">Death of Dag Hammarskjöld</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><b>South Kasai</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Sud-Kasaï</i>) was an <a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_unrecognized_states_and_dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies">unrecognised</a> <a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">secessionist state</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Republic of the Congo</a> (the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was semi-independent between 1960 and 1962. Initially proposed as only a province, South Kasai sought full <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">autonomy</a> in similar circumstances to the much larger neighbouring <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">state of Katanga</a>, to its south, during the political turmoil arising from the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a>. Unlike Katanga, however, South Kasai did not explicitly declare full independence from the Republic of the Congo or reject Congolese sovereignty. </p><p>The South Kasaian leader and main advocate, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a>, who had represented a faction of the <a href="/wiki/African_Nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="African Nationalism">nationalist movement</a> (the <i><a href="/wiki/Mouvement_National_Congolais" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement National Congolais">Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji</a></i> or MNC-K) before decolonisation, exploited ethnic tensions between his own ethnic group, the <a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Baluba</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Lulua_people" title="Lulua people">Bena Lulua</a> to create a Luba-focused state in the group's traditional heartland in the south-eastern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Kasai_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasai region">Kasai region</a>. As sectarian violence broke out across the country, the state declared its secession from the Congo on 9 August 1960<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its government and called for the Baluba living in the rest of the Congo to return to their "homeland". Kalonji was appointed president. Although the South Kasaian government claimed to form an autonomous part of a <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federal</a> Congo-wide state, it exercised a degree of regional autonomy and even produced its own constitution and postage stamps. The state, supported by foreign powers, particularly <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, and funded by <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> exports, managed numerous crises, including those caused by the large emigration of Luba refugees, but became increasingly militarist and repressive. </p><p>Soon after its secession, South Kasaian and Congolese troops clashed after the Congolese central government ordered <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">an offensive</a> against it. The resulting campaign, planned to be the first act of a larger action against Katanga, was accompanied by widespread massacres of Baluba and a refugee crisis termed a <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> by some contemporaries. The state was rapidly overrun by Congolese troops. The violence in the suppression of Kasai provided much legitimacy to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a>'s deposition of <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a> from the office of prime minister in late 1960 and Lumumba's later arrest and assassination. As a result, South Kasai remained on relatively good terms with the new Congolese government from 1961. Its leaders, including Kalonji himself, served in both the South Kasaian government and the Congolese parliament. South Kasai continued to exercise quasi-independence while Congolese and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> troops were able to move through the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarmerie</a>. In April 1961, Kalonji took the royal title <i>Mulopwe</i> ("King of the Baluba") to tie the state more closely to the pre-colonial <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Luba">Luba Empire</a>. The act divided the South Kasaian authorities and Kalonji was disavowed by the majority of South Kasai's parliamentary representatives in <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Léopoldville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1961, Kalonji was arrested on a legal pretext in Léopoldville and imprisoned, and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Kazadi" title="Ferdinand Kazadi">Ferdinand Kazadi</a> assumed power as acting head of state. UN and Congolese troops occupied South Kasai. In September 1962, shortly after his escape from prison and return to South Kasai, Kalonji was ousted by a military <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> which forced him into exile and brought the secession to an end. </p><p>The end of South Kasai's secession is usually held to be either December 1961, the date of Kalonji's arrest, or October 1962 with the anti-Kalonji <i>coup d'état</i> and final arrival of government troops. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_rule">Colonial rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Colonial rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg/250px-StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg/330px-StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg/500px-StoryoftheCongoFreeState_144b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Luba</a> chiefs of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonization of the Congo">European colonial rule in the Congo</a> began in the late 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">King Leopold II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, frustrated by his country's lack of international power and prestige, attempted to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexplored <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a>. The Belgian government's ambivalence about the idea led Leopold to eventually create the colony on his own account. With support from a number of Western countries, who viewed Leopold as a useful <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer</a> between rival colonial powers, Leopold achieved international recognition for a personal colony, the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a>, in 1885.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992253–255_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992253–255-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Luba_Empire" title="Luba Empire">Luba Empire</a>, the largest regional power in the <a href="/wiki/Kasai_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasai region">Kasai region</a>, was annexed into the new state in 1889. By the turn of the century, the violence of Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did in 1908, creating the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992588–549_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992588–549-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" (<i>trinité coloniale</i>) of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">state</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">missionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Privately_held_company" title="Privately held company">private company</a> interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became <a href="/wiki/Economic_specialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic specialization">specialised</a>. On many occasions, the interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied and the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner200728_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner200728-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The country was split into hierarchically-organised administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (<i>politique indigène</i>) – in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favoured the system of <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirect rule</a> whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner200729_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner200729-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ethnicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the start of the colonial period, the region of South Kasai formed part of the Luba Empire, a federation of local kingdoms with a degree of cultural uniformity. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baluba spread across large parts of the Kasai-Katanga savannah along the <a href="/wiki/Kasai_River" title="Kasai River">Kasai river basin</a> and eventually developed into a number of ethnic subgroups, notably the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga. Although never united into a single centralised state, the groups retained a degree of emotional attachment based around shared origin myths and cultural practices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other groups, like the <a href="/wiki/Songye_people" title="Songye people">Songye</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kanyok_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kanyok people (page does not exist)">Kanyok</a>, also had long histories in the Kasai region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102–103_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102–103-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the major legacies of colonial rule in Kasai was the arbitrary redivision of the population into new ethnic groups. Despite the shared language (<a href="/wiki/Luba-Kasai_language" title="Luba-Kasai language">Tshiluba</a>) and culture of the two groups, colonial administrators believed the inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Lulua_River" title="Lulua River">Lulua river</a> area to be ethnically different from the Baluba and dubbed them the Bena Lulua. The colonists believed the Baluba to be more intelligent, hardworking and open to new ideas than the Bena Lulua who were believed to be more reactionary and stupid. As a result, from the 1930s, the state began to treat the two groups differently and applied different policies to each and promoted the Baluba to positions above other ethnicities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007103_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007103-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1950s when the Belgians began to fear that the rise of a powerful Luba elite would become a threat to colonial rule, the administration began to support Lulua organisations. This further contributed to the growing ethnic polarisation between the two groups. In 1952, an organisation called the <i>Lulua Frères</i> (Lulua Brothers) was established to campaign for socio-economic advancement of the Lulua group and became an unofficial representative of the Bena Lulua. In 1959, Luba-Lulua animosity was brought to a head by the discovery of a colonial proposal to move Luba farmers out of Lulua land to the less fertile land on Luba territory. As a result, hostility increased and violent clashes broke out. In August 1959, Luba demonstrations against the plan which were violently repressed by the colonial military and police.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalist_movement_and_Congolese_politics">Nationalist movement and Congolese politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nationalist movement and Congolese politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg/170px-Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg/255px-Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg/340px-Anefo_910-9740_De_Congolese2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="1586" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a> split with Kalonji in 1959 and denied his supporters roles in central government.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Congolese_nationalism">Congolese nationalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Congolese nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An anti-colonial <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-African</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">nationalist movement</a> developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s, primarily among the <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89volu%C3%A9" title="Évolué">évolué</a></i> class (the urbanised black <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>). The movement was divided into a number of parties and groups which were broadly divided on ethnic and geographical lines and opposed to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreund1998199_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreund1998199-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mouvement_National_Congolais" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement National Congolais">Mouvement National Congolais</a></i> (MNC), was a <a href="/wiki/United_front" title="United front">united front</a> organisation dedicated to achieving independence "within a reasonable" time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was created around a charter which was signed by, among others, <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrille_Adoula" title="Cyrille Adoula">Cyrille Adoula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Il%C3%A9o" title="Joseph Iléo">Joseph Iléo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864–65_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864–65-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lumumba became a leading figure and by the end of 1959, the party claimed to have 58,000 members.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200876_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200876-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many found the MNC was too moderate. A number of other parties emerged, distinguished by their radicalism, support for <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Centralized_government" title="Centralized government">centralism</a> and affiliation to certain <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic groupings</a>. The MNC's main rival was the <i><a href="/wiki/ABAKO" title="ABAKO">Alliance des Bakongo</a></i> (ABAKO) led by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a>, a more radical party supported among the <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo people</a> in the north, and <a href="/wiki/Mo%C3%AFse_Tshombe" title="Moïse Tshombe">Moïse Tshombe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/CONAKAT" title="CONAKAT">Confédération des Associations Tribales du Katanga</a></i> (CONAKAT), a strongly federalist party in the southern <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga Province</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200874_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200874-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kalonji-Lumumba_split_and_polarisation">Kalonji-Lumumba split and polarisation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Kalonji-Lumumba split and polarisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Kalonji.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Albert_Kalonji.jpg/170px-Albert_Kalonji.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Albert_Kalonji.jpg/255px-Albert_Kalonji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Albert_Kalonji.jpg/340px-Albert_Kalonji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a> broke with Lumumba and later led the secession of South Kasai.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although it was the largest of the African nationalist parties, the MNC had many different factions within it that took differing stances on a number of issues. It was increasingly polarised between moderate <i>évolués</i> and the more radical mass membership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200882–83_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200882–83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A radical and federalist faction headed by Ileo and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a> split away in July 1959, but failed to induce mass defections by other MNC members. The dissident faction became known as the MNC-Kalonji (MNC-K), while the majority group became the MNC-Lumumba (MNC-L). The split divided the party's support base into those who endured with Lumumba, chiefly in the <a href="/wiki/Kisangani" title="Kisangani">Stanleyville</a> region in the north-east, and those who backed the MNC-K, popular in the south and among Kalonji's own ethnic group, the Baluba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200883–85_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200883–85-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MNC-K later formed a <a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">cartel</a> with ABAKO and the <i><a href="/wiki/Parti_Solidaire_Africain" title="Parti Solidaire Africain">Parti Solidaire Africain</a></i> (PSA) to call for a united, but federalised, Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200516_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200516-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1960 elections degenerated into an "anti-Baluba plebiscite" in Kasai as the Luba MNC-K succeeded in obtaining a <a href="/wiki/Plurality_(voting)" title="Plurality (voting)">plurality</a> but failed to take control of the provincial government. Instead, Lumumba promoted a Lulua candidate, <a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Mukenge" title="Barthélemy Mukenge">Barthélemy Mukenge</a>, as provincial president while Kalonji was denied an important ministerial portfolio in <a href="/wiki/Lumumba_Government" title="Lumumba Government">Lumumba's national government</a>. Kalonji refused Lumumba's offer of the Agriculture portfolio.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mukenge attempted to form a government of unity, even offering MNC-K member <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ngalula" title="Joseph Ngalula">Joseph Ngalula</a> a place in his cabinet. Ngalula rejected the offer and on 14 June the MNC-K resolved to establish an alternative government under his leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014181–182_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014181–182-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Belgian_Congo_Home_Service''1960_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Belgian_Congo_Home_Service''1960-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalonji did not recognise this government as having any authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014201_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014201-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kalonjists, who felt rejected and marginalised by the central government, began supporting alternative parties. Among them, the Kalonjists supported Tshombe's CONAKAT party in nearby Katanga which, because of its strongly federalist stance, opposed to Lumumba's conception of a strong central government based in the capital <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Léopoldville</a>. As part of this, the Kalonjists supported CONAKAT against their main local rivals, the <i><a href="/wiki/BALUBAKAT" class="mw-redirect" title="BALUBAKAT">Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga</a></i> (BALUBAKAT) party led by <a href="/wiki/Jason_Sendwe" title="Jason Sendwe">Jason Sendwe</a>, which, although it represented the Baluba of Katanga Province, was in favour of centralism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kalonjists, who believed themselves to be acting on behalf of all the Luba-Kasai, created an animosity between the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga but also failed to gain the full support of CONAKAT, much of which had racial prejudice against the Baluba and supported only the "authentic Katangese".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Secession">Secession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Secession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Independence_of_Congo-Léopoldville10519" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Congolese_independence" title="Template:Congolese independence"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Congolese_independence" title="Template talk:Congolese independence"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Congolese_independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Congolese independence"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Independence_of_Congo-Léopoldville10519" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Independence of <br /><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)"><span class="wrap">Congo-Léopoldville</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)_-_Commemoration_Independence_Stamp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Congolese stamp commemorating independence"><img alt="A Congolese stamp commemorating independence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_-_Commemoration_Independence_Stamp.jpg/200px-Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_-_Commemoration_Independence_Stamp.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Republic_of_the_Congo_%28L%C3%A9opoldville%29_-_Commemoration_Independence_Stamp.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Independence1069" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Independence</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opoldville_riots" title="Léopoldville riots">Léopoldville riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_Round_Table_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Congolese Round Table Conference">Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_general_election,_1960" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Congo general election, 1960">1960 Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_Independence_Speech" title="Congolese Independence Speech">Lumumba's independence speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumumba_Government" title="Lumumba Government">Lumumba Government</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Figures1050" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Figures</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>Belgians:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens" title="Gaston Eyskens">Gaston Eyskens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baudouin_of_Belgium" title="Baudouin of Belgium">King Baudouin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_de_Schryver" class="mw-redirect" title="August de Schryver">August de Schryver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ganshof_van_der_Meersch" title="Walter Ganshof van der Meersch">Walter Ganshof van der Meersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Janssens" title="Émile Janssens">Émile Janssens</a></li></ul> <p><b>Congolese:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kanza" title="Daniel Kanza">Daniel Kanza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moise_Tshombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Moise Tshombe">Moise Tshombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ophas_Kamitatu" title="Cléophas Kamitatu">Cléophas Kamitatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Gizenga" title="Antoine Gizenga">Antoine Gizenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bolya" title="Paul Bolya">Paul Bolya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bolikango" title="Jean Bolikango">Jean Bolikango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Il%C3%A9o" title="Joseph Iléo">Joseph Iléo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Parties904" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Parties</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_des_Bakongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance des Bakongo">ABAKO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouvement_National_Congolais" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement National Congolais">MNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_des_associations_tribales_du_Katanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga">CONAKAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parti_Solidaire_Africain" title="Parti Solidaire Africain">PSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_des_Bayanzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance des Bayanzi">ABAZI</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Association_des_Ressortisants_du_Haut-Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Association des Ressortisants du Haut-Congo (page does not exist)">ASSORECO</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_Generale_des_Congolais&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Union Generale des Congolais (page does not exist)">UGECO</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Congo_Crisis1085" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny_of_the_Force_Publique" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutiny of the Force Publique">Mutiny of the Force Publique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga secession</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Stanleyville rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch">Operation Rum Punch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemba_Ambush" class="mw-redirect" title="Niemba Ambush">Niemba Ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Siege of Jadotville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam">Operation Grandslam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Simba Rebellion">Simba Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisangani_Mutinies" class="mw-redirect" title="Kisangani Mutinies">Kisangani Mutinies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Miscellaneous_and_cultural555" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Miscellaneous and cultural</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89volu%C3%A9" title="Évolué">Évolué</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ind%C3%A9pendance_Cha_Cha" title="Indépendance Cha Cha">Indépendance Cha Cha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Table_Ronde" title="Table Ronde">Table Ronde</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecution_of_the_Baluba">Persecution of the Baluba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persecution of the Baluba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Republic of the Congo received independence on 30 June 1960 with Kasa-Vubu as president and Lumumba as prime minister. The Chamber of the Léopoldville Parliament had convened one week prior to review Lumumba's cabinet and give it a vote of confidence. During the session, Kalonji, in his capacity as an elected deputy, criticised the proposed cabinet, expressing dissatisfaction that his party had not been consulted in its formation and declaring that he was proud not to be included in an "anti-Baluba" and "anti-Batshoke"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> government which had shown contempt for the wishes of Kasai's people. He also stated his intentions to encourage the Baluba and Batshoke to refrain from participating in the government and to take his own steps to form a sovereign state centered in <a href="/wiki/Mbuji-Mayi" title="Mbuji-Mayi">Bakwanga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994101_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994101-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 26 June, MNC-K officials petitioned the Léopoldville Parliament to peacefully divide the <a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF_(former_province)" title="Kasaï (former province)">Province of Kasai</a> along the lines suggested by Kalonji. The motion, which would have required the modification of the Congo's new constitution (<i>Loi fondamentale</i>), was received by a legislature divided between Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu factions and no agreement could be reached.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the aftermath of independence, ethnic tensions flared up across the country, much of it directed against the Baluba, and a number of violent clashes occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 3 July the central government ordered the arrest of the rival MNC-K Kasai government, precipitating unrest in Luluabourg.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Ballance199915_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Ballance199915-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite rejecting earlier proposals for Luba repatriations to the province in January 1960, the Kalonjists made an official call to the Baluba across the Congo to return to their Kasaian "homeland" on 16 July. Initially, the Kalonjists envisaged the division of Kasai Province in two in order to allow for the creation of a quasi-autonomous MNC-K and Luba-dominated provincial government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposed province was termed the Federated State of South Kasai (<i>État fédératif du Sud-Kasaï</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rapidly, however, Kalonji realised that the chaos in the rest of the Congo could be used to secede unilaterally and declare full local independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision was further re-enforced by the full secession of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">State of Katanga</a> (<i>État du Katanga</i>), led by Tshombe, on 11 July 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200485_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200485-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalonji visited Katanga at the start of August 1960, shortly after its secession, where, on the 8 August, he declared that Kasai "must be divided at all costs."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secession_2">Secession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Secession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Ngalula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Joseph_Ngalula.jpg/140px-Joseph_Ngalula.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Joseph_Ngalula.jpg/210px-Joseph_Ngalula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Joseph_Ngalula.jpg/280px-Joseph_Ngalula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ngalula" title="Joseph Ngalula">Joseph Ngalula</a> was appointed Prime Minister of South Kasai.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 9 August 1960, Kalonji, still in Katanga, declared the region of south-eastern Kasai to be the new Mining State of South Kasai (<i>État minier du Sud-Kasaï</i>) or Autonomous State of South Kasai (<i>État autonome du Sud-Kasaï</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199637_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199637-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike Katanga, however, South Kasai's secession did not explicitly mean the rejection of its position within the Republic of the Congo. Rather, it resembled the self-declared local governments in <a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur Province</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197235_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197235-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "<a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">Autonomous State</a>" title was chosen in order to re-enforce the impression that the secession was not a rejection of Congolese sovereignty, but the creation of a federally-governed region of the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The secession had some support among journalists, intellectuals and politicians in Léopoldville, with one newspaper calling it "a model by which the many new states now mushrooming in the Congo might form a new federation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197235_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197235-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice South Kasai had considerably more independence than a regular province and, by mandating its own federated powers unilaterally, was effectively seceding from the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also did not forward any taxes to the central government and locals—drawing a comparison to the secessionist state to the south—sometimes referred to it as "Little Katanga".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MNC-K deputies also initially refused to sit in the Congolese Parliament in Léopoldville.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994284_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994284-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kalonji was declared president and Joseph Ngalula prime minister. Although the Luba-Kasai had never lived in a single state before, Kalonji was able to gain the broad support of the Luba chiefs for the secession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was able to portray the secession internationally as the result of the persecution and the failure of the Congolese government to sufficiently protect the Baluba in the rest of the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200486_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200486-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South Kasai's borders frequently changed, never stabilizing during its brief existence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''CRISP''1961paragraph_5_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''CRISP''1961paragraph_5-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state's capital was Bakwanga.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962 its population was estimated at 2,000,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance">Governance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once established in power, Kalonji positioned himself personally as "<a href="/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)" title="Big man (anthropology)">big man</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patron</a> from whom state power originated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tribal leaders from Luba and other ethnic groups enjoyed a close, client-like relationship with Kalonji himself and received preferential treatment in exchange for services rendered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, Kalonji was reliant on tribal leaders to mobilise paramilitaries to support the South Kasaian army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governance of South Kasai was complicated by the dynamic Luba politics in which it was embedded. Tensions rose between Kalonji and Ngalula, who had different ideas for how the state was to be run; Kalonji wanted the government to be based in tradition and relied on customary chiefs, while Ngalula preferred a democratic system and worked with the intellectual elite. South Kasai had five different governments in the first few months of its existence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014200,_204_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014200,_204-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg/170px-South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg/255px-South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg/340px-South_Kasai_overprint_stamps.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Postage stamps of South Kasai</a> overprinted onto earlier issues of the Belgian Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The immediate internal problems faced by South Kasai were large number of unsettled Luba refugees and internal dissent from non-Luba minorities. The state was able to direct money from diamond exporting and foreign support to fund public services which allowed Luba refugees to be settled in employment. Social services were "relatively well-run".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State revenue was estimated to total $30,000,000 annually.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state produced three constitutions, with the first being promulgated in November 1960 and the last on 12 July 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014198_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014198-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The July constitution transformed the state into the Federated State of South Kasai (<i>État fédéré du Sud-Kasaï</i>), declaring the state itself both "sovereign and democratic" but also part of a hypothetical "Federal Republic of the Congo".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constitution also provided for a bicameral legislature, with a lower chamber composed of all national deputies, senators, and provincial assemblymen elected in constituencies within South Kasai's territory, and an upper chamber filled by traditional chiefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965395_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965395-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A judicial system was organised, with <a href="/wiki/Justices_of_the_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Justices of the peace">justices of the peace</a>, magistrates' courts, and a court of appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubbens1961799_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubbens1961799-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state had its own flag and coat of arms,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published its own <a href="/wiki/Official_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Official journal">official journal</a>, the <i>Moniteur de l'État Autonome du Sud-Kasaï</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201125–26_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201125–26-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even produced its own <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">postage stamps</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate" title="Vehicle registration plate">vehicle registration plates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199671_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199671-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Katanga, South Kasai maintained no diplomatic missions abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Congolese_franc" title="Congolese franc">Congolese franc</a> was retained as the state's currency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The South Kasaian army or <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarmerie</a> grew from just 250 members at its inception to nearly 3,000 by 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266–67_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266–67-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was led by 22-year-old "General" Floribert Dinanga with the assistance of nine European officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965454_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965454-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1961, the military led a campaign to expand the size of the state's territory at the expense of neighbouring ethnic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197267-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite receiving some support from Belgium, the gendarmerie was poorly equipped and constantly low on supplies and ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197267-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As government authority in South Kasai was consolidated, the regime became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militaristic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-Luba groups were increasingly marginalised.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197267-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political opponents were killed or driven into exile, including Ngalula, who had a falling out with Kalonji in July 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199690_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199690-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-Luba groups in the region, especially the Kanyok, fought a constant but low-level insurgency against the South Kasaian government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_support">International support</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: International support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamond-27425.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Diamond-27425.jpg/170px-Diamond-27425.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Diamond-27425.jpg/255px-Diamond-27425.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Diamond-27425.jpg/340px-Diamond-27425.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>An uncut <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">yellow diamond</a> from South Kasai; diamond exporting was a major asset to the state.</figcaption></figure> <p>Kalonji went to great lengths to secure international recognition and support for the state of South Kasai. The former colonial power, Belgium, distrusted the Congolese central government and supported both the governments of South Kasai and Katanga. Like Katanga, South Kasai had important mineral deposits, including <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> fields, and Belgian companies had large sums of money tied up in mines in the area. A Belgian company, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Formini%C3%A8re" title="Forminière">Forminière</a></i></span>, was the state's principal supporter and received concessions from South Kasai in exchange for financial support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200486_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200486-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the secession, South Kasai's diamonds were rerouted through Congo-Brazzaville for export to international markets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2021212_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2021212-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The comparatively large income from the mining companies<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meant that South Kasai was able to support significant public services and cope with large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Internally displaced persons">internally-displaced</a> Luba refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, Kalonji was supported by Western powers and moderates in the Congolese government who viewed him as both a moderate <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">pro-Westerner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anticommunism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticommunism">anticommunist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although both Katanga and South Kasai were supported by <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland" title="Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland">Central African Federation</a>, neither state ever received any form of official <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">diplomatic recognition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200497_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200497-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007101_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007101-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A South Kasaian delegation went to South Africa in September 1960 with a letter signed by Ngalula requesting military aid from Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Verwoerd" title="Hendrik Verwoerd">Hendrik Verwoerd</a>. The South African government refused to furnish military equipment but informed the delegation that they could purchase hardware offered on the South African market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPassemiers201961_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPassemiers201961-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the coup d'état which removed Lumumba from power, Kalonji tried to cultivate good relations with the Congolese government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a>, in particular, was able to use South Kasai for the execution of his political opponents and dissident Lumumbists including <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Finant" title="Jean-Pierre Finant">Jean-Pierre Finant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such activity led the secessionist state to be nicknamed "the national butcher's yard".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994325_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994325-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kalonji_as_Mulopwe">Kalonji as <i>Mulopwe</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Kalonji as Mulopwe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of the importance of the Luba ethnicity to South Kasai, Kalonji used his support from the traditional Luba tribal authorities to have himself declared <i>Mulopwe</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title, <i>Mulopwe</i> (usually translated as "King" or "Emperor"), was extremely symbolic because it was the title employed by the rulers of the pre-colonial Luba Empire and had been disused since the 1880s. By taking it, along with the extra name <i>Ditunga</i> ("homeland"), Kalonji was able to closely tie himself and the South Kasaian state to the Luba Empire to increase its legitimacy in the eyes of the Baluba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to avoid accusations of impropriety, the title was bestowed on Kalonji's father on 12 April 1961, who then immediately abdicated in favour of his son. With the accession of Kalonji to the title of <i>Mulopwe</i> on 16 July, the state's title changed to the Federated Kingdom of South Kasai (<i>Royaume fédéré du Sud-Kasaï</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGondola2002187_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGondola2002187-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kalonji's accession to the position of <i>Mulopwe</i> was heavily criticised even by many Luba in South Kasai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199666_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199666-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The move was also mocked in Western media.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkyeampongGates2012275_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkyeampongGates2012275-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalonji remained popular among some groups, but lost the support of the South Kasaian <i>évolués</i> who saw his elevation as flagrant opportunism. Soon after his elevation, Kalonji was publicly condemned and disavowed by 10 of South Kasai's 13 representatives in the Léopoldville Parliament, beginning the disintegration of the secessionist state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199666_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199666-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collapse_and_reintegration">Collapse and reintegration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Collapse and reintegration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaign_of_August–September_1960"><span id="Campaign_of_August.E2.80.93September_1960"></span>Campaign of August–September 1960</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Campaign of August–September 1960"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion of South Kasai</a></div> <p>When South Kasai seceded, government troops from the <i><a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_Nationale_Congolaise" class="mw-redirect" title="Armée Nationale Congolaise">Armée Nationale Congolaise</a></i> (ANC) were already fighting Katangese troops in the Kasai region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South Kasai held important railway junctions needed by the Congolese army for its campaign in Katanga, and therefore soon became an important objective.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105–106_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105–106-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South Kasai also had important mineral wealth which the central government was anxious to return to the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central government also misunderstood the South Kasaian position, believing that, like Katanga, the region had declared full independence from the Congo and rejected Congolese sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:246px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"[The actions of the ANC in South Kasai] involve a most flagrant violation of elementary <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> and have the characteristics of the crime of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> since they appear to be directed towards the extermination of a specific ethnic group, the Balubas [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>]." </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a>, UN Secretary-General, September 1960<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBring2011160_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBring2011160-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>Initially, Lumumba hoped that the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN), which sent <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">a multi-national peacekeeping force</a> to the Congo in July 1960, would help the central government suppress both Katangese and South Kasaian secessions. The UN was reluctant to do so, however, considering the secessions to be internal political matters and its own mission to be maintaining basic law and order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055,_23_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055,_23-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rejected by both the UN and <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, Lumumba sought military support from the communist <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within days of the secession and with Soviet logistical support, 2,000 ANC troops launched a major offensive against South Kasai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attack was successful. On 27 August, ANC soldiers arrived in Bakwanga.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199638_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199638-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the course of the offensive, the ANC became involved in ethnic violence between the Baluba and Bena Lulua.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When government troops arrived in Bakwanga, they released Lulua detainees from prison and began requisitioning civilian vehicles. When David Odia, the South Kasai Minister of Public Works, protested, soldiers beat him and fatally injured him. Many Baluba first fled in terror, but then began resisting with home-made shotguns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965194_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965194-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the ANC perpetrated a number of large massacres of Luba civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September, <a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a>, the <a href="/wiki/UN_Secretary-General" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Secretary-General">UN Secretary-General</a> who had recently deployed a large peacekeeping force to the Congo, referred to the massacres as "a case of incipient genocide".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBring2011160_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBring2011160-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Baluba were also attacked by the Katangese from the south.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the ensuring massacres, in which ANC or Katangese troops often participated, around 3,000 Baluba were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The violence of the advance caused an exodus of many thousands of Luba civilians who fled their homes to escape the fighting; more than 35,000 went to refugee camps in <a href="/wiki/Lubumbashi" title="Lubumbashi">Élisabethville</a> (the capital of Katanga) alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200533_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200533-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As many as 100,000 sought refuge in Bakwanga.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUN-CHS1991129_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUN-CHS1991129-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diseases, notably <a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">kwashiorkor</a> but also <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>, were widespread and reached "epidemic proportions" among Luba refugees between October and December 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowenstein1962751_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowenstein1962751-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> sent one million small pox vaccines to South Kasai to alleviate the problem. The epidemic had been preceded by widespread famine which by December was killing an estimated 200 people daily. The UN appealed to its member states for relief, and by late January government and private aid had reduced mortality by 75 percent. Further assistance in the form of an emergency food airlift, additional medical personnel, and seeds from the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> ensured that the famine was almost entirely resolved by March 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimmonds2012243–244_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimmonds2012243–244-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UN relief workers were withdrawn following the April 1961 <a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a> due to security concerns, though food aid continued to be brought to the border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanzen2013Chapter_16:_"Hammarskjöld_and_Beyond"_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanzen2013Chapter_16:_"Hammarskjöld_and_Beyond"-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allegations of genocide<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and brutality by the ANC were used to provide legitimacy to Kasa-Vubu's dismissal of Lumumba, with the support of Mobutu, in September 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of the campaign, the South Kasaian state was able to provide substantial aid to its refugees, many of whom were resettled in homes and jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the invasion caused considerable disruption to the local economy; by December the number of diamonds cut by Forminière and the number of people it employed both had fallen by thousands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965286_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965286-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coexistence_and_attempted_reconciliation">Coexistence and attempted reconciliation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Coexistence and attempted reconciliation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalonji_and_Kasa-Vubu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kalonji_and_Kasa-Vubu.jpg/250px-Kalonji_and_Kasa-Vubu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Kalonji_and_Kasa-Vubu.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>Kalonji with Congolese President <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a> in 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the occupation of South Kasai, the South Kasaian state was not dismantled and co-existed with the rest of the Congo. Congolese delegates, as well as ANC and UN troops were generally able to move around the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian authorities while their sporadic campaign against Katangese forces continued.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A UN-sponsored ceasefire in September 1960 gave pause to the Luba-Lulua conflict, but by November Kalonji's forces had broken the truce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1960_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1960-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout much of the period, the South Kasaian gendarmerie fought with Kanyok and Lulua militias across the region while local ethnic violence persisted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199640-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1961 Kasa-Vubu flew to Bakwanga to meet with Kalonji. The trip began acrimoniously as Kasa-Vubu refused to recognise the South Kasaian honour guard present at the airport and ride in the provided limousine, which was flying the South Kasian flag. Kalonji eventually removed the flag and the two reconciled.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In mid-1961, conferences were held at <a href="/wiki/Mbandaka" title="Mbandaka">Coquilhatville</a> (modern-day Mbandaka) and later in <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Republic" title="Malagasy Republic">Madagascar</a> to attempt to broker a peaceful reconciliation between the secessionist factions and the central government in the face of a <a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">rebel government</a> in the Eastern Congo led by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Gizenga" title="Antoine Gizenga">Antoine Gizenga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197237_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197237-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was believed that, with Lumumba dead, it might be possible to create a federal constitution that could reconcile the three parties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197237_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197237-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agreements instead led to more uncertainty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197237–38_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197237–38-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ousting of Ngalula—the chief organiser of the South Kasai state—in July hastened internal collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He established his own political party, the Democratic Union, to oppose the Kalonjists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996111_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996111-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that month Parliament reconvened with Kalonji and the other South Kasain deputies in attendance. A new Congolese central government was formed on 2 August with Ngalula as Minister of Education, and Kalonji went back to South Kasai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965374,_377_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965374,_377-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late October 1961 Kalonji and several Lulua leaders made a symbolic union in an attempt to end the Luba-Lulua tribal conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014217_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014217-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kalonji's_arrest"><span id="Kalonji.27s_arrest"></span>Kalonji's arrest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Kalonji's arrest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongo_1961_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Kongo_1961_map_en.png/220px-Kongo_1961_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Kongo_1961_map_en.png/330px-Kongo_1961_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Kongo_1961_map_en.png/440px-Kongo_1961_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the situation in the Congo in 1961 with the territory split between four opposing factions</figcaption></figure> <p>On 2 December 1961, Kalonji was accused by another deputy, the communist <a href="/wiki/Christophe_Gbenye" title="Christophe Gbenye">Christophe Gbenye</a>, of having ordered <a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a> against a political prisoner in South Kasai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199688_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199688-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parliament voted to remove Kalonji's <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_immunity" title="Parliamentary immunity">parliamentary immunity</a> and he was taken into custody by the ANC in Léopoldville.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199688–89_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199688–89-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A delegation of around 400 Luba tribal elders sent to Léopoldville to protest were also briefly arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199689_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199689-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu and General <a href="/wiki/Victor_Lundula" title="Victor Lundula">Victor Lundula</a> visited Bakwanga soon afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199640-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Kazadi" title="Ferdinand Kazadi">Ferdinand Kazadi</a> assumed power as acting head of state of South Kasai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 9 March 1962, the recently re-convened Léopoldville Parliament, under Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula, agreed to modify the Constitution and gave South Kasai official provincial status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 1962, UN troops were ordered to occupy South Kasai as part of Secretary-General <a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a>'s new aggressive stance against secession following Hammarskjöld's death. In Léopoldville, Kalonji was sentenced to five years' imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199640-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 7 September, however, Kalonji escaped from prison and returned to South Kasai where he hoped to regain an official position in local elections and, at the head of a government, regain his immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640,_155_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199640,_155-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coup_d'état_of_September–October_1962"><span id="Coup_d.27.C3.A9tat_of_September.E2.80.93October_1962"></span>Coup d'état of September–October 1962</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Coup d'état of September–October 1962"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As dissatisfaction with the secession grew, Ngalula and other South Kasaian émigrés in Léopoldville plotted to overthrow the regime in Bakwanga. In September 1962, the Léopoldville government appointed Albert Kankolongo,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197267-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a former minister in Kalonji's government,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996156_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996156-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as Special Commissioner (<i>commissaire extraordinaire</i>) for South Kasai, giving him full military and civil power, to dismantle the local state. Ngalula approached Kankolongo to lead a mutiny and coup d'état against Kalonji.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197267-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the night of 29–30 September 1962, military commanders in South Kasai, led by Kankolongo, launched a coup d'état in Bakwanga against the Kalonjist regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An appeal was broadcast over Radio Bakwanga to all officers of the South Kasaian gendarmerie to support the central government with the promise that they would integrated into the ANC at their current rank and pay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996155–156_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996155–156-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalonji and General Dinanga were placed under house arrest, while the other South Kasaian ministers were imprisoned in a single home.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996157_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996157-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalonji and Dinanga escaped a few days later;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the former took a lorry to Katanga.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kankolongo reacted by immediately flying out the remaining ministers to Léopoldville.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 5 October 1962, central government troops again arrived in Bakwanga to support the mutineers and help suppress the last Kalonjist loyalists, marking the end of the secession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197268_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197268-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kalonji took up residence in <a href="/wiki/Kamina" title="Kamina">Kamina</a> and attempted to meet Tshombe, but was rebuffed by Katangese Minister of Interior <a href="/wiki/Godefroid_Munongo" title="Godefroid Munongo">Godefroid Munongo</a>. He then fled to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before settling in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> in <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Spain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Congo_Indépendant''2010_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Congo_Indépendant''2010-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Kasai">In Kasai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In Kasai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconciliation_stamp,_Congo_L%C3%A9opoldville_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Reconciliation_stamp%2C_Congo_L%C3%A9opoldville_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="207" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="207" data-file-height="149" /></a><figcaption>1963 stamp celebrating the "reconciliation" of South Kasai and Katanga with the Congolese central government</figcaption></figure> <p>In October 1962, South Kasai returned to the Republic of the Congo. The State of Katanga continued to hold out against the central government until it too collapsed in January 1963 after UN forces began to take a more aggressive stance under Thant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulden200140_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulden200140-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a compromise, South Kasai was one of the 21 provinces formally established by the <a href="/wiki/Luluabourg_Constitution" title="Luluabourg Constitution">federalist constitution</a> of 1964. As the Mobutu regime launched a centralist restructuring of the Congolese state from 1965, South Kasai was one of the few provinces which were retained. The province was later restructured to include new territory in <a href="/wiki/Kabinda_District" title="Kabinda District">Kabinda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sankuru_District" title="Sankuru District">Sankuru Districts</a> and renamed <a href="/wiki/Kasai-Oriental" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasai-Oriental">Eastern Kasai</a> (<i>Kasaï-Oriental</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of the South Kasaian soldiers were integrated into the ANC after the dissolution of the state but nearly 2,000 loyalists went into hiding to await Kalonji's possible restoration. The rebels were led by General Mwanzambala and fought a guerrilla war against the new provincial government until 1963 when they also accepted integration into the ANC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197268_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197268-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after the end of the secession, the city of Bakwanga was renamed Mbuji-Mayi after the local river in an attempt to signify a Luba intra-ethnicity reconciliation. Regardless, violence among Luba factions lasted through 1964, and a political solution was not reached until 1965 with the election of <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Mukamba_Kadiata_Nzemba" title="Jonas Mukamba Kadiata Nzemba">J. Mukamba</a> as Provincial President of South Kasai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPandeyGeschiere2003203_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPandeyGeschiere2003203-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Congo_Crisis">End of the Congo Crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: End of the Congo Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1965, Mobutu launched a <a href="/wiki/Second_Mobutu_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Second Mobutu coup d'état">second coup d'état</a> against the central government and took personal <a href="/wiki/Emergency_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency powers">emergency powers</a>. Once established as the sole source of political power, Mobutu gradually consolidated his control in the Congo. The number of provinces was reduced, and their autonomy curtailed, resulting in a highly centralised state. Mobutu increasingly placed his supporters in the remaining positions of importance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004233_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004233-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, to illustrate his legitimacy, he created a party, the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a> (MPR), which until 1990 was the nation's only legal political party under Mobutu's revised constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004233_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004233-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1971, the state was renamed <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> and efforts were made <a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">to remove all colonial influences</a>. He also nationalised the remaining foreign-owned economic assets in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004234–235_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004234–235-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time Zaire was increasingly characterised by widespread <a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">cronyism</a>, corruption, and economic mismanagement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004236–239_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004236–239-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dissatisfaction with the regime in <i>Kasaï-Oriental</i> was particularly strong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrench2007117,_119_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrench2007117,_119-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issues of federalism, ethnicity in politics, and state centralisation were not resolved by the crisis and partly contributed to a decline in support for the concept of the state among Congolese people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007185_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007185-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu was strongly in favour of centralisation and one of his first acts, in 1965, were to reunify provinces and abolish much of their independent legislative capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007117_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007117-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent loss of faith in central government is one of the reasons that the Congo has been labeled as a <a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a>, and has contributed violence by factions advocating ethnic and localised federalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007185_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007185-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_15_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 15 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Article 15 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</a> — popular idiom referring to South Kasai's constitution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_diamonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict diamonds">Conflict diamonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biafra" title="Biafra">Biafra</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Not to be confused with the neighbouring state currently known as the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>, formerly the <a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a>, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Brazzaville" title="Brazzaville">Brazzaville</a>. The state's name changed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in August 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEISA2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEISA2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In most <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prefix#Bantu_languages" title="Prefix">prefix</a> <i>ba-</i> is added to a human noun to form a plural. As such, <i>Baluba</i> refers collectively to members of the <a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Luba ethnic group</a>. Its adjectival form is <i>Muluba</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some sources instead date the state's proclamation to 8 August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">During the period of <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a>'s rule in the Congo (1965–97), large numbers of place names created during the colonial period were changed as part of his <i><a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">authenticité</a></i> campaign. For the modern equivalents, see <a href="/wiki/Former_place_names_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Batshoke were an ethnic group that was allied with the Baluba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivier20101_THE_CONGOLESE_CRISIS_(1960–1963)_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivier20101_THE_CONGOLESE_CRISIS_(1960–1963)-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the period shortly after its formation, South Kasai's official title remained unclear. Beside <i>État autonome</i> or <i>État minier</i>, it is sometimes termed Province of the Luba (<i>Province muluba</i>) or Mining Province (<i>Province minier</i>). The use of the word "state" (<i>état</i>) was deliberately ambiguous, allowing Kalonji to avoid specifying whether the South Kasai claimed to independence as a nation-state in imitation of Katanga, or as a province within the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">South Kasai issued a total of 28 unique postage stamps and one <a href="/wiki/Souvenir_sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Souvenir sheet">souvenir sheet</a>, all in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Linn's_Stamp_News''2017_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Linn's_Stamp_News''2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An administrator of the <a href="/wiki/Societ%C3%A9_Mini%C3%A8re_de_Bakwanga" title="Societé Minière de Bakwanga">Societé Minière de Bakwanga</a> estimated that his company paid approximately $12,000,000 in taxes annually to the South Kasaian government. Other Belgians estimated that the regime, in taking half of the diamond mines' profits, extracted BEF 350,000,000 ($7,000,000) per year and an additional BEF 235,000,000 ($4,700,000) in excise taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some Kalonji detractors noted that the Luba Empire was historically centered in Katanga, not Kasai, and that the Kasai Baluba had never been led by a <i>Mulopwe</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Though there has been little study of the ANC atrocities in South Kasai, no information has ever been presented to corroborate the notion that Lumumba or other officials intended to eliminate certain populations and the use of the term "genocide" was primarily a rhetorical device meant to damage his reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201792_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201792-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962a_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThe_New_York_Times1962a"><i>The New York Times</i> 1962a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEISA2002-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEISA2002_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEISA2002">EISA 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Le_Potentiel''2008_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Potentiel2008"><i>Le Potentiel</i> 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992253–255-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992253–255_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPakenham1992">Pakenham 1992</a>, pp. 253–255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992588–549-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992588–549_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPakenham1992">Pakenham 1992</a>, pp. 588–549.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner200728-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner200728_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner2007">Turner 2007</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner200729-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner200729_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner2007">Turner 2007</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102–103-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007102–103_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, pp. 102–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007103-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007103_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007104_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreund1998199-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreund1998199_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreund1998">Freund 1998</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864–65-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200864–65_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, pp. 64–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200876-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200876_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200874-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200874_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200882–83-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200882–83_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig200883–85-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig200883–85_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, pp. 83–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200516-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200516_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskin2005">Haskin 2005</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014181–182-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014181–182_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014">Omasombo Tshonda 2014</a>, pp. 181–182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Belgian_Congo_Home_Service''1960-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Belgian_Congo_Home_Service''1960_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBelgian_Congo_Home_Service1960"><i>Belgian Congo Home Service</i> 1960</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014201-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014201_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014">Omasombo Tshonda 2014</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105_27-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivier20101_THE_CONGOLESE_CRISIS_(1960–1963)-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivier20101_THE_CONGOLESE_CRISIS_(1960–1963)_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivier2010">Olivier 2010</a>, 1 THE CONGOLESE CRISIS (1960–1963).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994101-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994101_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Ballance199915-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Ballance199915_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Ballance1999">O'Ballance 1999</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201126_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDufresne2011">Dufresne 2011</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200485-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200485_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNugent2004">Nugent 2004</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199637-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199637_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197235-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197235_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197235_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994284-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994284_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200486-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200486_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200486_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNugent2004">Nugent 2004</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''CRISP''1961paragraph_5-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''CRISP''1961paragraph_5_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCRISP1961"><i>CRISP</i> 1961</a>, paragraph 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014200,_204-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014200,_204_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014">Omasombo Tshonda 2014</a>, pp. 200, 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007106_42-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1962b_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThe_New_York_Times1962b"><i>The New York Times</i> 1962b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014198-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014198_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014">Omasombo Tshonda 2014</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965395-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965395_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoung1965">Young 1965</a>, p. 395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubbens1961799-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubbens1961799_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRubbens1961">Rubbens 1961</a>, p. 799.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014197_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014">Omasombo Tshonda 2014</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDufresne201125–26-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDufresne201125–26_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDufresne2011">Dufresne 2011</a>, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Linn's_Stamp_News''2017-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Linn's_Stamp_News''2017_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLinn's_Stamp_News2017"><i>Linn's Stamp News</i> 2017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199671-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199671_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197266–67-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197266–67_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965454-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965454_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoung1965">Young 1965</a>, p. 454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197267-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197267_54-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199690-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199690_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2021212-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2021212_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams2021">Williams 2021</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent200497-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent200497_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNugent2004">Nugent 2004</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007101-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007101_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPassemiers201961-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPassemiers201961_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPassemiers2019">Passemiers 2019</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994325-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994325_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGondola2002187-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGondola2002187_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGondola2002">Gondola 2002</a>, p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199666-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199666_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199666_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung1965396_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoung1965">Young 1965</a>, p. 396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkyeampongGates2012275-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkyeampongGates2012275_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkyeampongGates2012">Akyeampong & Gates 2012</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105–106-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja2007105–106_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007">Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007</a>, pp. 105–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskin2005">Haskin 2005</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBring2011160-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBring2011160_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBring2011160_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBring2011">Bring 2011</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055,_23-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin20055,_23_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskin2005">Haskin 2005</a>, pp. 5, 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeilig2008114_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeilig2008">Zeilig 2008</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199638-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199638_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965194-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965194_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskyns1965">Hoskyns 1965</a>, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200526_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskin2005">Haskin 2005</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskin200533-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskin200533_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskin2005">Haskin 2005</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUN-CHS1991129-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUN-CHS1991129_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUN-CHS1991">UN-CHS 1991</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELowenstein1962751-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowenstein1962751_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLowenstein1962">Lowenstein 1962</a>, p. 751.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimmonds2012243–244-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimmonds2012243–244_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimmonds2012">Simmonds 2012</a>, pp. 243–244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanzen2013Chapter_16:_"Hammarskjöld_and_Beyond"-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanzen2013Chapter_16:_"Hammarskjöld_and_Beyond"_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJanzen2013">Janzen 2013</a>, Chapter 16: "Hammarskjöld and Beyond".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201792-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201792_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStapleton2017">Stapleton 2017</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965286-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965286_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskyns1965">Hoskyns 1965</a>, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1960-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_New_York_Times''1960_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThe_New_York_Times1960"><i>The New York Times</i> 1960</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199640-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1">"Protocol Disputes Mar Kasavubu Tour". <i>The New York Times</i>. Associated Press. 3 January 1961. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Protocol+Disputes+Mar+Kasavubu+Tour&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1961-01-03&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197237-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197237_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197237_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197237–38-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197237–38_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, pp. 37–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996111-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996111_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965374,_377-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965374,_377_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskyns1965">Hoskyns 1965</a>, pp. 374, 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014217-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmasombo_Tshonda2014217_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014">Omasombo Tshonda 2014</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199688-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199688_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199688–89-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199688–89_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199689-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199689_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham199640,_155-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham199640,_155_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, pp. 40, 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996156-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996156_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996155–156-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996155–156_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, pp. 155–156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996157-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996157_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPackham1996158_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPackham1996">Packham 1996</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOthen2015Chapter_24:_"The_Flying_Horror"_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOthen2015">Othen 2015</a>, Chapter 24: "The Flying Horror".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillame197268-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197268_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillame197268_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillame1972">Willame 1972</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Congo_Indépendant''2010-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Congo_Indépendant''2010_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCongo_Indépendant2010"><i>Congo Indépendant</i> 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoulden200140-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoulden200140_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoulden2001">Boulden 2001</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPandeyGeschiere2003203-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPandeyGeschiere2003203_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPandeyGeschiere2003">Pandey & Geschiere 2003</a>, p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004233-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004233_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004233_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNugent2004">Nugent 2004</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004234–235-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004234–235_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNugent2004">Nugent 2004</a>, pp. 234–235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENugent2004236–239-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENugent2004236–239_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNugent2004">Nugent 2004</a>, pp. 236–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrench2007117,_119-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrench2007117,_119_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrench2007">French 2007</a>, pp. 117, 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007185-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007185_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007185_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner2007">Turner 2007</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007117-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007117_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner2007">Turner 2007</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAkyeampongGates2012" class="citation book cs1">Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates, Henry Louis, eds. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ"><i>Dictionary of African Biography</i></a>. Vol. 3. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University Press USA">Oxford University Press USA</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538207-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538207-5"><bdi>978-0-19-538207-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+African+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-538207-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39JMAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoulden2001" class="citation book cs1">Boulden, Jane (2001). <i>Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia</i> (1st ed.). Westport, Conn.: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Praeger</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96906-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-96906-1"><bdi>0-275-96906-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peace+Enforcement%3A+The+United+Nations+Experience+in+Congo%2C+Somalia%2C+and+Bosnia&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-275-96906-1&rft.aulast=Boulden&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBring2011" class="citation book cs1">Bring, Ove (2011). <i>Hammarskjöld's approach to the United Nations and international law</i>. Documentos. Chile: Instituto de estudios internacionales.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hammarskj%C3%B6ld%27s+approach+to+the+United+Nations+and+international+law&rft.place=Chile&rft.series=Documentos&rft.pub=Instituto+de+estudios+internacionales&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bring&rft.aufirst=Ove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrench2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_W._French" title="Howard W. French">French, Howard W.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RRjPlT6CUToC"><i>A Continent for the Taking: The Tragedy and Hope of Africa</i></a> (reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Knopf_Doubleday_Publishing_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group">Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307424303" title="Special:BookSources/9780307424303"><bdi>9780307424303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Continent+for+the+Taking%3A+The+Tragedy+and+Hope+of+Africa&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780307424303&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=Howard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRRjPlT6CUToC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreund1998" class="citation book cs1">Freund, Bill (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0"><i>The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave-Macmillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Palgrave-Macmillan">Palgrave-Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69872-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69872-3"><bdi>978-0-333-69872-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Contemporary+Africa%3A+The+Development+of+African+Society+since+1800&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave-Macmillan&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-333-69872-3&rft.aulast=Freund&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGondola2002" class="citation book cs1">Gondola, Charles Didier (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313316968"><i>The History of Congo</i></a>. Wesport (Conn.): Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31696-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31696-1"><bdi>0-313-31696-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Congo&rft.place=Wesport+%28Conn.%29&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-313-31696-1&rft.aulast=Gondola&rft.aufirst=Charles+Didier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780313316968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaskin2005" class="citation book cs1">Haskin, Jeanne M. (2005). <i>The Tragic State of the Congo: From Decolonization to Dictatorship</i>. New York: Algora Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87586-416-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87586-416-3"><bdi>0-87586-416-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tragic+State+of+the+Congo%3A+From+Decolonization+to+Dictatorship&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-87586-416-3&rft.aulast=Haskin&rft.aufirst=Jeanne+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoskyns1965" class="citation book cs1">Hoskyns, Catherine (1965). <i>The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961</i>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/414961">414961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo+Since+Independence%3A+January+1960+%E2%80%93+December+1961&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F414961&rft.aulast=Hoskyns&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJanzen2013" class="citation book cs1">Janzen, Eileen R. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-oUmbmAXAYgC"><i>Growing to One World: The Life of J. King Gordon</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/McGill-Queen%27s_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="McGill-Queen's Press">McGill-Queen's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773589629" title="Special:BookSources/9780773589629"><bdi>9780773589629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growing+to+One+World%3A+The+Life+of+J.+King+Gordon&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780773589629&rft.aulast=Janzen&rft.aufirst=Eileen+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-oUmbmAXAYgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKanza1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kanza" title="Thomas Kanza">Kanza, Thomas R.</a> (1994). <i>The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo</i> (expanded ed.). <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_Vermont" title="Rochester, Vermont">Rochester, Vermont</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schenkman_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Schenkman Books">Schenkman Books, Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87073-901-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87073-901-8"><bdi>0-87073-901-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Patrice+Lumumba%3A+Conflict+in+the+Congo&rft.place=Rochester%2C+Vermont&rft.edition=expanded&rft.pub=Schenkman+Books%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-87073-901-8&rft.aulast=Kanza&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNugent2004" class="citation book cs1">Nugent, Paul (2004). <i>Africa since Independence: A Comparative History</i>. New York: Palgrave-MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-68273-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-68273-9"><bdi>978-0-333-68273-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+since+Independence%3A+A+Comparative+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave-MacMillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-333-68273-9&rft.aulast=Nugent&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Nzongola-Ntalaja" title="Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja">Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congofromleopold00geor"><i>The Congo, From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). New York: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-053-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-053-5"><bdi>978-1-84277-053-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo%2C+From+Leopold+to+Kabila%3A+A+People%27s+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84277-053-5&rft.aulast=Nzongola-Ntalaja&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcongofromleopold00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'Ballance1999" class="citation book cs1">O'Ballance, Edgar (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfCADAAAQBAJ"><i>The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98</i></a> (illustrated ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230286481" title="Special:BookSources/9780230286481"><bdi>9780230286481</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo-Zaire+Experience%2C+1960%E2%80%9398&rft.place=London&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780230286481&rft.aulast=O%27Ballance&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvfCADAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOlivier2010" class="citation web cs1">Olivier, Lanotte (6 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-democratic-republic-congozaire-1960-1997">"Chronology of the Democratic Republic of Congo/Zaire (1960-1997)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Encyclopedia_of_Mass_Violence" title="Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence">Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Encyclopedia+of+Mass+Violence&rft.atitle=Chronology+of+the+Democratic+Republic+of+Congo%2FZaire+%281960-1997%29&rft.date=2010-04-06&rft.aulast=Olivier&rft.aufirst=Lanotte&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Fchronology-democratic-republic-congozaire-1960-1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOmasombo_Tshonda2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Omasombo Tshonda, Jean, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africamuseum.be/sites/default/files/media/docs/research/publications/rmca/online/monographies-provinces/kasai-oriental.pdf"><i>Kasaï-Oriental: Un nœud gordien dans l'espace congolais</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French). Tervuren: Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-4916-1524-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-4916-1524-5"><bdi>978-9-4916-1524-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kasa%C3%AF-Oriental%3A+Un+n%C5%93ud+gordien+dans+l%27espace+congolais&rft.place=Tervuren&rft.pub=Mus%C3%A9e+royal+de+l%E2%80%99Afrique+centrale&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9-4916-1524-5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.africamuseum.be%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fmedia%2Fdocs%2Fresearch%2Fpublications%2Frmca%2Fonline%2Fmonographies-provinces%2Fkasai-oriental.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOthen2015" class="citation book cs1">Othen, Christopher (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d3MTDQAAQBAJ"><i>Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World</i></a> (illustrated ed.). <a href="/wiki/The_History_Press" title="The History Press">The History Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750965804" title="Special:BookSources/9780750965804"><bdi>9780750965804</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Katanga+1960%E2%80%9363%3A+Mercenaries%2C+Spies+and+the+African+Nation+that+Waged+War+on+the+World&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780750965804&rft.aulast=Othen&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd3MTDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPackham1996" class="citation book cs1">Packham, Eric S. (1996). <i>Freedom and Anarchy</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Nova_Science_Publishers" title="Nova Science Publishers">Nova Science</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56072-232-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56072-232-0"><bdi>1-56072-232-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+and+Anarchy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Nova+Science&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1-56072-232-0&rft.aulast=Packham&rft.aufirst=Eric+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPakenham1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pakenham_(historian)" title="Thomas Pakenham (historian)">Pakenham, Thomas</a> (1992). <i>The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912</i> (13th ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Abacus_(publishers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abacus (publishers)">Abacus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-10449-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-349-10449-2"><bdi>978-0-349-10449-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa%3A+the+White+Man%27s+Conquest+of+the+Dark+Continent+from+1876+to+1912&rft.place=London&rft.edition=13th&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-349-10449-2&rft.aulast=Pakenham&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPandeyGeschiere2003" class="citation book cs1">Pandey, Gyanendra; Geschiere, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CT6FAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Forging of Nationhood</i></a>. Manohar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788173044250" title="Special:BookSources/9788173044250"><bdi>9788173044250</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forging+of+Nationhood&rft.pub=Manohar&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9788173044250&rft.aulast=Pandey&rft.aufirst=Gyanendra&rft.au=Geschiere%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCT6FAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPassemiers2019" class="citation book cs1">Passemiers, Lazlo (2019). <i>Decolonisation and Regional Geopolitics : South Africa and the 'Congo Crisis', 1960–1965</i> (online ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351138161" title="Special:BookSources/9781351138161"><bdi>9781351138161</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decolonisation+and+Regional+Geopolitics+%3A+South+Africa+and+the+%27Congo+Crisis%27%2C+1960%E2%80%931965&rft.place=London&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781351138161&rft.aulast=Passemiers&rft.aufirst=Lazlo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimmonds2012" class="citation book cs1">Simmonds, R. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4X1CAAAQBAJ"><i>Legal problems arising from the United Nations military operations in the Congo</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401192675" title="Special:BookSources/9789401192675"><bdi>9789401192675</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legal+problems+arising+from+the+United+Nations+military+operations+in+the+Congo&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789401192675&rft.aulast=Simmonds&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4X1CAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStapleton2017" class="citation book cs1">Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYuNDgAAQBAJ"><i>A History of Genocide in Africa</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440830525" title="Special:BookSources/9781440830525"><bdi>9781440830525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Genocide+in+Africa&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781440830525&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Timothy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYuNDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurner2007" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Thomas (2007). <i>The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth, and Reality</i> (2nd ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Zed_Books" title="Zed Books">Zed Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-688-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-688-9"><bdi>978-1-84277-688-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo+Wars%3A+Conflict%2C+Myth%2C+and+Reality&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Zed+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84277-688-9&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUN-CHS1991" class="citation book cs1">UN-CHS (1991). <i>The Management of Secondary Cities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Traditional and Modern Institutional Arrangements</i>. Nairobi: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Centre_for_Human_Settlements" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Centre for Human Settlements">United Nations Centre for Human Settlements</a> (Habitat). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-131160-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-1-131160-0"><bdi>978-92-1-131160-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Management+of+Secondary+Cities+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa%3A+Traditional+and+Modern+Institutional+Arrangements&rft.place=Nairobi&rft.pub=United+Nations+Centre+for+Human+Settlements+%28Habitat%29&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-92-1-131160-0&rft.au=UN-CHS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWillame1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Claude_Willame" title="Jean-Claude Willame">Willame, Jean-Claude</a> (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/patrimonialismpo0000will"><i>Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo</i></a>. Stanford: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0793-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-0793-6"><bdi>0-8047-0793-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patrimonialism+and+Political+Change+in+the+Congo&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-8047-0793-6&rft.aulast=Willame&rft.aufirst=Jean-Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpatrimonialismpo0000will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2021" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Susan (2021). <i>White Malice : The CIA and the Covert Recolonization of Africa</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/PublicAffairs" title="PublicAffairs">PublicAffairs</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5417-6829-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5417-6829-1"><bdi>978-1-5417-6829-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Malice+%3A+The+CIA+and+the+Covert+Recolonization+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5417-6829-1&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoung1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._Crawford_Young" title="M. Crawford Young">Young, M. Crawford</a> (1965). <i>Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence</i>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/307971">307971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+in+the+Congo%3A+Decolonization+and+Independence&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F307971&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=M.+Crawford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZeilig2008" class="citation book cs1">Zeilig, Leo (2008). <i>Lumumba: Africa's Lost Leader</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Haus_Publishing" title="Haus Publishing">Haus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905791-02-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905791-02-6"><bdi>978-1-905791-02-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lumumba%3A+Africa%27s+Lost+Leader&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Haus&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-905791-02-6&rft.aulast=Zeilig&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDufresne2011" class="citation journal cs1">Dufresne, André (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110815193937/http://www.philateliequebec.com/Numeros2011/Janvier11_Revue292.pdf">"Les Timbres-poste du Sud-Kasaï"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philatélie Québec</i> (292): <span class="nowrap">25–</span>31. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philateliequebec.com/Numeros2011/Janvier11_Revue292.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-08-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philat%C3%A9lie+Qu%C3%A9bec&rft.atitle=Les+Timbres-poste+du+Sud-Kasa%C3%AF&rft.issue=292&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2011-01&rft.aulast=Dufresne&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philateliequebec.com%2FNumeros2011%2FJanvier11_Revue292.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLowenstein1962" class="citation journal cs1">Lowenstein, Frank W. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050127031423/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/bulletin/1962/Vol27/Vol27-No6/bulletin_1962_27(6)_751-758.pdf">"An Epidemic of Kwashiorkor in the South Kasai, Congo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_World_Health_Organization" title="Bulletin of the World Health Organization">Bulletin of the World Health Organization</a></i>. <b>27</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">751–</span>758. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2555843">2555843</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20604126">20604126</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/bulletin/1962/Vol27/Vol27-No6/bulletin_1962_27(6)_751-758.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 27, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=An+Epidemic+of+Kwashiorkor+in+the+South+Kasai%2C+Congo&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E751-%3C%2Fspan%3E758&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2555843%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20604126&rft.aulast=Lowenstein&rft.aufirst=Frank+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhqlibdoc.who.int%2Fbulletin%2F1962%2FVol27%2FVol27-No6%2Fbulletin_1962_27%286%29_751-758.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCRISP1961" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cairn.info/revue-courrier-hebdomadaire-du-crisp-1961-30-page-1.htm">"Onze mois de crise politique au Congo"</a>. <i>Courrier Hebdomadaire du CRISP</i> (in French). <b>120</b> (30). Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>24. 1961. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fcris.120.0001">10.3917/cris.120.0001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Courrier+Hebdomadaire+du+CRISP&rft.atitle=Onze+mois+de+crise+politique+au+Congo&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fcris.120.0001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Frevue-courrier-hebdomadaire-du-crisp-1961-30-page-1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRubbens1961" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rubbens, A. (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kaowarsom.be/documents/BULLETINS_MEDEDELINGEN/1961-6.pdf">"La décolonisation du droit et de l'organisation judiciaire dans la République du Congo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletins des Séances</i> (in French). <b>7</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">798–</span>808.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletins+des+S%C3%A9ances&rft.atitle=La+d%C3%A9colonisation+du+droit+et+de+l%27organisation+judiciaire+dans+la+R%C3%A9publique+du+Congo&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E798-%3C%2Fspan%3E808&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Rubbens&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kaowarsom.be%2Fdocuments%2FBULLETINS_MEDEDELINGEN%2F1961-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="News">News</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: News"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBelgian_Congo_Home_Service1960" class="citation news cs1">"Mukenge Announces Kasai Government". <i>Belgian Congo Home Service</i>. Léopoldville. 17 June 1960. p. I1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Belgian+Congo+Home+Service&rft.atitle=Mukenge+Announces+Kasai+Government&rft.pages=I1&rft.date=1960-06-17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span> Via <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EC8jAQAAMAAJ"><i>Daily Report: Foreign Radio Broadcasts</i></a>. 1960.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Report%3A+Foreign+Radio+Broadcasts&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEC8jAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCongo_Indépendant2010" class="citation news cs1">Mopipi, Jacky (15 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170904113346/http://www.congoindependant.com/article.php?articleid=5456">"Que sont-ils devenus?: Albert Kalonji-Ditunga dit Mulopwe"</a>. <i>Congo Indépendant</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.congoindependant.com/article.php?articleid=5456">the original</a> on 4 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Congo+Ind%C3%A9pendant&rft.atitle=Que+sont-ils+devenus%3F%3A+Albert+Kalonji-Ditunga+dit+Mulopwe&rft.date=2010-03-15&rft.aulast=Mopipi&rft.aufirst=Jacky&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.congoindependant.com%2Farticle.php%3Farticleid%3D5456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEISA2002" class="citation web cs1">EISA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140725053318/http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/drc-background-1965-election">"DRC: Background to the 1965 election"</a>. Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/drc-background-1965-election">the original</a> on 25 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DRC%3A+Background+to+the+1965+election&rft.pub=Electoral+Institute+for+Sustainable+Democracy+in+Africa+%28EISA%29&rft.au=EISA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.content.eisa.org.za%2Fold-page%2Fdrc-background-1965-election&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLe_Potentiel2008" class="citation news cs1">Ngapi, Rich (15 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200808150585.html">"Congo-Kinshasa: Le 8 août 1960, Albert Kalonji proclame l'autonomie du Sud-Kasaï"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Potentiel" title="Le Potentiel">Le Potentiel</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Potentiel&rft.atitle=Congo-Kinshasa%3A+Le+8+ao%C3%BBt+1960%2C+Albert+Kalonji+proclame+l%27autonomie+du+Sud-Kasa%C3%AF&rft.date=2008-08-15&rft.aulast=Ngapi&rft.aufirst=Rich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffr.allafrica.com%2Fstories%2F200808150585.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLinn's_Stamp_News2017" class="citation web cs1">Snee, Charles (15 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linns.com/news/world-stamps-postal-history/2017/september/south-kasai-stamps-spreadsheet-images-inside-linns.html#">"The stamps of short-lived South Kasai, spreadsheet stamp images: Inside Linn's"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Linn%27s_Stamp_News" title="Linn's Stamp News">Linn's Stamp News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Linn%27s+Stamp+News&rft.atitle=The+stamps+of+short-lived+South+Kasai%2C+spreadsheet+stamp+images%3A+Inside+Linn%27s&rft.date=2017-09-15&rft.aulast=Snee&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linns.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-stamps-postal-history%2F2017%2Fseptember%2Fsouth-kasai-stamps-spreadsheet-images-inside-linns.html%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_New_York_Times1960" class="citation news cs1">Hofmann, Paul (3 November 1960). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Civil War' in South Kasai Reported by U.N. in Congo". <i>The New York Times</i>. pp. 1, 8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/115109726">115109726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=%27Civil+War%27+in+South+Kasai+Reported+by+U.N.+in+Congo&rft.pages=1%2C+8&rft.date=1960-11-03&rft.aulast=Hofmann&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_New_York_Times1962a" class="citation news cs1">Halberstam, David (19 February 1962a). "Rich Diamond Mines at Stake In Congo-South Kasai Struggle : Secession Continues Despite Arrest of State's Leader by Central Regime– Negotiations on Status in Progress". <i>The New York Times</i>. p. 2. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/115673183">115673183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Rich+Diamond+Mines+at+Stake+In+Congo-South+Kasai+Struggle+%3A+Secession+Continues+Despite+Arrest+of+State%27s+Leader+by+Central+Regime%E2%80%93+Negotiations+on+Status+in+Progress&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1962-02-19&rft.aulast=Halberstam&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_New_York_Times1962b" class="citation news cs1">Garrison, Lloyd (9 September 1962b). "Kalonji, 'King' of South Kasai, Out of Congo Jail". <i>The New York Times</i>. p. 22. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/115736669">115736669</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Kalonji%2C+%27King%27+of+South+Kasai%2C+Out+of+Congo+Jail&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1962-09-09&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDedeken1978" class="citation book cs1">Dedeken, Noël C. (1978). <i>Chimères Baluba: Le Sud-Kasaï, 1960–1962 à feu et à sang</i>. Brussels: Dedeken Editeur. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70737994">70737994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chim%C3%A8res+Baluba%3A+Le+Sud-Kasa%C3%AF%2C+1960%E2%80%931962+%C3%A0+feu+et+%C3%A0+sang&rft.place=Brussels&rft.pub=Dedeken+Editeur&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70737994&rft.aulast=Dedeken&rft.aufirst=No%C3%ABl+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDe_Witte2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ludo_De_Witte" title="Ludo De Witte">De Witte, Ludo</a> (2002). <i>The Assassination of Lumumba</i> (Trans. ed.). London: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-410-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-410-3"><bdi>1-85984-410-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Assassination+of+Lumumba&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Trans.&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-85984-410-3&rft.aulast=De+Witte&rft.aufirst=Ludo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKalonji_Ditunga_Mulopwe2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Kalonji Ditunga Mulopwe, Albert</a> (2005). <i>Congo 1960, la sécession du Sud-Kasaï: La vérité du Mulopwe</i>. Paris: L'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7475-8132-2" title="Special:BookSources/2-7475-8132-2"><bdi>2-7475-8132-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congo+1960%2C+la+s%C3%A9cession+du+Sud-Kasa%C3%AF%3A+La+v%C3%A9rit%C3%A9+du+Mulopwe&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=2-7475-8132-2&rft.aulast=Kalonji+Ditunga+Mulopwe&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeller2007" class="citation journal cs1">Keller, Edmond J. (2007). "Secessionism in Africa". <i>Journal of African Policy Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Policy+Studies&rft.atitle=Secessionism+in+Africa&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Edmond+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMuyumba2004" class="citation journal cs1">Muyumba, Valentine Kanyinda (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17077%2F1092-9576.1001">"Luba-Kasai: A Working Bibliography"</a>. <i>Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography</i>. <b>9</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17077%2F1092-9576.1001">10.17077/1092-9576.1001</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Africana+Bibliography&rft.atitle=Luba-Kasai%3A+A+Working+Bibliography&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17077%2F1092-9576.1001&rft.aulast=Muyumba&rft.aufirst=Valentine+Kanyinda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17077%252F1092-9576.1001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouth+Kasai" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Kasai&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Phare_(newspaper)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Phare (newspaper) (page does not exist)">Le Phare</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://akemasbl.canalblog.com/archives/2010/03/09/17178945.html">La Vérité sur le Sud-Kasaï</a> at the <i>Association Kasayienne d'Entre-aide Mutuelle</i></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Congo_Crisis_footer" title="Template:Congo Crisis footer"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Congo_Crisis_footer" title="Template talk:Congo Crisis footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Congo_Crisis_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Congo Crisis footer"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Congo_Crisis_(1960–1965)5880" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a> (1960–1965)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Political leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyrille_Adoula" title="Cyrille Adoula">Cyrille Adoula</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egide_Bocheley-Davidson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Egide Bocheley-Davidson (page does not exist)">Egide Bocheley-Davidson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens" title="Gaston Eyskens">Gaston Eyskens</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Christophe_Gbenye" title="Christophe Gbenye">Christophe Gbenye</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9o_Lef%C3%A8vre" title="Théo Lefèvre">Théo Lefèvre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaston_Soumialot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaston Soumialot (page does not exist)">Gaston Soumialot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mo%C3%AFse_Tshombe" title="Moïse Tshombe">Moïse Tshombe</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Congolese<br />government forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congolese_National_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Congolese National Army">Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Rebel forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Katangese_Gendarmerie" title="Katangese Gendarmerie">Katangese Gendarmerie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai forces</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">UN contingent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">United Nations Operation in the Congo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Canadian_Army_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Canada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Irish_Army_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Ireland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Swedish_Army_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Sweden</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Indian_Army_leadership_and_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">India</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Ethiopia" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Ethiopia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Ghana,_Nigeria,_Egypt" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="CIA activities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">CIA</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Belgian /<br />mercenary units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mercenaries_and_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mercenaries and the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mercenaries</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2nd_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)" title="2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)">2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/4th_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)" title="4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)">4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=6th_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="6th Commando Battalion (Belgium) (page does not exist)">6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=White_Legion_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="White Legion (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=5_Mechanised_Brigade_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5 Mechanised Brigade (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">5 Mechanised Brigade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/4_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="4 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">4 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/5_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="5 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">5 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/6_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="6 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">6 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=9_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="9 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">9 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=11_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="11 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">11 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=12_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="12 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">12 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=13_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="13 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">13 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=14_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="14 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">14 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=15_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="15 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">15 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=211_Makasi_Squadron_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="211 Makasi Squadron (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">211th Makasi Squadron</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cuban_Exile_Naval_Force&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cuban Exile Naval Force (page does not exist)">Cuban Exile Naval Force</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Commanders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">United Nations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Conor_Cruise_O%27Brien" title="Conor Cruise O'Brien">Conor Cruise O'Brien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/K.A.S._Raja" title="K.A.S. Raja">K.A.S. Raja</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dewan_Prem_Chand" title="Dewan Prem Chand">Dewan Prem Chand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pat_Quinlan_(Irish_Army_officer)" title="Pat Quinlan (Irish Army officer)">Pat Quinlan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Congolese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Bobozo" title="Louis Bobozo">Louis Bobozo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Norbert_Moke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norbert Moke (page does not exist)">Norbert Moke</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Belgian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Marie_Cr%C3%A8vecoeur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur (page does not exist)">Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jules_Cr%C3%A8vecoeur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jules Crèvecoeur (page does not exist)">Jules Crèvecoeur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marc_Goosens" title="Marc Goosens">Marc Goosens</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Schramme" title="Jean Schramme">Jean Schramme</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Vandewalle" title="Frédéric Vandewalle">Frédéric Vandewalle</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Mercenary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bob_Denard" title="Bob Denard">Bob Denard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Faulques" title="Roger Faulques">Roger Faulques</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Gardien_(mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Gardien (mercenary) (page does not exist)">Charles Gardien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Germani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Germani (page does not exist)">Hans Germani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mad_Mike_Hoare" title="Mad Mike Hoare">Mike Hoare</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Fauntleroy_Julian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert Fauntleroy Julian">Hubert Fauntleroy Julian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Malloch" title="Jack Malloch">Jack Malloch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_M%C3%BCller_(mercenary)" title="Siegfried Müller (mercenary)">Siegfried Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Peters_(mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Peters (mercenary) (page does not exist)">John Peters</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerry_Puren_(mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerry Puren (mercenary) (page does not exist)">Jerry Puren</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Trinquier" title="Roger Trinquier">Roger Trinquier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_van_Oppen_(Mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh van Oppen (Mercenary) (page does not exist)">Hugh van Oppen</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Devlin" title="Larry Devlin">Larry Devlin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_%22Rip%22_Robertson" title="William "Rip" Robertson">William "Rip" Robertson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara#African_Congo" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Main operations /<br />battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">Force Publique mutinies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Secession crisis</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Congo-Stanleyville</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch"><i>Rum Punch</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Niemba_ambush" title="Niemba ambush">Niemba ambush</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabalo" title="Battle of Kabalo">Battle of Kabalo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Jadotville</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unokat" title="Operation Unokat"><i>UNOKAT</i></a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Camp_Massart" title="Attack on Camp Massart">Camp Massart</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam"><i>Grandslam</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_rebellion" title="Kwilu rebellion">Kwilu rebellion</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a> </span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge"><i>Dragon Rouge</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Dragon_Noir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Dragon Noir (page does not exist)"><i>Dragon Noir</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_White_Giant" title="Operation White Giant"><i>White Giant</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Violettes_Imperiales" title="Operation Violettes Imperiales"><i>Violettes Imperiales</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_South" title="Operation South"><i>South</i></a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stanleyville_mutinies" title="Stanleyville mutinies">Stanleyville mutinies</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Other major events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">Dissolution of the Lumumba Government</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#Final_days_and_execution" title="Patrice Lumumba">Torture and killing of Lumumba</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Dag Hammarskjöld">Death of Dag Hammarskjöld</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Belgian general strike of 1960–1961">Belgian general strike of 1960–1961</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conflicts_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo398" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:DR_Congo_conflicts_footer" title="Template:DR Congo conflicts footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:DR_Congo_conflicts_footer" title="Template talk:DR Congo conflicts footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:DR_Congo_conflicts_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:DR Congo conflicts footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conflicts_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Conflicts in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-1960</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo%E2%80%93Arab_war" title="Congo–Arab war">Congo–Arab war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batetela_rebellion" title="Batetela rebellion">Batetela rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rejaf" title="Battle of Rejaf">Battle of Rejaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East African campaign (World War I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo in World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masisi-Lubutu_revolt" title="Masisi-Lubutu revolt">Masisi-Lubutu revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opoldville_riots" title="Léopoldville riots">Léopoldville riots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a><br />(1960–1965)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">Force Publique mutinies</a></li> <li>Secession crisis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Congo-Stanleyville</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">Dissolution of the Lumumba Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#Final_days_and_assassination" title="Patrice Lumumba">Torture and killing of Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Dag Hammarskjöld">Death of Dag Hammarskjöld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch"><i>Rum Punch</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemba_ambush" title="Niemba ambush">Niemba ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabalo" title="Battle of Kabalo">Battle of Kabalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Jadotville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unokat" title="Operation Unokat"><i>UNOKAT</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Camp_Massart" title="Attack on Camp Massart">Camp Massart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam"><i>Grandslam</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_rebellion" title="Kwilu rebellion">Kwilu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge"><i>Dragon Rouge</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mobutu_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Second Mobutu coup d'état">1965 coup d'état</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1966–1995</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stanleyville_mutinies" title="Stanleyville mutinies">Stanleyville mutinies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War#Shaba_invasions" title="Angolan Civil War">Shaba invasions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">Shaba II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolwezi" title="Battle of Kolwezi">Battle of Kolwezi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Zaire_unrest" title="1991 Zaire unrest">1991 Zaire unrest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a><br />(1996–1997)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AFDL" title="AFDL">Formation of the AFDL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Allied_Democratic_Forces_insurgency" title="Allied Democratic Forces insurgency">AFD insurgency (1996–99)</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kichwamba_massacre" title="Kichwamba massacre">Kichwamba massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Thunderbolt_(1997)" title="Operation Thunderbolt (1997)"><i>Operation Thunderbolt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko#Overthrow" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Overthrow of Mobutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Ascension of Laurent Kabila</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a><br />(1998–2003)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kitona" title="Operation Kitona">Operation Kitona</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ituri_conflict" title="Ituri conflict">Ituri conflict</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogoro_massacre" title="Bogoro massacre">Bogoro massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War_(2000)" title="Six-Day War (2000)">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Assassination of Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisangani_massacre" title="Kisangani massacre">Kisangani massacre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">ICC investigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-2003 conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ituri_conflict(Post-2003)88" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ituri_conflict#Peacekeeping_operations_(2003–2006)" title="Ituri conflict">Ituri conflict</a><br />(Post-2003)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Artemis" title="Operation Artemis">Operation Artemis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_North_Night_Final" title="Operation North Night Final">Operation North Night Final</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaine_Savo_massacre" title="Plaine Savo massacre">Plaine Savo massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a><br />(2004–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Nord-Kivu_campaign" title="2008 Nord-Kivu campaign">2008 Nord-Kivu campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Eastern_Congo_offensive" title="2009 Eastern Congo offensive">2009 Eastern Congo offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_North_Kivu_offensive" title="2014 North Kivu offensive">2014 North Kivu offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_CNPSC_offensive" title="2017 CNPSC offensive">2017 CNPSC offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Uvira_clashes" title="2017 Uvira clashes">Uvira clashes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipupu_massacre" title="Kipupu massacre">Kipupu massacre</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="AFD_insurgency(Post-2007)71" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Allied_Democratic_Forces_insurgency" title="Allied Democratic Forces insurgency">AFD insurgency</a><br />(Post-2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beni_massacre" title="Beni massacre">Beni massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Semuliki_attack" title="2017 Semuliki attack">2017 Semuliki attack</a></li> <li>Nationwide attacks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_attacks" title="2020 Democratic Republic of the Congo attacks">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932024_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_attacks" title="2021–2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo attacks">2021–24</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shujaa" title="Operation Shujaa">Operation Shujaa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="M23_conflict34" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/March_23_Movement" title="March 23 Movement">M23 conflict</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion_(2012%E2%80%932013)" title="M23 rebellion (2012–2013)">M23 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_campaign_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="M23 campaign (2022–present)">M23 campaign (2022–present)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2025_Goma_offensive" title="2025 Goma offensive">2025 Goma offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Bukavu_offensive" title="2025 Bukavu offensive">2025 Bukavu offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Uvira_offensive" title="2025 Uvira offensive">2025 Uvira offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Walikale_offensive" title="2025 Walikale offensive">2025 Walikale offensive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Others6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongo_conflict" title="Dongo conflict">Dongo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_attempt" title="2011 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup attempt">2011 coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batwa%E2%80%93Luba_clashes" title="Batwa–Luba clashes">Batwa–Luba clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_2013_Kinshasa_attacks" title="December 2013 Kinshasa attacks">2013 Kinshasa attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Mutarule_attack" title="2014 Mutarule attack">2014 Mutarule attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamwina_Nsapu_rebellion" title="Kamwina Nsapu rebellion">Kamwina Nsapu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Yumbi_massacre" title="2018 Yumbi massacre">2018 Yumbi massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_DR_Congo_clashes" title="Western DR Congo clashes">Western DR Congo clashes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perennial conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Katanga_insurgency" title="Katanga insurgency">Katanga insurgency</a> (1963–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a> (1987–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview /<br />related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_soldiers_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mining industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource#Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict resources</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Sexual violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_First_and_Second_Congo_Wars" title="Rape during the First and Second Congo Wars">during the Congo Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations">Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda conflict">2020s conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MONUSCO" title="MONUSCO">MONUSCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo103" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template talk:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Current provinces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bas-U%C3%A9l%C3%A9" title="Bas-Uélé">Bas-Uélé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_%C3%89quateur" title="Province of Équateur">Équateur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haut-Katanga_Province" title="Haut-Katanga Province">Haut-Katanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haut-Lomami" title="Haut-Lomami">Haut-Lomami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haut-U%C3%A9l%C3%A9" title="Haut-Uélé">Haut-Uélé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ituri_Province" title="Ituri Province">Ituri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF_Province" title="Kasaï Province">Kasaï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF-Central" title="Kasaï-Central">Kasaï-Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF-Oriental" title="Kasaï-Oriental">Kasaï-Oriental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_Central" title="Kongo Central">Kongo Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwango" title="Kwango">Kwango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_Province" title="Kwilu Province">Kwilu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomami_Province" title="Lomami Province">Lomami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lualaba_Province" title="Lualaba Province">Lualaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai-Ndombe_Province" title="Mai-Ndombe Province">Mai-Ndombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maniema" title="Maniema">Maniema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongala" title="Mongala">Mongala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nord-Ubangi" title="Nord-Ubangi">Nord-Ubangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankuru" title="Sankuru">Sankuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Kivu" title="South Kivu">South Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sud-Ubangi" title="Sud-Ubangi">Sud-Ubangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_Province" title="Tanganyika Province">Tanganyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshopo" title="Tshopo">Tshopo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshuapa" title="Tshuapa">Tshuapa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">1966–2015</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bandundu_Province" title="Bandundu Province">Bandundu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bas-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-Congo">Bas-Congo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kasai-Occidental" title="Kasai-Occidental">Kasaï-Occidental</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF-Oriental_(former_province)" title="Kasaï-Oriental (former province)">Kasaï-Oriental</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maniema" title="Maniema">Maniema</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North Kivu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orientale_Province" title="Orientale Province">Orientale</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Kivu" title="South Kivu">South Kivu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">1963–1966</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Congo-Central" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo-Central">Congo Central</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cuvette_Centrale_Province" title="Cuvette Centrale Province">Cuvette-Centrale</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Haut-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Haut-Congo">Haut-Congo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Haut-Katanga_District" title="Haut-Katanga District">Katanga Oriental</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kibali-Ituri" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibali-Ituri">Kibali-Ituri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kivu_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="Kivu Central">Kivu Central</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kwango" title="Kwango">Kwango</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_Province" title="Kwilu Province">Kwilu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lomami_Province_(former)" title="Lomami Province (former)">Lomami</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lualaba_Province_(former)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lualaba Province (former)">Lualaba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luluabourg_Province" title="Luluabourg Province">Luluabourg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mai-Ndombe_Province_(former)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mai-Ndombe Province (former)">Mai-Ndombe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maniema" title="Maniema">Maniema</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moyen-Congo_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Moyen-Congo Province">Moyen-Congo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nord-Katanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Nord-Katanga">Nord-Katanga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">Nord-Kivu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sankuru" title="Sankuru">Sankuru</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Kasai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubangi_Province" title="Ubangi Province">Ubangi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U%C3%A9l%C3%A9_Province" title="Uélé Province">Uele</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_Kasa%C3%AFenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Unité Kasaïenne">Unité Kasaïenne</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF_(former_province)" title="Kasaï (former province)">Kasaï</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinshasa Province">Kinshasa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kivu_Province" title="Kivu Province">Kivu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opoldville_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Léopoldville Province">Léopoldville</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orientale_Province" title="Orientale Province">Orientale</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=South_Kasai&params=06_09_S_23_36_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">06°09′S</span> <span class="longitude">23°36′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">6.150°S 23.600°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-6.150; 23.600</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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established in 1960</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1960_establishments_in_Africa" title="Category:1960 establishments in Africa">1960 establishments in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1962_disestablishments_in_Africa" title="Category:1962 disestablishments in Africa">1962 disestablishments in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1962" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in 1962">States and territories disestablished in 1962</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_non-numeric_formatnum_arguments" title="Category:Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments">Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a 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