Royal Society | British Science, History & Impact

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[{"p":1,"t":511584},{"p":3,"t":528960},{"p":5,"t":413189},{"p":9,"t":528771},{"p":5,"t":151902},{"p":7,"t":129024},{"p":22,"t":194023},{"p":2,"t":669193},{"p":1,"t":418412},{"p":1,"t":136558}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content " data-topic-id="511584"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society">Royal Society</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <span class="toc-extra-link selected link-gray-900 mt-15"> Introduction </span> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Royal-Society">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/124934-004-8FF8A96B/Building-Royal-Society-London-Carlton-House-Terrace.jpg" data-href="/media/1/511584/118891" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/124934-004-8FF8A96B/Building-Royal-Society-London-Carlton-House-Terrace.jpg" alt="Royal Society" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/49/145149-050-C65F6271/Christopher-Wren-Royal-Society.jpg" data-href="/media/1/511584/150322" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/49/145149-004-7653B161/Christopher-Wren-Royal-Society.jpg" alt="Wren, Christopher" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/145146-050-DF45847F/Carlton-House-Terrace-home-Westminster-Eng-London-1967.jpg" data-href="/media/1/511584/150321" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/145146-004-9EC8941B/Carlton-House-Terrace-home-Westminster-Eng-London-1967.jpg" alt="Royal Society: main offices" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/145169-050-3849CFEC/Eadweard-Muybridge-Engraving-experiment-results-Royal-Society-1889.jpg" data-href="/media/1/511584/150436" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/145169-004-771407C9/Eadweard-Muybridge-Engraving-experiment-results-Royal-Society-1889.jpg" alt="Eadweard Muybridge" height="50" /> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-student-links"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> For Students </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/summary/Royal-Society"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.133.36" class="default " height="200" width="200"/> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/summary/Royal-Society" >Royal Society (of London for Improving Natural Knowledge) summary</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-quizzes"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Quizzes </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/science-at-random-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/158119-131-8AF57DBB/porcini-mushrooms-number-Northern-Hemisphere-tree-species.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Mushrooms growing in forest. 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Author of <em>The Royal Society and Its Fellows, 1660-1700; Boyle: Between God and Science; </em>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Michael Hunter</span></div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-19T00:00:00CST" >Feb 19, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 module-spacing js-inline-ai-ask-button p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="qf-title font-weight-bold font-14 mb-10 text-center"> Quick Facts</div> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>In full: </dt> <dd>Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Date: </dt> <dd>November 28, 1660</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Areas Of Involvement: </dt> <dd><a href="/science/science">science</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Isaac-Newton">Isaac Newton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Christopher-Wren">Christopher Wren</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Ernest-Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet">Sir Humphry Davy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Robert-Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Royal-Society"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://fortune.com/europe/2025/02/17/elon-musk-faces-exile-from-365-year-old-royal-society-scientific-institution-over-his-political-behavior/" rel="nofollow">Elon Musk faces exile from 365-year-old Royal Society scientific institution over his political behavior</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 17, 2025, 5:20 AM ET (Fortune) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/uks-royal-society-discuss-fellows-behaviours-amid-musk-controversy-2025-02-15/" rel="nofollow">UK's Royal Society to discuss fellows' behaviours amid Musk controversy</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 16, 2025, 7:43 AM ET (Reuters) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/feb/14/elon-musk-royal-society-open-letter-academics" rel="nofollow">Royal Society urged to expel Elon Musk as fellows sign open letter</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 9:04 PM ET (The Guardian) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2025/02/08/people-cosmetic-surgery-mental-health-checks-surgeon/" rel="nofollow">People seeking cosmetic surgery need mental health checks, says Royal Society's plastic surgeon</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 8, 2025, 12:40 AM ET (The Telegraph) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref138704"></span>Royal Society</strong>, the oldest national scientific society in the world and the leading national organization for the promotion of scientific research in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Royal Society originated on November 28, 1660, when 12 men met after a lecture at Gresham College, London, by <span id="ref873100"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Wren" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christopher Wren</a> (then professor of astronomy at the college) and resolved to set up “a Colledge for the promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning.” Those present included the scientists <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Boyle" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert Boyle</a> and Bishop John Wilkins and the courtiers Sir Robert Moray and <span id="ref873120"></span>William, 2nd Viscount Brouncker. (Brouncker was to become the Royal Society’s first president.) The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="initiative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/initiative" data-type="MW">initiative</a> had various more or less close <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="precursors" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/precursors" data-type="MW">precursors</a>, including a group that met in London in 1645, the Oxford “Experimental Philosophy Club” in the 1650s, and correspondence networks such as that of the reformer and philanthropist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-Hartlib" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Samuel Hartlib</a>; but the body set up in 1660 was consciously new, with ambitions to become a truly national society devoted to the promotion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/science" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">science</a>. These ambitions were put into effect over the next few years, particularly through a charter of incorporation granted by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-II-king-of-Great-Britain-and-Ireland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charles II</a> in 1662 and revised in 1663. The royal charter provided an institutional structure for the society, with president, treasurer, secretaries, and council. Though it had royal <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="patronage" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/patronage" data-type="EB">patronage</a> almost from the start, the society has always remained a voluntary organization, independent of the British state.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="150322" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/49/145149-050-C65F6271/Christopher-Wren-Royal-Society.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/511584/150322"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/49/145149-050-C65F6271/Christopher-Wren-Royal-Society.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/49/145149-050-C65F6271/Christopher-Wren-Royal-Society.jpg?w=300" alt="Wren, Christopher" data-width="1271" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/49/145149-050-C65F6271/Christopher-Wren-Royal-Society.jpg" data-href="/media/1/511584/150322">Wren, Christopher</a><span>Sir Christopher Wren, founder of the Royal Society.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">From the outset the society aspired to combine the role of research institute with that of clearinghouse for knowledge and forum for arbitration, though the latter function became dominant after the society’s earliest years. A key development was the establishment in 1665 of a periodical that acted as the society’s mouthpiece (though it was actually published by the secretary, initially Henry Oldenburg, and was only officially adopted by the society in 1753): this was the <em><span id="ref138705"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Philosophical-Transactions" class="md-crosslink ">Philosophical Transactions</a></em>, which still <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="flourishes" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/flourishes" data-type="EB">flourishes</a> today as the oldest scientific journal in continuous publication.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/science-at-random-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/158119-131-8AF57DBB/porcini-mushrooms-number-Northern-Hemisphere-tree-species.jpg" alt="Mushrooms growing in forest. (vegetable; fungus; mushroom; macrofungi; epigeous)" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Science at Random Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="150321" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/145146-050-DF45847F/Carlton-House-Terrace-home-Westminster-Eng-London-1967.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/511584/150321"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/145146-050-DF45847F/Carlton-House-Terrace-home-Westminster-Eng-London-1967.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/145146-050-DF45847F/Carlton-House-Terrace-home-Westminster-Eng-London-1967.jpg?w=300" alt="Royal Society: main offices" data-width="1600" data-height="1064" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/145146-050-DF45847F/Carlton-House-Terrace-home-Westminster-Eng-London-1967.jpg" data-href="/media/1/511584/150321">Royal Society: main offices</a><span>Carlton House Terrace (Numbers 6–9), Westminster, London, Eng., home of the Royal Society since 1967.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In the subsequent history of the society, various episodes are of particular significance. The presidency of <span id="ref873140"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Isaac-Newton" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sir Isaac Newton</a> from 1703 to 1727 saw this great mathematician and physicist asserting the society’s dominant role in science in Britain and farther afield. (Earlier, Newton’s <em><span id="ref873160"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Principia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Principia</a></em> had been published with the society’s imprimatur.) Endowments from the 18th century onward made possible prizes for various aspects of science that are still awarded today—most notably the <span id="ref138708"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Copley-Medal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Copley Medal</a>, which, stemming from a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bequest" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bequest" data-type="MW">bequest</a> by Sir Godfrey Copley in 1709, became the most prestigious scientific award in Britain. In the late 18th century the society played an active role in encouraging scientific exploration, particularly under its longest-serving president, <span id="ref873180"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Banks" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sir Joseph Banks</a>, who earlier had accompanied <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Cook" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">James Cook</a> on his great voyage of discovery of 1768–71. However, in general the 18th and early 19th centuries saw the society tending to rest on its laurels and become slightly amateurish. This was rectified in the 1830s by a reform program that reinvigorated the society and restored it to a prominence that it has retained ever since. In 1919 the society sent expeditions to photograph the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/solar-eclipse" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">solar eclipse</a> of May 29 from Príncipe Island in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-Guinea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gulf of Guinea</a> and from Sobral in Brazil, verifying <span id="ref873200"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Albert Einstein</a>’s general theory of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/relativity" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">relativity</a> and helping to make Einstein famous.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Election to the Royal Society’s Fellowship is a coveted <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="accolade" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accolade" data-type="MW">accolade</a> for scientists; since 1945 women as well as men have been eligible for this honour. Today there are approximately 1,300 fellows and 130 foreign members. Since 1967 the society has occupied <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="premises" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/premises" data-type="MW">premises</a> in Carlton House Terrace, London, where meetings are held and the society’s extensive archival and other resources are housed. The society’s role now includes the provision of independent advice on issues of current concern, and it also administers large sums of public money through grants aimed to support innovative research, foster international scientific cooperation, and encourage better communication between scientists and the public.</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="md-signature font-12"><a href="/contributor/Michael-Hunter/6334">Michael Hunter</a></span> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":511584,"pageLength":637,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.36"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.36' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"MEDIUM","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Royal Society | British Science, History & Impact | Britannica