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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Hindu-Buddhist_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trade_with_India_and_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_with_India_and_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Trade with India and China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_with_India_and_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_kingdoms_(3rd–7th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_kingdoms_(3rd–7th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Early kingdoms (3rd–7th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_kingdoms_(3rd–7th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gangga_Negara" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gangga_Negara"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Gangga Negara </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gangga_Negara-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Kedah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Kedah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Old Kedah </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Kedah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Srivijaya_(7th–13th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Srivijaya_(7th–13th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Srivijaya (7th–13th century) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Srivijaya_(7th–13th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relations_with_the_Chola_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_the_Chola_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Relations with the Chola Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_the_Chola_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_breakup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_breakup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Decline and breakup </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_breakup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Muslim_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Muslim_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Rise of Muslim states </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rise_of_Muslim_states-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rise of Muslim states subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Muslim_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Malaccan_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaccan_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Malaccan Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaccan_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Establishment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Malacca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Malacca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Rise of Malacca </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Malacca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Malaccan_sultanates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Malaccan_sultanates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Post-Malaccan sultanates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Malaccan_sultanates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Johor_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johor_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Johor Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johor_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perak_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perak_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Perak Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perak_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pahang_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pahang_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Pahang Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pahang_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selangor_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selangor_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Selangor Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selangor_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brunei_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brunei_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Brunei Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brunei_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-16th–18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th–18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 16th–18th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-16th–18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Struggles_for_hegemony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Struggles_for_hegemony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Struggles for hegemony </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Struggles_for_hegemony-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Struggles for hegemony subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Struggles_for_hegemony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Siamese_expansion_into_Malaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siamese_expansion_into_Malaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Siamese expansion into Malaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siamese_expansion_into_Malaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 British influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Colonial era </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Colonial era subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_in_Malaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_in_Malaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 British in Malaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_in_Malaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_in_Borneo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_in_Borneo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 British in Borneo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_in_Borneo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race_relations_during_colonial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_relations_during_colonial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Race relations during colonial era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_relations_during_colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_state_of_emergency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_state_of_emergency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 World War II and the state of emergency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_state_of_emergency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Emergence of Malaysia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_Malaysia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Emergence of Malaysia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Struggle_for_an_independent_Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Struggle_for_an_independent_Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Struggle for an independent Malaysia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Struggle_for_an_independent_Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges_of_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_of_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Challenges of independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges_of_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Racial_strife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_strife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Racial strife </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_strife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crisis_of_1969_and_Communist_insurgency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis_of_1969_and_Communist_insurgency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Crisis of 1969 and Communist insurgency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crisis_of_1969_and_Communist_insurgency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Modern Malaysia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_Malaysia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern Malaysia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mahathir_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahathir_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Mahathir administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahathir_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abdullah_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abdullah_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Abdullah administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abdullah_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Najib_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Najib_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Najib administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Najib_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Mahathir_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Mahathir_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Second Mahathir administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Mahathir_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muhyiddin_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muhyiddin_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Muhyiddin administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muhyiddin_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ismail_Sabri_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ismail_Sabri_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Ismail Sabri administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ismail_Sabri_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anwar_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anwar_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Anwar administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anwar_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Malaysia</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" > 38 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تاريخ ماليزيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ ماليزيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Malasia" title="Historia de Malasia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de Malasia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="মালয়েশিয়ার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মালয়েশিয়ার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Малайзия тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Малайзия тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%96" title="Гісторыя Малайзіі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Малайзіі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_Mal%C3%A0isia" title="Història de Malàisia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de Malàisia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Malajsie" title="Dějiny Malajsie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Malajsie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Malaysias" title="Geschichte Malaysias – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Malaysias" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Malasia" title="Historia de Malasia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Malasia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiako_historia" title="Malaysiako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Malaysiako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="تاریخ مالزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ مالزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Malaisie" title="Histoire de la Malaisie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Malaisie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%90%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="말레이시아의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" 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istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Malaizijos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="മലേഷ്യയുടെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മലേഷ്യയുടെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Malaysia" title="Sejarah Malaysia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Malaysia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਮਲੇਸ਼ੀਆ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਲੇਸ਼ੀਆ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="ملائیشیا دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ملائیشیا دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د مالیزیا تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مالیزیا تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Malezji" title="Historia Malezji – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Malezji" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Mal%C3%A1sia" title="História da Malásia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Malásia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KITLV_-_105898_-_Lambert_%26_Co.%2C_G.R._-_Singapore_-_River_in_Kuala_Lumpur_-_circa_1900.tif/lossy-page1-330px-KITLV_-_105898_-_Lambert_%26_Co.%2C_G.R._-_Singapore_-_River_in_Kuala_Lumpur_-_circa_1900.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KITLV_-_105898_-_Lambert_%26_Co.%2C_G.R._-_Singapore_-_River_in_Kuala_Lumpur_-_circa_1900.tif/lossy-page1-440px-KITLV_-_105898_-_Lambert_%26_Co.%2C_G.R._-_Singapore_-_River_in_Kuala_Lumpur_-_circa_1900.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6363" data-file-height="4878" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gombak_River" title="Gombak River">Gombak River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> in 1900</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Malaysia" title="Category:History of Malaysia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Malaysia</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:(139_of_160)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Les isles de la Sonde, entre lesquelles sont Sumatra, Iava, Borneo, &c / par le Sr. Sanson d'Abbeville geographe du roy ; A. Peyrounin sculp"><img alt="Les isles de la Sonde, entre lesquelles sont Sumatra, Iava, Borneo, &c / par le Sr. Sanson d'Abbeville geographe du roy ; A. Peyrounin sculp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%28139_of_160%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-%28139_of_160%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%28139_of_160%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-%28139_of_160%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="4240" data-file-height="3392" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; padding-top:0.5em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Malaysia" title="Prehistoric Malaysia">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/wiki/Lenggong" title="Lenggong">Lenggong Valley</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2,000,0000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mansuli_Valley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mansuli Valley (page does not exist)">Mansuli Valley</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">235,000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/wiki/Niah_National_Park" title="Niah National Park">Niah cultures</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 65,000–40,000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  Bewah man/woman</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 16,000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  Perak man/woman</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 11,000–200 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/wiki/Klang_Bell" title="Klang Bell">Neolithic Klang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 500 – 200 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early kingdoms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kedah" title="History of Kedah">Ancient Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <100 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chi_Tu" title="Chi Tu">Chi Tu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 100 BCE–642 CE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 100 BCE–1474 CE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 CE–1025</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pan_Pan_(kingdom)" title="Pan Pan (kingdom)">Pan Pan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 424–775</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kedah" title="History of Kedah">Old Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 170–1135</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Pahang Kingdom">Old Pahang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 449–1454</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 700s–1025</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1300s</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Rise of Muslim states</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kedah_Sultanate" title="Kedah Sultanate">Kedah Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1136–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samudera_Pasai_Sultanate" title="Samudera Pasai Sultanate">Samudera Pasai Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1267–1521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1368–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malacca Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1402–1511</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1450–1899</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Sultanate" title="Pahang Sultanate">Pahang Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1470–1623</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1496–1903</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pattani_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattani Kingdom">Pattani Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1516– 1902</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Johor_Sultanate" title="Johor Sultanate">Johor Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1528–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sarawak" title="Sultanate of Sarawak">Sarawak Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1599–1641</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Selangor" title="Sultan of Selangor">Selangor Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1766–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Besut_Darul_Iman" title="Kingdom of Besut Darul Iman">Besut Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1780–1899</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Setul_Mambang_Segara" title="Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara">Setul Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1808–1916</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Reman" title="Kingdom of Reman">Reman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1810–1902</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kubang_Pasu_Darul_Qiyam" title="Kingdom of Kubang Pasu Darul Qiyam">Kubang Pasu Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1839–1864</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Colonial period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1511–1641</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1601–1661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch Malacca</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1641–1824</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Kingdom" title="Pahang Kingdom">Pahang Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1770–1881</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1786–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Siamese_invasion_of_Kedah" title="Siamese invasion of Kedah">Siamese invasion of Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1821–1826</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1824</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Burney_Treaty" title="Burney Treaty">Burney Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1826</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Naning_War" title="Naning War">Naning War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1831–1832</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Kingdom of Sarawak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1841–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Jamalullail_(Perlis)" title="House of Jamalullail (Perlis)">Separation of Perlis from Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1843</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Crown Colony of Labuan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1848–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Civil_War" title="Pahang Civil War">Pahang Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1857–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Larut_Wars" title="Larut Wars">Larut Wars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1861–1874</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Klang_War" title="Klang War">Klang War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1874</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pangkor_Treaty_of_1874" title="Pangkor Treaty of 1874">Pangkor Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1874</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Perak_War" title="Perak War">Perak War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1875–1876</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a> / <a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">Borneo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1874–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jementah_Civil_War" title="Jementah Civil War">Jementah Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1882–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Uprising" title="Pahang Uprising">Pahang Uprising</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1891–1895</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mat_Salleh_Rebellion" title="Mat Salleh Rebellion">Mat Salleh Rebellion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1894–1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated Malay States</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1895–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_Treaty_of_1909" title="Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909">Anglo-Siamese Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1909</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated Malay States</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1909–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penang" title="Battle of Penang">Battle of Penang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1915</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">World War II</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Japanese occupation of Malaya</a> / <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Bornean Campaign</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muar" title="Battle of Muar">Battle of Muar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parit_Sulong_Massacre" title="Parit Sulong Massacre">Parit Sulong Massacre</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Battle of Singapore</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Syburi" title="Syburi">Syburi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sandakan_Death_Marches" title="Sandakan Death Marches">Sandakan Death Marches</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Si_Rat_Malai" title="Si Rat Malai">Si Rat Malai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1943–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jesselton_revolt" title="Jesselton revolt">Jesselton revolt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1943–1944</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Formative period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Malaya)" title="British Military Administration (Malaya)">BMA of Malaya</a>/<a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Borneo)" title="British Military Administration (Borneo)">Borneo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony of N. Borneo</a>/<a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-cession_movement_of_Sarawak" title="Anti-cession movement of Sarawak">Anti-cession movement</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–1960</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Baling_Talks" title="Baling Talks">Baling Talks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1955</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Independence period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Malayan Declaration of Independence">Malayan Independence</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1957</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Self-governance_of_Singapore" title="Self-governance of Singapore">Singapore self-governance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1959</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_1960" title="Internal Security Act 1960">ISA 1960</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1960–2012</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Sarawak Insurgency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1962–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_Self-government_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="North Borneo Self-government Day">North Borneo self-governance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Konfrontasi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963–1966</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sarawak_Independence_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarawak Independence Day">Sarawak self-governance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Day" title="Malaysia Day">Formation of Malaysia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia" title="Singapore in Malaysia">Singapore in Malaysia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963–1965</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Second communist insurgency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1968–1989</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">13 May incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/National_Operations_Council" title="National Operations Council">National Operations Council</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969–1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Declaration of Rukun Negara</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1970</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1971–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Territories_of_Malaysia" title="Federal Territories of Malaysia">Federal Territory of KL</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1974</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1977_Kelantan_Emergency" title="1977 Kelantan Emergency">1977 Kelantan Emergency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pedra_Branca_dispute" title="Pedra Branca dispute">Pedra Branca dispute</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1979–2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_disputes_in_the_South_China_Sea" title="Territorial disputes in the South China Sea">South China Sea dispute</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spratly_Islands_dispute" title="Spratly Islands dispute">Spratly</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1980–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dawn_Raid_(Malaysia)" title="Dawn Raid (Malaysia)">Dawn Raid</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Labuan" title="Labuan">Federal Territory of Labuan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1984</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Memali_Incident" title="Memali Incident">Memali incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lalang" title="Operation Lalang">Operation Lalang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1987–1988</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Peace_Agreement_of_Hat_Yai_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace Agreement of Hat Yai (1989)">Peace Agreement of Hat Yai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1989</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1993_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia">Royal Immunity Amendments</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1993</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis#Malaysia" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">Asian financial crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1997–1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reformasi_(Malaysia)" title="Reformasi (Malaysia)">Reformasi Movement</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1998–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2008_Malaysian_Opposition_Wave" title="2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave">2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="2009 swine flu pandemic in Malaysia">H1N1 flu pandemic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2009–2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2014_Malaysian_sedition_dragnet" title="2014 Malaysian sedition dragnet">Sedition Dragnet</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1MDB scandal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2015–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">Pakatan Harapan takeover</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2018</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">COVID-19 pandemic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2020–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">Political crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2020–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2021_amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="2021 amendment to the Constitution of Malaysia">Bornean Amendment</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021–2023</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Green_Wave_(Malaysia)" title="Green Wave (Malaysia)">Green Wave</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2022–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Incidents</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Brunei_revolt" title="Brunei revolt">Brunei revolt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1962–1966</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cross_border_attacks_in_Sabah" title="Cross border attacks in Sabah">Philippine militant attacks</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1962–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">Singapore race riots</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Limbang_District" title="Limbang District">Brunei's Limbang claim</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967–2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1967_Penang_Hartal_riot" title="1967 Penang Hartal riot">Penang Hartal riot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/13_May_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May Incident">13 May Incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ligitan_and_Sipadan_dispute" title="Ligitan and Sipadan dispute">Ligitan and Sipadan dispute</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969–2002</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1971_Kuala_Lumpur_floods" title="1971 Kuala Lumpur floods">Kuala Lumpur flash floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_haze" title="Southeast Asian haze">Malaysian haze crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1972–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1975_AIA_building_hostage_crisis" title="1975 AIA building hostage crisis">AIA building hostage crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/National_Monument_(Malaysia)" title="National Monument (Malaysia)">National Monument bombing</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Campbell_Shopping_Complex_fire" title="Campbell Shopping Complex fire">Campbell Shopping Complex fire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1976</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1976_Sabah_Air_GAF_Nomad_crash" title="1976 Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash">Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1976</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Lines_Flight_715" title="Japan Air Lines Flight 715">Japan Airlines Flight 715 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Airline_System_Flight_653" title="Malaysian Airline System Flight 653">MH653 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1985_Lahad_Datu_ambush" title="1985 Lahad Datu ambush">1985 Lahad Datu ambush</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Memali_Incident" title="Memali Incident">Memali Incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1986_Sabah_riots" title="1986 Sabah riots">Sabah Emergency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1986</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1987_Ming_Court_Affair" title="1987 Ming Court Affair">Ming Court Affair</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Abdul_Halim_ferry_terminal_bridge_collapse" title="Sultan Abdul Halim ferry terminal bridge collapse">Penang terminal bridge collapse</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1988</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1989_Taufiqiah_Al-Khairiah_madrasa_fire" title="1989 Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire">Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1989</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bright_Sparklers_Fireworks_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Bright Sparklers Fireworks disaster">Bright Sparklers disaster</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Highland_Towers_collapse" title="Highland Towers collapse">Highland Towers collapse</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1993</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Genting_Sempah%E2%80%93Genting_Highlands_Highway" title="Genting Sempah–Genting Highlands Highway">Genting landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1995</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_2133" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 2133">MH2133 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1995</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1996_Pos_Dipang_mudflow" class="mw-redirect" title="1996 Pos Dipang mudflow">Pos Dipang mudflow</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Depression_Greg_(1996)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical Depression Greg (1996)">Tropical Storm Greg</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Malaysia_Nipah_virus_outbreak" title="1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak">1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1998–1999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2000_Sipadan_kidnappings" title="2000 Sipadan kidnappings">2000 Sipadan kidnappings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27unah" title="Al-Ma'unah">Al-Ma'unah incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sauk_Siege" title="Sauk Siege">Sauk Siege</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2001_Kampung_Medan_riots" title="2001 Kampung Medan riots">2001 Kampung Medan riots</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2002_Taman_Hillview_landslide" title="2002 Taman Hillview landslide">2002 Taman Hillview landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2002</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_the_2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_on_Malaysia" title="Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Malaysia">Indian Ocean tsunami</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2006%E2%80%932007_Southeast_Asian_floods" title="2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods">2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2006–2007</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2007_Bukit_Gantang_bus_crash" title="2007 Bukit Gantang bus crash">Bukit Gantang bus crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2007</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2008_Bukit_Antarabangsa_landslide" title="2008 Bukit Antarabangsa landslide">Bukit Antarabangsa landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="2009 swine flu pandemic in Malaysia">H1N1 flu pandemic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2010_attacks_against_places_of_worship_in_Malaysia" title="2010 attacks against places of worship in Malaysia">Attacks against places of worship</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2010_Cameron_Highlands_bus_crash" title="2010 Cameron Highlands bus crash">Cameron Highlands bus crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2011_Hulu_Langat_landslide" title="2011 Hulu Langat landslide">Hulu Langat landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2013_Genting_Highlands_bus_crash" title="2013 Genting Highlands bus crash">Genting Highlands bus crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2013</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">MH370 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">MH17 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Malaysia_floods" class="mw-redirect" title="2014–15 Malaysia floods">2014–15 Malaysia floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014–2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2015_Sabah_earthquake" title="2015 Sabah earthquake">Sabah earthquake</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2015_Plaza_Low_Yat_riot" title="2015 Plaza Low Yat riot">2015 Plaza Low Yat riot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2016_Movida_Bar_grenade_attack" title="2016 Movida Bar grenade attack">Movida Bar grenade attack</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Kim_Jong-nam" title="Assassination of Kim Jong-nam">Kim Jong-nam's Assassination</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2017_Darul_Quran_Ittifaqiyah_madrasa_fire" title="2017 Darul Quran Ittifaqiyah madrasa fire">Darul Quran madrasa fire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sri_Maha_Mariamman_Temple_riot" title="Sri Maha Mariamman Temple riot">2018 Subang Temple riot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2018</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Malaysian_floods" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–21 Malaysian floods">2020-21 Malaysia floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2021_Kelana_Jaya_LRT_collision" title="2021 Kelana Jaya LRT collision">LRT train collision</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_floods" title="2021–2022 Malaysian floods">2021-22 Malaysia floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2022_Batang_Kali_landslide" title="2022 Batang Kali landslide">2022 Batang Kali landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2023_Elmina_plane_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Elmina plane crash">2023 Elmina plane crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2023</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2024_Lumut_mid-air_collision" title="2024 Lumut mid-air collision">2024 Lumut helicopters crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2024</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2024_Ulu_Tiram_police_station_attack" title="2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack">2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2024</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="History of telecommunications in Malaysia">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Malaysian_Constitution" title="History of the Malaysian Constitution">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Malaysia" title="Economic history of Malaysia">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Malaysia#History" title="Immigration to Malaysia">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_legal_history" title="Malaysian legal history">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Malaysia" title="Military history of Malaysia">Military</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kedah" title="History of Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuala_Lumpur" title="History of Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Penang" title="History of Penang">Penang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_George_Town,_Penang" title="History of George Town, Penang">George Town</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sabah" title="History of Sabah">Sabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sarawak" title="History of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/17px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/26px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/34px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Malaysia" title="Portal:Malaysia">Malaysia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Malaysia" title="Template:History of Malaysia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Malaysia" title="Template talk:History of Malaysia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Malaysia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Malaysia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> is a modern concept, created in the second half of the 20th century. However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history of <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">Malaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>, spanning thousands of years back to <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric times</a>, as its own history.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Significant events in Malaysia's modern history include the formation of the federation, the separation of Singapore, the racial riots, and <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a>'s era of industrialisation and privatisation.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The first evidence of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">archaic human</a> occupation in the region dates back at least 1.83 million years, while the earliest remnants of <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">anatomically modern humans</a> are approximately 40,000 years old. The ancestors of the present-day population of Malaysia entered the area in multiple waves during prehistoric and historical times.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> dominated early regional history, reaching their peak from the 7th to the 13th centuries during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> civilisation. <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> made its initial presence in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a> as early as the 10th century, but it was during the 15th century that the religion firmly took root, at least among the court elites, leading to the rise of several sultanates, the most prominent being the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Malacca">Sultanate of Malacca</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Brunei">Sultanate of Brunei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> were the first European colonial power to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and in Southeast Asia, <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">capturing Malacca in 1511</a>. This event led to the establishment of several sultanates, such as <a href="/wiki/Johor_Sultanate" title="Johor Sultanate">Johor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perak_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Perak Sultanate">Perak</a>. Dutch hegemony over the <a href="/wiki/Category:Sultanates_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Sultanates in Malaysia">Malay sultanates</a> increased during the 17th to 18th centuries, with the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1641)" title="Siege of Malacca (1641)">capturing Malacca in 1641</a> with the aid of Johor. In the 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">English</a> ultimately gained hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824</a> defined the boundaries between <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (which became <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_Treaty_of_1909" title="Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909">Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909</a> defined the boundaries between British Malaya and Siam (which became <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>). The fourth phase of foreign influence was marked by a wave of immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs created by the colonial economy in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Japanese invasion</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> ended British rule in Malaya. After the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a> was established in 1946 and reorganized as the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a> in 1948. In the peninsula, the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Communist_Party" title="Malayan Communist Party">Malayan Communist Party</a> (MCP) took up arms against the British, leading to the declaration of <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">emergency rule</a> from 1948 to 1960. A forceful military response to the communist insurgency, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Baling_Talks" title="Baling Talks">Baling Talks</a> in 1955, led to <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Malayan Declaration of Independence">Malayan independence</a> on August 31, 1957, through diplomatic negotiation with the British.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> On 16 September 1963, the <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Federation of Malaysia</a> was formed, but in August 1965, <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia" title="Singapore in Malaysia">Singapore</a> was expelled from the federation and became a <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Singapore" title="Proclamation of Singapore">separate independent country</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> A <a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">racial riot in 1969</a> resulted in the imposition of emergency rule, the suspension of parliament and the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Rukun Negara</a>, a national philosophy promoting unity among citizens.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP), adopted in 1971, sought to eradicate poverty and restructure society to eliminate the identification of race with economic function.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Under Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a>, Malaysia experienced rapid <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> beginning in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Bound_for_Glory-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Development_Policy" title="National Development Policy">National Development Policy</a> (NDP), succeeding the previous economic policy, was implemented from 1991 to 2000.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">Asian financial crisis</a> of the late 1990s nearly caused the country's currency, stock, and property markets to collapse, though they subsequently recovered.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1MDB_scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="1MDB scandal">1MDB scandal</a> came to prominence in 2015 as a significant global corruption scandal, implicating then-Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The scandal significantly influenced the <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">2018 general election</a>, resulting in the first change of ruling political party since independence.<a href="#cite_note-Opposition_scores-20">[20]</a> In early 2020, Malaysia faced a <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">political crisis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:9-21">[21]</a> concurrent with the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, leading to political, health, social, and economic disruptions.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/2022_Malaysian_general_election" title="2022 Malaysian general election">2022 general election</a> resulted in Malaysia's first hung parliament, leading to <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a>'s appointment as Prime Minister on November 24, 2022.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niah_Skull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Niah Skull" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Niah_Skull.jpg/220px-Niah_Skull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Niah_Skull.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption>The discovery of a skull estimated to be around 40,000 years old in the <a href="/wiki/Niah_National_Park" title="Niah National Park">Niah Caves</a>, in Sarawak, has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in <a href="/wiki/East_Malaysia" title="East Malaysia">Malaysian Borneo</a> (photo December 1958).</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_(southeast_Asia).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_%28southeast_Asia%29.tif/lossy-page1-220px-The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_%28southeast_Asia%29.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_%28southeast_Asia%29.tif/lossy-page1-330px-The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_%28southeast_Asia%29.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_%28southeast_Asia%29.tif/lossy-page1-440px-The_Golden_Chersonese_-_details_from_the_eleventh_map_of_Asia_%28southeast_Asia%29.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption>The Malay Peninsula, shown in the Ptolemy's map as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Khersonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Khersonese">Golden Khersonese</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Malaysia" title="Prehistoric Malaysia">Prehistoric Malaysia</a></div>Stone hand axes from early hominids, probably <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a>, have been unearthed in <a href="/wiki/Lenggong" title="Lenggong">Lenggong</a>. These axes date back 1.83 million years, making them some of the oldest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominid</a> habitation in Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The earliest evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia is a 40,000-year-old skull excavated from the <a href="/wiki/Niah_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Niah Caves">Niah Caves</a> in present-day Sarawak.<a href="#cite_note-niah_skull-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sarawakforestry-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> This skull is also one of the oldest modern human remains found in Southeast Asia. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of the Niah Caves, located 110 kilometers (68 miles) southwest of Miri, 40,000 years ago when <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a> was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-worldarcheology-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> burial sites have also been discovered in the area.<a href="#cite_note-:7-33">[33]</a> The region around the Niah Caves has been designated as <a href="/wiki/Niah_National_Park" title="Niah National Park">Niah National Park</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-33">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg/170px-British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg/255px-British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg/340px-British_Museum_Asia_36.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1723" data-file-height="2298" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Klang_Bell" title="Klang Bell">Klang Bell</a>, dated 200 BC–200 AD<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> </figcaption></figure> A study of Asian genetics suggests that the original humans in East Asia came from Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The oldest complete skeleton found in Malaysia is the 11,000-year-old <a href="/wiki/Lenggong#Perak_Man" title="Lenggong">Perak Man</a>, unearthed in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The indigenous groups on the peninsula can be divided into three ethnicities: the <a href="/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negritos</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Senoi" title="Senoi">Senoi</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Malay" title="Proto-Malay">Proto-Malays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The first inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula were most likely Negritos.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> hunters were probably the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Semang" title="Semang">Semang</a>, an ethnic Negrito group.<a href="#cite_note-TED-41">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Senoi" title="Senoi">Senoi</a> appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of their maternal <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral migrations from <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a>. Scholars suggest they are descendants of early <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a>-speaking agriculturalists, who brought both their language and technology to the southern part of the peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago. They eventually united and coalesced with the indigenous population.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-42">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Malay" title="Proto-Malay">Proto Malays</a> have a more diverse origin and had settled in Malaysia by 1000 BC as a result of <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian</a> expansion.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Although they show some connections with other inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a>, some also have ancestry in Indochina around the time of the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, about 20,000 years ago. Areas comprising what is now Malaysia participated in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_Jade_Road&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime Jade Road (page does not exist)">Maritime Jade Road</a>, a trading network that existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BC and 1000 AD.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is today <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, China.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by the <a href="/wiki/Malays_(ethnic_group)" title="Malays (ethnic group)">Deutero-Malays</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> people descended partly from the <a href="/wiki/Chams" title="Chams">Chams</a> of Cambodia and Vietnam. The Deutero-Malays, the first group in the peninsula to use metal tools, were the direct ancestors of today's <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malays" title="Malaysian Malays">Malaysian Malays</a> and brought with them advanced farming techniques.<a href="#cite_note-TED-41">[41]</a> The Malays remained politically fragmented throughout the Malay Archipelago, although they shared a common culture and social structure.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Hindu-Buddhist_kingdoms">Early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_cultural_zone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Indian_cultural_zone.svg/250px-Indian_cultural_zone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Indian_cultural_zone.svg/375px-Indian_cultural_zone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Indian_cultural_zone.svg/500px-Indian_cultural_zone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption>Historic <a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a> cultural influence zone of <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a> for transmission of religion, music, arts, and cuisine<a href="#cite_note-diasind1-52">[52]</a></figcaption></figure> In the first millennium AD, the Malay became the dominant ethnicity on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indianization_of_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianization of Southeast Asia">Indian influence in the region</a> dates back to at least the 3rd century BC. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the South Indian <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava dynasty</a> in the 4th and 5th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_with_India_and_China">Trade with India and China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trade with India and China">edit</a>]</div> In ancient Indian literature, the term <a href="/wiki/Suvarnadvipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Suvarnadvipa">Suvarnadvipa</a> (Golden Peninsula) is used in the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>; some argue that this is a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian text <a href="/wiki/Vayu_Purana" title="Vayu Purana">Vayu Purana</a> also mentions a place named <a href="/wiki/Malayadvipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayadvipa">Malayadvipa</a>; this term may refer to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The Malay Peninsula was shown on <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_world_map" title="Ptolemy's world map">map</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Chersonese" title="Golden Chersonese">Golden Chersonese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a> dating from the 1st century following the <a href="/wiki/Southward_expansion_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Southward expansion of the Han dynasty">southward expansion of the Han dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> writing system was used as early as the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_kingdoms_(3rd–7th_centuries)">Early kingdoms (3rd–7th centuries)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early kingdoms (3rd–7th centuries)">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg/200px-BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg/300px-BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg/400px-BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century AD, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta. Found in Seberang Perai and kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</a></div> There were as many as 30 Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, mainly based on the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula was the ancient kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a>, located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the east coast.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-61">[61]</a> It was closely tied to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Funan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Funan">Funan</a> in Cambodia, which also ruled parts of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Pahang Kingdom">Kingdom of Pahang</a> was mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Song" title="Book of Song">Book of Song</a>. Besides this, <a href="/wiki/Chi_Tu" title="Chi Tu">Chi Tu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pan_Pan_(kingdom)" title="Pan Pan (kingdom)">Pan Pan</a> were old polities believed to be located in the northeast of the peninsula. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gangga_Negara">Gangga Negara</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gangga Negara">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a> was a semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Annals" title="Malay Annals">Malay Annals</a> that covered present-day <a href="/wiki/Beruas" title="Beruas">Beruas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinding" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinding">Dinding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manjung" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjung">Manjung</a> in the state of <a href="/wiki/Perak" title="Perak">Perak</a>, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> According to the legendary <a href="/wiki/Hikayat_Merong_Mahawangsa" title="Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa">Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa</a>, Gangga Negara was founded by <a href="/wiki/Merong_Mahawangsa" title="Merong Mahawangsa">Merong Mahawangsa</a>'s son Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah, allegedly a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> or by the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a> royalty no later than the 2nd century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Kedah">Old Kedah</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Old Kedah">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg/220px-Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg/330px-Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg/440px-Candi_Batu_Pahat_of_Bujang_Valley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption>Built in the 6th century AD, Candi Bukit Batu Pahat is the most well-known ancient Hindu temple found in Bujang Valley.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, a Greek geographer, had written about the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Chersonese" title="Golden Chersonese">Golden Chersonese</a>, which indicated that trade with India and China had existed since the 1st century AD.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> During this time, coastal city-states that existed had a trade network which encompassed the southern part of the Indochinese Peninsula and the western part of the Malay Archipelago. These coastal cities had ongoing trade as well as tributary relations with China, at the same time being in constant contact with Indian traders. They seem to have shared a common indigenous culture.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Gradually, the rulers of the western part of the archipelago adopted Indian cultural and political models. Three inscriptions found in <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a> (South Sumatra) and on <a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island" title="Bangka Island">Bangka Island</a>, written in the form of Malay and in alphabets derived from the <a href="/wiki/Pallava" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava">Pallava</a> script, are proof that the archipelago had adopted Indian models while maintaining their indigenous language and social system. These inscriptions reveal the existence of a <a href="/wiki/Dapunta_Hyang_Sri_Jayanasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa">Dapunta Hyang</a> (lord) of <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> who led an expedition against his enemies and who curses those who does not obey his law.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Being on the maritime trade route between China and <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, the Malay Peninsula was involved in this trade. The <a href="/wiki/Bujang_Valley" title="Bujang Valley">Bujang Valley</a>, being strategically located at the northwest entrance of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a> as well as facing the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, was continuously frequented by Chinese and south Indian traders. Such was proven by the discovery of trade ceramics, sculptures, inscriptions and monuments dated from the 5th to 14th century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Srivijaya_(7th–13th_century)">Srivijaya (7th–13th century)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Srivijaya (7th–13th century)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></div> Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a> was under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a>. The site Prasasti Hujung Langit, which sat at the centre of Srivijaya's empire, is thought to be at a <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river mouth</a> in eastern <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, based near what is now <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, believed to be a Chinese rendering of <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a>. For over six centuries the <a href="/wiki/Maharajah" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharajah">Maharajahs</a> of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) that swore allegiance to a lord for mutual profit.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> In 1025, the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> captured Palembang, the king, all his family members and his courtiers had their wealth taken away; by the end of the 12th century Srivijaya had been reduced to a kingdom, with their last ruler, Queen Sekerummong being conquered and overthrown in 1288. <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a>, a subordinate to Srivijaya, soon dominated the region's political scene.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_the_Chola_Empire">Relations with the Chola Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relations with the Chola Empire">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG/220px-Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG/330px-Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG/440px-Muzium_Negara_KL67.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Bronze Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th century</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I">South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chola_invasion_of_Srivijaya" title="Chola invasion of Srivijaya">Chola invasion of Srivijaya</a></div> The relation between Srivijaya and the <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola Empire</a> of south India was friendly during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Raja_Raja_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja Raja Chola I">Raja Raja Chola I</a> but during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Chola I">Rajendra Chola I</a> the Chola Empire <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I">invaded Srivijaya cities</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Chola_invasion_of_Srivijaya" title="Chola invasion of Srivijaya">Chola invasion of Srivijaya</a>).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In 1025 and 1026, Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Tamil country">Tamil</a> emperor who is now thought to have laid <a href="/wiki/Kota_Gelanggi" title="Kota Gelanggi">Kota Gelanggi</a> to waste. Kedah (known as Kadaram in Tamil) was invaded by the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Cholas</a> in 1025. A second invasion was led by <a href="/wiki/Virarajendra_Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Virarajendra Chola">Virarajendra Chola</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a>, which had exerted influence over <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patani_(historical_region)" title="Patani (historical region)">Pattani</a> and as far as <a href="/wiki/Nakhon_Si_Thammarat" title="Nakhon Si Thammarat">Ligor</a>. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kulothunga_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulothunga Chola I">Kulothunga Chola I</a>, Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> in the late 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The expedition of the <a href="/wiki/Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola">Chola</a> Emperors had such a great impression on the <a href="/wiki/Malay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay people">Malay people</a> of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Even today, the Chola rule is remembered in <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of <a href="/wiki/Perak" title="Perak">Perak</a> called <a href="/wiki/Raja_Chulan" title="Raja Chulan">Raja Chulan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADi%E1%B9%89app%C4%81lai" title="Paṭṭiṉappālai">Pattinapalai</a>, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century AD, describes goods from <a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Kedah" class="mw-redirect" title="Early history of Kedah">Kedaram</a> heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. The Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nakhon_Si_Thammarat_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakhon Si Thammarat kingdom">kingdom of Ligor</a> took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king <a href="/wiki/Chandrabhanu" title="Chandrabhanu">Chandrabhanu</a> used it as a base to attack <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> and the Sri Lankan chronicles, <a href="/wiki/Mahavamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavamsa">Mahavamsa</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline_and_breakup">Decline and breakup</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Decline and breakup">edit</a>]</div> At times, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a>, the Siamese Kingdom, and the <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola Empire</a> had tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassals broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and wars with Indian states are also suspected. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted to <a href="/wiki/Melayu_Kingdom" title="Melayu Kingdom">Malayu</a>, a port possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near the <a href="/wiki/Batang_Hari_River" title="Batang Hari River">Jambi River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the <a href="/wiki/The_spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="The spread of Islam in Indonesia">spread of Islam</a>. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as <a href="/wiki/Aceh" title="Aceh">Aceh</a>, broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of <a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sukhothai kingdom">Sukhothai</a> had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit Empire</a> came into possession of the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> An excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Santubong" title="Mount Santubong">Santubong</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Kuching" title="Kuching">Kuching</a>) that date to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> dynasties. It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period, but its importance declined during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, and the port was deserted during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Sejarah_Melayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sejarah Melayu">Malay Annals</a>, a new ruler named <a href="/wiki/Sang_Sapurba" title="Sang Sapurba">Sang Sapurba</a> was promoted as the new paramount of the Srivijayan mandala. It was said that after he acceded to <a href="/wiki/Bukit_Seguntang" title="Bukit Seguntang">Seguntang Hill</a> with his two younger brothers, Sang Sapurba entered into a sacred covenant with Demang Lebar Daun, the native ruler of Palembang.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The newly installed sovereign afterwards descended from the hill of Seguntang into the great plain of the <a href="/wiki/Musi_River_(Indonesia)" title="Musi River (Indonesia)">Musi River</a>, where he married Wan Sendari, the daughter of the local chief, Demang Lebar Daun. Sang Sapurba was said to have reigned in <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_Highlands" title="Minangkabau Highlands">Minangkabau lands</a>. In 1324, a Srivijaya prince, <a href="/wiki/Sang_Nila_Utama" title="Sang Nila Utama">Sang Nila Utama</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Singapura" title="Kingdom of Singapura">Kingdom of Singapura</a> (Temasek). According to tradition, he was related to Sang Sapurba. He maintained control over Temasek for 48 years. He was recognized as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor sometime around 1366. He was succeeded by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399). In 1401, the last ruler, Paduka Sri Maharaja <a href="/wiki/Parameswara_(sultan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameswara (sultan)">Parameswara</a>, was expelled from Temasek by forces from Majapahit or <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya</a>. He later headed north and founded the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Malacca">Sultanate of Malacca</a> in 1402.<a href="#cite_note-Coedes-77">[77]</a>: 245–246  The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded the Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity in the archipelago.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_of_Muslim_states">Rise of Muslim states</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Rise of Muslim states">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg/250px-KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg/330px-KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>The earliest record of a local law influenced by Islamic teaching and written in <a href="/wiki/Jawi_(script)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawi (script)">Jawi</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Terengganu_Stone_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Terengganu Stone Monument">stone monument</a> is found in <a href="/wiki/Terengganu" title="Terengganu">Terengganu</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> came to the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a> through the Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century, ending the age of Hinduism and Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-Bosworth2007-80">[80]</a> It arrived in the region gradually and became the religion of the elite before it spread to the commoners. The <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> form of Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions and was originally not orthodox.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malaccan_Sultanate">Malaccan Sultanate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Malaccan Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Establishment">Establishment</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Establishment">edit</a>]</div> The port of <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was founded in 1400 by <a href="/wiki/Parameswara_(sultan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameswara (sultan)">Parameswara</a>, a Srivijayan prince fleeing <a href="/wiki/Temasek" title="Temasek">Temasek</a> (now Singapore).<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Parameswara sailed to Temasek to escape persecution. There he came under the protection of Temagi, a Malay chief from Patani who was appointed by the king of <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayutthaya kingdom">Siam</a> as regent of Temasek. Within a few days, Parameswara killed Temagi and appointed himself regent. Some five years later he had to leave Temasek, due to threats from Siam. During this period, a Javanese fleet from Majapahit attacked Temasek.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Parameswara headed north to find a new settlement, reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Melaka River) where he founded what would become the <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malacca Sultanate</a>. Over time this developed into modern-day <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Town" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacca Town">Malacca Town</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Annals" title="Malay Annals">Malay Annals</a>, here Parameswara saw a <a href="/wiki/Mouse_deer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse deer">mouse deer</a> outwitting a dog resting under a <a href="/wiki/Malacca_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacca tree">Malacca tree</a>. Taking this as a good omen, he decided to establish a kingdom called <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a>. He built and improved facilities for trade. The Malacca Sultanate is commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-BBCchinesediaspora-81">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg/250px-Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg/330px-Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg/500px-Melaka_Malaysia_Monument-of-Admiral-Zheng-He-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="2255" /></a><figcaption>The Zheng He monument, today, marks his stopover at the city.<a href="#cite_note-zheng_he-82">[82]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1404, the first official <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">Chinese trade envoy led by Admiral Yin Qing</a> arrived in Malacca. Later, Parameswara was escorted by <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> and other envoys on his successful visits. Malacca's relationships with <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> granted protection to Malacca against attacks from <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a> and Malacca officially submitted as a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ming_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming China">Ming China</a>. This encouraged the development of Malacca into a major trade settlement on the trade route between China and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> To prevent the Malaccan empire from falling to the Siamese and Majapahit, he forged a relationship with Ming China for protection.<a href="#cite_note-SK2011-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shin2012-85">[85]</a> Following the establishment of this relationship, the prosperity of the Malacca entrepôt was then recorded by the first Chinese visitor, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Huan" title="Ma Huan">Ma Huan</a>, who travelled together with Admiral <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Freeman2003-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-zheng_he-82">[82]</a> In Malacca during the early 15th century, Ming China actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for their <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">treasure voyages into the Indian Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to both <a href="/wiki/Ma_Huan" title="Ma Huan">Ma Huan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fei_Xin" title="Fei Xin">Fei Xin</a>, and was a vassal region of <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> In 1405, the Ming court dispatched Admiral <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca as well as an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country.<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> The Chinese also established a government depot (官廠) as a fortified cantonment for their soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> Ma Huan reported that Siam did not dare to invade Malacca thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> The rulers of Malacca, such as Parameswara in 1411, would pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in person.<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> The emperor of Ming China was sending out fleets of ships to expand trade. Admiral Zheng He called at Malacca and brought Parameswara with him on his return to China, a recognition of his position as ruler of Malacca. In exchange for regular tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Melaka protection from the constant threat of a Siamese attack. Because of its strategic location, Malacca was an important stopping point for <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>'s fleet.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Due to Chinese involvement, Malacca had grown as a key alternative to other important and established ports.<a href="#cite_note-89">[a]</a> The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the ancestors of today's <a href="/wiki/Baba-Nyonya" class="mw-redirect" title="Baba-Nyonya">Baba-Nyonya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chitty" title="Chitty">Chitty</a> communities. According to one theory, Parameswara became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title "Shah", calling himself Iskandar Shah.<a href="#cite_note-Shin2012-85">[85]</a> In 1414, Parameswara's son was then officially recognised as the second ruler of Melaka by the Chinese Emperor and styled Raja Sri Rama Vikrama, Raja of Parameswara of Temasek and Malacca and he was known to his Muslim subjects as Sultan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain Shah (<a href="/wiki/Megat_Iskandar_Shah_of_Malacca" title="Megat Iskandar Shah of Malacca">Megat Iskandar Shah</a>). He ruled Malacca from 1414 to 1424.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a> from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_Malacca">Rise of Malacca</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rise of Malacca">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg/220px-Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg/330px-Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg/440px-Malacca_Sultanate_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="581" /></a><figcaption>The extent of the <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malaccan Empire</a> in the 15th century became the main point for the spreading of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>.</figcaption></figure> After an initial period paying tribute to the <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> the kingdom rapidly assumed the place previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly important when the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> conquests closed the overland route between China and the west. Within a few years of its establishment, Malacca officially adopted Islam. Parameswara became a Muslim, and because Malacca was under a Muslim prince, the conversion of Malays to Islam accelerated in the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> The political power of the Malacca Sultanate helped Islam's rapid spread through the archipelago.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> By the start of the 16th century, with the Malacca Sultanate in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>,<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Demak_Sultanate" title="Demak Sultanate">Demak Sultanate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>,<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> and other kingdoms around the Malay Archipelago increasingly converting to Islam,<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> it had become the dominant religion among Malays, and reached as far as the modern-day Philippines, leaving <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> as an isolated outpost of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> today. The government in Malacca was based on the <a href="/wiki/Feudal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal system">feudal system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-various_theories2-94">[93]</a> Malacca's reign lasted little more than a century, but during this time became the established centre of Malay culture. Most future Malay states originated from this period.<a href="#cite_note-Bosworth2007-80">[80]</a> Malacca became a cultural centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and imported Indian, Chinese and Islamic elements. Malacca's fashions in literature, art, music, dance and dress, and the ornate titles of its <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">royal court</a>, came to be seen as the standard for all ethnic Malays. The court of Malacca also gave great prestige to the <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay language</a>, which had originally evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Malacca at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to be the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of all the Malaysian states, although local languages survived in many places. After the fall of Malacca, the <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Sultanate of Brunei</a> became the major centre of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-AndayaAndaya2015-96">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Malaccan_sultanates">Post-Malaccan sultanates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Post-Malaccan sultanates">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_;_1480-1521%22_(1891)_(14743853356).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_%3B_1480-1521%22_%281891%29_%2814743853356%29.jpg/220px-Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_%3B_1480-1521%22_%281891%29_%2814743853356%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_%3B_1480-1521%22_%281891%29_%2814743853356%29.jpg/330px-Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_%3B_1480-1521%22_%281891%29_%2814743853356%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_%3B_1480-1521%22_%281891%29_%2814743853356%29.jpg/440px-Image_from_page_88_of_%22The_life_of_Ferdinand_Magellan_and_the_first_circumnavigation_of_the_globe_%3B_1480-1521%22_%281891%29_%2814743853356%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>16th century Portuguese sketch of Malacca.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Malay%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts" title="Malay–Portuguese conflicts">Malay–Portuguese conflicts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a></div> From the 15th century onwards, the Portuguese started seeking a maritime route to Asia. In 1511, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a> led an expedition to Malaya which seized Malacca with the intent of using it as a base for activities in Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> This was the first colonial claim in what is now Malaysia.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> The son of the last Sultan of Malacca, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Riayat_Shah_II_of_Johor" title="Alauddin Riayat Shah II of Johor">Alauddin Riayat Shah II</a> fled to the southern tip of the peninsula, where he founded a state that which became the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Johor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Johor">Sultanate of Johor</a> in 1528.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Another son, <a href="/wiki/Muzaffar_Shah_I_of_Perak" title="Muzaffar Shah I of Perak">Muzaffar Shah I</a> established the Perak Sultanate to the north. Portuguese influence was strong, as they aggressively tried to convert the population of Malacca to Catholicism.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> In 1571, the Spanish captured <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> and established a colony in the Philippines, reducing the Sultanate of Brunei's power.<a href="#cite_note-AndayaAndaya2015-96">[95]</a> After the fall of Malacca to Portugal, the Johor Sultanate on the southern Malay Peninsula and the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Sultanate of Aceh</a> on northern Sumatra moved to fill the power vacuum left behind.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The three powers struggled to dominate the Malay Peninsula and the surrounding islands.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> Meanwhile, the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a> as an east–west shipping route was growing, while the islands of Southeast Asia were themselves prized sources of natural resources (metals, spices, etc.) whose inhabitants were being further drawn into the global economy. In 1607, the Sultanate of Aceh rose as the most powerful and wealthiest state in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>. Under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Muda" title="Iskandar Muda">Iskandar Muda</a>'s reign, the sultanate's control was extended over a number of Malay states. During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Duyon_River" title="Battle of Duyon River">Battle of Duyon River</a>, Iskandar Muda's disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy all the ships of his formidable fleet and 19,000 troops according to a Portuguese account.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese,_1606.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dutch fleet vs Portuguese armada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese%2C_1606.jpg/250px-AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese%2C_1606.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese%2C_1606.jpg/330px-AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese%2C_1606.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese%2C_1606.jpg/500px-AMH-6472-KB_Battle_for_Malacca_between_the_VOC_fleet_and_the_Portuguese%2C_1606.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1795" /></a><figcaption>The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a> in 1606 to gain control of <a href="/wiki/Malacca_City" title="Malacca City">Malacca</a></figcaption></figure> In the early 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC) was established. Backed by the Dutch, Johor established a loose hegemony over the <a href="/wiki/Malay_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay states">Malay states</a>, except Perak, which was able to play-off Johor against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> The Dutch did not interfere in local matters in Malacca, but at the same time diverted most trade to its colonies on <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Johor_Sultanate">Johor Sultanate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Johor Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> At its height, the sultanate controlled modern-day Johor, several territories by the Klang and Linggi rivers, Singapore, <a href="/wiki/Bintan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bintan">Bintan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riau" title="Riau">Riau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingga_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingga Islands">Lingga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Karimun" title="Great Karimun">Karimun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengkalis" title="Bengkalis">Bengkalis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kampar_Regency" title="Kampar Regency">Kampar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siak_Regency" title="Siak Regency">Siak</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> The Portuguese and Johor were <a href="/wiki/Malay-Portuguese_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay-Portuguese conflicts">frequently in conflict</a> in the 16th century, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Johor_(1587)" title="Siege of Johor (1587)">1587 siege of Johor</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Johor_Sultanate#Triangular_war" title="Johor Sultanate">Triangular war</a>, Aceh launched multiple raids against both Johor and Portuguese forces to tighten its grip over the straits. The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a short-lived truce. During the rule of <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Muda" title="Iskandar Muda">Iskandar Muda</a>, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> In the early 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> reached Southeast Asia. At that time the Dutch were at war with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portuguese</a> and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed between Admiral <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Matelief_de_Jonge" title="Cornelis Matelief de Jonge">Cornelis Matelief de Jonge</a> and Raja Bongsu of Johor in 1606.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> The combined Johor-Dutch forces ultimately failed to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1606)" title="Siege of Malacca (1606)">capture Malacca in 1606</a>. Finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malacca_(1641)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Malacca (1641)">Battle of Malacca</a>. The Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with Johor. By the time the fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-establish itself as a power along the Straits of Malacca during the reign of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Jalil_Shah_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Jalil Shah III">Abdul Jalil Shah III</a> (1623–1677).<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jambi" title="Jambi">Jambi</a> emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra. Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi by way of a promised marriage. However, the alliance broke down and the Johor-Jambi war (1666–1679) ensued. After the sacking of Batu Sawar by Jambi in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack.<a href="#cite_note-:2-104">[103]</a> The sultan escaped to Pahang and died four years later. His successor, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Shah_of_Johor" title="Ibrahim Shah of Johor">Ibrahim Shah</a> (1677–1685), then engaged the help of the <a href="/wiki/Bugis" title="Bugis">Bugis</a> in the fight to defeat Jambi.<a href="#cite_note-tan-105">[104]</a> Johor would eventually prevail in 1679, but also ended in a weakened position as the Bugis refused to return to <a href="/wiki/Makassar" title="Makassar">Makassar</a> where they came from. On top of this, the <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabaus</a> of Sumatra also started to assert their influence.<a href="#cite_note-baker-106">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg/220px-Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg/330px-Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg/440px-Kesultanan-riau-lingga-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>Johor-Dutch battle in the 1780s</figcaption></figure> In the 1690s the Bugis, who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had a major political influence in Johor. Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised how the death of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II_of_Johor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud II of Johor">Mahmud II</a> in 1699 caused a power vacuum and allowed them to exert their power in Johor. The Minangkabau introduced a Minangkabau prince, <a href="/wiki/Raja_Kecil" title="Raja Kecil">Raja Kecil</a> from <a href="/wiki/Siak_Regency" title="Siak Regency">Siak</a> who claimed he was the posthumous son of Mahmud II. With the help of the Orang Laut, Raja Kecil then captured Riau in 1718, the then capital of the Johor Sultanate and installed himself as the new Johor Sultan, Jalil Rahmat Shah, without the knowledge of the Bugis. Raja Sulaiman of Johor dethroned Raja Kechil with help from the Bugis <a href="/wiki/Daeng_Parani" title="Daeng Parani">Daeng Parani</a> and reclaimed the throne as Sultan <a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_Badrul_Alam_Shah_of_Johor" title="Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah of Johor">Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah</a> (1722–1760), but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of the Bugis.<a href="#cite_note-:2-104">[103]</a> During the reign of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Shah_III_of_Johor" title="Mahmud Shah III of Johor">Mahmud Shah III</a>, the mid-to-late 18th century saw the Bugis attempting to expand their influence in the region. This brought them into conflicts with the Dutch, which resulted in a final major battle in 1784 between the two, which ended Bugis and Johor dominance in the region.<a href="#cite_note-Andaya19822-107">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perak_Sultanate">Perak Sultanate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Perak Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> Based on the Perak Royal Genealogy ("Salasilah Raja-Raja Perak"), the Perak Sultanate was formed in the early 16th century on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Perak_River" title="Perak River">Perak River</a> by the eldest son of Malaccan Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Shah_of_Malacca" title="Mahmud Shah of Malacca">Mahmud Shah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-US_commercial_relations-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background-109">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> He ascended to the throne as <a href="/wiki/Muzaffar_Shah_I_of_Perak" title="Muzaffar Shah I of Perak">Muzaffar Shah I</a> (1528–1549), first Sultan of Perak, after surviving the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">capture of Malacca</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> in 1511 and living quietly in <a href="/wiki/Siak_Regency" title="Siak Regency">Siak</a> for a period. He became sultan through the efforts of Tun Saban, a local leader and trader between Perak and Klang.<a href="#cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background-109">[108]</a> There had been no sultans in Perak when Tun Saban first arrived in the area from <a href="/wiki/Kampar_Regency" title="Kampar Regency">Kampar</a> in Sumatra.<a href="#cite_note-background_of_the_Sultanate_of_Perak-111">[110]</a> Most of the area's residents were traders from Malacca, Selangor and Sumatra. Perak's administration became more organised after the Sultanate was established. With the opening up of Perak in the 16th century, the state became a source of tin ore. It appears that anyone was free to trade in the commodity, although the tin trade did not attract significant attention until the 1610s.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg/220px-Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg/330px-Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg/440px-Aceh_Sultanate_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Sultanate of Aceh</a>'s influence in Perak, <a href="/wiki/Kedah_Sultanate" title="Kedah Sultanate">Kedah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Pahang" title="Sultan of Pahang">Pahang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Terengganu_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Terengganu Sultanate">Terengganu</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1570s</figcaption></figure> Throughout the early 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Sultanate of Aceh</a> continually harassed most parts of the Malay Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background2-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andaya19822-107">[106]</a> Although Perak fell under the authority of Aceh, it remained entirely independent from Siamese control for over 200 years from 1612,<a href="#cite_note-Andaya19822-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> in contrast with its neighbour, Kedah, and other northern Malay sultanates.<a href="#cite_note-Blagden19252-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stearn20192-117">[116]</a> When the last Perak sultan of direct Malaccan lineage, Sallehuddin Riayat Shah died without an heir in 1635, a state of uncertainty prevailed in Perak. This was exacerbated by a deadly cholera epidemic.<a href="#cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background-109">[108]</a> Perak chieftains were left with no alternative but to turn to <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Thani" title="Iskandar Thani">Iskandar Thani</a> of Aceh, who sent his relative, Raja Sulong, to become the new Perak Sultan, <a href="/wiki/Muzaffar_Shah_II_of_Perak" title="Muzaffar Shah II of Perak">Muzaffar Shah II</a> (1636–1653). Aceh's influence on Perak began to wane when the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC) arrived, in the mid-17th century.<a href="#cite_note-Andaya1982-118">[117]</a> When Perak refused to enter into a contract with the VOC as its northern neighbours had done, a blockade of the Perak River halted the tin trade, causing suffering among Aceh's merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Prakash1998-119">[118]</a> In 1650, Aceh's Sultana <a href="/wiki/Taj_ul-Alam" title="Taj ul-Alam">Taj ul-Alam</a> ordered Perak to sign an agreement with the VOC, on condition that the tin trade would be conducted exclusively with Aceh's merchants.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> By the following year, the VOC had secured a monopoly over the tin trade, setting up a store in Perak.<a href="#cite_note-Pangkor_Island_Dutch_Fort-121">[120]</a> Following the long competition between Aceh and the VOC over Perak's tin trade,<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> on 15 December 1653, the two parties jointly signed a treaty with Perak granting the Dutch exclusive rights to tin extracted from mines located in the state.<a href="#cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background-109">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> In 1699, when Johor lost its last sultan of Malaccan lineage, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Shah_III_of_Johor" title="Mahmud Shah III of Johor">Mahmud Shah II</a>, Perak now had the sole claim of being the final heir of the old Sultanate of Malacca. However, Perak could not match the prestige and power of either the Malaccan or Johor Sultanates.<a href="#cite_note-:2-104">[103]</a> Perak endured 40 years of civil war in the early 18th century, where rival princes were bolstered by local chiefs, the Bugis and Minang, all fighting for a share of tin revenues. The Bugis and several Perak chiefs were successful in ousting the Perak ruler, Sultan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muzaffar_Riayat_Shah_III&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muzaffar Riayat Shah III (page does not exist)">Muzaffar Riayat Shah III</a> in 1743. In 1747, he only held power in north Perak and signed a treaty with the Dutch Commissioner Ary Verbrugge, under which Perak's ruler recognised Dutch monopoly over the tin trade and agreed to sell all the tin ore to Dutch traders.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pahang_Sultanate">Pahang Sultanate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pahang Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Sultanate" title="Pahang Sultanate">Old Pahang Sultanate</a> centred in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Pekan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pekan">Pekan</a> was established in the 15th century. At the height of its influence, the sultanate controlled the entire Pahang basin.<a href="#cite_note-Linehan_1973_31-125">[124]</a> The sultanate had its origins as a vassal to the Malaccan Sultanate. Its first sultan was a Malaccan prince, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Shah_of_Pahang" title="Muhammad Shah of Pahang">Muhammad Shah</a> (1455–1475), himself the grandson of <a href="/wiki/Dewa_Sura" title="Dewa Sura">Dewa Sura</a>, the last pre-Malaccan ruler of Pahang.<a href="#cite_note-Linehan_1973_31-125">[124]</a> Over the years, Pahang grew independent from Malaccan control and at one point even established itself as a rival state to Malacca until the latter's demise in 1511.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> In 1528, when the last Malaccan sultan died, the sultan at the time, <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Shah_I_of_Pahang" title="Mahmud Shah I of Pahang">Mahmud Shah I</a> (c. 1519–1530) joined forces with the Sultan of Johor, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Riayat_Shah_II_of_Johor" title="Alauddin Riayat Shah II of Johor">Alauddin Riayat Shah II</a>, and began to expel the Portuguese from the Malay Peninsula. Two attempts were made in 1547 at <a href="/wiki/Muar_(town)" title="Muar (town)">Muar</a> and in 1551 at <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a>. However, in the face of superior Portuguese arms and vessels, the Pahang and Johor forces were forced to retreat on both occasions. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s,_KITLV_3690.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s%2C_KITLV_3690.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s%2C_KITLV_3690.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s%2C_KITLV_3690.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s%2C_KITLV_3690.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s%2C_KITLV_3690.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-De_Sultan_van_Pahang_en_zijn_radjah_%27s%2C_KITLV_3690.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3859" data-file-height="3038" /></a><figcaption>Photo of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Mu%CA%BDazzam" title="Ahmad Muʽazzam">Ahmad Muʽazzam</a> and his courtiers. Many years after the precolonial period. c. 1900.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813-127">[126]</a></figcaption></figure> During the reign of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Kadir_Alauddin_Shah_of_Pahang" title="Abdul Kadir Alauddin Shah of Pahang">Abdul Kadir</a> (1560–1590), Pahang enjoyed a brief period of cordial relations with the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century. However, in 1607, following a visit by <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Matelief_de_Jonge" title="Cornelis Matelief de Jonge">Admiral Matelief de Jonge</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a>, Pahang cooperated with them in an attempt to get rid of the Portuguese.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813-127">[126]</a> There was an attempt to establish a Johor-Pahang alliance to assist the Dutch. However, a quarrel erupted between Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghafur_Muhiuddin_Shah_of_Pahang" title="Abdul Ghafur Muhiuddin Shah of Pahang">Abdul Ghafur</a> of Pahang (1592–1614) and <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Riayat_Shah_III_of_Johor" title="Alauddin Riayat Shah III of Johor">Alauddin Riayat Shah III</a> of Johor (1597–1615). This resulted in Johor declaring war on Pahang in 1612; with the aid of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Jalilul_Akbar" title="Abdul Jalilul Akbar">Abdul Jalilul Akbar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Brunei</a>, Pahang eventually defeated Johor in 1613. In 1615, the Acehnese <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Muda" title="Iskandar Muda">Iskandar Muda</a> invaded Pahang, forcing <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Riayat_Shah_of_Pahang" title="Alauddin Riayat Shah of Pahang">Alauddin Riayat Shah</a> to retreat into the interior of Pahang. He nevertheless continued to exercise some ruling powers. His reign in exile is considered to have officially ended after the installation of a distant Johorean relative, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Jalil_Shah_III_of_Johor" title="Abdul Jalil Shah III of Johor">Raja Bujang</a> (Abdul Jalil Shah III) to the Pahang throne in 1615 with the support of the Portuguese.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813-127">[126]</a> However, he was eventually deposed in the Acehnese invasion of 1617, but restored to the Pahang throne and also installed as the new Sultan of Johor following the death of his uncle, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ma%27ayat_Shah_of_Johor" title="Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah of Johor">Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah</a> in 1623. This event led to the union of the crown of Pahang and Johor, and the formal establishment of Pahang-ruled Johor.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813-127">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Selangor_Sultanate">Selangor Sultanate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Selangor Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> During the 17th century Johor-Jambi war, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Jalil_Shah_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Jalil Shah III">Abdul Jalil Shah III</a> (r. 1623–1677) of Johor engaged the help of <a href="/wiki/Bugis" title="Bugis">Bugis</a> mercenaries from <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a> to fight against Jambi.<a href="#cite_note-tan-105">[104]</a> After Johor won in 1679, the Bugis decided to stay and asserted their power in the region.<a href="#cite_note-baker-106">[105]</a> Many Bugis began to migrate and settle along the coast of Selangor such as the estuaries of the Selangor and <a href="/wiki/Klang_River" title="Klang River">Klang rivers</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabaus</a> may have also settled in Selangor by the 17th century, perhaps earlier.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> The Bugis and the <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabaus</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> struggled for control of Johor. <a href="/wiki/Raja_Kecil" title="Raja Kecil">Raja Kecil</a>, backed by the Minangkabaus, invaded Selangor but were driven off by the Bugis in 1742. To establish a power base, the Bugis led by Raja <a href="/wiki/Salehuddin_of_Selangor" title="Salehuddin of Selangor">Salehuddin</a> (1705–1788) founded the present hereditary <a href="/wiki/Selangor_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Selangor Sultanate">Selangor Sultanate</a> with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Selangor" title="Kuala Selangor">Kuala Selangor</a> in 1766.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> Selangor is unique as it is the only state on the Malay Peninsula that was founded by the Bugis.<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brunei_Sultanate">Brunei Sultanate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Brunei Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)</a></div> Before its conversion to Islam, the oldest records of Brunei in Arabic sources defined it as "Sribuza" which was a Bornean Vassal-State to <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> The Arabic author <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Ya'qubi</a> writing in the 9th century recorded that the kingdom of Musa (probably referring to Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (either <a href="/wiki/Ma-i" title="Ma-i">Ma-i</a> or <a href="/wiki/Madja-as" title="Madja-as">Madja-as</a> in the Philippines), against the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo was the 977 letter to the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> emperor from the ruler of Boni (Brunei).<a href="#cite_note-Hutton2000-133">[132]</a> The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> In 1225, the Chinese official <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Rukuo" title="Zhao Rukuo">Zhao Rukuo</a> reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHistory_for_Brunei_Darussalam200943-135">[134]</a> In the 14th century, a Chinese annal (Yuan Dade Nanhai zhi) reported that Boni invaded or administered <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a>, some parts of Sarawak and ruled the formerly independent kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Rajahnate_of_Butuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajahnate of Butuan">Butuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ma-i" title="Ma-i">Mayd</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Maynila" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Maynila">Malilu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Wenduling</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Rajahnate_of_Maynila" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajahnate of Maynila">Manila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Mindanao</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mindanao" title="Mindanao">southern</a> Philippines, respectively. Later, the Sulu kingdom invaded and occupied ports in Boni-ruled Sabah. They were later evicted with the help of the Majapahit Empire, which Brunei became a vassal to in the late 14th century. Nevertheless, the Sulus stole 2 Sacred Pearls from the Brunei king.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuyatno2008-137">[136]</a> By the 15th century, the empire became a <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> state, when the king of Brunei converted to Islam, brought Muslim Indians and Arab merchants from other parts of <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a>, who came to trade and spread Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAwang_Juned1992-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders201323-139">[138]</a> During the rule of <a href="/wiki/Bolkiah" title="Bolkiah">Bolkiah</a> (1485–1524) the empire controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached the Philippines at <a href="/wiki/Seludong" class="mw-redirect" title="Seludong">Seludong</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Sulu_Archipelago" title="Sulu Archipelago">Sulu Archipelago</a> and some parts of <a href="/wiki/Mindanao" title="Mindanao">Mindanao</a> which Brunei had incorporated via royal intermarriage with the rulers of <a href="/wiki/Rajah_Matanda" title="Rajah Matanda">Sulu, Manila and Maguindanao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders201360-140">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner198999-141">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaMilward200116-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks200734-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurch201216-144">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEur2002203-145">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdul_Majid20072-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelman20138-147">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="16th–18th_century">16th–18th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 16th–18th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg/220px-Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg/330px-Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg/440px-Edward_Augustus_Inglefield_West_view_of_the_river_from_Anchorage_off_Sarawak_Borneo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>A view of a river from the anchorage off Sarawak, Borneo, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800s. Painting from the <a href="/wiki/National_Maritime_Museum" title="National Maritime Museum">National Maritime Museum</a> of London.</figcaption></figure> In the 16th century, the Brunei empire's influence also extended as far as <a href="/wiki/Kapuas_River" title="Kapuas River">Kapuas River</a> delta in West Kalimantan. Other sultanates in the area had close relations with the Brunei Monarchy, being in some cases effectively under the hegemony of the Brunei ruling family for periods of time, such as the Malay sultans of <a href="/wiki/Pontianak_Sultanate" title="Pontianak Sultanate">Pontianak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kutai#Kutai_Kartanegara" title="Kutai">Samarinda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Banjar" title="Sultanate of Banjar">Banjarmasin</a>. The Malay <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sambas" title="Sultanate of Sambas">Sultanate of Sambas</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/West_Kalimantan" title="West Kalimantan">West Kalimantan</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a> and the Muslim Rajahs of precolonial <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> had developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sarawak" title="Sultanate of Sarawak">Sultanate of Sarawak</a> (covering present day <a href="/wiki/Kuching" title="Kuching">Kuching</a>, known to the Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographers</a> as Cerava, and one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo), though under the influence of Brunei, was self-governed under <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Tengah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Tengah">Sultan Tengah</a> before being fully integrated into the Bruneian Empire upon sultan Tengah's death in 1641.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-srwk-150">[149]</a> The Bruneian empire began to decline during the arrival of western powers. Spain sent several expeditions from <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Mexico</a> to invade and colonise Brunei's territories in the Philippines. Eventually the Spanish, their <a href="/wiki/Visayans" title="Visayans">Visayan</a> allies and their <a href="/wiki/Latin_American_Asian" title="Latin American Asian">Latin-American recruits</a> assaulted Brunei itself during the <a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Castilian War</a>. Though there were rapes, sacks and pillaging, the invasion was only temporary as the Spanish retreated.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> Brunei was unable to regain the territory it lost in the Philippines, yet it still maintained sway in Borneo. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="19th_century">19th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate. Brunei only had authority along the coastal regions of Sarawak where it was held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought by <a href="/wiki/Iban_people" title="Iban people">Iban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kayan_people_(Borneo)" title="Kayan people (Borneo)">Kayan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kenyah_people" title="Kenyah people">Kenyah peoples</a>, who aggressively fought to expand their territories.<a href="#cite_note-Fairlandsarawak-152">[151]</a> Following the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> ore in the Kuching region, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pangeran_Indera_Mahkota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pangeran Indera Mahkota (page does not exist)">Pangeran Indera Mahkota</a> (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830. When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak, which led to civil unrest and chaos.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> In 1839, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Omar_Ali_Saifuddin_II" title="Omar Ali Saifuddin II">Omar Ali Saifuddin II</a> (1827–1852), ordered his uncle the <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengiran_Muda_Hashim" class="extiw" title="it:Pengiran Muda Hashim">Pengiran Muda Hashim</a> to restore order. It was around this time that <a href="/wiki/James_Brooke" title="James Brooke">James Brooke</a> arrived in Sarawak, and Pengiran Muda Hashim requested his assistance in the matter, but Brooke refused.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> However, he agreed to a further request during his next visit to Sarawak in 1840. On 24 September 1841, Pengiran Muda Hashim agreed to depose <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pangeran_Indera_Mahkota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pangeran Indera Mahkota (page does not exist)">Pangeran Indera Mahkota</a> and bestow the title of governor on James Brooke. This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Struggles_for_hegemony">Struggles for hegemony</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Struggles for hegemony">edit</a>]</div> The weakness of the small coastal Malay states led to the immigration of the <a href="/wiki/Bugis" title="Bugis">Bugis</a>, escaping from Dutch colonisation of <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a>, who established numerous settlements on the peninsula which they used to interfere with Dutch trade.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> They seized control of Johor following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in 1699.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Bugis expanded their power in the states of <a href="/wiki/Johor" title="Johor">Johor</a>, Kedah, <a href="/wiki/Perak" title="Perak">Perak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Selangor" title="Selangor">Selangor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabau</a> from central Sumatra migrated into Malaya, and eventually established their own state in <a href="/wiki/Negeri_Sembilan" title="Negeri Sembilan">Negeri Sembilan</a>. The fall of Johor left a <a href="/wiki/Power_vacuum" title="Power vacuum">power vacuum</a> on the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of the <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Kingdom</a>, who made the five northern Malay states—<a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a>, Kelantan, <a href="/wiki/Pattani_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattani Kingdom">Patani</a>, Perlis, and <a href="/wiki/Terengganu" title="Terengganu">Terengganu</a>—their vassals. The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fast-growing tea trade between China and United Kingdom increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan and <a href="/wiki/Pahang" title="Pahang">Pahang</a> had gold mines. The growth of tin and <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a> and associated <a href="/wiki/Service_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Service industry">service industries</a> led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world – initially Arabs and Indians, later Chinese.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siamese_expansion_into_Malaya">Siamese expansion into Malaya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Siamese expansion into Malaya">edit</a>]</div> After the <a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1765%E2%80%931767)" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)">Fall of Ayutthaya</a> in 1767, the Northern Malay Sultanates were freed from Siamese domination temporarily. In 1786, British trader <a href="/wiki/Francis_Light" title="Francis Light">Francis Light</a> managed to obtain a lease of <a href="/wiki/Penang" title="Penang">Penang</a> Island from Sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Tajuddin_Halim_Shah_II_of_Kedah" title="Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II of Kedah">Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II</a> of Kedah on behalf of <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>. Siam re-exerted control over Northern Malay Sultanates and sacked Pattani; Kedah came under Siamese suzerainty. King Rama II of Siam ordered <a href="/wiki/Noi_Na_Nagara" class="mw-redirect" title="Noi Na Nagara">Noi Na Nagara</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nakhon_Si_Thammarat_Kingdom" title="Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom">Ligor</a> to invade Kedah Sultanate in 1821. Under the <a href="/wiki/Burney_Treaty" title="Burney Treaty">Burney Treaty</a> of 1826, the exiled Kedah Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin was not restored to his throne. He and his armed supporters then fought in a series of war known as Perang Musuh Bisik for his restoration over twelve years (1830–1842).<a href="#cite_note-Suzalina_Halid_2015-156">[155]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siamese</a> army <a href="/wiki/Siamese_invasion_of_Kedah" title="Siamese invasion of Kedah">invaded and occupied Kedah</a> between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultan's efforts to lead resistance. In 1842, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin finally agreed to accept Siamese terms and was restored to his throne of Kedah. The following year, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Syed_Hussein_Jamalullail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Syed Hussein Jamalullail (page does not exist)">Syed Hussein Jamalullail</a> was installed by the Siamese as the first <a href="/wiki/House_of_Jamalullail_(Perlis)" title="House of Jamalullail (Perlis)">Raja of Perlis</a>, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation of <a href="/wiki/Perlis" title="Perlis">Perlis</a>, Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> Around 1760, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Long_Yunus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Long Yunus (page does not exist)">Long Yunus</a>, an aristocratic warlord of <a href="/wiki/Patani_(historical_region)" title="Patani (historical region)">Patani</a> origin succeeded in unifying the territory of present-day <a href="/wiki/Kelantan" title="Kelantan">Kelantan</a> and was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law, Tengku Muhammad by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sultan_Mansur_of_Terengganu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sultan Mansur of Terengganu (page does not exist)">Sultan Mansur</a> of Terengganu. The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by a noble from Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus' sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Long_Muhammad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Long Muhammad (page does not exist)">Long Muhammad</a>, the eldest son of Long Yunus. The pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800 and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of sultan as Sultan Muhammad I. <a href="/wiki/Terengganu" title="Terengganu">Terengganu</a> experienced stability under the reign of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Omar_Riayat_Shah_of_Terengganu" title="Omar Riayat Shah of Terengganu">Omar Riayat Shah</a>, who was remembered as a devout ruler who promoted trade and stable government. Under Thai rule, Terengganu prospered, and was largely left alone by the authorities in <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Andaya19822-107">[106]</a> However, in the Burney Treaty of 1826, the treaty acknowledged Siamese claims over several northern Malay states Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, Terengganu—the future <a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated Malay States</a>—and <a href="/wiki/Pattani_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattani Kingdom">Patani</a>. The treaty further guaranteed British possession of <a href="/wiki/Penang" title="Penang">Penang</a> and their rights to trade in Kelantan and Terengganu without Siamese interference. However, the five Malay-ethnic states were not represented in the treaty negotiation. In 1909 the parties of the agreement signed <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_Treaty_of_1909" title="Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909">a new treaty</a> that superseded the Burney Treaty and transferred four of the five Malay states from Siamese to British control, except for Patani.<a href="#cite_note-PM-200405-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> As Patani was not included in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_Treaty_of_1909" title="Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909">Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909</a> and remained under Siamese rule, this led Patani to be excluded from the Federation of Malaya in 1957. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_influence">British influence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: British influence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">British Borneo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_(6963840293).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Statue of Francis Light in the Fort of Cornwallis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_%286963840293%29.jpg/220px-FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_%286963840293%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_%286963840293%29.jpg/330px-FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_%286963840293%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_%286963840293%29.jpg/440px-FORT_CORNWALLIS_GEORGETOWN_PENANG_ISLAND_MALAYSIA_JAN_2012_%286963840293%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2708" data-file-height="3605" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Light" title="Francis Light">Francis Light</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Cornwallis" title="Fort Cornwallis">Fort Cornwallis</a> of Penang, marking the start of <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British rule</a> in the Malay Archipelago</figcaption></figure> Before the mid-19th-century British interests in the region were predominantly economic, with little interest in territorial control. Already the <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">strongest European power in India</a>, the British were looking towards southeast Asia for new territories.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>'s desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was <a href="/wiki/Penang" title="Penang">Penang</a>, leased from the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Kedah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of Kedah">Sultan of Kedah</a> in 1786.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as <a href="/wiki/Province_Wellesley" class="mw-redirect" title="Province Wellesley">Province Wellesley</a>). In 1795, during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the British with the consent of the French-occupied Netherlands occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible French encroachment.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> When Malacca was handed back to the Dutch in 1818,<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> the British governor, <a href="/wiki/Stamford_Raffles" title="Stamford Raffles">Stamford Raffles</a>, looked for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johor.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> The exchange of the British colony of <a href="/wiki/Bencoolen_Presidency" class="mw-redirect" title="Bencoolen Presidency">Bencoolen</a> for Malacca with the Dutch left the British as the sole colonial power on the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The territories of the British were set up as free ports, attempting to break the monopoly held by the Dutch and French at the time, and making them large bases of trade. They allowed Britain to control all trade through the straits of Malacca.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionism</a>, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century the Malay Sultans aligned themselves with the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, due to the benefits of associations with the British and their fear of Siamese or Burmese incursions.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> In 1824, British control in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch Treaty</a>, which divided the Malay Archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands. The Dutch evacuated Melaka<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">East Indies</a>. By 1846 the British controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Labuan</a>, which they established as the <a href="/wiki/British_overseas_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="British overseas territories">crown colony</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> administered first under the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> until 1867, when they were transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" title="Secretary of State for the Colonies">Colonial Office</a> in London.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> Throughout the 19th century, the British became increasingly more active in the internal politics of the sultanates such as its involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Naning_War" title="Naning War">Naning War</a> (1831–1832), the <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Civil_War" title="Pahang Civil War">Pahang Civil War</a> (1857–1863), the <a href="/wiki/Larut_Wars" title="Larut Wars">Larut Wars</a> (1861–1874) and the <a href="/wiki/Klang_War" title="Klang War">Klang War</a> (1867–1874). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_era">Colonial era</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Colonial era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony of North Borneo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Raj of Sarawak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Crown Colony of Sarawak</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_in_Malaya">British in Malaya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: British in Malaya">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Leaders_of_19th_and_20th_century_rebellions_against_British_rulers_in_Pre-Malaysian_states_prior_to_WWII2179" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Early_Malaysian_Rebellion" title="Template:Campaignbox Early Malaysian Rebellion"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Early_Malaysian_Rebellion" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Early Malaysian Rebellion"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Early_Malaysian_Rebellion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Early Malaysian Rebellion"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Leaders_of_19th_and_20th_century_rebellions_against_British_rulers_in_Pre-Malaysian_states_prior_to_WWII2179" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Leaders of 19th and 20th century rebellions against <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British rulers</a> in Pre-Malaysian states prior to WWII</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Mukarram_Shah_of_Kedah" title="Abdullah Mukarram Shah of Kedah">Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah</a> (1791)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dol_Said" title="Dol Said">Dol Said</a> (1831–1832)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Sarawak" title="Sarawak">Sarawak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rentap" title="Rentap">Rentap</a> (1853–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shan_Bang" title="Liu Shan Bang">Liu Shan Bang</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syarif_Masahor" title="Syarif Masahor">Syarif Masahor</a> (1860–1861)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Negeri_Sembilan" title="Negeri Sembilan">Negeri Sembilan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuanku_Antah_ibni_Yamtuan_Radin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuanku Antah ibni Yamtuan Radin">Tengku Antah ibni Yamtuan Radin</a> (1872–1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Datuk_Siamang_Gagap" title="Datuk Siamang Gagap">Datuk Siamang Gagap</a> (1872–1874)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Perak" title="Perak">Perak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lela_Pandak_Lam" title="Lela Pandak Lam">Lela Pandak Lam</a> (1875–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngah_Ibrahim" title="Ngah Ibrahim">Ngah Ibrahim</a> (1875–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Muhammad_Shah_II_of_Perak" title="Abdullah Muhammad Shah II of Perak">Sultan Abdullah</a> (1875–1877)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Pahang" title="Pahang">Pahang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dato%27_Bahaman" title="Dato' Bahaman">Dato' Bahaman</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tok_Gajah" title="Tok Gajah">Tok Gajah</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mat_Kilau" title="Mat Kilau">Mat Kilau</a> (1891–1895)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mat_Salleh_Rebellion" title="Mat Salleh Rebellion">Mat Salleh</a> (1894–1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antanum" title="Antanum">Antanum</a> (1915)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Kelantan" title="Kelantan">Kelantan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tok_Janggut" title="Tok Janggut">Tok Janggut</a> (1915)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Terengganu" title="Terengganu">Terengganu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Abdul_Rahman_Limbong" title="Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong">Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong</a> (1922–1928)</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> Initially, the British followed a policy of non-intervention in relations between the Malay states.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> The commercial importance of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> mining in the Malay states to merchants in the Straits Settlements led to infighting between the aristocracy on the peninsula. The destabilisation of these states damaged the commerce in the area. The wealth of Perak's tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was employed to bring about a peaceful resolution to civil disturbances caused by Chinese and Malay gangs employed in a political fight between <a href="/wiki/Ngah_Ibrahim" title="Ngah Ibrahim">Ngah Ibrahim</a> and Raja Muda Abdullah. The <a href="/wiki/Pangkor_Treaty_of_1874" title="Pangkor Treaty of 1874">Pangkor Treaty of 1874</a> paved the way for the expansion of British influence in Malaya. The British concluded treaties with some Malay states, installing <a href="/wiki/Resident_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resident (title)">residents</a> who advised the Sultans and soon became the de facto rulers of their states.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> These advisors held power in everything except to do with Malay religion and customs.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Johor was the sole remaining state to maintain its independence, by modernising and giving British and Chinese investors legal protection. By the turn of the 20th century, the states of <a href="/wiki/Pahang" title="Pahang">Pahang</a>, Selangor, <a href="/wiki/Perak" title="Perak">Perak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Negeri_Sembilan" title="Negeri Sembilan">Negeri Sembilan</a>, known together as the <a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated Malay States</a>, had British advisors.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> In 1909 the Siamese kingdom was compelled to cede <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a>, Kelantan, <a href="/wiki/Perlis" title="Perlis">Perlis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terengganu" title="Terengganu">Terengganu</a>, which already had British advisors, over to the British.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Abu_Bakar_of_Johor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor">Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> were personal acquaintances who recognised each other as equals. It was not until 1914 that Sultan Abu Bakar's successor, <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ibrahim_of_Johor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Ibrahim of Johor">Sultan Ibrahim</a>, accepted a British adviser.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> The four previously Siamese states and Johor were known as the <a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated Malay States</a>. The states under the most direct British control developed rapidly, becoming the largest suppliers in the world of first tin, then rubber.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> By 1910, the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were a <a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown colony</a>, ruled by a governor under the supervision of the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Office" title="Colonial Office">Colonial Office</a> in London. Their population was roughly 50% Chinese-Malaysian, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, were termed the Federated Malay States: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in 1895. The Unfederated Malay States had a slightly larger degree of independence. Johor, as Britain's closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first.<a href="#cite_note-Policy_in_regard_to_Malaya_and_Borneo-165">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_in_Borneo">British in Borneo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: British in Borneo">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan,_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan%2C_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg/250px-Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan%2C_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan%2C_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg/330px-Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan%2C_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan%2C_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg/500px-Ceremony_of_Hoisting_the_British_Flag_on_the_island_of_Labuan%2C_N._W._Coast_of_Borneo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Union_Jack" title="Union Jack">British flag</a> hoisted for the first time on the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">island of Labuan</a> on 24 December 1846</figcaption></figure> During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> The eastern part of this region (now <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a>) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu</a>, who later became a vassal of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>. In 1840, British adventurer <a href="/wiki/James_Brooke" title="James Brooke">James Brooke</a> helped suppress a revolt, and in return received the title of raja and the right to govern the Sarawak River District in 1841. In 1843, his title was recognised as hereditary, and the "<a href="/wiki/White_Rajahs" title="White Rajahs">White Rajahs</a>" began ruling Sarawak as a de facto independent state in 1846. The Brookes expanded Sarawak at the expense of Brunei.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> In 1881, the <a href="/wiki/British_North_Borneo_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British North Borneo Company">British North Borneo Company</a> was granted control of the territory of <a href="/wiki/British_North_Borneo" class="mw-redirect" title="British North Borneo">British North Borneo</a>, appointing a governor and legislature. Its status was similar to that of a British Protectorate, and like Sarawak it expanded at the expense of Brunei.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> In 1947 Britain transferred control of the <a href="/wiki/Turtle_Islands,_Tawi-Tawi" title="Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi">Turtle Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mangsee_Islands" title="Mangsee Islands">Mangsee Islands</a> to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1946%E2%80%931965)" title="History of the Philippines (1946–1965)">Philippine government</a>, which had up until then been administered by the British North Borneo Company.<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-treaties.fco.gov.uk-168">[167]</a> Since the administration of President <a href="/wiki/Diosdado_Macapagal" title="Diosdado Macapagal">Diosdado Macapagal</a> the Philippines have laid claim to eastern Sabah on the basis that the territory was part of the defunct Sultanate of Sulu's territory. In 1888, what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg/600px-Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg/900px-Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg/1200px-Malaysia_tree_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of Malaysia</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_relations_during_colonial_era">Race relations during colonial era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Race relations during colonial era">edit</a>]</div> In the pre-colonial period and in the first few decades after the imposition of formal colonial rule in British Malaya, 'Malay' was not a racial or even a fixed identity in the modern sense of these terms.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> The construct of race was imposed by the British on their colonial subjects. Unlike some colonial powers, the British saw their empire as an economic concern, and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for shareholders in London.<a href="#cite_note-:1-170">[169]</a> Initially, British colonisers were attracted by the Malay Archipelago's <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> mines. But British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation crops—<a href="/wiki/Tapioca" title="Tapioca">tapioca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uncaria" title="Uncaria">gambier</a>, pepper, and <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>. And, in 1877, the rubber plant was introduced from Brazil. Rubber soon became Malaya's staple export, stimulated by booming demand from European industry. Rubber was later joined by <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> as an export good.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> All these industries required a large <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labour force</a>, so the British sent people from <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">the longer-established British colony in India</a>, consisting mainly of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>-speakers from <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, to work on plantations as indentured labourers.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from southern China. Soon towns like Singapore, Penang, and <a href="/wiki/Ipoh" title="Ipoh">Ipoh</a> were majority Chinese, as was <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a>, founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857. By 1891, when Malaya's first census was taken, Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> Workers were often treated violently by contractors, and sickness was frequent. Many Chinese labourers' debts increased through addictions to opium and gambling, which earned the British colonial government significant revenue, while Indian labourers' debts were increased through addiction to drink. Workers' debts acquired in this way meant that they were tied to their labour contracts for much longer.<a href="#cite_note-:1-170">[169]</a> Some Chinese immigrant workers were connected with networks of <a href="/wiki/Benefit_society" title="Benefit society">mutual aid societies</a> (run by "Hui-Guan" 會館, or non-profit organisations). In the 1890s <a href="/wiki/Yap_Ah_Loy" title="Yap Ah Loy">Yap Ah Loy</a>, who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops. Malaya's banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses, usually in partnership with London firms, soon had complete control of the Malayan economy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> Chinese bankers also lent money to the Malay sultans, which gave the Chinese political as well as economic leverage. At first the Chinese immigrants were mostly men. At first they married Malay women, producing a community of Sino-Malayans or <a href="/wiki/Peranakan" class="mw-redirect" title="Peranakan">baba</a> people, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent communities and building schools and temples.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> An Indian commercial and <a href="/wiki/Professional_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional class">professional class</a> emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and uneducated in <a href="/wiki/Rural_ghetto" title="Rural ghetto">rural ghettos</a> in the rubber-growing areas.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> Traditional Malay society was greatly harmed by the loss of political sovereignty to the British colonisers. The sultans, who were seen as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, but the majority of rural Malays continued to revere the sultans.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> A small class of Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly Christianity. In fact few Malays <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">converted to Christianity</a>, although many Chinese did. The northern regions, which were less influenced by Western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> The British gave elite Malays positions in the police and local <a href="/wiki/Military_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Military unit">military units</a>, and made a majority of those administrative positions open to non-Europeans. While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, the British aimed to control the education of young Malay elites and establish colonial ideas of race and class hierarchies.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> The colonial government opened <a href="/wiki/Malay_College_Kuala_Kangsar" title="Malay College Kuala Kangsar">Malay College</a> in 1905 and created the Malay Administrative Service in 1910. (The college was dubbed "Bab ud-Darajat" – the Gateway to High Rank.)<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Universiti_Pendidikan_Sultan_Idris" class="mw-redirect" title="Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris">A Malay Teachers College</a> followed in 1922, and a Malay Women's Training College in 1935. All this reflected the official policy of the colonial administration that Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were only temporary residents. This view was increasingly out of line with reality, and resulted in the formation of resistance movements against British colonial rule.<a href="#cite_note-:0-171">[170]</a> The Malay teacher's college had lectures and writings that nurtured <a href="/wiki/Early_Malay_nationalism" title="Early Malay nationalism">Malay nationalist</a> sentiments; it is known as the birthplace of Malay nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-KBSM_F2-175">[174]</a> In 1938, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Yaacob" title="Ibrahim Yaacob">Ibrahim Yaacob</a>, an alumnus of Sultan Idris College, established the <a href="/wiki/Kesatuan_Melayu_Muda" title="Kesatuan Melayu Muda">Kesatuan Melayu Muda</a> (Young Malays Union or KMM) in Kuala Lumpur. It was the first nationalist political organisation in British Malaya. A specific ideal the KMM held was Panji Melayu Raya, which called for the unification of British Malaya and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KBSM_F2-175">[174]</a> In the years before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the colonial government were concerned with finding a balance between a centralised state and maintaining the power of the sultans.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> In 1935 the position of Resident-General of the Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states. The colonial government <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous</a>—[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]and during the 1920s and 1930s, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular disturbances in the Chinese towns. Although a belligerent as part of the British Empire, Malaya saw little action during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, except for the sinking of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_cruiser_Zhemchug" title="Russian cruiser Zhemchug">Russian cruiser Zhemchug</a> by the German cruiser <a href="/wiki/SMS_Emden" title="SMS Emden">SMS Emden</a> on 28 October 1914 during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penang" title="Battle of Penang">Battle of Penang</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_and_the_state_of_emergency">World War II and the state of emergency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: World War II and the state of emergency">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tugu_Negara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Tugu_Negara.jpg/220px-Tugu_Negara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Tugu_Negara.jpg/330px-Tugu_Negara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Tugu_Negara.jpg/440px-Tugu_Negara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tugu_Negara" class="mw-redirect" title="Tugu Negara">Tugu Negara</a>, the Malaysian national monument, is dedicated to those who fell during World War II and the Malayan Emergency.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lot-2651-2_(34230021050).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Lot-2651-2_%2834230021050%29.jpg/220px-Lot-2651-2_%2834230021050%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Lot-2651-2_%2834230021050%29.jpg/330px-Lot-2651-2_%2834230021050%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Lot-2651-2_%2834230021050%29.jpg/440px-Lot-2651-2_%2834230021050%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2969" data-file-height="2016" /></a><figcaption>Japanese troops landed on Malaya in 1941.</figcaption></figure> The British in Malaya were completely unprepared for the outbreak the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a> in December 1941. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north. There was virtually no <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">British air capacity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>. The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in <a href="/wiki/French_Indo-China" class="mw-redirect" title="French Indo-China">French Indo-China</a> with impunity, and despite resistance from British, Australian, and Indian forces, they <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasion of Malaya">overran Malaya</a> in two months. Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover, and no <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a>, was forced to surrender in February 1942. British North Borneo and Brunei were also occupied. The Japanese colonial government regarded the Malays from a <a href="/wiki/Pan-Asianism" title="Pan-Asianism">pan-Asian</a> point of view, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism. The Malay nationalist Kesatuan Melayu Muda, advocates of <a href="/wiki/Melayu_Raya" class="mw-redirect" title="Melayu Raya">Melayu Raya</a>, collaborated with the Japanese, on the understanding that Japan would unite the Dutch East Indies, Malaya and Borneo and grant them independence.<a href="#cite_note-Graham-176">[175]</a> The occupiers regarded the Chinese, however, as <a href="/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy aliens</a>, and treated them with harshly: during the <a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a>, up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed. The Chinese, led by the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Communist_Party" title="Malayan Communist Party">Malayan Communist Party</a> (MCP), became the backbone of the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army</a> (MPAJA). With British assistance, the MPAJA became the most effective resistance force in occupied Asia. Although the Japanese argued that they supported Malay nationalism, they offended Malay nationalists by allowing their ally <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> to re-annex the four northern states, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu that had been transferred to British Malaya in 1909.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The loss of Malaya's export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the Japanese increasingly unpopular.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> During occupation, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> On the whole the Malayans were happy to see the British back in 1945, but things could not remain as they were before the war, and a stronger desire for independence grew.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> Britain was bankrupt and the new <a href="/wiki/British_Labour_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="British Labour Party">Labour</a> government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East. But most Malays were more concerned with defending themselves against the MCP than with demanding independence from the British.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg/220px-Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg/330px-Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg/440px-Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>Japanese troops moving through Kuala Lumpur during their advance through Malaya</figcaption></figure> In 1944, the British drew up plans for a <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a>, which would turn the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Malacca, into a single Crown colony, which would move towards independence. The Bornean territories and Singapore were left out as it was thought this would make union more difficult to achieve.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> There was however strong opposition from the <a href="/wiki/Malays_(ethnic_group)" title="Malays (ethnic group)">Malays</a>, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese" title="Malaysian Chinese">ethnic Chinese</a> and other minorities.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> The British had decided on legalised equality between all races as they perceived the Chinese and Indians as more loyal to the British during the war than the Malays.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> The sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of the resistance. In 1946, the <a href="/wiki/United_Malays_National_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Malays National Organisation">United Malays National Organisation</a> (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led by <a href="/wiki/Onn_Jaafar" title="Onn Jaafar">Dato Onn bin Jaafar</a>, the Chief Minister of Johor.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays. Faced with Malay opposition, the British dropped the plan for equal citizenship. The Malayan Union was thus established in 1946, and was dissolved in 1948 and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a>, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection. Meanwhile, the communists were moving towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had been disbanded in December 1945, and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJA's arms had been stored for future use. The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full equality for all races. The party's strength was in the Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools. In March 1947, reflecting the international Communist movement's "turn to left" as the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> set in, the MCP leader <a href="/wiki/Lai_Teck" title="Lai Teck">Lai Teck</a> was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerrilla leader <a href="/wiki/Chin_Peng" title="Chin Peng">Chin Peng</a>, who turned the party increasingly to <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a>. These rebels, under the leadership of the MCP, launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. In July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck back, declaring a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants. The Party retreated to the jungle and formed the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Liberation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayan Peoples' Liberation Army">Malayan Peoples' Liberation Army</a>, with about 13,000 mostly ethnic Chinese, men under arms. The <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a> was precipitated by the new constitution desired by Britain –under which about 90 percent of ethnic Chinese were deemed non-citizens– and by the eviction of poor peasants to make way for plantations. But although the war was long portrayed in most analyses by British authorities as a struggle against communism in a Cold War context, the MNLA received very little support from either the Soviet or Chinese communists. Rather, the main concern of British governments was to protect their commercial interests in the colony.<a href="#cite_note-:5-181">[180]</a> The Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960 and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> troops in Malaya. The British strategy, which proved ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic and <a href="/wiki/Concession_(politics)" title="Concession (politics)">political concessions</a> to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into "<a href="/wiki/New_village" title="New village">new villages</a>", in reality, <a href="/wiki/Concentration_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration camps">concentration camps</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:5-181">[180]</a> in "white areas" free of MCP influence. From 1949 the MCP campaign lost momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply. Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating the British <a href="/wiki/High_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="High Commissioner">High Commissioner</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gurney" title="Henry Gurney">Henry Gurney</a>, in October 1951, this turn to terrorist tactics alienated many moderate Chinese from the party. The arrival of Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Templer" title="Gerald Templer">Gerald Templer</a> as British commander in 1952 was the beginning of the end of the Emergency. Templer helped create the modern techniques of <a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">counter-insurgency</a> warfare in Malaya and applied them against the MCP guerillas. The war was accompanied by abuses on both sides. The most notorious atrocity was committed in the village of Batang Kali, north of the capital Kuala Lumpur, in December 1948, when the British army <a href="/wiki/Batang_Kali_massacre" title="Batang Kali massacre">massacred 24 Chinese</a> before burning the village to the ground.<a href="#cite_note-:5-181">[180]</a> Heavy bombers went to war, dropping thousands of bombs on insurgent positions. Britain conducted 4,500 air strikes in the first five years of the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-:5-181">[180]</a> Although the insurgency was defeated Commonwealth troops remained with the backdrop of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> Against this backdrop, <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(Malaysia)" title="Independence Day (Malaysia)">independence</a> for the Federation within the Commonwealth was granted on 31 August 1957,<a href="#cite_note-TIME_New_Nation-183">[182]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman" title="Tunku Abdul Rahman">Tunku Abdul Rahman</a> as the first prime minister.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_Malaysia">Emergence of Malaysia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Emergence of Malaysia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Struggle_for_an_independent_Malaysia">Struggle for an independent Malaysia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Struggle for an independent Malaysia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dataran_Merdeka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dataran_Merdeka.jpg/250px-Dataran_Merdeka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dataran_Merdeka.jpg/330px-Dataran_Merdeka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dataran_Merdeka.jpg/500px-Dataran_Merdeka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dataran_Merdeka" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataran Merdeka">Dataran Merdeka</a> (Independence Square) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate Independence Day on 31 August each year</figcaption></figure> Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese_Association" title="Malaysian Chinese Association">Malayan Chinese Association</a> (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader <a href="/wiki/Tan_Cheng_Lock" title="Tan Cheng Lock">Tan Cheng Lock</a> favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears. Tan formed a close collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman" title="Tunku Abdul Rahman">Tunku Abdul Rahman</a>, the Chief Minister of <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> and from 1951 successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA Alliance, which was later joined by the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Indian_Congress" title="Malaysian Indian Congress">Malayan Indian Congress</a> (MIC), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between 1952 and 1955.<a href="#cite_note-Federation_of_Malaya_Agreement-184">[183]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s death in 1953, there was a split in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in 1954, the Emergency was over, although <a href="/wiki/Chin_Peng" title="Chin Peng">Chin Peng</a> led a diehard group that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years. During 1955 and 1956 UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for a principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that <a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">Malaya's head of state</a> would be drawn from the ranks of the <a href="/wiki/Malay_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay rulers">Malay rulers</a>, that <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> would be the official language, and that Malay education and <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> would be promoted and subsidised. In effect, this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the majority, and would have their economic position protected. The difficult issue of who would control the education system was deferred until after independence. This came on 31 August 1957, when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first prime minister of independent Malaya. After the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a> the <a href="/wiki/Brooke_family" title="Brooke family">Brooke family</a> and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak and North Borneo respectively, and these became British Crown colonies. They were much less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaders were too weak to demand independence. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959 <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a> became prime minister. The <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of Brunei">Sultan of Brunei</a> remained as a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between 1959 and 1962 the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British government</a> orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government. On 24 April 1961, Lee Kuan Yew proposed the idea of forming Malaysia to Tunku Abdul Rahman during a meeting. Deputy Malayan Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Razak_Hussein" title="Abdul Razak Hussein">Abdul Razak</a> supported the idea of the new federation and worked to convince Abdul Rahman to back it.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> On 27 May 1961, Abdul Rahman proposed the idea of forming "Malaysia", which would consist of <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">North Borneo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Sarawak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Singapore" title="Colony of Singapore">Singapore</a>, all of which except Malaya were still under British rule.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> It was stated that this would allow the central government to better control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore became independent, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. The proposed inclusion of British territories besides Singapore was intended to keep the ethnic composition of the new nation similar to that of Malaya, with the Malay and indigenous populations of the other territories canceling out the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese in Singapore">Chinese majority in Singapore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front (<a href="/wiki/Barisan_Sosialis" title="Barisan Sosialis">Barisan Sosialis</a>) resisted. In North Borneo, where there were no political parties, community representatives also stated their opposition. Although the Sultan of Brunei supported the merger, the <a href="/wiki/Brunei_People%27s_Party" title="Brunei People's Party">Parti Rakyat Brunei</a> opposed it as well. At the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Prime_Ministers%27_Conference" title="Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference">Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference</a> in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October, he obtained an agreement from the British government for the plan, provided that feedback be obtained from the communities involved in the merger. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg/220px-Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg/330px-Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg/440px-Signing-of-the-Cobbold-Report-of-the-Commission-of-Enquiry-North-Borneo-and-Sarawak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="1069" /></a><figcaption>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Cobbold_Commission" title="Cobbold Commission">Cobbold Commission</a> were formed to conduct a study in the <a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">British Borneo</a> territories of <a href="/wiki/Sarawak" title="Sarawak">Sarawak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a> to see whether the two were interested in the idea to form the Federation of Malaysia with Malaya and Singapore.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Cobbold_Commission" title="Cobbold Commission">Cobbold Commission</a> approved a merger with North Borneo and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger. North Borneo drew up a list of points, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/20-point_agreement" title="20-point agreement">20-point agreement</a>, proposing terms for its inclusion in the new federation. Sarawak prepared a similar memorandum, known as the <a href="/wiki/18-point_agreement" title="18-point agreement">18-point agreement</a>. Some of the points in these agreements were incorporated into the eventual constitution, some were instead accepted orally. These memoranda are often cited by those who believe that Sarawak's and North Borneo's rights have eroded over time. A <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a> was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> The Sultanate of <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a> withdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from segments of its population as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the sultan in the planned merger.<a href="#cite_note-Policy_in_regard_to_Malaya_and_Borneo-165">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-Federation_of_Malaya_Agreement-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> Additionally, the Parti Rakyat Brunei staged an <a href="/wiki/Brunei_revolt" title="Brunei revolt">armed revolt</a>, which, though it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Landsdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording; for instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore were also granted some autonomy not available to the states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. The date was to coincide with the independence day of Malaya and the British giving self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo. However, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of "<a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a>" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its territory. The opposition from the Indonesian government led by <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> and attempts by the <a href="/wiki/Sarawak_United_People%27s_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarawak United People's Party">Sarawak United People's Party</a> delayed the formation of Malaysia.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> Due to these factors, an eight-member UN team was formed to re-ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-manila-accord-197">[196]</a> Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. In 1963 the total population of Malaysia was about 10 million. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges_of_independence">Challenges of independence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Challenges of independence">edit</a>]</div> At the time of independence, Malaya had great economic advantages. It was among the world's leading producers of three valuable commodities; rubber, tin, and <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, and was also a significant iron ore producer. These exports gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing nations</a> in the 1950s and 1960s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was never a socialist party. The First and Second Malayan Plans (1956–1960 and 1961–1965 respectively) stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure. The government was keen to reduce Malaya's dependence on commodity exports and was aware that demand for natural rubber was bound to fall as the production and use of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">synthetic rubber</a> expanded. Both Indonesia and the Philippines withdrew their ambassadors from Malaya on 15 September 1963, the day before Malaysia's formation. In Jakarta the British and Malayan embassies were stoned, and the British consulate in <a href="/wiki/Medan" title="Medan">Medan</a> was ransacked with Malaya's consul taking refuge in the US consulate. Malaysia withdrew its ambassadors in response, and asked Thailand to represent Malaysia in both countries.<a href="#cite_note-Mathews-198">[197]</a> Indonesian President <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a>, backed by the powerful <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indonesia" title="Communist Party of Indonesia">Communist Party of Indonesia</a> (PKI), regarded Malaysia as a "neocolonialist" plot against his country, and backed a Communist insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces infiltrated Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian and <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a> forces.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> This period of <a href="/wiki/Konfrontasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Konfrontasi">Konfrontasi</a> – an economic, political, and military confrontation – lasted until <a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">the downfall of Sukarno in 1966</a>.<a href="#cite_note-state.gov-64">[64]</a> The Philippines objected to the formation of the federation, claiming North Borneo was part of Sulu, and thus the Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> In 1966 the new president, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Ferdinand Marcos</a>, dropped the claim, although it has since been revived and is still a point of contention marring <a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93Philippines_relations" title="Malaysia–Philippines relations">Malaysia–Philippines relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Racial_strife">Racial strife</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Racial strife">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proclamation_of_Malaysia_by_Singapore,_North_Borneo_and_Sarawak,_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Forming of the Federation of Malaysia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Proclamation_of_Malaysia_by_Singapore%2C_North_Borneo_and_Sarawak%2C_1963.jpg/250px-Proclamation_of_Malaysia_by_Singapore%2C_North_Borneo_and_Sarawak%2C_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="507" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Proclamation_of_Malaysia_by_Singapore%2C_North_Borneo_and_Sarawak%2C_1963.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>The proclamation on the formation of the independent <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Federation of Malaysia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a> (top) for <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Singapore" title="Colony of Singapore">Singapore</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fuad_Stephens" title="Fuad Stephens">Donald Stephens</a> (centre) for <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">North Borneo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kalong_Ningkan" title="Stephen Kalong Ningkan">Stephen Kalong Ningkan</a> (bottom) for <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Sarawak</a>. However, Singapore left the Federation less than two years after the merger due to <a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">racial issues</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_War_(1937%E2%80%931945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)">Sino-Japanese War</a>, had the effect of ending Chinese emigration to Malaya. At the time of independence in 1957, Malays comprised 55% of the population, Chinese 35% and Indians 10%.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This balance was altered by the inclusion of the majority-Chinese Singapore, upsetting many Malays.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> The federation increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party" title="People's Action Party">People's Action Party</a> (PAP) – then seen as a radical socialist party – to voters in Malaya and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position there. Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the 1964 federal elections, despite an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see <a href="/wiki/PAP%E2%80%93UMNO_relations" title="PAP–UMNO relations">PAP–UMNO relations</a>). Racial tensions intensified as PAP created an opposition alliance aiming for racial equality.<a href="#cite_note-History-65">[65]</a> This provoked Tunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia. Despite last-ditch attempts by Singaporean leaders to keep Singapore as a part of the federation, on 9 August 1965 the Malaysian Parliament voted 126–0 in favour of the <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia#Separation" title="Singapore in Malaysia">expulsion of Singapore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> The most debated issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among the ethnic communities. The Malays felt unhappy with the wealth of the Chinese community, even after the expulsion of Singapore. Malay political movements emerged based around this.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> However, since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the <a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">coalition government</a>, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence Malayan Parliament. The two issues were related since the Chinese advantage in education played a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined to end. The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community's interests and the need to maintain good relations with UMNO. This produced a crisis in the MCA in 1959, in which <a href="/wiki/Lim_Chong_Eu" title="Lim Chong Eu">Lim Chong Eu</a>'s more assertive leadership defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition. The Education Act of 1961 put UMNO's victory on the education issue into legislative form. Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools would teach in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>-language primary schools, all their students were required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed "Malayan curriculum". Most importantly, the entrance exam to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Malaya" title="University of Malaya">University of Malaya</a> (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in 1963) would be conducted in Malay, even though most teaching at the university was in English until the 1970s. This excluded many Chinese students. At the same time, Malay schools were heavily subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment. This defeat for the MCA greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community. As in education, UMNO government's unspoken agenda in the field of economic development aimed to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays. The two Malayan Plans and the First Malaysian Plan (1966–1970) heavily directed resources into developments that would benefit the rural Malay community. Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and to increase their incomes. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Land_Development_Authority" title="Federal Land Development Authority">Federal Land Development Authority</a> (FELDA) helped many Malays to buy or upgrade farms. The state also provided a range of incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to "Malayanise" their management. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crisis_of_1969_and_Communist_insurgency">Crisis of 1969 and Communist insurgency</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Crisis of 1969 and Communist insurgency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">13 May incident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)</a></div> The collaboration between the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their influence over the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the government's <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> policies of the 1950s and 1960s created a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This led to the formation of a new party, the <a href="/wiki/Part_Gerakan_Rakyat_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Part Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia">Malaysian People's Movement</a> (Gerakan), in 1968. Gerakan was intentionally designed as a non-communal party, incorporating Malay trade unionists and intellectuals alongside Chinese and Indian leaders.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party" title="Malaysian Islamic Party">Islamic Party of Malaysia</a> (PAS), an Islamist party, and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Action_Party" title="Democratic Action Party">Democratic Action Party</a> (DAP), a democratic socialist party, gained growing support at the expense of UMNO and the MCA, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Following the conclusion of the Malayan Emergency, the predominantly <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese" title="Malaysian Chinese">ethnic Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_National_Liberation_Army" title="Malayan National Liberation Army">Malayan National Liberation Army</a>, the armed wing of the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Communist_Party" title="Malayan Communist Party">Malayan Communist Party</a>, retreated to the <a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93Thailand_border" title="Malaysia–Thailand border">Malaysia-Thailand border</a>. There, they regrouped and retrained for future offensives against the Malaysian government. The insurgency officially began on 17 June 1968, when the MCP ambushed security forces in <a href="/wiki/Kroh" title="Kroh">Kroh</a>–Betong, in northern <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">Peninsular Malaysia</a>. Rather than declaring a "<a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>" as the British had done earlier, the Malaysian government introduced several policy initiatives in response to the insurgency, including the Security and Development Program (KESBAN), Rukun Tetangga (Neighbourhood Watch), and the <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Volunteers_Corps_Department" title="Malaysia Volunteers Corps Department">People's Volunteer Corps</a> (RELA Corps). In the <a href="/wiki/1969_Malaysian_general_election" title="1969 Malaysian general election">1969 federal elections</a>, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance secured only 48% of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan and DAP candidates. This outcome led to a Malay backlash, which triggered the <a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">riots and inter-communal violence</a>. Approximately 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned, and at least 184 people were killed. Western diplomatic sources at the time estimated the death toll to be closer to 600, with most victims being Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-TIME_Art-202">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Race_war-203">[202]</a> In response, the government declared a state of emergency, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Operations_Council" title="National Operations Council">National Operations Council</a>, led by Deputy Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Razak_Hussein" title="Abdul Razak Hussein">Abdul Razak Hussein</a>, assumed power. In September 1970, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman stepped down and was succeeded by Abdul Razak.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Using the Emergency-era <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_1960" title="Internal Security Act 1960">Internal Security Act</a> (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament and political parties, imposed <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">press censorship</a>, and placed severe restrictions on political activity. The ISA granted the government the authority to detain individuals indefinitely without trial. These powers were frequently used to suppress dissent. Additionally, constitutional amendments prohibited criticism of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays, or the status of Malay as the national language, even within Parliament. In 1971, Parliament reconvened, and a new coalition government, the <a href="/wiki/Barisan_Nasional" title="Barisan Nasional">Barisan Nasional</a>, was established in 1974 to replace the Alliance party.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> Abdul Razak remained in office until his death in 1976. On 16 July 1981, <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> became Prime Minister, serving for 22 years, the longest tenure in Malaysian history. During his administration, Malaysia experienced rapid economic growth and implemented numerous large-scale development projects. Key policies during this period transformed Malaysia's economy and society. The controversial <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP), introduced by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tun_Abdul_Razak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tun Abdul Razak">Tun Abdul Razak</a>, aimed to increase the economic participation of <a href="/wiki/Bumiputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumiputra">bumiputras</a> relative to other ethnic groups. Malaysia has since maintained a delicate ethno-political balance, combining economic growth with policies that promote equitable participation among all races.<a href="#cite_note-New_Economic_Policy-204">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Malaysia">Modern Malaysia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Modern Malaysia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Malaysia" title="Human rights in Malaysia">Human rights in Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Malaysia" title="Freedom of religion in Malaysia">Freedom of religion in Malaysia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Street scene; a large fountain visible in the right foreground, a row of palm trees stretching away to the left, and in the centre of the image, across the street, a large white and beige stone building, with a tall domed central tower and two smaller domed towers to the right and left." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg/220px-KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg/330px-KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg/440px-KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a>, a blend of old and new</figcaption></figure> In 1970, three-quarters of Malaysians living below the poverty line were ethnic Malays, most of whom were rural workers largely excluded from Malaysia's modern economy. The government introduced the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP) in 1971 to address these disparities, with a series of four five-year plans scheduled from 1971 to 1990.<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> The NEP aimed to achieve two main goals: reducing poverty, especially in rural areas, and addressing the economic imbalance by eliminating the association between race and economic prosperity.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-53">[53]</a> This latter goal was interpreted as a strategic shift in economic opportunities from the Chinese community to the Malays, who, at that time, represented only 5% of the professional workforce.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a> To increase Malay participation in the modern economy, the government established several state-owned enterprises and agencies, including <a href="/wiki/Perbadanan_Nasional" title="Perbadanan Nasional">Perbadanan Nasional Berhad</a> (PERNAS), <a href="/wiki/Petronas" title="Petronas">Petroliam Nasional Berhad</a> (PETRONAS), and the <a href="/wiki/HICOM_Automotive_Manufacturers_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="HICOM Automotive Manufacturers (Malaysia)">Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia</a> (HICOM). These entities not only directly employed Malay workers but also invested in growing sectors of the economy, creating new technical and administrative roles often allocated to Malays. Consequently, Malay equity in the economy increased from 1.5% in 1969 to 20.3% by 1990.<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahathir_administration">Mahathir administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Mahathir administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad#First_term_as_prime_minister_(1981–2003)" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad § First term as prime minister (1981–2003)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_(September_25_2003).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photo showing former Prime Minister Mahatir bin Mohamad standing with head down and surrounded by government officials at the celebration of the 50th independence day." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_%28September_25_2003%29.jpg/250px-Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_%28September_25_2003%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_%28September_25_2003%29.jpg/330px-Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_%28September_25_2003%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_%28September_25_2003%29.jpg/500px-Mahathir_Mohamad_addressing_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly_%28September_25_2003%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> was the leading force in making Malaysia into a major industrial power.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> was sworn in as the fourth <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister of Malaysia</a> on 16 July 1981.<a href="#cite_note-Wain_40-209">[208]</a> One of his initial actions was to release 21 detainees held under the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Security Act (Malaysia)">Internal Security Act</a> (ISA).<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a> During his early tenure, Mahathir implemented an assertive economic strategy, exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Dawn_Raid_(Malaysia)" title="Dawn Raid (Malaysia)">Guthrie Dawn Raid</a> on 7 September 1981. This strategic economic maneuver, executed by <a href="/wiki/Permodalan_Nasional_Berhad" title="Permodalan Nasional Berhad">Permodalan Nasional Berhad</a> (PNB), enabled Malaysia to reclaim control of <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_(company)" title="Guthrie (company)">Guthrie Corporation</a>, a British-owned plantation company, by rapidly acquiring its shares on the <a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Stock Exchange</a>. The operation transferred approximately 200,000 acres of agricultural land into Malaysian ownership, aligning with the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP) objectives of increasing Bumiputera equity.<a href="#cite_note-:02-211">[210]</a> However, the raid strained <a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Malaysia–United Kingdom relations">diplomatic relations</a> with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. In response, British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> tightened stock market regulations, while Malaysia introduced the "Buy British Last" policy, prioritizing non-British suppliers in government procurements. Diplomatic reconciliation occurred in 1983 when Thatcher hosted Mahathir at <a href="/wiki/10_Downing_Street" title="10 Downing Street">10 Downing Street</a>, leading to agreements on student subsidies, technical assistance programs, and the resolution of the landing rights issue.<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> To promote economic development and reduce dependence on Western models, Mahathir introduced the <a href="/wiki/Look_East_policy_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Look East policy (Malaysia)">Look East Policy</a> in 1982, encouraging Malaysians to adopt the work ethics and practices of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a> Alongside this policy, the government emphasized <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialization</a> to diversify the economy away from agriculture. The establishment of the Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM) in 1983 led to the launch of Malaysia's first national car, the <a href="/wiki/Proton_Saga_(first_generation)" title="Proton Saga (first generation)">Proton Saga</a>, in 1985 by <a href="/wiki/Proton_Holdings" title="Proton Holdings">Proton</a>, Malaysia's automotive company.<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> The government introduced its <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> policy in the early 1980s to improve efficiency, reduce government expenditure, and encourage private-sector growth.<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> Privatization efforts spanned key sectors, including <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">telecommunications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">utilities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Malaysia" title="Transport in Malaysia">transportation</a>, attracting foreign investment and supporting Malaysia's economic growth. This program complemented Mahathir's broader focus on industrialization and infrastructure, establishing a foundation for major development projects in later years.<a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a> Mahathir sought to redefine the balance of power between the <a href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Malaysia" title="Monarchies of Malaysia">monarchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a> through a constitutional amendment in 1983.<a href="#cite_note-:13-219">[218]</a> This amendment required the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a> to assent to any bill within 15 days of its passage by Parliament; otherwise, it would automatically become law. Additionally, it proposed transferring the power to declare a state of emergency from the Agong to the prime minister. Initially supported by the Agong at the time, the proposal was later met with hesitation from him and the Sultans, who baulked at its implications for state-level legislation. A public standoff ensued, with Mahathir organizing rallies to gather public support. The crisis concluded with a compromise, retaining the Agong's emergency powers but allowing Parliament to override a veto by re-passing the bill.<a href="#cite_note-:13-219">[218]</a> In Mahathir's early years as prime minister, Malaysia saw a resurgence of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Malaysia" title="Conservatism in Malaysia">conservatism</a> among the Malay population. <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party" title="Malaysian Islamic Party">Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party</a> (PAS), which had previously joined UMNO in government during the 1970s, responded to this shift by adopting a more assertive <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> stance under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Yusof_Rawa" title="Yusof Rawa">Yusof Rawa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:14-220">[219]</a> Mahathir sought to appeal to religious voters by establishing institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Islamic_University_Malaysia" title="International Islamic University Malaysia">International Islamic University of Malaysia</a> (IIUM) to promote Islamic education within a framework overseen by the government.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-220">[219]</a> As part of his efforts to moderate Islamist influence, Mahathir successfully drew <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Youth_Movement" title="Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement">Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement</a> (ABIM), into UMNO.<a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> Mahathir's government also employed repressive measures against more extreme exponents of Islamism. In 1985, the <a href="/wiki/Memali_Incident" title="Memali Incident">Memali Incident</a> occurred, resulting in a confrontation between police and followers of Islamist preacher Ibrahim Mahmud, known as Ibrahim Libya, in Kampung Memali, <a href="/wiki/Baling_District" title="Baling District">Baling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a>. This clash led to 18 deaths, including four police officers.<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Arqam" title="Al-Arqam">Al-Arqam</a>, a religious sect, was banned in 1994, and its leader, <a href="/wiki/Ashaari_Muhammad" title="Ashaari Muhammad">Ashaari Mohammad</a>, was arrested under the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_1960" title="Internal Security Act 1960">Internal Security Act</a> (ISA) due to the movement's deviation from Islamic principles and its perceived potential as a political threat.<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a> Following rising racial tensions and political unrest, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lalang" title="Operation Lalang">Operasi Lalang</a> was launched in 1987. The government detained 119 individuals, including opposition politicians, activists, and intellectuals, under the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Security Act (Malaysia)">Internal Security Act</a> (ISA).<a href="#cite_note-:15-225">[224]</a> These detentions, carried out without trial, were criticized by human rights groups.<a href="#cite_note-:15-225">[224]</a> Mahathir's party, the <a href="/wiki/United_Malays_National_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Malays National Organisation">United Malays National Organisation</a> (UMNO), soon plunged into crisis in 1987. After Mahathir narrowly defeated <a href="/wiki/Tengku_Razaleigh_Hamzah" title="Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah">Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah</a> in the UMNO presidential election, Razaleigh's supporters alleged manipulation in the voting process and filed a lawsuit. In 1988, the High Court declared UMNO to be an unlawful society due to irregularities, specifically the existence of several unregistered branches that violated the <a href="/wiki/Societies_Act_1966" title="Societies Act 1966">Societies Act 1966</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:16-226">[225]</a> This ruling effectively dissolved UMNO, leaving the party without legal status and creating uncertainty in its leadership. In response, Mahathir formed a new party, UMNO Baru (New UMNO), which most UMNO members joined. The reconstituted party later adopted the original name, UMNO. The situation escalated into a <a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">constitutional crisis</a> when Mahathir's administration sought to assert greater control over the judiciary, suspending <a href="/wiki/Salleh_Abas" title="Salleh Abas">Salleh Abas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Supreme_Court" title="Lord President of the Supreme Court">Lord President</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Malaysia" title="Federal Court of Malaysia">Supreme Court</a>, along with several senior judges, following Salleh's criticism of the government's attempts to influence judicial matters.<a href="#cite_note-:16-226">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a> Mahathir also worked to resolve the <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">long-standing insurgency</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Communist_Party" title="Malayan Communist Party">Malayan Communist Party</a> (MCP). Building on <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Malaysia_relations" title="China–Malaysia relations">Malaysia's bilateral relations</a> with <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> established in 1974, the Malaysian government encouraged Chinese leaders, including <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, to influence the MCP to lay down their arms.<a href="#cite_note-n21-228">[227]</a> By 1988, the MCP, weakened by diminishing support and the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">collapse of the Communist bloc</a>, agreed to peace negotiations mediated by <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-n21-228">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-cbk-229">[228]</a> The talks culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_Agreement_of_Hat_Yai_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace Agreement of Hat Yai (1989)">Haadyai Peace Accord</a>, signed on 2 December 1989, which required the MCP to cease militant activities, disband armed units, and pledge loyalty to the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a> The conclusion of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 led Mahathir to introduce <a href="/wiki/Wawasan_2020" title="Wawasan 2020">Vision 2020</a>, aiming to transform Malaysia into a fully developed nation by the year 2020. Achieving this objective required an average economic growth rate of seven percent per annum.<a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> The New Economic Policy (NEP) was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/National_Development_Policy" title="National Development Policy">National Development Policy</a> (NDP) in 1991, which expanded certain government programs to include non-Bumiputera ethnic groups. By 1995, the NDP had contributed to poverty reduction, with fewer than nine percent of Malaysians living in poverty, and it had helped to narrow income inequality.<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a> The administration also reduced corporate taxes and liberalized financial regulations, attracting foreign investment and boosting economic growth rates to over nine percent annually until 1997.<a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> Mahathir's second <a href="/wiki/1993_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia">constitutional amendment in 1993</a> further curtailed royal privileges by removing the legal immunity of the royal family, allowing them to be prosecuted in a special court. This amendment reinforced the government's stance that all citizens, including royalty, should be subject to the rule of law.<a href="#cite_note-235">[234]</a> Throughout the 1990s, Mahathir prioritized large-scale infrastructure projects. Among them was the development of the <a href="/wiki/MSC_Malaysia" title="MSC Malaysia">Multimedia Super Corridor</a>, aimed at establishing Malaysia as a center for <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[235]</a> Other key projects included the creation of <a href="/wiki/Putrajaya" title="Putrajaya">Putrajaya</a> as the administrative capital and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Grand_Prix" title="Malaysian Grand Prix">Formula One Grand Prix</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sepang_(town)" title="Sepang (town)">Sepang</a>. Among the more controversial was the <a href="/wiki/Bakun_Dam" title="Bakun Dam">Bakun Dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sarawak" title="Sarawak">Sarawak</a>, a hydroelectric project intended to supply electricity across the <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a> to Peninsular Malaysia. However, its construction was halted during the 1997 Asian financial crisis.<a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[237]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Petronas_Towers" title="Petronas Towers">Petronas Twin Towers</a>, completed in 1996, became an iconic symbol of Malaysia's rapid modernization. Mahathir envisioned the towers and the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur_City_Centre" title="Kuala Lumpur City Centre">Kuala Lumpur City Centre</a> (KLCC) as a global business hub, transforming Kuala Lumpur's skyline.<a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petronas_Towers_at_night_(7025662613).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Petronas_Towers_at_night_%287025662613%29.jpg/220px-Petronas_Towers_at_night_%287025662613%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Petronas_Towers_at_night_%287025662613%29.jpg/330px-Petronas_Towers_at_night_%287025662613%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Petronas_Towers_at_night_%287025662613%29.jpg/440px-Petronas_Towers_at_night_%287025662613%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>A view of Petronas Twin Towers and the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur_City_Centre" title="Kuala Lumpur City Centre">central business district</a> in Kuala Lumpur</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG/250px-KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG/330px-KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG/500px-KLCC_twin_towers2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Petronas_Towers" title="Petronas Towers">Petronas Twin Towers</a> in Kuala Lumpur was the tallest building in Southeast Asia.</figcaption></figure>The <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a> significantly impacted Malaysia, with the Malaysian ringgit depreciating, foreign investment declining, and the stock market index dropping by over 75%. Initially following <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF) recommendations, the government implemented spending cuts and raised interest rates, exacerbating economic strain. In 1998, Mahathir shifted policies by increasing government spending and pegging the ringgit to the US dollar, allowing Malaysia to recover faster than some neighboring countries.<a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a> The year 1998 also marked the dismissal of Deputy Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a> by Mahathir, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Reformasi_(Malaysia)" title="Reformasi (Malaysia)">Reformasi movement</a>, which advocated for political reform and an end to corruption. Anwar's subsequent arrest and <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim_sodomy_trials" title="Anwar Ibrahim sodomy trials">trial on charges of sodomy</a> attracted widespread attention and criticism from international human rights organizations.<a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a> Upon retiring in October 2003, after over 22 years in office, Mahathir was recognized as the world's longest-serving elected leader at the time.<a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abdullah_administration">Abdullah administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Abdullah administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_Hadhari" title="Islam Hadhari">Islam Hadhari</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ahmad_Badawi" title="Abdullah Ahmad Badawi">Abdullah Ahmad Badawi</a> was sworn in as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Malaysia's fifth prime minister</a> on 31 October 2003, beginning his term with a pledge to combat corruption by strengthening anti-corruption agencies and expanding public channels for reporting corruption.<a href="#cite_note-245">[244]</a> He promoted <a href="/wiki/Islam_Hadhari" title="Islam Hadhari">Islam Hadhari</a>, an approach to Islam that emphasizes compatibility between Islamic principles and economic and technological development.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/2004_Malaysian_general_election" title="2004 Malaysian general election">2004 general election</a>, Abdullah led the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition to a major victory, securing over 90% of parliamentary seats.<a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> Later that year, the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">Indian Ocean tsunami</a> <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_the_2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_on_Malaysia" title="Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Malaysia">affected parts of Malaysia</a>, particularly Penang and Kedah prompting Abdullah's administration to coordinate relief efforts and establish a tsunami warning system to improve disaster preparedness.<a href="#cite_note-249">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a> In his administration's economic strategy, Abdullah emphasized revitalizing <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Malaysia" title="Agriculture in Malaysia">Malaysia's agriculture sector</a> to strengthen <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>, incorporating modern <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_technology" title="Agricultural technology">agrotechnology</a> and implementing a RM4 billion food security plan.<a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a> Under Abdullah, the country aimed to transition into a value-chain economy by developing its inherent strengths in agriculture without compromising its established manufacturing base.<a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a> However, his administration faced criticism over managing rising petrol and electricity costs linked to subsidy restructuring, as these changes were seen as potentially undermining Malaysia's traditional advantage as an exporter.<a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a> Additionally, Abdullah's government sought to improve <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">access to higher education</a> and bolster Malaysia's standing as a regional educational hub. Building on the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Perbadanan_Tabung_Pendidikan_Tinggi_Nasional" title="Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional">National Higher Education Fund Corporation</a> (PTPTN), established in 1997 under <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir's administration</a>, Abdullah expanded funding and infrastructure for tertiary education.<a href="#cite_note-255">[254]</a> Malaysia also hosted the <a href="/wiki/First_East_Asia_Summit" title="First East Asia Summit">inaugural East Asia Summit</a> in 2005 under Abdullah's leadership, aiming to enhance cooperation among <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> nations and major global powers.<a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a> During his tenure, Abdullah launched three major economic corridors in <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">Peninsular Malaysia</a> to stimulate regional development: the South Johor Economic Region (now <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Malaysia" title="Iskandar Malaysia">Iskandar Malaysia</a>), the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_Economic_Region" title="East Coast Economic Region">East Coast Economic Region</a> (ECER), and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Corridor_Economic_Region" title="Northern Corridor Economic Region">Northern Corridor Economic Region</a> (NCER). These initiatives aimed to promote infrastructure and industry growth across Peninsular Malaysia, focusing on regions within the designated economic corridors.<a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[258]</a> Extending his development strategy to <a href="/wiki/East_Malaysia" title="East Malaysia">East Malaysia</a>, Abdullah also launched two major corridors there, which are the <a href="/wiki/Sarawak_Corridor_of_Renewable_Energy" title="Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy">Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy</a> (SCORE) and the <a href="/wiki/Sabah_Development_Corridor" title="Sabah Development Corridor">Sabah Development Corridor</a> (SDC).<a href="#cite_note-260">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[260]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Muszaphar_Shukor" title="Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor">Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor</a> became Malaysia's first astronaut on 10 October 2007, traveling aboard the Russian <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-11" title="Soyuz TMA-11">Soyuz TMA-11</a>, a milestone in Malaysia's <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Agency_(Malaysia)" title="National Space Agency (Malaysia)">space exploration program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> That same year, two major anti-government rallies took place. The first <a href="/wiki/2007_Bersih_rally" title="2007 Bersih rally">Bersih Rally</a> on 10 November in Kuala Lumpur called for <a href="/wiki/Electoral_reform" title="Electoral reform">electoral reform</a> amid corruption allegations and criticisms of a system favouring Barisan Nasional.<a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a> Later that month, on 25 November, the <a href="/wiki/2007_HINDRAF_rally" title="2007 HINDRAF rally">HINDRAF rally</a> organised by the <a href="/wiki/HINDRAF" title="HINDRAF">Hindu Rights Action Force</a> (HINDRAF) protested perceived ethnic discrimination policies.<a href="#cite_note-264">[263]</a> The government subsequently banned HINDRAF in October 2008, labelling it a security threat.<a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BersihRallyHafiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/BersihRallyHafiz.jpg/220px-BersihRallyHafiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/BersihRallyHafiz.jpg/330px-BersihRallyHafiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/BersihRallyHafiz.jpg/440px-BersihRallyHafiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/2007_Bersih_rally" title="2007 Bersih rally">2007 Bersih rally</a> that was held in Kuala Lumpur</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">global financial crisis</a> that began in late 2007 led to reduced demand for Malaysian exports such as electronics, palm oil, and rubber, causing the country's GDP growth to slow significantly and contract in early 2009 before beginning a gradual recovery.<a href="#cite_note-266">[265]</a> To mitigate the impact, Abdullah's government introduced two stimulus packages totalling approximately RM67 billion, supporting domestic spending, infrastructure projects, and vulnerable sectors.<a href="#cite_note-267">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[267]</a> These measures, alongside Malaysia's diversified economy, contributed to a relatively swift recovery.<a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2008_Malaysian_general_election" title="2008 Malaysian general election">2008 general election</a>, Barisan Nasional lost its two-thirds majority for the first time since 1969, a result of the <a href="/wiki/Political_tsunami_(Malaysian_politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Political tsunami (Malaysian politics)">political tsunami</a> brought about by the <a href="/wiki/2008_Malaysian_Opposition_Wave" title="2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave">2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave</a>, which signaled a significant decline in public support.<a href="#cite_note-270">[269]</a> Mounting criticism over unmet anti-corruption promises and perceived ineffective leadership led Abdullah to announce his resignation in October 2008, with his departure finalised in April 2009 when <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a> took office as his successor.<a href="#cite_note-271">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[271]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Najib_administration">Najib administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Najib administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia" title="1Malaysia">1Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a> was sworn in as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Malaysia's sixth prime minister</a> on 3 April 2009. Early in his tenure, he introduced the <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia" title="1Malaysia">1Malaysia</a> campaign, a national unity initiative aimed at fostering ethnic harmony, service efficiency, and equitable opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-273">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[273]</a> The concept expanded into a public service brand covering various social and economic policies aimed at unifying Malaysia's multicultural society. On 15 September 2011, Najib announced plans to repeal the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_1960" title="Internal Security Act 1960">Internal Security Act 1960</a> (ISA), which had been criticised for allowing indefinite detention without trial. It was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Security_Offences_(Special_Measures)_Act_2012" title="Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012">Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012</a> (SOSMA), which came into effect on 31 July 2012.<a href="#cite_note-bernamanajib-275">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[275]</a> However, critics argued that SOSMA was misused to silence dissenting voices, with several activists detained under the law.<a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[277]</a> In early February 2013, an <a href="/wiki/2013_Lahad_Datu_standoff" title="2013 Lahad Datu standoff">incursion occurred in Lahad Datu</a> when hundreds of militants, some armed, arrived by boats in <a href="/wiki/Lahad_Datu_District" title="Lahad Datu District">Lahad Datu District</a>, Sabah, Malaysia, from <a href="/wiki/Simunul" title="Simunul">Simunul Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tawi-Tawi" title="Tawi-Tawi">Tawi-Tawi</a>, in the southern <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. The group was sent by <a href="/wiki/Jamalul_Kiram_III" title="Jamalul Kiram III">Jamalul Kiram III</a>, a claimant to the throne of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a>. In response, Malaysian security forces launched a major operation to repel the militants, resulting in a decisive Malaysian victory that concluded the conflict by late March 2013.<a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a> Following this, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sabah_Security_Command" title="Eastern Sabah Security Command">Eastern Sabah Security Command</a> (ESSCOM) was established to enhance security along Sabah's eastern coast.<a href="#cite_note-280">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2013_Malaysian_general_election" title="2013 Malaysian general election">2013 general election</a>, Najib led the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition to victory, retaining a majority in Parliament. However, the election was marred by allegations of electoral irregularities, including accusations of <a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">gerrymandering</a> and alleged misuse of government resources. This led to widespread public protests, which demanded electoral reform.<a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a> On 8 March 2014, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">Malaysia Airlines Flight 370</a> disappeared en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing, leading to one of the largest and most costly search efforts in aviation history.<a href="#cite_note-283">[282]</a> Four months later, on 17 July 2014, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight 17</a> was shot down by a <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missile</a> over <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine" title="Eastern Ukraine">Eastern Ukraine</a> while flying over territory controlled by <a href="/wiki/Russian_separatist_forces_in_Donbas" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian separatist forces in Donbas">Russian-backed militants</a>, resulting in the deaths of all 298 passengers and crew on board.<a href="#cite_note-284">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[284]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1mdb_logo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/1mdb_logo.png/220px-1mdb_logo.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/1mdb_logo.png 1.5x" data-file-width="235" data-file-height="111" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1MDB corruption scandal</a> tainted the tenure of Prime Minister, Najib Razak.</figcaption></figure> On 1 April 2015, Najib's administration introduced a <a href="/wiki/Goods_and_Services_Tax_(Malaysia)" title="Goods and Services Tax (Malaysia)">controversial 6% Goods and Services Tax</a> (GST) on most goods and services to expand Malaysia's tax base. The GST was widely unpopular, with many Malaysians expressing concerns over rising living costs.<a href="#cite_note-286">[285]</a> Later that year, Najib's administration was engulfed in <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">scandal</a> when Najib and other officials were implicated in a multibillion-dollar <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money-laundering</a> scheme involving <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad">1Malaysia Development Berhad</a> (1MDB), a state-owned investment fund allegedly masterminded by <a href="/wiki/Jho_Low" title="Jho Low">Low Taek Jho</a>. This triggered widespread calls and protests from Malaysians, including opposition parties, demanding Najib's resignation.<a href="#cite_note-287">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[287]</a> These protests culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Citizens%27_Declaration" title="Malaysian Citizens' Declaration">Malaysian Citizens' Declaration</a>, a declaration from a coalition of political and civil leaders calling for Najib's removal from office.<a href="#cite_note-289">[288]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bersih_2_protest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Bersih_2_protest.jpg/220px-Bersih_2_protest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Bersih_2_protest.jpg/330px-Bersih_2_protest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Bersih_2_protest.jpg/440px-Bersih_2_protest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bersih_2.0_rally" title="Bersih 2.0 rally">Bersih 2.0 rally</a> protesters marching the streets of <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> peacefully before the police confronted them.</figcaption></figure> From 2011 to 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Bersih" title="Bersih">Bersih</a> movement held several large rallies calling for electoral reform, transparency, and accountability in governance. The Najib administration's response included arrests of activists and restrictions on media coverage, which garnered both domestic and international scrutiny.<a href="#cite_note-290">[289]</a> Amid growing dissent, Najib removed his then-deputy, <a href="/wiki/Muhyiddin_Yassin" title="Muhyiddin Yassin">Muhyiddin Yassin</a>, suspended several newspapers, and enacted the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_Act_2016" title="National Security Council Act 2016">National Security Council Act 2016</a>, granting unprecedented powers to the prime minister.<a href="#cite_note-291">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[291]</a> Additionally, living costs surged due to subsidy cuts, and the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_ringgit" title="Malaysian ringgit">Malaysian ringgit</a> experienced a sharp decline. In 2017, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93North_Korea_relations" title="Malaysia–North Korea relations">diplomatic tensions</a> flared between Malaysia and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Kim_Jong-nam" title="Assassination of Kim Jong-nam">assassination of Kim Jong-nam</a> in Malaysia, an incident that sparked a major diplomatic row and brought international media attention.<a href="#cite_note-293">[292]</a> Najib's tenure ended after the <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">2018 general election</a>, in which Barisan Nasional lost its parliamentary majority for the first time in Malaysia's history.<a href="#cite_note-294">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Mahathir_administration">Second Mahathir administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Second Mahathir administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">2018 Malaysian general election</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_premiership_of_Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Second premiership of Mahathir Mohamad">Second premiership of Mahathir Mohamad</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> was sworn in as the seventh <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a> after winning the <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">election</a> on 10 May 2018. A number of issues contributed to <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a>'s defeat, including the ongoing <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) scandal</a>, the 6% Goods and Services Tax, and the rising cost of living.<a href="#cite_note-:8-297">[296]</a> Mahathir promised to "restore the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>" and conduct elaborate and transparent investigations into the <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[299]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a> was given a full <a href="/wiki/Royal_pardon" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal pardon">royal pardon</a> and was released from prison on 16 May 2018. He was designated to take over the reins from Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> as planned and agreed by the coalition before GE14.<a href="#cite_note-301">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[301]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg/220px-Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg/330px-Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg/440px-Mahathir_and_Duterte_bilateral_meeting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Philippine President <a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Rodrigo Duterte">Duterte</a> in a meeting with Mahathir in the <a href="/wiki/Malaca%C3%B1ang_Palace" title="Malacañang Palace">Malacanang Palace</a> in 2019</figcaption></figure> The unpopular tax was reduced to 0% on 1 June 2018. The government under Mahathir tabled the first reading Bill to repeal GST in <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a> on 31 July 2018.<a href="#cite_note-303">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[303]</a> GST was successfully replaced with Sales Tax and Service Tax starting 1 September 2018.<a href="#cite_note-305">[304]</a> Mahathir's administration promised to review all <a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a> projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government. He characterised these as "unequal treaties" and said some were linked to misappropriated funds from the 1MDB scandal. The government suspended work on the <a href="/wiki/MRL_East_Coast_Rail_Link" title="MRL East Coast Rail Link">East Coast Rail Link</a> and continued it after terms had been renegotiated.<a href="#cite_note-306">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[306]</a> Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals with <a href="/wiki/China_Petroleum_Pipeline_Engineering" title="China Petroleum Pipeline Engineering">China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau</a>, stating that Malaysia would not be able to repay its obligations to China.<a href="#cite_note-308">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[308]</a> Mahathir was supportive of the <a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Korean_peace_process" title="2018–19 Korean peace process">2018–19 Korean peace process</a> and announced that Malaysia would reopen its embassy in North Korea and resume relations.<a href="#cite_note-310">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[311]</a> On 28 September 2018, Mahathir addressed the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a>, stating that his government would promise to ratify the <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination" title="International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination">International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination</a> (ICERD). However, after weeks of receiving racially and religiously charged demonstrations against the convention, particularly from <a href="/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)">Bumiputras</a>, the Pakatan Harapan government chose not to accede to the ICERD on 23 November 2018.<a href="#cite_note-313">[312]</a> Mahathir announced the <a href="/wiki/Shared_Prosperity_Vision_2030" title="Shared Prosperity Vision 2030">Shared Prosperity Vision 2030</a> in October 2019, which aimed to increase the incomes of all ethnic groups, focus more on the technology sector, and for Malaysia to become a <a href="/wiki/High_income" class="mw-redirect" title="High income">high-income</a> country by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-314">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[314]</a> Malaysia's <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of the press in Malaysia">freedom of the press</a> improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in the <a href="/wiki/Press_Freedom_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Press Freedom Index">Press Freedom Index</a>.<a href="#cite_note-316">[315]</a> Political infighting within the Pakatan Harapan coalition, as well as the uncertainty of the date of the transition of power to his designated successor, Anwar Ibrahim, soon culminated in a <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">political crisis</a> known as the Sheraton Move in February 2020.<a href="#cite_note-317">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muhyiddin_administration">Muhyiddin administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Muhyiddin administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order" title="Malaysian movement control order">Malaysian movement control order</a>, <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/2021_Malaysian_state_of_emergency" title="2021 Malaysian state of emergency">2021 Malaysian state of emergency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muhyiddin_cabinet" title="Muhyiddin cabinet">Muhyiddin cabinet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_(49687038551).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_%2849687038551%29.jpg/250px-MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_%2849687038551%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_%2849687038551%29.jpg/330px-MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_%2849687038551%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_%2849687038551%29.jpg/500px-MCO_covid19_Penang_Malaysia_%2849687038551%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The usually crowded <a href="/wiki/Tun_Dr_Lim_Chong_Eu_Expressway" title="Tun Dr Lim Chong Eu Expressway">Lim Chong Eu Expressway</a> and its surroundings in Penang were deserted on 22 March 2020 during the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order" title="Malaysian movement control order">Malaysian Movement Control Order</a> to combat the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.</figcaption></figure> On 1 March 2020, a week after the country was thrown into a <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">political crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhyiddin_Yassin" title="Muhyiddin Yassin">Muhyiddin Yassin</a> was appointed as the eighth <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a>, following the abrupt resignation of Mahathir Mohamad.<a href="#cite_note-:9-21">[21]</a> The fallen government was replaced by the new <a href="/wiki/Perikatan_Nasional" title="Perikatan Nasional">Perikatan Nasional</a> (PN) coalition government, led by <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_United_Indigenous_Party" title="Malaysian United Indigenous Party">BERSATU</a> leader Muhyiddin. During his administration, <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">COVID-19</a> spread throughout the nation. In response, Muhyiddin implemented the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order" title="Malaysian movement control order">Malaysian movement control order</a> (MCO) on 18 March 2020.<a href="#cite_note-318">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[318]</a> On 28 July 2020, the <a href="/wiki/High_court_(Malaysia)" title="High court (Malaysia)">High Court</a> convicted former Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a> of <a href="/wiki/Abuse_of_power" title="Abuse of power">abuse of power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Malaysia" title="Law of Malaysia">criminal breach of trust</a>, becoming the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to be convicted of corruption.<a href="#cite_note-320">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[320]</a> After failing several appeals, he entered <a href="/wiki/Kajang_Prison" title="Kajang Prison">Kajang Prison</a> on August 23, 2022, to serve his sentence.<a href="#cite_note-322">[321]</a> In mid-January 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_of_Pahang" title="Abdullah of Pahang">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a> declared a <a href="/wiki/2021_Malaysian_state_of_emergency" title="2021 Malaysian state of emergency">national state of emergency</a> until at least 1 August in response to the COVID-19 crisis and political infighting. Parliament and elections were suspended while the Malaysian government was empowered to introduce laws without approval.<a href="#cite_note-323">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[323]</a> Muhyiddin commenced <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 vaccination in Malaysia">the country's vaccination programme against COVID-19</a> in late February 2021.<a href="#cite_note-325">[324]</a> On 19 March 2021, <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> announced the <a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93North_Korea_relations" title="Malaysia–North Korea relations">severance of diplomatic ties with Malaysia</a>, after the Kuala Lumpur High Court rejected North Korean businessman Mun Chol Myong's appeal from extradition to the United States.<a href="#cite_note-CNA_19_Mar_2021-326">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-ST_19_Mar_2021-327">[326]</a> Muhyiddin officially resigned as prime minister on August 16, 2021, after losing the majority in parliament support due to the country's political crisis, as well as calls for his resignation due to <a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">economic stagnation</a> and the government's failure to prevent COVID-19 infections and deaths.<a href="#cite_note-328">[327]</a> He was afterwards appointed back as caretaker prime minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong until a replacement can be selected.<a href="#cite_note-329">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ismail_Sabri_administration">Ismail Sabri administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Ismail Sabri administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Premiership_of_Ismail_Sabri_Yaakob" title="Premiership of Ismail Sabri Yaakob">Premiership of Ismail Sabri Yaakob</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_Sabri_Yaakob" title="Ismail Sabri Yaakob">Ismail Sabri Yaakob</a> was sworn in as the ninth <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a> on August 21, 2021.<a href="#cite_note-331">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-332">[331]</a> During his inaugural speech as prime minister on 22 August 2021, Ismail Sabri introduced the <a href="/wiki/Keluarga_Malaysia" title="Keluarga Malaysia">Keluarga Malaysia</a> idea.<a href="#cite_note-333">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-334">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[334]</a> During his tenure, he lifted the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order" title="Malaysian movement control order">Movement Control Order</a> (MCO) following the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 vaccination in Malaysia">vaccination programme</a> and oversaw the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Malaysia_Plan" title="Twelfth Malaysia Plan">Twelfth Malaysia Plan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-336">[335]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[336]</a> In late 2022, a constitutional amendment was passed, that prohibits members of parliament from <a href="/wiki/Party_switching" title="Party switching">switching political parties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-338">[337]</a> Several UMNO lawmakers called for a <a href="/wiki/Snap_election" title="Snap election">snap election</a> before the end of 2022 to resolve ongoing infighting in the party and obtain a stronger mandate.<a href="#cite_note-339">[338]</a> This led to an earlier <a href="/wiki/2022_Malaysian_general_election" title="2022 Malaysian general election">general election</a> in November 2022, which resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Hung_parliament" title="Hung parliament">hung parliament</a>, the first federal election to have such a result in the nation's history.<a href="#cite_note-:3-340">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anwar_administration">Anwar administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Anwar administration">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a>, the chairman of Pakatan Harapan (PH), was appointed and sworn in as the 10th <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a> on 24 November 2022 by the <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_of_Pahang" title="Abdullah of Pahang">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a> as Anwar has obtained support for a <a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition#Malaysia" title="Grand coalition">grand coalition</a> government.<a href="#cite_note-341">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-PRU15-342">[341]</a> Anwar launched the <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Madani" title="Malaysia Madani">Malaysia Madani</a> concept as a national policy on January 19, 2023, in Putrajaya which replaced the <a href="/wiki/Keluarga_Malaysia" title="Keluarga Malaysia">Keluarga Malaysia</a> concept from the previous administration of Ismail Sabri Yaakob.<a href="#cite_note-343">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[343]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_%281%29.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_%281%29.jpg/330px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_%281%29.jpg/440px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Anwar_Ibrahim_on_4_September_2024_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1160" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a> with Russian President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Economic_Forum" title="Eastern Economic Forum">Eastern Economic Forum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Primorsky_Krai" title="Primorsky Krai">Primorsky Krai</a>, Russia, 4 September 2024</figcaption></figure> On June 18, 2024, Anwar Ibrahim announced Malaysia's intention to join <a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a>, emphasizing that this decision would not impact domestic politics.<a href="#cite_note-:10-345">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-346">[345]</a> Malaysia officially submitted its application in July 2024. Anwar attended the 9th <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Economic_Forum" title="Eastern Economic Forum">Eastern Economic Forum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, in September, where Russian President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> invited Malaysia to the upcoming BRICS Summit.<a href="#cite_note-347">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-348">[347]</a> On October 24, 2024, Malaysia attended the <a href="/wiki/16th_BRICS_summit" title="16th BRICS summit">16th BRICS Summit</a> to become a BRICS partner country, with <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Economy_(Malaysia)" title="Minister of Economy (Malaysia)">Economy Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Rafizi_Ramli" title="Rafizi Ramli">Rafizi Ramli</a> representing the country. Malaysia formally attained BRICS partner country status on January 1, 2025, strengthening its economic and trade collaborations with BRICS nations.<a href="#cite_note-349">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[350]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_formation_of_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="The formation of Malaysia">The formation of Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">History of Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines" title="History of the Philippines">History of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">History of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Southeast Asia">History of Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Japanese occupation of British Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Japanese occupation of Malaya</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Major ports in their respective regions included Palembang on the Malaccan Strait, Calicut on the Malabar coast, and Mombasa on the Swahili Coast<a href="#cite_note-se16-615-87">[87]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia">"History of Malaysia"</a>. 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BRILL. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11973-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11973-6"><bdi>90-04-11973-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Malay+Peninsula%3A+Crossroads+of+the+Maritime+Silk-Road+%28100+Bc-1300+Ad%29&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2002-01&rft.isbn=90-04-11973-6&rft.au=Michel+Jacq-Hergoualc%27h&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da5rG6reWhloC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> R.H von Geldern, J.H.C Kern, J.R Foster, J.R Logen, Slametmuljana and Asmah Haji Omar. A history of Malaya and her neighbours – Page 21 – by Francis Joseph Moorhead, published by Longmans of Malaysia, 1965 India and ancient Malaya (from the earliest times to circa A.D. 1400) – Page 3 – by D. Devahuti, Published by D. Moore for Eastern Universities Press, 1965 The making of modern Malaya: a history from earliest times to independence – Page 5 – by N. J. Ryan, Oxford University Press, 1965 The cultural heritage of Malaya – Page 2 – by N. J. Ryan published by Longman Malaysia, 1971 A history of Malaysia and Singapore – Page 5 – by N. J. Ryan published by Oxford University Press, 1976 "How the dominoes fell": Southeast Asia in perspective – Page 7 – by Mae H. Esterline, Hamilton Press, 1986 A design guide of public parks in Malaysia – Page 38 – by Jamil Abu Bakar published by Penerbit UTM, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-52-0274-5" title="Special:BookSources/983-52-0274-5">983-52-0274-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-52-0274-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-52-0274-2">978-983-52-0274-2</a> An introduction to the Malaysian legal system – Page 1 – by Min Aun Wu, Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1975 A short history of Malaysia – Page 22 – by Harry Miller published by F.A. 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Marshall Cavendish. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7642-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7642-9"><bdi>978-0-7614-7642-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+and+Its+Peoples%3A+Eastern+and+Southern+Asia&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7642-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D72VwCFtYHCgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. by Sigfried J. de Laet p. 395 </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBraddell1937" class="citation journal cs1">Braddell, Roland (December 1937). 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Ohio University Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89680-475-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89680-475-3"><bdi>978-0-89680-475-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino%E2%80%93Malay+Trade+and+Diplomacy+from+the+Tenth+through+the+Fourteenth+Century&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2009-11-15&rft.isbn=978-0-89680-475-3&rft.au=Derek+Heng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcLE_ToRyuLsC%26pg%3DPT39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Gernet, Jacques (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern">A History of Chinese Civilization</a>. 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Taylor & Francis. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-72703-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-72703-0"><bdi>978-1-136-72703-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Religion+in+South+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011-05-04&rft.isbn=978-1-136-72703-0&rft.au=Ishtiaq+Ahmed&rft.au=Professor+Emeritus+of+Political+Science+Ishtiaq+Ahmed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2T8oSfy3GZgC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Adolphe_WurmPeter_MühlhäuslerDarrell_T._Tryon1996" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Adolphe Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. 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Retrieved 2 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Srivijaya+empire+%26%23124%3B+History%2C+Location%2C+Religion%2C+Government%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2024-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FSrivijaya-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> History of Asia by B. V. Rao (2005), p. 211 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Singapore in Global History by Derek Thiam Soon Heng, Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied p.40 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000–1800 by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> India and Malaya Through the Ages, by S. Durai Raja Singam </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZheng1982" class="citation book cs1">Zheng, Dekun (1 January 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fLL5BQj9Xf0C&pg=PA49">Studies in Chinese Archeology</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chinese University Press">The Chinese University Press</a>. pp. 49, 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-261-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-261-5"><bdi>978-962-201-261-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 December 2015. <q>In case of Santubong, its association with T'ang and Sung porcelain would necessary provide a date of about 8th – 13th century A.D.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Chinese+Archeology&rft.pages=49%2C+50&rft.pub=The+Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=1982-01-01&rft.isbn=978-962-201-261-5&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Dekun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfLL5BQj9Xf0C%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/melaka2.htm">"The Tuah Legend"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200706085731/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/melaka2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2020. 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University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0368-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0368-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-0368-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indianized+States+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1&rft.aulast=Coed%C3%A8s&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderll2006" class="citation book cs1">Alexanderll, James (September 2006). Malaysia Brunei & Singapore. <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_Publishers" title="New Holland Publishers">New Holland Publishers</a>. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86011-309-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86011-309-3"><bdi>978-1-86011-309-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malaysia+Brunei+%26+Singapore&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=New+Holland+Publishers&rft.date=2006-09&rft.isbn=978-1-86011-309-3&rft.aulast=Alexanderll&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"South and Southeast Asia, 500 – 1500". The Encyclopedia of World History. 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BRILL. p. 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2383-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2383-6"><bdi>978-90-474-2383-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historic+Cities+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2007-12-26&rft.isbn=978-90-474-2383-6&rft.au=C.+Edmund+Bosworth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCgawCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCchinesediaspora-81"><a href="#cite_ref-BBCchinesediaspora_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKent2005" class="citation news cs1">Kent, Jonathan (3 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4308241.stm">"Chinese diaspora: Malaysia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100826044205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4308241.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2010. 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Asiapac Books Pte Ltd. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-229-594-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-229-594-1"><bdi>978-981-229-594-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+Civilizations%3A+Ancient+to+1800+AD&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Asiapac+Books+Pte+Ltd&rft.date=2011-11-01&rft.isbn=978-981-229-594-1&rft.au=Lim+SK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE4P1AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shin2012-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shin2012_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shin2012_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWong_Hui_Shin2012" class="citation book cs1">Wong Hui Shin (20 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lrqv2Eu0LOAC&pg=PA49">Sunshine Little Kitchen</a>. 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Office of the People's Government of Fujian Province (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmpkR6l5MaMC&q=zheng%20he%20mansur%20shah&pg=PA58">Zheng He's voyages down the western seas</a>. Fujian, China: China Intercontinental Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5085-0708-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5085-0708-8"><bdi>978-7-5085-0708-8</bdi></a>. 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Ricklefs; Bruce Lockhart; Albert Lau; Portia Reyes; Maitrii Aung-Thwin (19 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bescBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150">A New History of Southeast Asia</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-01554-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-01554-9"><bdi>978-1-137-01554-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2010-11-19&rft.isbn=978-1-137-01554-9&rft.au=M.C.+Ricklefs&rft.au=Bruce+Lockhart&rft.au=Albert+Lau&rft.au=Portia+Reyes&rft.au=Maitrii+Aung-Thwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbescBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_104-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndaya1982" class="citation book cs1">Andaya, Barbara Watson (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmalaysi0000anda">A history of Malaysia</a>. St. Martin's Press. pp. 71, 81–82, 87, 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312381202" title="Special:BookSources/9780312381202"><bdi>9780312381202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Malaysia&rft.pages=71%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E82%2C+87%2C+108&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780312381202&rft.aulast=Andaya&rft.aufirst=Barbara+Watson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmalaysi0000anda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-tan-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tan_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tan_105-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTan_Ding_Eing1978" class="citation book cs1">Tan Ding Eing (1978). 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Oxford University Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-580722-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-580722-6"><bdi>978-0-19-580722-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Portrait+of+Malaysia+and+Singapore&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-19-580722-6&rft.au=Tan+Ding+Eing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-baker-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baker_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-baker_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJim_Baker2008" class="citation book cs1">Jim Baker (15 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRaJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65">Crossroads (2nd Edn): A Popular History of Malaysia and Singapore</a>. Marshall Cavendish International (Asia) Pte Ltd. pp. 64–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9814516020" title="Special:BookSources/978-9814516020"><bdi>978-9814516020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossroads+%282nd+Edn%29%3A+A+Popular+History+of+Malaysia+and+Singapore&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish+International+%28Asia%29+Pte+Ltd&rft.date=2008-07-15&rft.isbn=978-9814516020&rft.au=Jim+Baker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRaJAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andaya19822-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andaya19822_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andaya19822_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andaya19822_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andaya19822_107-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Watson_Andaya1982" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Watson Andaya (11 November 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SkBdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">History Of Malaysia</a>. Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 61–117, 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-16927-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-16927-6"><bdi>978-1-349-16927-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+Of+Malaysia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E117%2C+121&rft.pub=Macmillan+International+Higher+Education&rft.date=1982-11-11&rft.isbn=978-1-349-16927-6&rft.au=Barbara+Watson+Andaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSkBdDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-US_commercial_relations-108"><a href="#cite_ref-US_commercial_relations_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P7TfcCPR9HMC&q=perak+rivers&pg=PA486">Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries During the Years ...</a> U.S. Government Printing Office. 1904. pp. 486–488.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commercial+Relations+of+the+United+States+with+Foreign+Countries+During+the+Years+...&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E486-%3C%2Fspan%3E488&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1904&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP7TfcCPR9HMC%26q%3Dperak%2Brivers%26pg%3DPA486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sultanate_of_Perak_background_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultanate_of_Perak_background_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultanate_of_Perak_background_109-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultanate_of_Perak_background_109-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Teh_Leam_Seng2018" class="citation news cs1">Alan Teh Leam Seng (8 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/sunday-vibes/2018/07/388675/story-behind-malaysias-second-oldest-sultanate-uncovered">"The story behind Malaysia's second oldest sultanate uncovered"</a>. New Straits Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180709051948/https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/sunday-vibes/2018/07/388675/story-behind-malaysias-second-oldest-sultanate-uncovered">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Straits+Times&rft.atitle=The+story+behind+Malaysia%27s+second+oldest+sultanate+uncovered&rft.date=2018-07-08&rft.au=Alan+Teh+Leam+Seng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nst.com.my%2Flifestyle%2Fsunday-vibes%2F2018%2F07%2F388675%2Fstory-behind-malaysias-second-oldest-sultanate-uncovered&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190907035014/http://sultan.perak.gov.my/index.php/informasi-kesultanan/senarai-sultan-perak">"Senarai Sultan Perak"</a> [List of Sultans of Perak] (in Malay). The Administration Office of His Majesty the Sultan of Perak. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sultan.perak.gov.my/index.php/informasi-kesultanan/senarai-sultan-perak">the original</a> on 7 September 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Senarai+Sultan+Perak&rft.pub=The+Administration+Office+of+His+Majesty+the+Sultan+of+Perak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsultan.perak.gov.my%2Findex.php%2Finformasi-kesultanan%2Fsenarai-sultan-perak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-background_of_the_Sultanate_of_Perak-111"><a href="#cite_ref-background_of_the_Sultanate_of_Perak_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191015042530/http://sultan.perak.gov.my/index.php/informasi-kesultanan/sejarah/tok-temong">"Tok Temong (Keramat Tok Temong)"</a> (in Malay). The Administration Office of His Majesty the Sultan of Perak. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sultan.perak.gov.my/index.php/informasi-kesultanan/sejarah/tok-temong">the original</a> on 15 October 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tok+Temong+%28Keramat+Tok+Temong%29&rft.pub=The+Administration+Office+of+His+Majesty+the+Sultan+of+Perak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsultan.perak.gov.my%2Findex.php%2Finformasi-kesultanan%2Fsejarah%2Ftok-temong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaulo_Jorge_de_Sousa_Pinto2012" class="citation book cs1">Paulo Jorge de Sousa Pinto (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M9hRAQAAMAAJ">The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka, 1575–1619: Power, Trade, and Diplomacy</a>. NUS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-967-9948-51-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-967-9948-51-6"><bdi>978-967-9948-51-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portuguese+and+the+Straits+of+Melaka%2C+1575%E2%80%931619%3A+Power%2C+Trade%2C+and+Diplomacy&rft.pub=NUS+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-967-9948-51-6&rft.au=Paulo+Jorge+de+Sousa+Pinto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM9hRAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMohamad_Rashidi_PakriNik_Haslinda_Nik_Hussain2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mohamad Rashidi Pakri; Nik Haslinda Nik Hussain (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rdw8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35">Klian Intan: Perlombongan Bijih Timah dan Perkembangan Sosioekonomi (Penerbit USM)</a> [Klian Intan: Tin Mining and Socio-Economic Development (USM Publisher)] (in Malay). Penerbit USM. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-967-461-134-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-967-461-134-7"><bdi>978-967-461-134-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Klian+Intan%3A+Perlombongan+Bijih+Timah+dan+Perkembangan+Sosioekonomi+%28Penerbit+USM%29&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Penerbit+USM&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-967-461-134-7&rft.au=Mohamad+Rashidi+Pakri&rft.au=Nik+Haslinda+Nik+Hussain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRdw8DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sultanate_of_Perak_background2-114"><a href="#cite_ref-Sultanate_of_Perak_background2_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Teh_Leam_Seng2018" class="citation news cs1">Alan Teh Leam Seng (8 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/sunday-vibes/2018/07/388675/story-behind-malaysias-second-oldest-sultanate-uncovered">"The story behind Malaysia's second oldest sultanate uncovered"</a>. New Straits Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180709051948/https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/sunday-vibes/2018/07/388675/story-behind-malaysias-second-oldest-sultanate-uncovered">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Straits+Times&rft.atitle=The+story+behind+Malaysia%27s+second+oldest+sultanate+uncovered&rft.date=2018-07-08&rft.au=Alan+Teh+Leam+Seng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nst.com.my%2Flifestyle%2Fsunday-vibes%2F2018%2F07%2F388675%2Fstory-behind-malaysias-second-oldest-sultanate-uncovered&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=76I3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA152">The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia</a>. Parbury, Allen, and Company. 1841. p. 152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Asiatic+Journal+and+Monthly+Register+for+British+and+Foreign+India%2C+China%2C+and+Australia&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Parbury%2C+Allen%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1841&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D76I3AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blagden19252-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Blagden19252_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Otto_Blagden1925" class="citation book cs1">Charles Otto Blagden (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i8QmAQAAMAAJ&q=tributary+Malays">British Malaya, 1824–67</a>. Methodist Publishing House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Malaya%2C+1824%E2%80%9367&rft.pub=Methodist+Publishing+House&rft.date=1925&rft.au=Charles+Otto+Blagden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di8QmAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtributary%2BMalays&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stearn20192-117"><a href="#cite_ref-Stearn20192_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuncan_Stearn2019" class="citation book cs1">Duncan Stearn (25 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qX6ODwAAQBAJ&pg=PT56">Slices of Thai History: From the curious & controversial to the heroic & hardy</a>. Proglen Trading Co., Ltd. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-616-456-012-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-616-456-012-3"><bdi>978-616-456-012-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slices+of+Thai+History%3A+From+the+curious+%26+controversial+to+the+heroic+%26+hardy&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Proglen+Trading+Co.%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2019-03-25&rft.isbn=978-616-456-012-3&rft.au=Duncan+Stearn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqX6ODwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andaya1982-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Andaya1982_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Watson_Andaya1982" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Watson Andaya (11 November 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SkBdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">History Of Malaysia</a>. Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 61–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-16927-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-16927-6"><bdi>978-1-349-16927-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+Of+Malaysia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E117&rft.pub=Macmillan+International+Higher+Education&rft.date=1982-11-11&rft.isbn=978-1-349-16927-6&rft.au=Barbara+Watson+Andaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSkBdDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Prakash1998-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Prakash1998_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOm_Prakash1998" class="citation book cs1">Om Prakash (28 June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hciTRYbE27gC&pg=PA235">European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25758-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25758-9"><bdi>978-0-521-25758-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Commercial+Enterprise+in+Pre-Colonial+India&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998-06-28&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25758-9&rft.au=Om+Prakash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhciTRYbE27gC%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSher_Banu._A_Latiff_Khan2018" class="citation book cs1">Sher Banu. A Latiff Khan (27 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ah5qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT106">Sovereign Women in a Muslim Kingdom</a>. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-325-005-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-325-005-5"><bdi>978-981-325-005-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sovereign+Women+in+a+Muslim+Kingdom&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Flipside+Digital+Content+Company+Inc.&rft.date=2018-04-27&rft.isbn=978-981-325-005-5&rft.au=Sher+Banu.+A+Latiff+Khan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dah5qDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pangkor_Island_Dutch_Fort-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Pangkor_Island_Dutch_Fort_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150211091336/http://www.arkib.gov.my/en/web/guest/kota-belanda-pulau-pangkor">"Kota Belanda, Pulau Pangkor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_of_Malaysia" title="National Archives of Malaysia">National Archives of Malaysia</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arkib.gov.my/en/web/guest/kota-belanda-pulau-pangkor">the original</a> on 11 February 2015. Retrieved 12 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kota+Belanda%2C+Pulau+Pangkor&rft.pub=National+Archives+of+Malaysia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arkib.gov.my%2Fen%2Fweb%2Fguest%2Fkota-belanda-pulau-pangkor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSher_Banu._A_Latiff_Khan2009" class="citation web cs1">Sher Banu. A Latiff Khan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190912050521/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30695568.pdf">"Rule Behind the Silk Curtain: The Sultanahs of Aceh 1641–1699"</a> (PDF). Centre for Editing Lives and Letters (Cell) <a href="/wiki/Queen_Mary_University_of_London" title="Queen Mary University of London">Queen Mary University of London</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30695568.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 12 September 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2019 – via CORE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rule+Behind+the+Silk+Curtain%3A+The+Sultanahs+of+Aceh+1641%E2%80%931699&rft.pub=Centre+for+Editing+Lives+and+Letters+%28Cell%29+Queen+Mary+University+of+London&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Sher+Banu.+A+Latiff+Khan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F30695568.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ReclAAAAMAAJ&q=15+December+1653+aceh+perak+dutch+tin+treaty">Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</a>. The Branch. 1936.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Malaysian+Branch+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.pub=The+Branch&rft.date=1936&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DReclAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D15%2BDecember%2B1653%2Baceh%2Bperak%2Bdutch%2Btin%2Btreaty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190915033845/http://hids.arkib.gov.my/en/peristiwa/-/asset_publisher/WAhqbCYR9ww2/content/sultan-muzaffar-shah-iii-perak-menandatangani-perjanjian-monopoli-belanda-belanda-ke-atas-perdagangan-bijih-timah-di-negeri-perak/pop_up?_101_INSTANCE_WAhqbCYR9ww2_viewMode=print">"Sultan Muzaffar Shah III Of Perak Signed The Treaty Of Dutch Monopoly Over Trading Of Tin In Perak"</a>. National Archives of Malaysia. 25 June 1747. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hids.arkib.gov.my/en/peristiwa/-/asset_publisher/WAhqbCYR9ww2/content/sultan-muzaffar-shah-iii-perak-menandatangani-perjanjian-monopoli-belanda-belanda-ke-atas-perdagangan-bijih-timah-di-negeri-perak/pop_up?_101_INSTANCE_WAhqbCYR9ww2_viewMode=print">the original</a> on 15 September 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sultan+Muzaffar+Shah+III+Of+Perak+Signed+The+Treaty+Of+Dutch+Monopoly+Over+Trading+Of+Tin+In+Perak&rft.pub=National+Archives+of+Malaysia&rft.date=1747-06-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhids.arkib.gov.my%2Fen%2Fperistiwa%2F-%2Fasset_publisher%2FWAhqbCYR9ww2%2Fcontent%2Fsultan-muzaffar-shah-iii-perak-menandatangani-perjanjian-monopoli-belanda-belanda-ke-atas-perdagangan-bijih-timah-di-negeri-perak%2Fpop_up%3F_101_INSTANCE_WAhqbCYR9ww2_viewMode%3Dprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linehan_1973_31-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Linehan_1973_31_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Linehan_1973_31_125-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLinehan1973">Linehan 1973</a>, p. 31 </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid2011">Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid 2011</a>, p. 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813_127-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813_127-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid_2011_813_127-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid2011">Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid 2011</a>, p. 81 </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBungoHussinOmarBidin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bungo, N.; Hussin, Nordin; Omar, Rahilah; Bidin, Aishah (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200829092903/http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/Pertanika%20PAPERS/JSSH%20Vol.%2020%20(3)%20Sep.%202012/23%20pg%20931-948.pdf">"Early settlements of the minangkabaus community in Selangor"</a> (PDF). Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities. 20 (3): 931–947. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/Pertanika%20PAPERS/JSSH%20Vol.%2020%20(3)%20Sep.%202012/23%20pg%20931-948.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 29 August 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pertanika+Journal+of+Social+Science+and+Humanities&rft.atitle=Early+settlements+of+the+minangkabaus+community+in+Selangor&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E931-%3C%2Fspan%3E947&rft.date=2012-09&rft.aulast=Bungo&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Hussin%2C+Nordin&rft.au=Omar%2C+Rahilah&rft.au=Bidin%2C+Aishah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pertanika.upm.edu.my%2FPertanika%2520PAPERS%2FJSSH%2520Vol.%252020%2520%283%29%2520Sep.%25202012%2F23%2520pg%2520931-948.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJim_Baker2008" class="citation book cs1">Jim Baker (15 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRaJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71">Crossroads (2nd Edn): A Popular History of Malaysia and Singapore</a>. Marshall Cavendish International (Asia) Pte Ltd. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9814516020" title="Special:BookSources/978-9814516020"><bdi>978-9814516020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossroads+%282nd+Edn%29%3A+A+Popular+History+of+Malaysia+and+Singapore&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish+International+%28Asia%29+Pte+Ltd&rft.date=2008-07-15&rft.isbn=978-9814516020&rft.au=Jim+Baker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRaJAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTan_Ding_Eing1975" class="citation book cs1">Tan Ding Eing (1975). A Portrait of Malaysia and Singapore. Oxford University Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-580722-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-580722-6"><bdi>978-0-19-580722-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Portrait+of+Malaysia+and+Singapore&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-19-580722-6&rft.au=Tan+Ding+Eing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174317?seq=4">Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert Nicholl</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720181722/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174317?seq=4">Archived</a> 20 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 35 citing Ferrand. Relations, page 564-65. Tibbets, Arabic Texts, pg 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174317?seq=7">Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert Nicholl</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720181726/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174317?seq=7">Archived</a> 20 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 38 citing Ferrand. Relations. Page 344. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hutton2000-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Hutton2000_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWendy_Hutton2000" class="citation book cs1">Wendy Hutton (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YWO5Va53GkgC&pg=PA30">Adventure Guides: East Malaysia</a>. Tuttle Publishing. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-593-180-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-593-180-7"><bdi>978-962-593-180-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adventure+Guides%3A+East+Malaysia&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-962-593-180-7&rft.au=Wendy+Hutton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYWO5Va53GkgC%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Coedes, Indianized States, Page 128, 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHistory_for_Brunei_Darussalam200943-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHistory_for_Brunei_Darussalam200943_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHistory_for_Brunei_Darussalam2009">History for Brunei Darussalam 2009</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf">Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213131445/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf">Archived</a> 13 February 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> By Wang Zhenping Page 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuyatno2008-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuyatno2008_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSuyatno2008">Suyatno 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAwang_Juned1992-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAwang_Juned1992_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAwang_Juned1992">Awang Juned 1992</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders201323-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders201323_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaunders2013">Saunders 2013</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders201360-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders201360_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaunders2013">Saunders 2013</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner198999-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbertMilner198999_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerbertMilner1989">Herbert & Milner 1989</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaMilward200116-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaMilward200116_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeaMilward2001">Lea & Milward 2001</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks200734-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHicks200734_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHicks2007">Hicks 2007</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurch201216-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChurch201216_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChurch2012">Church 2012</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEur2002203-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEur2002203_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEur2002">Eur 2002</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdul_Majid20072-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdul_Majid20072_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdul_Majid2007">Abdul Majid 2007</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelman20138-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelman20138_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWelman2013">Welman 2013</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBroek1962" class="citation journal cs1">Broek, Jan O.M. (1962). "Place Names in 16th and 17th Century Borneo". <a href="/wiki/Imago_Mundi" title="Imago Mundi">Imago Mundi</a>. 16 (1): 134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085696208592208">10.1080/03085696208592208</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150309">1150309</a>. <q>Carena (for Carena), deep in the bight, refers to Sarawak, the Kuching area, where there is clear archaeological evidence of an ancient trade center just inland from Santubong.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imago+Mundi&rft.atitle=Place+Names+in+16th+and+17th+Century+Borneo&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=134&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03085696208592208&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1150309%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Broek&rft.aufirst=Jan+O.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDonald_F2008" class="citation book cs1">Donald F, Lach (15 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xD52ge5a8vYC&pg=PA581">Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery, Book 1</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 581. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46708-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46708-5"><bdi>978-0-226-46708-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 March 2016. <q>... but Castanheda lists five great seaports that he says were known to the Portuguese. In his transcriptions they are called "Moduro" (Marudu?), "Cerava" (Sarawak?), "Laue" (Lawai), "Tanjapura" (Tanjungpura), and "Borneo" (Brunei) from which the island derives its name.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Making+of+Europe%2C+Volume+I%3A+The+Century+of+Discovery%2C+Book+1&rft.pages=581&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008-07-15&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46708-5&rft.aulast=Donald+F&rft.aufirst=Lach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxD52ge5a8vYC%26pg%3DPA581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-srwk-150"><a href="#cite_ref-srwk_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRozan_Yunos2008" class="citation news cs1">Rozan Yunos (28 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140403100218/http://www.bt.com.bn/golden_legacy/2008/12/28/sultan_tengah_sarawaks_first_sultan">"Sultan Tengah – Sarawak's first Sultan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Brunei_Times" title="The Brunei Times">The Brunei Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bt.com.bn/golden_legacy/2008/12/28/sultan_tengah_sarawaks_first_sultan">the original</a> on 3 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Brunei+Times&rft.atitle=Sultan+Tengah+%E2%80%93+Sarawak%27s+first+Sultan&rft.date=2008-12-28&rft.au=Rozan+Yunos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bt.com.bn%2Fgolden_legacy%2F2008%2F12%2F28%2Fsultan_tengah_sarawaks_first_sultan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaunders2002">Saunders 2002</a>, pp. 54–60 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairlandsarawak-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Fairlandsarawak_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlastair1993" class="citation book cs1">Alastair, Morrison (1 January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U80cU8Fx1kAC&pg=PA10">Fair Land Sarawak: Some Recollections of an Expatriate Official</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Southeast_Asia_Program" title="Cornell University Southeast Asia Program">SEAP Publications</a>. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87727-712-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87727-712-5"><bdi>978-0-87727-712-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fair+Land+Sarawak%3A+Some+Recollections+of+an+Expatriate+Official&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=SEAP+Publications&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-87727-712-5&rft.aulast=Alastair&rft.aufirst=Morrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU80cU8Fx1kAC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTrudyNoellePaul2012" class="citation book cs1">Trudy, Ring; Noelle, Watson; Paul, Schellinger (12 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&pg=PA497">Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Southeast_Asia_Program" title="Cornell University Southeast Asia Program">SEAP Publications</a>. p. 497. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87727-712-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87727-712-5"><bdi>978-0-87727-712-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+and+Oceania%3A+International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pages=497&rft.pub=SEAP+Publications&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft.isbn=978-0-87727-712-5&rft.aulast=Trudy&rft.aufirst=Ring&rft.au=Noelle%2C+Watson&rft.au=Paul%2C+Schellinger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvoerPYsAB5wC%26pg%3DPA497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFB.A.2006" class="citation book cs1">B.A., Hussainmiya (2006). "The Brookes and the British North Borneo Company". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161202014936/http://fass.ubd.edu.bn/staff/docs/BAH/revival.pdf">Brunei – Revival of 1906 – A popular history</a> (PDF). Bandar Seri Begawan: Brunei Press Sdn Bhd. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99917-32-15-2" title="Special:BookSources/99917-32-15-2"><bdi>99917-32-15-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fass.ubd.edu.bn/staff/docs/BAH/revival.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 December 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Brookes+and+the+British+North+Borneo+Company&rft.btitle=Brunei+%E2%80%93+Revival+of+1906+%E2%80%93+A+popular+history&rft.place=Bandar+Seri+Begawan&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Brunei+Press+Sdn+Bhd&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=99917-32-15-2&rft.aulast=B.A.&rft.aufirst=Hussainmiya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffass.ubd.edu.bn%2Fstaff%2Fdocs%2FBAH%2Frevival.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFR" class="citation web cs1">R, Reece. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150317112803/http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/plymouth/jamesbrooke.htm">"Empire in Your Backyard – Sir James Brooke"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/plymouth/jamesbrooke.htm">the original</a> on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 29 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Empire+in+Your+Backyard+%E2%80%93+Sir+James+Brooke&rft.aulast=R&rft.aufirst=Reece&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishempire.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fplymouth%2Fjamesbrooke.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suzalina_Halid_2015-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Suzalina_Halid_2015_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSuzalina_Halid2015">Suzalina Halid 2015</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Ulrike Freitag, W. G. Clarence-Smith, Hadhrami Traders, Scholars, and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s–1960s: 1750s- 1960s, pg 87 </li> <li id="cite_note-PM-200405-158"><a href="#cite_ref-PM-200405_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteam2004" class="citation journal cs1">Steam, Duncan (May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pattayamail.com/563/columns.shtml#hd6">"A Slice of Thai History: Dr. John Crawfurd and the Mission to Thailand, 1822"</a> (Column). Pattaya Mail. XII (20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200618184730/http://www.pattayamail.com/563/columns.shtml#hd6">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2018. <q>This in turn helped Captain Henry Burney conclude a treaty of commerce with Thailand in June 1826.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pattaya+Mail&rft.atitle=A+Slice+of+Thai+History%3A+Dr.+John+Crawfurd+and+the+Mission+to+Thailand%2C+1822&rft.volume=XII&rft.issue=20&rft.date=2004-05&rft.aulast=Steam&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pattayamail.com%2F563%2Fcolumns.shtml%23hd6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood2001" class="citation book cs1">Wood, William A. R. (1 October 2001). A History of Siam (Paperback ed.). Lightning Source Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931541-10-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-931541-10-8"><bdi>1-931541-10-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Siam&rft.edition=Paperback&rft.pub=Lightning+Source+Inc&rft.date=2001-10-01&rft.isbn=1-931541-10-8&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=William+A.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/malaya.htm">"The Map Room: South East Asia: Malaya"</a>. British Empire. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010309035051/http://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/malaya.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2001. Retrieved 18 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Map+Room%3A+South+East+Asia%3A+Malaya&rft.pub=British+Empire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishempire.co.uk%2Fmaproom%2Fmalaya.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaxter1983" class="citation journal cs1">Baxter, Ian (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41492958">"Dutch Records from Malacca in the India Office Records"</a>. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 56 (2 (245)): 105–133. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0126-7353">0126-7353</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41492958">41492958</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220826141747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41492958">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Malaysian+Branch+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=Dutch+Records+from+Malacca+in+the+India+Office+Records&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2+%28245%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E133&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41492958%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0126-7353&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41492958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoshua_Samuel_Brown2010" class="citation book cs1">Joshua Samuel Brown (15 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LdAV8XaHDTgC&pg=PA22">Singapore</a>. Lonely Planet. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74220-401-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74220-401-7"><bdi>978-1-74220-401-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Singapore&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Lonely+Planet&rft.date=2010-09-15&rft.isbn=978-1-74220-401-7&rft.au=Joshua+Samuel+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLdAV8XaHDTgC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCliffordGraham1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Charles_Clifford" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Charles Clifford">Clifford, Hugh Charles</a>; Graham, Walter Armstrong (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Malay_States_(British)">"Malay States (British)" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 478–484.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Malay+States+%28British%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E478-%3C%2Fspan%3E484&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Clifford&rft.aufirst=Hugh+Charles&rft.au=Graham%2C+Walter+Armstrong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/3c4985cc-517f-4e68-8edd-7a85c67897ea">"Johor is brought under British control"</a>. National Library Board. 12 May 1914. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150630043001/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/3c4985cc-517f-4e68-8edd-7a85c67897ea">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Johor+is+brought+under+British+control&rft.pub=National+Library+Board&rft.date=1914-05-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feresources.nlb.gov.sg%2Fhistory%2Fevents%2F3c4985cc-517f-4e68-8edd-7a85c67897ea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Policy_in_regard_to_Malaya_and_Borneo-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Policy_in_regard_to_Malaya_and_Borneo_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Policy_in_regard_to_Malaya_and_Borneo_165-1">b</a> See: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171104100930/http://filestore.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pdfs/small/cab-129-1-cp-133.pdf">"Policy in regard to Malaya and Borneo"</a> (PDF). 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Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-961-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-961-6"><bdi>978-0-85229-961-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopaedia+Britannica%3A+Macropaedia+%3A+Knowledge+in+depth&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-85229-961-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjhLjAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeter_C._Richards1947" class="citation news cs1">Peter C. Richards (6 December 1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19471206&id=Sf5UAAAAIBAJ&pg=4610,725646&hl=en">"New Flag Over Pacific Paradise"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald" title="The Sydney Morning Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814121126/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19471206&id=Sf5UAAAAIBAJ&pg=4610,725646&hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 22 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=New+Flag+Over+Pacific+Paradise&rft.date=1947-12-06&rft.au=Peter+C.+Richards&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1301%26dat%3D19471206%26id%3DSf5UAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D4610%2C725646%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-treaties.fco.gov.uk-168"><a href="#cite_ref-treaties.fco.gov.uk_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treaties.fco.gov.uk/awweb/awarchive?item=65307">"Exchanges of Notes Between the Government of the United Kingdom and The Government of The Republic of The Philippines Regarding the Transfer of the Administration of the Turtle and Mangsee Islands to the Philippine Republic"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220117232448/https://treaties.fco.gov.uk/awweb/awarchive?item=65307">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2022. 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Social Analysis: The International Journal of Social and Cultural Practice. 49 (2): 164–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3167%2F015597705780886239">10.3167/015597705780886239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0155-977X">0155-977X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23178878">23178878</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027005350/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23178878">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2021. 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Retrieved 26 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=MALAYA%3A+Token+Citizenship&rft.date=1952-05-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C816440%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_181-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_181-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_181-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ehm.my/publications/articles/malaya%E2%80%94britains-forgotten-war-for-rubber">"Malaya—Britain's forgotten war for rubber | Economic History Malaya"</a>. www.ehm.my. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126181213/https://www.ehm.my/publications/articles/malaya%E2%80%94britains-forgotten-war-for-rubber">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ehm.my&rft.atitle=Malaya%E2%80%94Britain%27s+forgotten+war+for+rubber+%7C+Economic+History+Malaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ehm.my%2Fpublications%2Farticles%2Fmalaya%25E2%2580%2594britains-forgotten-war-for-rubber&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071106015521/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,826360,00.html">"Malaya: Siege's End"</a>, Time, New York, 2 May 1960. </li> <li id="cite_note-TIME_New_Nation-183"><a href="#cite_ref-TIME_New_Nation_183-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071106015538/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893616,00.html">"A New Nation"</a>, Time, New York, 9 September 1957 </li> <li id="cite_note-Federation_of_Malaya_Agreement-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Federation_of_Malaya_Agreement_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Federation_of_Malaya_Agreement_184-1">b</a> See: <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> Works related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya_Agreement" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Federation of Malaya Agreement">Federation of Malaya Agreement</a> at Wikisource </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStockwell2004" class="citation book cs1">Stockwell, AJ (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/205722212TheMakingOfTheFederationOfMalaysia">British documents of the end of empire Series B Volume 8 – "Paper on the future of the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, and Borneo Territories":memorandum by Lee Kuan Yew for the government of the Federation of Malaya (CO1030/973, no E203)</a>. 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Retrieved 9 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Star&rft.atitle=Malaysia+and+eight+others+to+be+BRICS+partners+from+Jan+1&rft.date=2024-12-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com.my%2Fnews%2Fnation%2F2024%2F12%2F24%2Fmalaysia-and-eight-others-to-be-brics-partners-from-jan-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbdul_Majid2007" class="citation book cs1">Abdul Majid, Harun (2007). 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I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-423-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-423-7"><bdi>978-1-84511-423-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebellion+in+Brunei%3A+The+1962+Revolt%2C+Imperialism%2C+Confrontation+and+Oil&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-423-7&rft.aulast=Abdul+Majid&rft.aufirst=Harun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAhmad_Sarji_Abdul_Hamid2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid (2011), The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, vol. 16 – The Rulers of Malaysia, Editions Didier Millet, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-3018-54-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-3018-54-9"><bdi>978-981-3018-54-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Malaysia&rft.pub=Editions+Didier+Millet&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-981-3018-54-9&rft.au=Ahmad+Sarji+Abdul+Hamid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAwang_Juned1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Awang Juned, Awang Abdul Aziz bin (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sKBuAAAAMAAJ">Islam di Brunei: zaman pemerintahan Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzuddin Waddaulah, Sultan dan Yang Di-Pertuan Negara Brunei Darussalam</a> (in Malay). Department of History of Brunei Darussalam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+di+Brunei%3A+zaman+pemerintahan+Kebawah+Duli+Yang+Maha+Mulia+Paduka+Seri+Baginda+Sultan+Haji+Hassanal+Bolkiah+Mu%27izzuddin+Waddaulah%2C+Sultan+dan+Yang+Di-Pertuan+Negara+Brunei+Darussalam&rft.pub=Department+of+History+of+Brunei+Darussalam&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Awang+Juned&rft.aufirst=Awang+Abdul+Aziz+bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsKBuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorschberg2010b" class="citation journal cs1">Borschberg, Peter (2010b). "Ethnicity, language and culture in Melaka during the transition from Portuguese to Dutch rule". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 83 (2): 93–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fras.2010.a405052">10.1353/ras.2010.a405052</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161843992">161843992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Malaysian+Branch+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=Ethnicity%2C+language+and+culture+in+Melaka+during+the+transition+from+Portuguese+to+Dutch+rule&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E117&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fras.2010.a405052&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161843992%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Borschberg&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorschberg2011" class="citation book cs1">Borschberg, Peter (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4302729">Hugo Grotius, the Portuguese and Free Trade in the East Indies</a>. Singapore: NUS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-467-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-467-8"><bdi>978-9971-69-467-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hugo+Grotius%2C+the+Portuguese+and+Free+Trade+in+the+East+Indies&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=NUS+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9971-69-467-8&rft.aulast=Borschberg&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4302729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChurch2012" class="citation book cs1">Church, Peter (2012). A Short History of South-East Asia. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35044-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35044-7"><bdi>978-1-118-35044-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+South-East+Asia&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-35044-7&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerbertMilner1989" class="citation book cs1">Herbert, Patricia; Milner, Anthony Crothers (1989). South-East Asia: Languages and Literatures : a Select Guide. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1267-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1267-6"><bdi>978-0-8248-1267-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South-East+Asia%3A+Languages+and+Literatures+%3A+a+Select+Guide&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1267-6&rft.aulast=Herbert&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Milner%2C+Anthony+Crothers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHicks2007" class="citation book cs1">Hicks, Nigel (2007). The Philippines. New Holland Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84537-663-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84537-663-5"><bdi>978-1-84537-663-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philippines&rft.pub=New+Holland+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84537-663-5&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHistory_for_Brunei_Darussalam2009" class="citation book cs1">History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our Past. Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education. 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-99917-2-372-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-99917-2-372-3"><bdi>978-99917-2-372-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+for+Brunei+Darussalam%3A+Sharing+our+Past&rft.pub=Curriculum+Development+Department%2C+Ministry+of+Education&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-99917-2-372-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeaMilward2001" class="citation book cs1">Lea, David; Milward, Colette (2001). A Political Chronology of South-East Asia and Oceania. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-117-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-117-9"><bdi>978-1-85743-117-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+Chronology+of+South-East+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-85743-117-9&rft.aulast=Lea&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Milward%2C+Colette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLinehan1973" class="citation cs2">Linehan, William (1973), History of Pahang, Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Kuala Lumpur, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0710-101-37-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0710-101-37-2"><bdi>978-0710-101-37-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Pahang&rft.pub=Malaysian+Branch+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society%2C+Kuala+Lumpur&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0710-101-37-2&rft.aulast=Linehan&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMilneMauzy1999" class="citation book cs1">Milne, R. S.; Mauzy, Diane K. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5hYemBg43pkC">Malaysian Politics under Mahathir</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17143-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17143-1"><bdi>0-415-17143-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malaysian+Politics+under+Mahathir&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-415-17143-1&rft.aulast=Milne&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rft.au=Mauzy%2C+Diane+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5hYemBg43pkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2002" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, Graham E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ4t_OJgSjAC">A history of Brunei</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1698-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1698-2"><bdi>978-0-7007-1698-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Brunei&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1698-2&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Graham+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQ4t_OJgSjAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2013" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, Graham (2013). A History of Brunei. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87401-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87401-7"><bdi>978-1-136-87401-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Brunei&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-87401-7&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSuyatno2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Suyatno (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170523163555/http://kelembagaan.pnri.go.id/Digital_Docs/homepage_folders/activities/highlight/naskah_nagara_kretagama/isi.htm">"Naskah Nagarakretagama"</a> (in Indonesian). National Library of Indonesia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kelembagaan.pnri.go.id/Digital_Docs/homepage_folders/activities/highlight/naskah_nagara_kretagama/isi.htm">the original</a> on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naskah+Nagarakretagama&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Indonesia&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Suyatno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkelembagaan.pnri.go.id%2FDigital_Docs%2Fhomepage_folders%2Factivities%2Fhighlight%2Fnaskah_nagara_kretagama%2Fisi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSuzalina_Halid2015" class="citation news cs1">Suzalina Halid (18 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bharian.com.my/node/41657">"Sultan Kubang Pasu"</a>. Berita Harian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berita+Harian&rft.atitle=Sultan+Kubang+Pasu&rft.date=2015-03-18&rft.au=Suzalina+Halid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bharian.com.my%2Fnode%2F41657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTalib2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Talib, Nazar Bin (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA505882.pdf">Malaysia's Experience In War Against Communist Insurgency And Its Relevance To The Present Situation In Iraq</a> (PDF) (Master of Military Studies thesis). <a href="/wiki/Marine_Corps_University" title="Marine Corps University">Marine Corps University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604230420/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA505882">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Malaysia%27s+Experience+In+War+Against+Communist+Insurgency+And+Its+Relevance+To+The+Present+Situation+In+Iraq&rft.degree=Master+of+Military+Studies&rft.inst=Marine+Corps+University&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Talib&rft.aufirst=Nazar+Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA505882.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWain2010" class="citation book cs1">Wain, Barry (2010). <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Maverick" title="Malaysian Maverick">Malaysian Maverick: Mahathir Mohamad in Turbulent Times</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-23873-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-23873-2"><bdi>978-0-230-23873-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malaysian+Maverick%3A+Mahathir+Mohamad+in+Turbulent+Times&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-230-23873-2&rft.aulast=Wain&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWelman2013" class="citation book cs1">Welman, Frans (2013). Borneo Trilogy Brunei: Vol 1. Booksmango. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-616-222-235-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-616-222-235-1"><bdi>978-616-222-235-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Borneo+Trilogy+Brunei%3A+Vol+1&rft.pub=Booksmango&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-616-222-235-1&rft.aulast=Welman&rft.aufirst=Frans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. (2016) A history of Malaysia (2nd ed. Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016).</li> <li>Baker, Jim. (2020) Crossroads: a popular history of Malaysia and Singapore (4th ed. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Crossroads-Popular-History-Malaysia-Singapore/dp/9814841900/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCliffordGraham1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Charles_Clifford" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Charles Clifford">Clifford, Hugh Charles</a>; Graham, Walter Armstrong (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Malay_States_(British)">"Malay States (British)" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). pp. 478–484.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Malay+States+%28British%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E478-%3C%2Fspan%3E484&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Clifford&rft.aufirst=Hugh+Charles&rft.au=Graham%2C+Walter+Armstrong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDe_Witt2007" class="citation book cs1">De Witt, Dennis (2007). History of the Dutch in Malaysia. Malaysia: Nutmeg Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-43519-0-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-43519-0-8"><bdi>978-983-43519-0-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Dutch+in+Malaysia&rft.place=Malaysia&rft.pub=Nutmeg+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-983-43519-0-8&rft.aulast=De+Witt&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Malaysia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-475-4" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-475-4">967-978-475-4</a>.</li> <li>Hack, Karl. "Decolonisation and the Pergau Dam affair." History Today (Nov 1994), 44#11 pp. 9–12.</li> <li>Hooker, Virginia Matheson. (2003) A Short History of Malaysia: Linking East and West (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Short-History-Malaysia-Linking-East/dp/1864489553/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Kheng, Cheah Boon. (1997) "Writing Indigenous History in Malaysia: A Survey on Approaches and Problems", Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 10#2 (1997): 33–81.</li> <li>Milner, Anthony. Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996).</li> <li>Musa, M. Bakri (1999). The Malay Dilemma Revisited. Merantau Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58348-367-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58348-367-5">1-58348-367-5</a>.</li> <li>Roff, William R. Origins of Malay Nationalism (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1967).</li> <li>Shamsul, Amri Baharuddin. (2001) "A history of an identity, an identity of a history: the idea and practice of 'Malayness' in Malaysia reconsidered." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32.3 (2001): 355–366. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sabrizain.org/malaya/library/malayness.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). The Chinese Dilemma. East West Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9751646-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9751646-1-9">0-9751646-1-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Malaysia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Malaysia">History of Malaysia</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041835/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/drabble.malaysia">Economic History of Malaysia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Malaysia.pdf">"Malaysia"</a> entry at <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Malaysia_articles675" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Malaysia_topics" title="Template:Malaysia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Malaysia_topics" title="Template talk:Malaysia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Malaysia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Malaysia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Malaysia_articles675" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Malaysian_history" title="Timeline of Malaysian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Malaysia" title="Prehistoric Malaysia">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">British Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Japanese occupation of Malaya</a> / <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Agreement" title="Malaysia Agreement">Malaysia Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Sarawak communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia" title="Singapore in Malaysia">Singapore in Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Singapore_Agreement_1965" title="Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965">Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Second Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">13 May incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">1988 constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis#Malaysia" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1MDB scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Malaysia" title="Geography of Malaysia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Malaysia" title="Template:Borders of Malaysia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Populated places in Malaysia">Cities, towns and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_Malaysia" title="List of districts in Malaysia">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_Malaysia" title="Divisions of Malaysia">Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Malaysia" title="East Malaysia">East Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Malaysia" title="Environment of Malaysia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Malaysia" title="Climate change in Malaysia">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Malaysia" title="Environmental issues in Malaysia">environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Malaysia" title="Deforestation in Malaysia">deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Malaysia" title="Wildlife of Malaysia">wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_of_Malaysia" title="List of plants of Malaysia">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Malaysia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Malaysia">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hill_stations_in_Malaysia" title="List of hill stations in Malaysia">Hill stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Malaysia" title="List of islands of Malaysia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Malaysia" title="List of lakes of Malaysia">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Malaysia" title="List of mountains in Malaysia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_in_Malaysia" title="List of national parks in Malaysia">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">Peninsular Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Malaysia" title="List of rivers of Malaysia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_federal_territories_of_Malaysia" title="States and federal territories of Malaysia">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Malaysia" title="List of earthquakes in Malaysia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Malaysia" title="List of volcanoes in Malaysia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Malaysia" title="Politics of Malaysia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Cabinet of Malaysia">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Shadow Cabinet of Malaysia">Shadow Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Constitution of Malaysia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Malaysia" title="Elections in Malaysia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Malaysia" title="Foreign relations of Malaysia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Malaysia" title="Government of Malaysia">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Malaysia" title="Human rights in Malaysia">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Malaysia" title="Censorship in Malaysia">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Malaysia" title="Judiciary of Malaysia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Malaysia" title="Law of Malaysia">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Malaysia" title="Law enforcement in Malaysia">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Armed_Forces" title="Malaysian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Malaysia" title="Monarchies of Malaysia">Monarchies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Malaysia" title="List of political parties in Malaysia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_Malaysia" title="State legislative assemblies of Malaysia">State legislative assemblies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Malaysia" title="Economy of Malaysia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Malaysia" title="Agriculture in Malaysia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Malaysia" title="List of banks in Malaysia">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Malaysia" title="Central Bank of Malaysia">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Malaysia" title="Energy policy of Malaysia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_federal_budget" title="Malaysian federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_ringgit" title="Malaysian ringgit">Ringgit (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_by_GDP" title="List of Malaysian states by GDP">States by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_and_municipalities_by_exports" title="List of Malaysian states and municipalities by exports">States and municipalities by exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_by_household_income" title="List of Malaysian states by household income">States by household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_by_mean_wage_and_median_wage" title="List of Malaysian states by mean wage and median wage">States by wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Malaysia" title="Science and technology in Malaysia">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bursa_Malaysia" title="Bursa Malaysia">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Malaysia" title="Tourism in Malaysia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Malaysia" title="Transport in Malaysia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Malaysia" title="Trade unions in Malaysia">Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_and_the_World_Bank" title="Malaysia and the World Bank">World Bank Relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Malaysia" title="Category:Society of Malaysia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Malaysia" title="Abortion in Malaysia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Malaysia" title="Crime in Malaysia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Malaysia" title="Corruption in Malaysia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Malaysia" title="Demographics of Malaysia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Malaysia" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Malaysia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Malaysia" title="Health in Malaysia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Malaysia" title="Healthcare in Malaysia">Healthcare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Malaysia" title="Human trafficking in Malaysia">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_Malaysia" title="Income inequality in Malaysia">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Malaysia" title="Languages of Malaysia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Malaysia">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_diaspora" title="Malaysian diaspora">Malaysian diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Malaysia" title="Poverty in Malaysia">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Malaysia" title="Prostitution in Malaysia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Malaysia" title="Sex trafficking in Malaysia">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Malaysia" title="Squatting in Malaysia">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malaysia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malaysia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Malaysia" title="Culture of Malaysia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_art" title="Malaysian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Architecture_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Architecture in Malaysia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Malaysia" title="Cinema of Malaysia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_cuisine" title="Malaysian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Malaysia" title="Folklore of Malaysia">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_literature" title="Malaysian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Malay ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Malaysia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Malaysia" title="Music of Malaysia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_names" title="Malaysian names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Malaysia" title="Public holidays in Malaysia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Malaysia" title="Sport in Malaysia">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Malaysia" title="National symbols of Malaysia">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_tiger" title="Malayan tiger">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negaraku" title="Negaraku">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia" title="Coat of arms of Malaysia">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Malaysia" title="Flag of Malaysia">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibiscus_rosa-sinensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibiscus rosa-sinensis">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Rukun Negara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Malaysia" title="Bibliography of Malaysia">Bibliography</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Malaysia" title="Category:Malaysia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Malaysia" title="Portal:Malaysia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Asia410" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Asia" title="Template talk:History of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Asia410" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">History of Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain" title="History of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambodia" title="History of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuwait" title="History of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon" title="History of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oman" title="History of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines" title="History of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qatar" title="History of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tajikistan" title="History of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thailand" title="History of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Timor-Leste" title="History of Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste (East Timor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkmenistan" title="History of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uzbekistan" title="History of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yemen" title="History of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="History of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong" title="History of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macau" title="History of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&oldid=1277709749">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysia&oldid=1277709749</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Malaysia" title="Category:History of Malaysia">History of Malaysia</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Malay-language_sources_(ms)" 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[\"CITEREFAwang_Juned1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFB.A.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBERNAMA2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Watson_Andaya1982\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Watson_AndayaLeonard_Y._Andaya1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Watson_AndayaLeonard_Y._Andaya2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaxter1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeech2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernama2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernet_Kempers1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorschberg2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorschberg2010b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorschberg2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraddell1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroek1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrumfield2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBungoHussinOmarBidin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._Edmund_Bosworth2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCARVALHO\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCase2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_Otto_Blagden1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheah_Boon_Kheng2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheng2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChurch2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCliffordGraham1911\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCoedès1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurnoeDatanTaçonLeh_Moi_Ung2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Koh_Wee_Hock2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Witt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDepartment_of_National_Heritage,_Ministry_of_Information_Communications_and_Culture_Malaysia2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerek_Heng2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDholakiaDholakia1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_B._Freeman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_F2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan_Stearn2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsaAtiong2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEur2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFadli2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaulkner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFix1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoong2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunston1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGernet1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoh2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGullick,_J._M.1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGullick1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHP2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamid2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerbertMilner1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHicks2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirst\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHistory_for_Brunei_Darussalam2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchinson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIshtiaq_AhmedProfessor_Emeritus_of_Political_Science_Ishtiaq_Ahmed2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsmail2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsmail2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJC2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJim_Baker2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJomo2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJomo_Kwame_Sundaram2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_Loh2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshua_Samuel_Brown2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamaruzamanOmarSidik2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKent2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoh2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulke2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeaMilward2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLim_SK2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinehan1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiow2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiz_Price2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoheswar2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.C._RicklefsBruce_LockhartAlbert_LauPortia_Reyes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahathir_Mohamad1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathews2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayberry\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichel_Jacq-Hergoualc\u0026#039;h2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMilneMauzy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohamad_Rashidi_PakriNik_Haslinda_Nik_Hussain2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohd_Khalid2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurad2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNajib2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNambiar2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathan1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicole_Revel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOm_Prakash1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOthmanAli2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._M._HoltAnn_K._S._LambtonBernard_Lewis1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalansamy2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPandianFauzi_Abdul_HamidSinghSyed_Sopi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulo_Jorge_de_Sousa_Pinto2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPepinsky2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_C._Richards1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPing_Lee_PohYean_Tham_Siew\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolingDePaduaFrentasia2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPraveen_MenonDarren_Schuettler2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadhi2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRajesh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasiah2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatcliffe2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRitikos\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobison1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozan_Yunos2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabri2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaidin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaunders2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaunders2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSher_Banu._A_Latiff_Khan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSher_Banu._A_Latiff_Khan2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiddiquee2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingam1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoh1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSovacoolBulan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpaeth1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencer_C._Tucker2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteam2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephen_Adolphe_WurmPeter_MühlhäuslerDarrell_T._Tryon1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStockwell1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStockwell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuyatno2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuzalina_Halid2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalib2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTan_Ding_Eing1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTan_Ding_Eing1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTang2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTashny_Sukumaran2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTham2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudyNoellePaul2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._Linehan1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWain2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelle_(www.dw.com)\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelsh2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWendy_Hutton2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheatley1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinstedt1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWong_Hui_Shin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrightClark\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYusry2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZainal_Abidin_bin_Abdul_WahidKhoo,_Kay_KimMuhd_Yusof_bin_IbrahimSingh,_D.S._Ranjit1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZheng1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFhermesauto2021\"] = 2,\n [\"Indianised\"] = 1,\n [\"Indianised_era\"] = 1,\n [\"Indianised_kingdoms\"] = 1,\n [\"Indianised_kingdoms_of_Malaysia\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 16,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 89,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 41,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 41,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 119,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 3,\n [\"Early Malaysian Rebellion\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 13,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 2,\n [\"History of Asia\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Malaysia\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 11,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Malaysia topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 12,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sourcetext\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Wikisource-inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","340","17.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","11.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","10.4"],["type","120","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","4.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","3.1"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","3.1"],["[others]","620","32.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7d474dccd8-jphts","timestamp":"20250317211050","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> 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