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class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First French colonial empire (16th century to 1814) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_French_colonial_empire_(16th_century_to_1814)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_First_French_colonial_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_First_French_colonial_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Collapse of First French colonial empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_First_French_colonial_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonial_conflict_with_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_conflict_with_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Colonial conflict with Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_conflict_with_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haitian_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haitian_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Haitian Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haitian_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_invasion_of_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_invasion_of_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Failed invasion of Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_invasion_of_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_French_colonial_empire_(post-1830)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_French_colonial_empire_(post-1830)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Second French colonial empire (post-1830)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_French_colonial_empire_(post-1830)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second French colonial empire (post-1830) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_French_colonial_empire_(post-1830)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Morocco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tunisia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tunisia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Tunisia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tunisia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_West_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_West_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>French West Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_West_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Equatorial_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Equatorial_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>French Equatorial Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Equatorial_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cameroon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cameroon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Cameroon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cameroon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Madagascar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madagascar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Madagascar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madagascar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.7</span> <span>Algeria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary_of_additional_colonization_in_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary_of_additional_colonization_in_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.8</span> <span>Summary of additional colonization in Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary_of_additional_colonization_in_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Pacific Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Napoleon_III:_1852–1870" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Napoleon_III:_1852–1870"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Napoleon III: 1852–1870</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Napoleon_III:_1852–1870-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_in_the_use_of_the_term_Empire_between_the_years_of_1870–1939" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_in_the_use_of_the_term_Empire_between_the_years_of_1870–1939"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Evolution in the use of the term Empire between the years of 1870–1939</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_in_the_use_of_the_term_Empire_between_the_years_of_1870–1939-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_and_justifications_for_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_and_justifications_for_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Causes and justifications for colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_and_justifications_for_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civilizing_Mission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilizing_Mission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Civilizing Mission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civilizing_Mission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critics_of_French_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critics_of_French_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Critics of French colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critics_of_French_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decolonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decolonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Decolonization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decolonization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decolonization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decolonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_settlers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_settlers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>French settlers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_settlers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Territories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Territories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Territories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Policies_and_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_and_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Policies and colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policies_and_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decolonization_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decolonization_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Decolonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decolonization_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Images_and_impact_on_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Images_and_impact_on_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Images and impact on France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Images_and_impact_on_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memoir" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memoir"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Historiography and memoir</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memoir-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">French colonial empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franse_koloniale_ryk" title="Franse koloniale ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Franse koloniale ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الاستعمارية الفرنسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الاستعمارية الفرنسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_colonial_franc%C3%A9s" title="Imperiu colonial francés – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu colonial francés" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransa_m%C3%BCst%C9%99ml%C9%99k%C9%99_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Fransa müstəmləkə imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fransa müstəmləkə imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A4%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="فرانسه سؤمورگه ایمپراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فرانسه سؤمورگه ایمپراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%94%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ফরাসি ঔপনিবেশিক সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফরাসি ঔপনিবেশিক সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-l%C3%A2n-se_si%CC%8Dt-b%C3%AEn_t%C3%A8-kok" title="Hoat-lân-se si̍t-bîn tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-lân-se si̍t-bîn tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Француз колониаль империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Француз колониаль империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%96_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Калоніі Францыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Калоніі Францыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Френска колониална империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Френска колониална империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_trevadennel_Fra%C3%B1s" title="Impalaeriezh trevadennel Frañs – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh trevadennel Frañs" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_colonial_franc%C3%A8s" title="Imperi colonial francès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi colonial francès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francouzsk%C3%A1_koloni%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Francouzská koloniální říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Francouzská koloniální říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franske_koloniimperium" title="Franske koloniimperium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Franske koloniimperium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%C3%B6sische_Kolonien" title="Französische Kolonien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Französische Kolonien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γαλλική αποικιακή αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλλική αποικιακή αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_colonial_franc%C3%A9s" title="Imperio colonial francés – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio colonial francés" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franca_kolonia_imperio" title="Franca kolonia imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Franca kolonia imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantziar_Inperio_Koloniala" title="Frantziar Inperio Koloniala – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Frantziar Inperio Koloniala" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87" title="امپراتوری استعماری فرانسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری استعماری فرانسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_colonial_fran%C3%A7ais" title="Empire colonial français – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire colonial français" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_colonial_franc%C3%A9s" title="Imperio colonial francés – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio colonial francés" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4_%EC%8B%9D%EB%AF%BC%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="프랑스 식민제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프랑스 식민제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ֆրանսիական գաղութային կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանսիական գաղութային կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="फ़्रांसीसी औपनिवेशिक साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ़्रांसीसी औपनिवेशिक साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko_kolonijalno_carstvo" title="Francusko kolonijalno carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Francusko kolonijalno carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_kolonial_Prancis" title="Imperium kolonial Prancis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imperium kolonial Prancis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_n%C3%BDlenduveldi%C3%B0" title="Franska nýlenduveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Franska nýlenduveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_coloniale_francese" title="Impero coloniale francese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero coloniale francese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הקולוניאלית הצרפתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הקולוניאלית הצרפתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloni_za_Ufaransa" title="Koloni za Ufaransa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Koloni za Ufaransa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Franciae_transmarinum" title="Imperium Franciae transmarinum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Franciae transmarinum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francijas_koloni%C4%81l%C4%81_imp%C4%93rija" title="Francijas koloniālā impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Francijas koloniālā impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranc%C5%ABzijos_kolonijin%C4%97_imperija" title="Prancūzijos kolonijinė imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prancūzijos kolonijinė imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_gyarmatbirodalom" title="Francia gyarmatbirodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Francia gyarmatbirodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Француско Колонијално Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Француско Колонијално Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Mpanjanaka_Frantsay" title="Empira Mpanjanaka Frantsay – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Mpanjanaka Frantsay" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="फ्रेंच वसाहती साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फ्रेंच वसाहती साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franse_koloniale_rijk" title="Franse koloniale rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Franse koloniale rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E6%A4%8D%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="フランス植民地帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フランス植民地帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_franske_koloniriket" title="Det franske koloniriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det franske koloniriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_franske_koloniriket" title="Det franske koloniriket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det franske koloniriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransiya_mustamlaka_imperiyasi" title="Fransiya mustamlaka imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fransiya mustamlaka imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਫ਼ਰਾਂਸੀਸੀ ਬਸਤੀਵਾਦੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫ਼ਰਾਂਸੀਸੀ ਬਸਤੀਵਾਦੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="فرانسیسی استعماری سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فرانسیسی استعماری سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%84" title="ចក្រភពអាណានិគមបារាំង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចក្រភពអាណានិគមបារាំង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francuskie_imperium_kolonialne" title="Francuskie imperium kolonialne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Francuskie imperium kolonialne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_colonial_franc%C3%AAs" title="Império colonial francês – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império colonial francês" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_colonial_francez" title="Imperiul colonial francez – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul colonial francez" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Колонии Франции – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Колонии Франции" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_coloniale_frantzesu" title="Impèriu coloniale frantzesu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu coloniale frantzesu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="French colonial empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_koloniale_franceze" title="Perandoria koloniale franceze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria koloniale franceze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="French colonial empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%BAzska_koloni%C3%A1lna_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Francúzska koloniálna ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Francúzska koloniálna ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko_kolonijalno_carstvo" title="Francusko kolonijalno carstvo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Francusko kolonijalno carstvo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko_kolonijalno_carstvo" title="Francusko kolonijalno carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Francusko kolonijalno carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranskan_siirtomaat" title="Ranskan siirtomaat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ranskan siirtomaat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franska_kolonialimperiet" title="Franska kolonialimperiet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Franska kolonialimperiet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="பிரெஞ்சு காலனிப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரெஞ்சு காலனிப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Француз колониаль империясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Француз колониаль империясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%AA" title="จักรวรรดิอาณานิคมฝรั่งเศส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิอาณานิคมฝรั่งเศส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C4%B1z_s%C3%B6m%C3%BCrge_imparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Fransız sömürge imparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fransız sömürge imparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Французька колоніальна імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Французька колоніальна імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="فرانسیسی استعماری سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فرانسیسی استعماری سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95_%D9%85%DB%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%85%D9%84%D9%89%D9%83%DB%95_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="فرانسىيە مۇستەملىكە ئىمپېرىيىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="فرانسىيە مۇستەملىكە ئىمپېرىيىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_th%E1%BB%B1c_d%C3%A2n_Ph%C3%A1p" title="Đế quốc thực dân Pháp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc thực dân Pháp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%85%B0%E8%A5%BF%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="法兰西殖民帝国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="法兰西殖民帝国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭西殖民帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="法蘭西殖民帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭西殖民帝國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="法蘭西殖民帝國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q179023#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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(1534–1980)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> or <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">French Colonial Empire</div><div class="ib-country-names">Empire Colonial Français</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1534–1980<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/250px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px 0px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/250px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> </div> <div>Left: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France#Kingdom_of_France" title="Flag of France">Royal Standard of France</a> (before <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">1792</a>)<br />Right: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France#The_Tricolore" title="Flag of France">Flag of the French Empire and the French Republic</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:France_colonial_Empire10.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The First (light blue) and Second (dark blue) French colonial empires"><img alt="The First (light blue) and Second (dark blue) French colonial empires" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/France_colonial_Empire10.png/500px-France_colonial_Empire10.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/France_colonial_Empire10.png/960px-France_colonial_Empire10.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The First (light blue) and Second (dark blue) French colonial empires</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:JD_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:JD-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cartier" title="Jacques Cartier">Cartier</a> claimed <a href="/wiki/Gasp%C3%A9_Bay" title="Gaspé Bay">Gaspé Bay</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1534</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Sale of Louisiana</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1803</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">Conquest of Algeria</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1830–1903</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1946</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Community" title="French Community">French Community</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1958</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Independence of <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1980<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">French franc</a> and various other currencies</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:FR" title="ISO 3166-2:FR">FR</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">Overseas departments and regions of France</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_territory_(France)" title="Overseas territory (France)">Overseas territory (France)</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Francophonie" title="Francophonie">Francophonie</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg/20px-Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg/30px-Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg/40px-Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>French colonial empire</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Empire colonial français</i>) comprised the overseas <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colonies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandate territories</a> that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "<b>First French colonial empire</b>", that existed until 1814, by which time most of it had been lost or sold, and the "<b>Second French colonial empire</b>", which began with the <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">conquest of Algiers</a> in 1830. On the eve of World War I, France's colonial empire was the second-largest in the world after the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. </p><p>France began to establish colonies in <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">the Americas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">India</a> in the 16th century but lost most of its possessions after its defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>. The North American possessions were lost to Britain and Spain, but <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Spain later returned Louisiana to France</a> in 1800. The territory was then <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">sold to the United States in 1803</a>. France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly <a href="/wiki/French_African_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="French African colonies">in Africa</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina</a> and the South <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a>. As it developed, the new French empire took on roles of trade with the <a href="/wiki/Metropole" title="Metropole">metropole</a>, supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items. Especially after the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>, which saw Germany become the leading economic and military power of the continent of Europe. Acquiring colonies and rebuilding an empire was seen as a way to restore French prestige in the world. It was also to provide manpower during the world wars.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major goal was the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Mission civilisatrice</i></span> or "<a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">Civilizing Mission</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1884, the leading proponent of colonialism, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Ferry" title="Jules Ferry">Jules Ferry</a>, declared: "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a <a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">duty to civilize the inferior races</a>." Full citizenship rights – <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">assimilation</i></span> – were offered, although in reality "assimilation was always receding [and] the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the "civilizing goal" of colonialism was pretext for the extraction and theft of raw materials, labor, and goods from its colonies in order to make France wealthy. France sent small numbers of settlers to its empire, with the notable exception of Algeria, where the <a href="/wiki/Pied-Noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-Noir">French settlers</a> took power while being a minority.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In World War II, <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a> took control of the overseas colonies one-by-one and used them as a base from which they prepared to <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">liberate France</a>. Historian Tony Chafer argues that: "In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation, France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after 1945, <a href="/wiki/Anti-colonial_liberation_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-colonial liberation movements">anti-colonial movements</a> began to challenge European authority. Revolts in <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">Indochina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algeria</a> proved costly and France lost both colonies. After these conflicts, a relatively peaceful <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization of Africa">decolonization</a> took place elsewhere after 1960. The <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_27_October_1946" title="French Constitution of 27 October 1946">French Constitution of 27 October 1946</a> (Fourth French Republic) established the <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a>, which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as <a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_territories_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas departments and territories of France">overseas departments and territories</a> within the French Republic. These now total altogether 119,394 km<sup>2</sup> (46,098 sq. miles), with 2.8 million people in 2021. Links between France and its former colonies persist through <a href="/wiki/Organisation_internationale_de_la_Francophonie" title="Organisation internationale de la Francophonie">La francophonie</a>, the <a href="/wiki/CFA_franc" title="CFA franc">CFA franc</a>, and joint military operations such as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Serval" title="Operation Serval">Operation Serval</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_French_colonial_empire_(16th_century_to_1814)"><span id="First_French_colonial_empire_.2816th_century_to_1814.29"></span>First French colonial empire (16th century to 1814)</h2></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="First_French_colonial_empire"></span><span class="anchor" id="First_French_Colonial_Empire"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Americas">The Americas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_France_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/New_France_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-New_France_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/New_France_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-New_France_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/New_France_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-New_France_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The French colonial empire in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> comprised <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">Louisiana</a>), <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Dominica" title="History of Dominica">Dominica</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Lucia" title="History of Saint Lucia">St. Lucia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Grenada" title="History of Grenada">Grenada</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tobago" title="History of Tobago">Tobago</a> and other islands) and <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>. Pictured above is New France.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg/250px-Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg/375px-Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg/500px-Quebec_nouvelle_france.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>French North America was known as 'Nouvelle France' or New France.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a> began. Excursions of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano" title="Giovanni da Verrazzano">Giovanni da Verrazzano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cartier" title="Jacques Cartier">Jacques Cartier</a> in the early 16th century, as well as the frequent voyages of French boats and fishermen to the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Banks" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Banks">Grand Banks</a> off <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a> throughout that century, were the precursors to the story of France's colonial expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Spain's defense of its American monopoly, and the further distractions caused in France itself in the later 16th century by the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>, prevented any constant efforts by France to settle colonies. Early French attempts to found colonies in Brazil, in 1555 at <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> ("<a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a>") and in Florida (including <a href="/wiki/Fort_Caroline" title="Fort Caroline">Fort Caroline</a> in 1562), and in 1612 at <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Lu%C3%ADs,_Maranh%C3%A3o" title="São Luís, Maranhão">São Luís</a> ("<a href="/wiki/France_%C3%89quinoxiale" class="mw-redirect" title="France Équinoxiale">France Équinoxiale</a>"), were not successful, due to a lack of official interest and to Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The story of France's colonial empire truly began on 27 July 1605, with the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Habitation_at_Port-Royal" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitation at Port-Royal">Port Royal</a> in the colony of <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> in North America, in what is now <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain" title="Samuel de Champlain">Samuel de Champlain</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec</a>, which was to become the capital of the enormous, but sparsely settled, fur-trading colony of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> (also called Canada).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New France had a rather small population, which resulted from more emphasis being placed on the fur trade rather than agricultural settlements. Due to this emphasis, the French relied heavily on creating friendly contacts with the local First Nations community. Without the appetite of New England for land, and by relying solely on Aboriginals to supply them with fur at the trading posts, the French composed a complex series of military, commercial, and diplomatic connections. These became the most enduring alliances between the French and the First Nation community. The French were, however, under pressure from religious orders to convert them to <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were able to exert a loose control over much of the North American continent. Areas of French settlement were generally limited to the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a> Valley. Prior to the establishment of the 1663 <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_New_France" title="Sovereign Council of New France">Sovereign Council</a>, the territories of New France were developed as <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantile colonies</a>. It is only after the arrival of intendant <a href="/wiki/Jean_Talon" title="Jean Talon">Jean Talon</a> in 1665 that France gave its American colonies the proper means to develop population colonies comparable to that of the British. Acadia itself was lost to the British in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht_(1713)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht (1713)">Treaty of Utrecht</a> in 1713. Back in France, there was relatively little interest in colonialism, which concentrated rather on dominance within Europe, and for most of its history, New France was far behind the <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North American</a> colonies in both population and economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1699, French territorial claims in North America expanded still further, with the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> in the basin of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. The extensive trading network throughout the region connected to Canada through the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>, was maintained through a vast system of fortifications, many of them centred in the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois Country</a> and in present-day Arkansas.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1767_Colonies_Fran%C3%A7ois_12_Diniers_with_RF_Counterstamp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/1767_Colonies_Fran%C3%A7ois_12_Diniers_with_RF_Counterstamp.jpg/250px-1767_Colonies_Fran%C3%A7ois_12_Diniers_with_RF_Counterstamp.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/1767_Colonies_Fran%C3%A7ois_12_Diniers_with_RF_Counterstamp.jpg/500px-1767_Colonies_Fran%C3%A7ois_12_Diniers_with_RF_Counterstamp.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>1767 Louis XV <i>Colonies Françoises</i> (West Indies) 12 Diniers copper Sous (w/1793 "RF" counterstamp)</figcaption></figure><p>As the French empire in North America grew, the French also began to build a smaller but more profitable empire in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>. Settlement along the South American coast in what is today <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> began in 1624, and a colony was founded on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts" title="Saint Kitts">Saint Kitts</a> in 1625 (the island had to be shared with the English until the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht_(1713)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht (1713)">Treaty of Utrecht</a> in 1713, when it was ceded outright). The current isle of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Dominica" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Dominica">Commonwealth of Dominica</a> in the eastern Caribbean also fell under increasing French settlement from the early 1630s. The <i><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_des_%C3%8Eles_de_l%27Am%C3%A9rique" class="mw-redirect" title="Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique">Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique</a></i> founded colonies in <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> in 1635, and a colony was later founded on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> by (1650). The food-producing plantations of these colonies were built and sustained through slavery, with the supply of slaves dependent on the <a href="/wiki/African_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">African slave trade</a>. Local resistance by the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous peoples</a> resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Carib_Expulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Carib Expulsion">Carib Expulsion</a> of 1660.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France's most important Caribbean colonial possession was established in 1664, when the colony of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> (today's <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>) was founded on the western half of the Spanish island of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>. In the 18th century, Saint-Domingue grew to be the richest sugar colony in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola (today's <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>) also came under French rule for a short period, after being given to France by Spain in 1795.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22,_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg/250px-1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg/330px-1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg/500px-1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1259" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption>India at the height of <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French influence</a> in 1751</figcaption></figure> <p>With the end of the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>, in 1598, King <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a> encouraged various enterprises to establish trade with the Africa and Asia due to their relations at the time. In December 1600, a company was formed through the association of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laval,_Mayenne" title="Laval, Mayenne">Laval</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vitr%C3%A9,_Ille-et-Vilaine" title="Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine">Vitré</a> to trade with the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Moluccas</a> and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two ships, the <i>Croissant</i> and the <i>Corbin</i>, were sent around the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in May 1601. One was wrecked in the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>, leading to the adventure of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pyrard_de_Laval" title="François Pyrard de Laval">François Pyrard de Laval</a>, who managed to return to France in 1611.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second ship, carrying <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Martin_de_Vitr%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="François Martin de Vitré">François Martin de Vitré</a>, reached <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a> and traded with <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, but was captured by the Dutch on the return leg at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Finisterre" title="Cape Finisterre">Cape Finisterre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> François Martin de Vitré was the first Frenchman to write an account of travels to the Far East in 1604, at the request of Henry IV, and from that time numerous accounts on Asia would be published.<sup id="cite_ref-Making2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Making2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1604 to 1609, following the return of François Martin de Vitré, Henry developed a strong enthusiasm for travel to Asia and attempted to set up a <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV%27s_East_India_Company" title="Louis XIV's East India Company">French East India Company</a> on the model of England and the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge2_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Making2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Making2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1 June 1604, he issued letters patent to <a href="/wiki/Dieppe,_Seine-Maritime" class="mw-redirect" title="Dieppe, Seine-Maritime">Dieppe</a> merchants to form the <a href="/wiki/First_French_East_Indies_Company" title="First French East Indies Company">first French East Indies Company</a>, giving them exclusive rights to Asian trade for 15 years. No ships were sent, however, until 1616.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1609, another adventurer, <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Olivier_Malherbe" title="Pierre-Olivier Malherbe">Pierre-Olivier Malherbe</a>, returned from a circumnavigation of the globe and informed Henry of his adventures.<sup id="cite_ref-Making2_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Making2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had visited China and India and had an encounter with <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Making2_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Making2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonies were established in India's <a href="/wiki/Chandernagore" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandernagore">Chandernagore</a> (1673) and <a href="/wiki/Pondicherry_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Pondicherry district">Pondichéry</a> in the south east (1674), and later at <a href="/wiki/Yanam,_French_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanam, French India">Yanam</a> (1723), <a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_India" title="Mahé, India">Mahe</a> (1725), and <a href="/wiki/Karikal" class="mw-redirect" title="Karikal">Karikal</a> (1739) (see <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a>). </p><p>In 1664, the <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV%27s_East_India_Company" title="Louis XIV's East India Company">French East India Company</a> was established to compete for trade in the east. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:French_colonisation_in_Africa" title="Category:French colonisation in Africa">Category:French colonisation in Africa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique" title="Françafrique">Françafrique</a></div> <p>Although initial French colonization primarily occurred in the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">Americas</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">Asia</a>, the French did establish a few colonies and trading posts on the African continent. Initial French colonization in Africa began in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, and along the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a>. Initial French colonial projects, partially administered by the <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV%27s_East_India_Company" title="Louis XIV's East India Company">French East India Company</a>, prioritized <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economies</a> and slave labor. These economies were based on monoculture agriculture and forced African labor. Poor living conditions, famines, and disease made enslaved labor conditions particularly lethal across French colonies. French presence in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> began in 1626, although formal colonies and trading posts were not established until 1659 with the founding of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Louis,_Senegal" title="Saint-Louis, Senegal">Saint-Louis</a>, and 1677 with the founding of <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the first settlement of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> began in 1642 with the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Fort-Dauphin_(Madagascar)" title="Fort-Dauphin (Madagascar)">Fort Dauphin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attack_on_Goree,_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Attack_on_Goree%2C_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg/250px-Attack_on_Goree%2C_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Attack_on_Goree%2C_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg/330px-Attack_on_Goree%2C_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Attack_on_Goree%2C_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg/500px-Attack_on_Goree%2C_29_December_1758_RMG_BHC0386.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4998" data-file-height="2796" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Gor%C3%A9e" title="Capture of Gorée">British attack</a> on the French-controlled island of <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a> off the coast of Senegal during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> in 1758</figcaption></figure> <p>Initial French colonial expansion in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> was primarily motivated by desires to secure access to natural resources including gum arabic, groundnuts (or peanuts) and other raw materials.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition they were further motivated by desires throughout the 17th and 19th century to secure access to and to control the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through an emphasis on controlling seaports, the French sought to forcibly extract enslaved people to send them abroad for profit. </p><p>Colonial development prioritized export oriented production while local industry remained very underdeveloped.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was high development of production for export oriented production, notably of ground nuts in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In additional coastal areas, the French set up slave plantations. Initial French development prioritized the building of roads to connect natural resources to harbors and ports.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additional initial French settlements were established on the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a> which include <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Reunion Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rodrigues" title="Rodrigues">Rodrigues</a>. Reunion Island was first settled in 1642 and was administered by the French East India Company starting in 1665.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After initial settlement by the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, France took control of Mauritius, which it renamed the Island of France in 1721.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, France took control of <a href="/wiki/Rodrigues" title="Rodrigues">Rodrigues</a> in 1735 and <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> in 1756.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On Reunion Island (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Bourbon Island</a>), the French East India Company first introduced the slave trade in the 1730s.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French East India Company additionally introduced coffee and sought to create a plantation economy centered around forced labor.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Characteristic of plantation colonies, the French colonists were a minority on Reunion Island. In 1763 there were only 4,000 French colonists while there were over 18,000 African enslaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of enslaved people on Reunion Island worked on coffee plantations. They primarily came from Madagascar, Mozambique, and Senegal.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economy of the Mauritius (Island of France) was similarly based on an exploitative plantation system dependent on forced African labor. The monoculture plantations farmed sugar cane, cotton, indigo, rice, and wheat.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 2,000 colonists and enslaved people from Reunion Island migrated to Mauritius.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conditions for enslaved people on the Mascarene Island plantations were very poor. Enslaved labor was highly lethal because of poor living conditions and famines.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a series of crop failures from 1725 to 1737, as much as 10% of the islands' enslaved populations died due to famine and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse_of_First_French_colonial_empire">Collapse of First French colonial empire</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonial_conflict_with_Britain">Colonial conflict with Britain</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War" title="France in the Seven Years' War">France in the Seven Years' War</a> and <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">France in the American Revolutionary War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png/390px-European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png/585px-European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png/780px-European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>French and other European settlements in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial India</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martinique_1809.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Martinique_1809.jpg/220px-Martinique_1809.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Martinique_1809.jpg/330px-Martinique_1809.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Martinique_1809.jpg/440px-Martinique_1809.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>The British <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1809)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1809)">invasion of Martinique</a> in 1809</figcaption></figure> <p>In the middle of the 18th century, a series of colonial conflicts began between France and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a>, which ultimately resulted in the destruction of most of the first French colonial empire and the near-complete expulsion of France from the Americas. These wars were the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748), the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763), the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> (1775–1783), the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a> (1793–1802) and the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (1803–1815). It may even be seen further back in time to the first of the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">French and Indian Wars</a>. This cyclic conflict is sometimes known as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a>. </p><p>Although the War of the Austrian Succession was indecisive – despite French successes in India under the French Governor-General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dupleix" title="Joseph François Dupleix">Joseph François Dupleix</a> and Europe under <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Saxe" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Saxe">Marshal Saxe</a> – the Seven Years' War, after early French successes in <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> and North America, saw a French defeat, with the numerically superior British (over one million to about 50 thousand French settlers) conquering not only <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> (excluding the small islands of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a>), but also most of France's West Indian (Caribbean) colonies, and all of the <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French Indian outposts</a>. </p><p>While the peace treaty saw France's Indian outposts, and the Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe restored to France, the competition for influence in India had been won by the British, and North America was entirely lost – most of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> was taken by Britain (also referred to as <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>), except <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, which France ceded to Spain as payment for Spain's late entrance into the war (and as compensation for Britain's annexation of Spanish Florida). Also ceded to the British were <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> in the West Indies. Although the loss of Canada would cause much regret in future generations, it excited little unhappiness at the time; colonialism was widely regarded as both unimportant to France, and immoral.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some recovery of the French colonial empire was made during the <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">French intervention in the American Revolution</a>, with Saint Lucia being returned to France by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1783, but not nearly as much as had been hoped for at the time of French intervention. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Haitian_Revolution">Haitian Revolution</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791,_German_copper_engraving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg/250px-Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg/330px-Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg/500px-Fire_in_Saint-Domingo_1791%2C_German_copper_engraving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Saint-Domingue <a href="/wiki/Slave_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave revolt">slave revolt</a> in 1791</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg/220px-Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg/330px-Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg/440px-Battle_for_Palm_Tree_Hill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption>Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue_expedition" title="Saint-Domingue expedition">Saint-Domingue expedition</a> in 1801–1803</figcaption></figure> <p>True disaster came to what remained of France's colonial empire in 1791 when Saint Domingue (the Western third of the Caribbean island of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>), France's richest and most important colony, was riven by a <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">massive slave revolt</a>, caused partly by the divisions among the island's elite, which had resulted from the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789. </p><p>The slaves, led eventually by <a href="/wiki/Toussaint_L%27Ouverture" class="mw-redirect" title="Toussaint L'Ouverture">Toussaint L'Ouverture</a> and then, following his capture by the French in 1801, by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a>, held their own against French and British opponents. The French launched a <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue_expedition" title="Saint-Domingue expedition">failed expedition</a> in 1802, and were up against a crippling <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Saint-Domingue" title="Blockade of Saint-Domingue">Royal Naval blockade</a> the following year. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">Empire of Haiti</a> ultimately achieved independence in 1804 (becoming the first black republic in the world, followed by Liberia in 1847).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The black and mulatto population of the island (including the Spanish east) had declined from 700,000 in 1789 to 351,819 in 1804. About 80,000 Haitians died in the 1802–03 campaign alone. Of the 55,131 French soldiers dispatched to Haiti in 1802–03, 45,000, including 18 generals, died, along with 10,000 sailors, the great majority from disease.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Captain [first name unknown] Sorrell of the British navy observed, "France lost there one of the finest armies she ever sent forth, composed of picked veterans, the conquerors of Italy and of German legions. She is now entirely deprived of her influence and her power in the West Indies."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, France's newly resumed war with Britain resulted in the British capture of practically all remaining French colonies. These were restored at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> in 1802, but when war resumed in 1803, the British soon recaptured them. France's 1800 recovery of Louisiana from Spain in the secret <a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a> came to nothing, as the success of the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> convinced <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> that holding Louisiana would not be worth the cost, leading to <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">its sale to the United States</a> in 1803. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Failed_invasion_of_Egypt">Failed invasion of Egypt</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French attempt to establish a colony in Egypt</a> in 1798–1801 was not successful. Battle casualties for the campaign were at least 15,000 killed or wounded and 8,500 prisoners for France; 50,000 killed or wounded and 15,000 prisoners for Turkey, Egypt, other Ottoman lands, and Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Second_French_colonial_empire"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_French_colonial_empire_(post-1830)"><span id="Second_French_colonial_empire_.28post-1830.29"></span>Second French colonial empire (post-1830)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Empire_evolution.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/French_Empire_evolution.gif/330px-French_Empire_evolution.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/French_Empire_evolution.gif/500px-French_Empire_evolution.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/French_Empire_evolution.gif/960px-French_Empire_evolution.gif 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Animated map showing the growth and decline of the first and second French colonial empires</figcaption></figure> <p>At the close of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, most of France's colonies were restored to it by Britain, notably <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> on the coast of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, various trading posts in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, the <i>Île Bourbon</i> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, and France's tiny Indian possessions; however, <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Britain</a> finally annexed <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>, and the <i>Isle de France</i> (now <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>). </p><p>In 1825 <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> sent an expedition to <a href="/wiki/Ha%C3%AFti" class="mw-redirect" title="Haïti">Haïti</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Haiti_indemnity_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Haiti indemnity controversy">Haiti indemnity controversy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beginnings of the second French colonial empire were laid in 1830 with the <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French invasion of Algeria</a>, which was fully conquered by 1903. Historian <a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Ben Kiernan</a> estimates that 825,000 Algerians died during the conquest by 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_2">Africa</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morocco">Morocco</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">French protectorate in Morocco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Morocco" title="French conquest of Morocco">French conquest of Morocco</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacification.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pacification.jpg/220px-Pacification.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pacification.jpg/330px-Pacification.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pacification.jpg/440px-Pacification.jpg 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="777" /></a><figcaption>Map depicting the staged <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Morocco" title="French conquest of Morocco">French pacification of Morocco</a> through to 1934</figcaption></figure> <p>The French Colonial Empire established a protectorate in Morocco between the years of 1912 to 1956. France's general approach to governing the protectorate of Morocco was a policy of in-direct rule where they co-opted existing governance systems to control the protectorate.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, the Moroccan elite and Sultan were both left in control while being strongly influenced by the French government.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French colonialism in Morocco was discriminatory against native Moroccans and highly detrimental to the Moroccan economy. Moroccans were treated as second class citizens and discriminated against in all aspects of colonial life.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infrastructure was discriminatory in colonial Morocco. The French colonial government built 36.5 kilometers of sewers in the new neighborhoods created to accommodate new French settlers while only 4.3 kilometers of sewers were built in indigenous Moroccan communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, land in Morocco was far more expensive for Moroccans than for French settlers. For example, while the average Moroccan had a plot of land 50 times smaller than their French settler counterparts, Moroccans were forced to pay 24% more per hectare.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moroccans were additionally prohibited from buying land from French settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonial Morocco's economy was designed to benefit French businesses at the detriment of Moroccan laborers. Morocco was forced to import all of its goods from France despite higher costs.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, improvements to agriculture and irrigation systems in Morocco exclusively benefited colonial agriculturalists while leaving Moroccan farms at a technological disadvantage.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc,_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc%2C_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg/250px-Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc%2C_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc%2C_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg/330px-Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc%2C_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc%2C_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg/500px-Le_Petit_Journal_-_Au_Maroc%2C_la_colonne_du_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Baumgarten_occupe_Taza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3428" data-file-height="5060" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)" title="Le Petit Journal (newspaper)">Le Petit Journal</a></i>: French occupation of <a href="/wiki/Taza" title="Taza">Taza</a> in May 1914</figcaption></figure> <p>Between the years of 1914 to 1921 the Zaian Confederation of Berber Tribes, primarily from the Atlas Mountain region of Morocco, staged an <a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">armed resistance against French colonial control</a>. The outbreak of World War One prevented the French from committing fully to the conflict, and thus the French forces suffered high losses.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, at the Battle of El Herri in 1914, 600 French soldiers were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fighting was primarily characterized by Guerrilla warfare. The Zaian forces additionally received military and economic support from the Central Powers.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Berber independence leader <a href="/wiki/Abd_el-Krim" title="Abd el-Krim">Abd el-Krim</a> (1882–1963) organized <a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">armed resistance against the Spanish and French for control of Morocco</a>. The Spanish had faced unrest off and on from the 1890s, but in 1921 Spanish forces were massacred at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Battle of Annual</a>. El-Krim founded an independent <a href="/wiki/Rif_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Rif Republic">Rif Republic</a> that operated until 1926 but had no international recognition. Paris and Madrid agreed to collaborate to destroy it. They sent in 200,000 soldiers, forcing el-Krim to surrender in 1926; he was exiled in the Pacific until 1947. Morocco became quiet, and in 1936 became the base from which <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a> launched his revolt against Madrid.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tunisia">Tunisia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">French protectorate of Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Tunisia" title="French conquest of Tunisia">French conquest of Tunisia</a></div> <p>The French protectorate of Tunisia lasted from 1881 to 1956. The protectorate was initially established after the successful invasion of Tunisia in 1881. The groundwork for occupation was laid on April 24, 1881, when the French deployed 35,000 troops from Algeria to invade several Tunisian cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in Morocco, the French governed indirectly and preserved the existing government structure. The bey remained an absolute monarch, Tunisian ministers were still appointed, although they were both subject to French authority.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, the French gradually weakened the existing structures of power and centralized power into a French colonial administration.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_West_Africa">French West Africa</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg/250px-Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg/330px-Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg/500px-Le_prince_de_Joinville_sur_l%27%C3%AEle_de_Gor%C3%A9e_en_1842.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1961" data-file-height="1431" /></a><figcaption>French trading post on <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a>, an island offshore of <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a></div> <p>French West Africa was a confederation of eight other French colonial territories including <a href="/wiki/French_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mauritania">French Mauritania</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">French Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Guinea" title="French Guinea">French Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="French Ivory Coast">French Ivory Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="French Niger">French Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Upper_Volta" title="French Upper Volta">French Upper Volta</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Dahomey" title="French Dahomey">French Dahomey</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Togoland" title="French Togoland">French Togoland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">French Sudan</a>. </p><p>At the beginning of Napoleon III's reign, the presence of France in <a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">Senegal</a> was limited to a trading post on the island of <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a>, a narrow strip on the coast, the town of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Louis,_Senegal" title="Saint-Louis, Senegal">Saint-Louis</a>, and a handful of trading posts in the interior. The economy had largely been based on the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">slave trade</a>, carried out by the rulers of the small kingdoms of the interior, as well as elite families, until France <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of slavery">abolished slavery</a> in its colonies in 1848. In 1854, Napoleon III named an enterprising <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French</a> officer, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Faidherbe" title="Louis Faidherbe">Louis Faidherbe</a>, to govern and expand the colony, and to give it the beginning of a modern economy. Faidherbe built a series of forts along the Senegal River, formed alliances with leaders in the interior, and sent expeditions against those who resisted French rule. He built a new port at <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, established and protected telegraph lines and roads, followed these with a <a href="/wiki/Dakar-Saint-Louis_railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Dakar-Saint-Louis railway">rail line between Dakar and Saint-Louis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dakar%E2%80%93Niger_Railway" title="Dakar–Niger Railway">another into the interior</a>. He built schools, bridges, and systems to supply fresh water to the towns. He also introduced the large-scale cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Bambara_groundnuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Bambara groundnuts">Bambara groundnuts</a> and peanuts as a commercial crop. Reaching into the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger</a> valley, Senegal became the primary French base in <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">West Africa</a> and a model colony. Dakar became one of the most important cities of the French Empire and of Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg/220px-Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg/330px-Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg/440px-Mission_Foureau-Lamy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lamy" title="Amédée-François Lamy">Foureau-Lamy</a> military expedition sent out from <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> in 1898 to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Chad_Basin" title="Chad Basin">Chad Basin</a> and unify all French territories in West Africa.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_Equatorial_Africa">French Equatorial Africa</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Africa" title="Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></div><p>French Equatorial Africa was a confederation of French colonial possessions in the Sahel and Congo River regions of Africa. Colonies included in French Equatorial Africa include <a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">French Gabon</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ubangui-Shari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubangui-Shari">Ubangui-Shari</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a>. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cameroon">Cameroon</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Cameroon" title="French Cameroon">French Cameroon</a></div><p>Cameroon was initially colonized by the German Empire in 1884. The indigenous people of Cameroon refused to work on German related projects, which turned into force labor. However, after World War One, the colony was partitioned by France and Britain. The French colony lasted from 1916 to until self-rule was achieved in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Madagascar">Madagascar</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg/250px-LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg/330px-LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg/500px-LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5300" data-file-height="7976" /></a><figcaption>Engraving celebrating the conquest of Madagascar in 1895</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">French Madagascar</a></div><p>French colonialism in Madagascar began in 1896 when France established a protectorate by force and ended in the 1960s with the beginning of self-rule.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under French control, the colony of Madagascar included the dependencies of <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a>, <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerguelen" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerguelen">Kerguelen</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Paul" title="Île Saint-Paul">Île Saint-Paul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Amsterdam Island">Amsterdam Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bassas_da_India" title="Bassas da India">Bassas da India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europa_Island" title="Europa Island">Europa Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Nova_Island" title="Juan de Nova Island">Juan de Nova Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glorioso_Islands" title="Glorioso Islands">Glorioso Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tromelin_Island" title="Tromelin Island">Tromelin</a>. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Algeria">Algeria</h4></div> <p>The French conquest of Algeria began in 1830 with the invasion of Algiers, and was mostly completed by 1852. Not until 1903 was the conquest fully complete. French colonization of Algeria was undertaken through military conquest and the overthrow of existing structures of government. French colonial rule lasted until <a href="/wiki/Algerian_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian war">Algerian independence</a> in 1962. French colonization of Algeria was defined by its lethality for indigenous Algerians, the dissolution of the Algerian government, and the creation of oppressive and segregationist structures which discriminated against the indigenous population.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg/250px-Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg/330px-Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg/500px-Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The French military invasion of Algeria began in 1830 with a naval blockade around Algeria followed by the landing of 37,000 French soldiers in Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French captured the strategic port of Algiers in 1830 deposing <a href="/wiki/Hussein_Dey" title="Hussein Dey">Hussein Dey</a>, the ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Deylik_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Deylik of Algiers">Deylik of Algiers</a>. They also seized other coastal communities.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 100,000 French soldiers were deployed in the conquest of Algeria. Algerian armed resistance against the French invasion<sup id="cite_ref-:02_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was mainly divided between forces of <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Bey_ben_Mohamed_Ch%C3%A9rif" title="Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif">Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif</a> at <a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> in the east, who was seeking to reinstate the Deylik of Algiers, and nationalist forces in the west and center. Treaties with the nationalists under <a href="/wiki/Emir_Abdelkader" title="Emir Abdelkader">Emir Abdelkader</a> enabled the French to focus on the defeating of the remnants of the Deylik during the 1837 <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantine" title="Siege of Constantine">Siege of Constantine</a>. Abdelkader continued to fight the French in the west until 1847. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed during the French conquest as a result of war, massacres, disease and famine.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2007_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Famines and disease epidemics were partially caused by French confiscation of farmland from Algerians and the "scorched earth" tactics of razing farms and villages to quell Algerian resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French losses from 1830 to 1851 were 3,336 killed in action and 92,329 dead in the hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were about 100,000 European settlers in the country in 1852, at that time, about half of them French. Under the Second Republic the country was ruled by a civilian government, but Louis Napoleon re-established a military government, much to the annoyance of the colonists. By 1857 the army had conquered Kabyle Province, and pacified the country. By 1860 the European population had grown to 200,000, and lands of native Algerians were being rapidly bought and farmed by the new arrivals.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first eight years of his rule Napoleon III paid little attention to Algeria. In September 1860, however, he and Empress Eugénie visited Algeria, and the trip made a deep impression upon them. Eugénie was invited to attend a traditional Arab wedding, and the Emperor met many of the local leaders. The Emperor gradually conceived the idea that Algeria should be governed differently from other colonies. In February 1863, he wrote a public letter to Pelissier, the Military Governor, saying: "Algeria is not a colony in the traditional sense, but an Arab kingdom; the local people have, like the colonists, a legal right to my protection. I am just as much the Emperor of the Arabs of Algeria as I am of the French." He intended to rule Algeria through a government of Arab aristocrats. Toward this end he invited the chiefs of main Algerian tribal groups to his chateau at Compiegne for hunting and festivities.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared to previous administrations, Napoleon III was far more sympathetic to the native Algerians.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He halted European migration inland, restricting them to the coastal zone. He also freed the Algerian rebel leader <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abd al Qadir</a> (who had been promised freedom on surrender but was imprisoned by the previous administration) and gave him a stipend of 150,000 francs. He allowed Muslims to serve in the military and civil service on theoretically equal terms and allowed them to migrate to France. In addition, he gave the option of citizenship; however, for Muslims to take this option they had to accept all of the French civil code, including parts governing inheritance and marriage which conflicted with Muslim laws, and they had to reject the competence of religious <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> courts. This was interpreted by some Muslims as requiring them to give up parts of their religion to obtain citizenship and was resented. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/250px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/330px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/500px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1713" data-file-height="1343" /></a><figcaption>Arrival of Marshal <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Louis_Randon" title="Jacques Louis Randon">Randon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> in 1857 by Ernest Francis Vacherot</figcaption></figure> <p>More importantly, Napoleon III changed the system of land tenure. While ostensibly well-intentioned, in effect this move destroyed the traditional system of land management and deprived many Algerians of land. While Napoleon did renounce state claims to tribal lands, he also began a process of dismantling tribal land ownership in favour of individual land ownership. This process was corrupted by French officials sympathetic to the French in Algeria who took much of the land they surveyed into public domain. In addition, many tribal leaders, chosen for loyalty to the French rather than influence in their tribe, immediately sold communal land for cash.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His attempted reforms were interrupted in 1864 by an Arab insurrection, which required more than a year and an army of 85,000 soldiers to suppress. Nonetheless, he did not give up his idea of making Algeria a model where French colonists and Arabs could live and work together as equals. He traveled to Algiers for a second time on 3 May 1865, and this time he remained for a month, meeting with tribal leaders and local officials. He offered a wide amnesty to participants of the insurrection, and promised to name Arabs to high positions in his government. He also promised a large public works program of new ports, railroads, and roads. However, once again his plans met a major natural obstacle in 1866 and 1868, Algeria was struck by an epidemic of cholera, clouds of locusts, drought and famine, and his reforms were hindered by the French colonists, who voted massively against him in the plebiscites of his late reign.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to 500,000 people died from the famine and epidemics.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1871, in response to prolonged famine and the French authorities' discriminatory treatment of Algerians, the <a href="/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a> in the Kabylia erupted, which spread through much of Algeria. By April 1871, 250 tribes were rebelling. The uprising was defeated in 1872.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were roughly 130,000 colonists in Algeria in 1871 and by 1900, there were one million.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1902, a French military expedition entered <a href="/wiki/Hoggar_Mountains" title="Hoggar Mountains">Hoggar Mountains</a> and defeated the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Kel_Ahaggar" title="Kel Ahaggar">Kel Ahaggar</a>. The conquest of Algeria was fully completed in 1903 with the French in control of all Saharan lands in Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Summary_of_additional_colonization_in_Africa">Summary of additional colonization in Africa</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg/220px-Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg/330px-Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg/440px-Aouabou-Trait%C3%A9-1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis-Gustave_Binger" title="Louis-Gustave Binger">Louis-Gustave Binger</a> signing treaty with <a href="/wiki/Famienkro" title="Famienkro">Famienkro</a> leaders, 1892, in present-day Ivory Coast</figcaption></figure> <p>France also extended its influence in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> after 1870, establishing a protectorate in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> in 1881 with the <a href="/wiki/Bardo_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bardo Treaty">Bardo Treaty</a>. Gradually, French control crystallised over much of North, <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a> by around the start of the 20th century (including the modern states of <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">east African</a> coastal enclave of <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> (<a href="/wiki/Obock_Territory" title="Obock Territory">Obock Territory</a>), and the island of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Savorgnan_de_Brazza" title="Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza">Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza</a> helped to formalise French control in Gabon and on the northern banks of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> from the early 1880s. The explorer Colonel <a href="/wiki/Parfait-Louis_Monteil" title="Parfait-Louis Monteil">Parfait-Louis Monteil</a> traveled from Senegal to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a> in 1890–1892, signing treaties of friendship and protection with the rulers of several of the countries he passed through, and gaining much knowledge of the geography and politics of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Hirshfield_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirshfield-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Voulet%E2%80%93Chanoine_Mission" title="Voulet–Chanoine Mission">Voulet–Chanoine Mission</a>, a military expedition, set out from Senegal in 1898 to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Chad_Basin" title="Chad Basin">Chad Basin</a> and to unify <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">all French territories in West Africa</a>. This expedition operated jointly with two other expeditions, the <a href="/wiki/Foureau%E2%80%93Lamy_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Foureau–Lamy Mission">Foureau–Lamy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gentil_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentil Mission">Gentil Missions</a>, which advanced from <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Congo">Middle Congo</a> respectively. With the death (April 1900) of the Muslim warlord <a href="/wiki/Rabih_az-Zubayr" title="Rabih az-Zubayr">Rabih az-Zubayr</a>, the greatest ruler in the region, and the creation of the Military Territory of Chad (September 1900), the Voulet–Chanoine Mission had accomplished all its goals. The ruthlessness of the mission provoked a scandal in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg/330px-Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg/500px-Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg/960px-Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3384" data-file-height="2740" /></a><figcaption>Central and east Africa, 1898, during the <a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As a part of the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>, France aimed to establish a continuous west–east axis across the continent, in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Cape_to_Cairo_Red_Line" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape to Cairo Red Line">the proposed British north–south axis</a>. Tensions between Britain and France heightened in Africa. At several points war seemed possible, but no outbreak occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most serious episode was the <a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a> of 1898. French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to act in the interests of the <a href="/wiki/Khedive_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Khedive of Egypt">Khedive of Egypt</a> arrived to confront them. Under heavy pressure, the French withdrew, implicitly acknowledging Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. An agreement between the two states recognised the <i>status quo</i>. The British were to maintain control over Egypt, while France remained the dominant power in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. Still, it is commonly believed that France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> in 1911, Britain supported France against <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> became a <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">French protectorate</a>. </p><p>The French made their last major colonial gains after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when they gained <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">mandates</a> over the former territories of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> that make up what is now <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, as well as most of the former German colonies of <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_Islands">Pacific Islands</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg/220px-Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg/330px-Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg/440px-Parade_of_the_Kanaks_districts_before_Queen_Pomare_in_1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Queen <a href="/wiki/P%C5%8Dmare_IV" title="Pōmare IV">Pōmare IV</a> in 1860. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti" title="Kingdom of Tahiti">Tahiti</a> was made a French protectorate in 1842, and annexed as a colony of France in 1880.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1838, the French naval commander <a href="/wiki/Abel_Aubert_du_Petit-Thouars" title="Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars">Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars</a> responded to complaints of the mistreatment of French Catholic missionary in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti" title="Kingdom of Tahiti">Kingdom of Tahiti</a> ruled by Queen <a href="/wiki/P%C5%8Dmare_IV" title="Pōmare IV">Pōmare IV</a>. Dupetit Thouars forced the native government to pay an indemnity and sign a treaty of friendship with France respecting the rights of French subjects in the islands including any future Catholic missionaries. Four years later, claiming the Tahitians had violated the treaty, a French protectorate was forcibly installed and the queen made to sign a request for French protection.<sup id="cite_ref-Garrett1982_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garrett1982-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gonschor2008_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonschor2008-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Queen Pōmare left her kingdom and exiled herself to <a href="/wiki/Raiatea" class="mw-redirect" title="Raiatea">Raiatea</a> in protest against the French and tried to enlist the help of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Franco-Tahitian_War" title="Franco-Tahitian War">Franco-Tahitian War</a> broke out between the <a href="/wiki/Tahitians" title="Tahitians">Tahitian</a> people and the French from 1844 to 1847 as France attempted to consolidate their rule and extend their rule into the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands_(Society_Islands)" title="Leeward Islands (Society Islands)">Leeward Islands</a> where Queen Pōmare sought refuge with her relatives. The British remained officially neutral during the war but diplomatic tensions existed between the French and British. The French succeeded in subduing the guerilla forces on Tahiti but failed to hold the other islands. In February 1847, Queen Pōmare IV returned from her self-imposed exile and acquiesced to rule under the protectorate. Although victorious, the French were not able to annex the islands due to diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, so Tahiti and its dependency <a href="/wiki/Moorea" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorea">Moorea</a> continued to be ruled under the protectorate. A clause to the war settlement, known as the <a href="/wiki/Jarnac_Convention" title="Jarnac Convention">Jarnac Convention</a> or the Anglo-French Convention of 1847, was signed by France and Great Britain, in which the two powers agreed to respect the independence of Queen Pōmare's allies in Leeward Islands. The French continued the guise of protection until the 1880s when they formally annexed Tahiti with the abdication of King <a href="/wiki/P%C5%8Dmare_V" title="Pōmare V">Pōmare V</a> on 29 June 1880. The Leeward Islands were <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Leeward_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Leeward Islands">annexed through the Leewards War</a> which ended in 1897. These conflicts and the annexation of other Pacific islands formed <a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Oceania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonschor2008_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonschor2008-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Matsuda2005_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matsuda2005-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 September 1853, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Febvrier_Despointes" title="Auguste Febvrier Despointes">Febvrier Despointes</a> took formal possession of <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port-de-France" class="mw-redirect" title="Port-de-France">Port-de-France</a> (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854. A few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years, but New Caledonia became a <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colony</a> and, from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia.<sup id="cite_ref-gb-1_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb-1-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a,_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a%2C_1897.jpg/250px-Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a%2C_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a%2C_1897.jpg/330px-Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a%2C_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a%2C_1897.jpg/500px-Rebelles_de_Ra%C3%AFat%C3%A9a%2C_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>The captured rebels of Raiatea, 1897</figcaption></figure> <p>In contravention of the Jarnac Convention of 1847, the French placed the Leeward Islands under a provisional protectorate by falsely convincing the ruling chiefs that the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> planned to take over their island kingdoms. After years of diplomatic negotiation, Britain and France agreed to abrogate the convention in 1887 and the French formally annexed all the Leeward Islands without official treaties of cession from the islands' sovereign governments. From 1888 to 1897, the natives of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Raiatea" class="mw-redirect" title="Raiatea">Raiatea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tahaa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahaa">Tahaa</a> led by a minor chief, <a href="/wiki/Teraupo%27o" title="Teraupo'o">Teraupo'o</a>, fought off French rule and the <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Leeward_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Leeward Islands">annexation of the Leeward Islands</a>. Anti-French factions in the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Huahine" title="Huahine">Huahine</a> also attempted to fight off the French under Queen <a href="/wiki/Teuhe" title="Teuhe">Teuhe</a> while the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Bora_Bora" title="Bora Bora">Bora Bora</a> remained neutral but hostile to the French. The conflict ended in 1897 with the capture and exile of rebel leaders to New Caledonia and more than one hundred rebels to the Marquesas. These conflicts and the annexation of other Pacific islands formed French Polynesia.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonschor2008_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonschor2008-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Matsuda2005_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matsuda2005-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this time, the French also established colonies in the <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="South Pacific Ocean">South Pacific</a>, including <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, the various island groups which make up <a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Society_Islands" title="Society Islands">Society Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marquesas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquesas">Marquesas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gambier_Islands" title="Gambier Islands">Gambier Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Austral_Islands" title="Austral Islands">Austral Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tuamotus" title="Tuamotus">Tuamotus</a>), and established joint control of the <a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> with Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Napoleon_III:_1852–1870"><span id="Napoleon_III:_1852.E2.80.931870"></span>Napoleon III: 1852–1870</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg/220px-Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg/330px-Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg/440px-Abd-EL-Kader-And-Napoleon-III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1970" data-file-height="1483" /></a><figcaption>Napoleon III and <a href="/wiki/Abdelkader_El_Djezairi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdelkader El Djezairi">Abdelkader El Djezairi</a>, the Algerian military leader who led a struggle against the <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French invasion of Algeria</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> doubled the area of the French overseas Empire; he established French rule in <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cochinchina" title="Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a>, established a protectorate in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> (1863); and colonized parts of Africa. </p><p>To carry out his new overseas projects, Napoleon III created a new Ministry of the Navy and the Colonies and appointed an energetic minister, <a href="/wiki/Prosper_de_Chasseloup-Laubat" title="Prosper de Chasseloup-Laubat">Prosper, Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat</a>, to head it. A key part of the enterprise was the modernization of the French Navy; he began the construction of 15 powerful new battle cruisers powered by steam and driven by propellers; and a fleet of steam-powered troop transports. The <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> became the second most powerful in the world, after Britain's. He also created a new force of colonial troops, including elite units of naval infantry, <a href="/wiki/Zouaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Zouaves">Zouaves</a>, the Chasseurs d'Afrique, and Algerian sharpshooters, and he expanded the Foreign Legion, which had been founded in 1831 and won fame in the Crimea, Italy and Mexico. By the end of Napoleon III's reign, the French overseas territories had tripled in the area; in 1870 they covered a 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (390,000 sq mi), with more than 5 million inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia_2">Asia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a></div> <p>Napoleon III also acted to increase the French presence in Indochina. An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Deeper down was the sense that France owed the world a civilizing mission.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French missionaries had been active in Vietnam since the 17th century, when the Jesuit priest <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a> opened a mission there. In 1858 the Vietnamese emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Nguyen_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nguyen dynasty">Nguyen dynasty</a> felt threatened by the French influence and tried to expel the missionaries. Napoleon III sent a naval force of fourteen gunships, carrying three thousand French and three thousand Filipino troops provided by Spain, under <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rigault_de_Genouilly" title="Charles Rigault de Genouilly">Charles Rigault de Genouilly</a>, to compel the government to accept the missionaries and to stop the persecution of Catholics. In September 1858 the expeditionary force captured and occupied the port of <a href="/wiki/Da_Nang" title="Da Nang">Da Nang</a>, and then in February 1859 moved south and captured <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a>. The Vietnamese ruler was compelled to cede three provinces to France, and to offer protection to the Catholics. The French troops departed for a time to take part in the expedition to China, but in 1862, when the agreements were not fully followed by the Vietnamese emperor, they returned. The Emperor was forced to open treaty ports in <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a>, and all of <a href="/wiki/Cochinchina" title="Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> became a French territory in 1864. </p><p>In 1863, the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Norodom" class="mw-redirect" title="Norodom">Norodom</a>, who had been placed in power by the government of <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, rebelled against his sponsors and sought the protection of France. The Thai king granted authority over Cambodia to France, in exchange for two provinces of <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, which were ceded by Cambodia to Thailand. In 1867, Cambodia formally became a protectorate of France. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Capture of Saigon by Charles Rigault de Genouilly on 18 February 1859, painted by Antoine Morel-Fatio"><img alt="Capture of Saigon by Charles Rigault de Genouilly on 18 February 1859, painted by Antoine Morel-Fatio" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg/220px-Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg/330px-Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg/440px-Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1147" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saigon" title="Siege of Saigon">Capture of Saigon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rigault_de_Genouilly" title="Charles Rigault de Genouilly">Charles Rigault de Genouilly</a> on 18 February 1859, painted by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Morel-Fatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Morel-Fatio">Antoine Morel-Fatio</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Napoleon III receiving the Siamese embassy at the palace of Fontainebleau in 1864"><img alt="Napoleon III receiving the Siamese embassy at the palace of Fontainebleau in 1864" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG/250px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG/330px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG/500px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_001.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="984" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Napoleon III receiving the <a href="/wiki/France-Thailand_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="France-Thailand relations">Siamese embassy</a> at the palace of Fontainebleau in 1864 </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Presidential Palace of Vietnam, in Hanoi, was built between 1900 and 1906 to house the French Governor-General of Indochina."><img alt="The Presidential Palace of Vietnam, in Hanoi, was built between 1900 and 1906 to house the French Governor-General of Indochina." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg/250px-Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg/330px-Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg/500px-Presidential_Palace_of_Vietnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Hanoi" title="Presidential Palace, Hanoi">Presidential Palace of Vietnam</a>, in Hanoi, was built between 1900 and 1906 to house the French Governor-General of Indochina.</div> </li> </ul> <p>It was only after its defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870–1871 and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> (1871–1940) that most of France's later colonial possessions were acquired. From their base in Cochinchina, the French took over <a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Northern_Vietnam" title="Northern Vietnam">northern Vietnam</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Central_Vietnam" title="Central Vietnam">central Vietnam</a>) and made them become French protectorates with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1883)" title="Treaty of Huế (1883)">Treaty of Hue</a> between France and Vietnam's Nguyen dynasty in 1883. These, together with Cambodia and Cochinchina, formed <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> in 1887 (to which <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> was <a href="/wiki/Franco-Siamese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Siamese War">added in 1893</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangzhouwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwanin</a> 1900).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession,_Tientsin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession%2C_Tientsin.jpg/220px-French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession%2C_Tientsin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession%2C_Tientsin.jpg/330px-French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession%2C_Tientsin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession%2C_Tientsin.jpg/440px-French_Colonial_Infantry_Marching_through_the_French_Concession%2C_Tientsin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="894" /></a><figcaption>French colonial infantry marching through the French Concession in Tianjin during the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1849, the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_French_Concession" title="Shanghai French Concession">French Concession in Shanghai</a> was established, and in 1860, the <a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_Tianjin" class="mw-redirect" title="Concessions in Tianjin">French Concession in Tientsin</a> (now called <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>) was set up. Both concessions lasted until 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French also had smaller <a href="/wiki/Concession_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concession (territory)">concessions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hankou" title="Hankou">Hankou</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="Third Anglo-Burmese War">Third Anglo-Burmese War</a>, in which Britain conquered and annexed the hitherto independent <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Burma">Upper Burma</a>, was in part motivated by British apprehension at France advancing and gaining possession of territories near to Burma. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3></div> <p>In the spring of 1860, <a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">a war broke out</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, then part of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, between the <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> population and the <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christians">Maronite Christians</a>. The Ottoman authorities in Lebanon could not stop the violence, and it spread into neighboring <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, with the massacre of many Christians. In <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, the Emir Abd-el-Kadr protected the Christians there against the Muslim rioters. Napoleon III felt obliged to intervene on behalf of the Christians, despite the opposition of London, which feared it would lead to a wider French presence in the Middle East. After long and difficult negotiations to obtain the approval of the British government, Napoleon III sent a French contingent of seven thousand men for a period of six months. The troops arrived in Beirut in August 1860, and took positions in the mountains between the Christian and Muslim communities. Napoleon III organized an international conference in Paris, where the country was placed under the rule of a Christian governor named by the Ottoman Sultan, which restored a fragile peace. The French troops departed in June 1861, after just under one year. The French intervention alarmed the British, but was highly popular with the powerful <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_France#Vocation_for_the_care_of_the_poor_in_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="History of the Catholic Church in France">Catholic political faction</a> in France, which had been alarmed by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III#Prince-President_(1848–1851)" title="Napoleon III">Louis Napoleon's dispute with the Pope</a> over his territories in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg/250px-French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg/330px-French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg/500px-French_expeditionary_corps_landing_in_Beyrouth_16_August_1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2973" data-file-height="1538" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A8glement_Organique_(Mount_Lebanon)" title="Règlement Organique (Mount Lebanon)">French expedition in Syria</a> led by General <a href="/wiki/Beaufort_d%27Hautpoul" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaufort d'Hautpoul">Beaufort d'Hautpoul</a>, landing in Beyrouth on 16 August 1860</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the signing of the 1860 <a href="/wiki/Cobden%E2%80%93Chevalier_Treaty" title="Cobden–Chevalier Treaty">Cobden–Chevalier Treaty</a>, a historic free trade agreement between Britain and France, and the joint operations conducted by France and Britain in the Crimea, China and Mexico, diplomatic relations between Britain and France never became close during the colonial era. <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a>, the British foreign minister from 1846 to 1851 and <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a> from 1855 to 1865, sought to maintain the balance of power in Europe; this rarely involved an alignment with France. In 1859 there were even briefly fears that France might try to invade Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Palmerston was suspicious of France's interventions in Lebanon, Southeast Asia and Mexico. Palmerston was also concerned that France might intervene in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861–65) on the side of the South.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British also felt threatened by the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> (1859–1869) by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Lesseps" title="Ferdinand de Lesseps">Ferdinand de Lesseps</a> in Egypt. They tried to oppose its completion by diplomatic pressures and by promoting revolts among workers.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Suez Canal was successfully built by a French-backed company, which was to remain under French control even after the British government acquired almost half of the shares.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both nations saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and respective empire in East Africa and Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's leading expansionist <a href="/wiki/Jules_Ferry" title="Jules Ferry">Jules Ferry</a> was out of office, and Paris allowed London to take effective control of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_in_the_use_of_the_term_Empire_between_the_years_of_1870–1939"><span id="Evolution_in_the_use_of_the_term_Empire_between_the_years_of_1870.E2.80.931939"></span>Evolution in the use of the term Empire between the years of 1870–1939</h3></div> <p>After the downfall of Napoleon III, few writers used the word 'empire', which had become associated with despotism, decadence, and weakness, preferring the word 'colonies'. However, by the 1880s and 1890s, as Republicans consolidated their control over the political system, increasing numbers of politicians, intellectuals and writers began using the phrase "colonial empire", linking it to republicanism and the French nation.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Frenchmen ignored foreign affairs and colonial issues. In 1914 the chief pressure group was the <i>Parti colonial</i>, a coalition of 50 organizations with a combined total of only 5,000 members.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg/330px-Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="401" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg/500px-Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg/960px-Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="2258" /></a><figcaption>French colonies in 1891 (from <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_illustr%C3%A9" title="Le Monde illustré">Le Monde illustré</a></i>)<br /> 1. Panorama of <i>Lac-Kaï</i>, French outpost in China<br /> 2. <i>Yun-nan</i>, in the quay of <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a><br /> 3. Flooded street of Hanoi<br /> 4. Landing stage of Hanoi</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes_and_justifications_for_colonialism">Causes and justifications for colonialism</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civilizing_Mission">Civilizing Mission</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png/330px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png/495px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png/660px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png 2x" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="1142" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913</figcaption></figure> <p>A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the <a href="/wiki/Civilising_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilising mission">civilising mission</a> (<i>mission civilisatrice</i>), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar</a>. During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne and Réunion as well as to the residents of <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Four_Communes" title="Four Communes">Four Communes</a>" in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Diagne" title="Blaise Diagne">Blaise Diagne</a>, who was elected in 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-Segalla_2009_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segalla_2009-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Racism and notions of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> were integral to justifying the concept of the civilizing mission. French colonialists viewed non-European societies as uncivilized, and their colonial subjects as needing European re-education.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racial darwinists like <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a>, justified this ideology by falsely claiming that people of color were biologically inferior to white people.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a <a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">strict separation</a> between "sujets français" ("french subjects", natives) and "citoyens français" ("french citizens", people of European extraction) with different rights and duties was maintained until 1946. As was pointed out in a 1927 treatise on French colonial law, the granting of French citizenship to natives "was not a right, but rather a privilege".<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet in order to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). From 1830 to 1946, only between 3,000 and 6,000 Muslim native Algerians were granted French citizenship. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 "citoyens indigènes" out of a total population of 15 million.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal,_21may1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg/250px-Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg/330px-Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg/500px-Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption>French colonial troops, led by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Alfred-Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Dodds" title="Alfred-Amédée Dodds">Alfred-Amédée Dodds</a>, a Senegalese mulatto, conquered and annexed <a href="/wiki/Second_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="Second Franco-Dahomean War">Dahomey</a> in 1894.</figcaption></figure> <p>French conservatives had been denouncing the assimilationist policies as products of a dangerous liberal fantasy. In the Protectorate of Morocco, the French administration attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration, with mixed results. After World War II, the segregationist approach modeled in Morocco had been discredited by its connections to Vichyism, and assimilationism enjoyed a brief renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-Segalla_2009_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segalla_2009-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>David P. Forsythe wrote: "From Senegal and Mauritania in the west to Niger in the east (what became French Africa), there was a parallel series of ruinous wars, resulting in tremendous numbers of people being violently enslaved. At the beginning of the twentieth century there may have been between 3 and 3.5 million slaves, representing over 30 percent of the total population, within this sparsely populated region."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1905, the French abolished <a href="/wiki/African_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">slavery</a> in most of French West Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1906 to 1911, over a million slaves in French West Africa fled from their masters to earlier homes.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> over 500,000 slaves were freed following French abolition in 1896.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Education">Education</h4></div> <p>French colonial officials, influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality, standardized schools, curricula, and teaching methods as much as possible. They did not establish colonial school systems with the idea of furthering the ambitions of the local people, but rather simply exported the systems and methods in vogue in the mother nation.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having a moderately trained lower bureaucracy was of great use to colonial officials.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emerging French-educated indigenous elite saw little value in educating rural peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1946 the policy was to bring the best students to Paris for advanced training. The result was to immerse the next generation of leaders in the growing anti-colonial diaspora centered in Paris. Impressionistic colonials could mingle with studious scholars or radical revolutionaries or so everything in between. <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh#Political_education_in_France" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> and other young radicals in Paris formed the French Communist party in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tunisia was exceptional. The colony was administered by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cambon" title="Paul Cambon">Paul Cambon</a>, who built an educational system for colonists and indigenous people alike that was closely modeled on mainland France. He emphasized female and vocational education. By independence, the quality of Tunisian education nearly equalled that in France.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>African nationalists rejected such a public education system, which they perceived as an attempt to retard African development and maintain colonial superiority. One of the first demands of the emerging nationalist movement after World War II was the introduction of full metropolitan-style education in French West Africa with its promise of equality with Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Algeria, the debate was polarized. The French set up schools based on the scientific method and French culture. The <a href="/wiki/Pied-Noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-Noir">Pied-Noir</a> (Catholic migrants from Europe) welcomed this. Those goals were rejected by the Moslem Arabs, who prized mental agility and their distinctive religious tradition. The Arabs refused to become patriotic and cultured Frenchmen and a unified educational system was impossible until the Pied-Noir and their Arab allies went into exile after 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critics_of_French_colonialism">Critics of French colonialism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg/250px-Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg/330px-Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg/500px-Combat_de_Dogba-1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="Second Franco-Dahomean War">Second Franco-Dahomean War</a> in 1892–1894</figcaption></figure> <p>Critics of French colonialism gained an international audience in the 1920s, and often used documentary reportage and access to agencies such as the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> to make their protests heard. The main criticism was the high level of violence and suffering among the natives. Major critics included <a href="/wiki/Albert_Londres" title="Albert Londres">Albert Londres</a>, Félicien Challaye, and Paul Monet, whose books and articles were widely read.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decolonization">Decolonization</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization in Africa">Decolonization in Africa</a></div> <p>The French colonial empire began to fall during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, when various parts were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, Lebanon, and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, the United States and Britain in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and Germany and Italy in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>). However, control was gradually reestablished by <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>. The <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a>, included in the <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1946" class="mw-redirect" title="French Constitution of 1946">Constitution of 1946</a>, nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The colonies were given local assemblies with only limited local power and budgets. There emerged a group of elites, known as "evolués", who were natives of the overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Free_French_campaigns3297" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Free_French" title="Template:Campaignbox Free French"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Free_French" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Free French"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Free_French" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Free French"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Free_French_campaigns3297" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free French</a> campaigns</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Africa and Middle East</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dakar" title="Battle of Dakar">Dakar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Keren" title="Battle of Keren">Keren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign"><i>Exporter</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Kufra" title="Capture of Kufra">Kufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bir_Hakeim" title="Battle of Bir Hakeim">Bir Hakeim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run_for_Tunis" title="Run for Tunis">Run for Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"><i>Torch</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normandie-Niemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandie-Niemen">Eastern Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily"><i>Husky</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_Corsica#Opération_Vésuve" title="Italian occupation of Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_des_Gli%C3%A8res" title="Maquis des Glières">Glières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ist" title="Battle of Ist">Ist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Mont_Mouchet" title="Maquis du Mont Mouchet">Mont Mouchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"><i>Overlord</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Elba" title="Invasion of Elba">Elba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_de_Saint-Marcel" title="Maquis de Saint-Marcel">Saint-Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vercors" title="Battle of Vercors">Vercors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon"><i>Dragoon</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_(1944)" title="Battle of Toulon (1944)">Toulon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marseille" title="Battle of Marseille">Marseilles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_campaign" title="Lorraine campaign">Lorraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dompaire" title="Battle of Dompaire">Dompaire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Strasbourg" title="Liberation of Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Northwind_(1944)" title="Operation Northwind (1944)"><i>Nordwind</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colmar_Pocket" title="Colmar Pocket">Colmar Pocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">Alps</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Indian Ocean and Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_R%C3%A9union" title="Battle of Réunion">Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crimson" title="Operation Crimson"><i>Crimson</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North America</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Oceania</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna_during_the_Second_World_War#Rally_to_Free_France_and_installation_of_an_American_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallis and Futuna during the Second World War">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/330px-Vichy_france_map.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/495px-Vichy_france_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/660px-Vichy_france_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allies by 1943. <a href="/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" title="File:Vichy france map.png">Legend.</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_actions_of_Vichy_France_during_World_War_II3434" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Vichy_France_Military_in_World_War_II" title="Template:Campaignbox Vichy France Military in World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Vichy_France_Military_in_World_War_II" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Vichy France Military in World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Vichy_France_Military_in_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Vichy France Military in World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_actions_of_Vichy_France_during_World_War_II3434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Military actions of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>1940</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir" title="Attack on Mers-el-Kébir">Attack on Mers-el-Kébir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II#Vichy_French_attacks:_1940" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dakar" title="Battle of Dakar">Battle of Dakar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">Battle of Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=B%E1%BA%AFc_S%C6%A1n_uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bắc Sơn uprising (page does not exist)">1940 Bắc Sơn uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1940 Cochinchina uprising">1940 Cochinchina uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%90%C3%B4_L%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_mutiny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Đô Lương mutiny (page does not exist)">Đô Lương mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Phum_Preav&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Phum Preav (page does not exist)">Battle of Phum Preav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ko_Chang" title="Battle of Ko Chang">Battle of Ko Chang</a></li></ul> <p><b>1941</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Angkor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Angkor (page does not exist)">Battle of Angkor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li></ul> <p><b>1942</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"><i>Operation Torch</i></a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Terminal" title="Operation Terminal">Operation Terminal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reservist" title="Operation Reservist">Operation Reservist</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton"><i>Case Anton</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_at_Toulon" title="Scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon">Scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_R%C3%A9union" title="Battle of Réunion">Battle of Réunion</a></li></ul> <p><b>1944</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_des_Gli%C3%A8res" title="Maquis des Glières">Battle of Glières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Mont_Mouchet" title="Maquis du Mont Mouchet">Battle of Mont Mouchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vercors" title="Battle of Vercors">Battle of Vercors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khai_Phat_and_Na_Ngan" title="Battles of Khai Phat and Na Ngan">Battles of Khai Phat and Na Ngan</a></li></ul> <p><b>1945</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba_T%C6%A1_uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ba Tơ uprising (page does not exist)">1945 Ba Tơ uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>During World War II, allied <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a>, often with British support, and Axis-aligned <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> struggled for control of the colonies, sometimes with outright military combat. By 1943, all of the colonies, except for Indochina under Japanese control, had joined the Free French cause.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overseas empire helped liberate France as 300,000 North African Arabs fought in the ranks of the Free French.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> had no intention of liberating the colonies. He assembled the <a href="/wiki/Brazzaville_Conference" title="Brazzaville Conference">conference of colonial governors</a> (excluding the nationalist leaders) in Brazzaville in January 1944 to announce plans for postwar Union that would replace the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Brazzaville manifesto proclaimed: </p> <dl><dd>the goals of the work of civilization undertaken by France in the colonies exclude all idea of autonomy, all possibility of development outside the French block of the Empire; the possible constitutional self-government in the colonies is to be dismissed.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The manifesto angered nationalists across the Empire, and set the stage for long-term wars in Indochina and Algeria that France would lose in humiliating fashion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict">Conflict</h3></div> <p>France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">decolonisation</a> movement. In Algeria demonstrations in May 1945 were <a href="/wiki/Setif_and_Guelma_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Setif and Guelma massacre">repressed</a> with an estimated 6,000 to 45,000 Algerians killed.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ramadier" title="Paul Ramadier">Paul Ramadier</a>'s (<a href="/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International" title="French Section of the Workers' International">SFIO</a>) cabinet repressed the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising</a> in Madagascar in 1947. The French blamed education. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from a low of 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in Indochina, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vietminh" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietminh">Viet Minh</a>, which was backed by the Soviet Union and China, declared <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>'s independence, which started the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>. The war dragged on until 1954, when the Viet Minh decisively defeated the French at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Điện Biên Phủ</a> in northern Vietnam, which was the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg/220px-Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg/330px-Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg/440px-Dien_Bien_Phu_1954_French_prisoners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Captured French soldiers from Dien Bien Phu, escorted by Vietnamese troops, walk to a prisoner-of-war camp.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the Vietnamese victory at Điện Biên Phủ and the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">1954 Geneva Accords</a>, France agreed to withdraw its forces from all its colonies in <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>, while stipulating that Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Demilitarized_Zone" title="Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone">17th parallel</a>, with control of the north given to the Soviet-backed Viet Minh as the <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>, and the south becoming the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a> under former Nguyen-dynasty Emperor <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdicated</a> following the <a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">1945 August Revolution</a> under pressure from Ho.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 1955, the State of Vietnam's Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngô Đình Diệm">Ngô Đình Diệm</a>, toppled <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a> in a fraud-ridden <a href="/wiki/1955_State_of_Vietnam_referendum" title="1955 State of Vietnam referendum">referendum</a> and proclaimed himself president of the new <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Vietnam">Republic of Vietnam</a>. The refusal of <a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngô Đình Diệm">Ngô Đình Diệm</a>, the US-supported president of the first Republic of Vietnam [RVN], to allow elections in 1956 – as had been stipulated by the Geneva Conference – in fear of Ho Chi Minh's victory and subsequently a total communist takeover,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> eventually led to the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In France's African colonies, the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Peoples_of_Cameroon" title="Union of the Peoples of Cameroon">Union of the Peoples of Cameroon</a>'s insurrection, which started in 1955 and headed by <a href="/wiki/Ruben_Um_Nyob%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruben Um Nyobé">Ruben Um Nyobé</a>, was violently repressed over a two-year period, with perhaps as many as 100 people killed. However, France formally relinquished its protectorate over <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and granted it independence in 1956. </p><p>French involvement in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> stretched back a century. The movements of <a href="/wiki/Ferhat_Abbas" title="Ferhat Abbas">Ferhat Abbas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Messali_Hadj" title="Messali Hadj">Messali Hadj</a> had marked the period between the two world wars, but both sides radicalised after the Second World War. In 1945, the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sétif massacre">Sétif massacre</a> was carried out by the French army. The <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian War of Independence">Algerian War</a> started in 1954. <a href="/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Torture during the Algerian War of Independence">Atrocities characterized both sides</a>, and the number killed became highly controversial estimates that were made for propaganda purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algeria was a three-way conflict due to the large number of "<a href="/wiki/Pieds-noirs" title="Pieds-noirs">pieds-noirs</a>" (Europeans who had settled there in <a href="/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">the 125 years of French rule</a>). The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Point_d%27eau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Point_d%27eau.jpg/220px-Point_d%27eau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Point_d%27eau.jpg/330px-Point_d%27eau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Point_d%27eau.jpg/440px-Point_d%27eau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3224" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>French officer and native <a href="/wiki/Spahi" title="Spahi">Spahi</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> in the 1950s</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> was replaced in the <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="French Constitution of 1958">Constitution of 1958</a> by the <a href="/wiki/French_Community" title="French Community">French Community</a>. Only <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> refused by referendum to take part in the new organisation. However, the French Community ceased to operate before the end of the Algerian War. Almost all of the other former African colonies achieved independence in 1960. The French government refused to allow the populations of the former colonies the right they had in the new French Constitution of 1958, as French citizens with equal rights, to choose for their territories to become full <i>départements</i> of France. The French government had ensured that a constitutional law (60-525) was passed which removed the need for a referendum in a territory to confirm a change in status towards independence or départementalisation, so the voters who had rejected independence in 1958 were not consulted about it in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are still a few former colonies that chose to remain part of France, under the status of <a href="/wiki/French_overseas_departments_and_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="French overseas departments and territories">overseas <i>départements</i> or territories</a>. </p><p>Critics of <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a> claimed that the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique" title="Françafrique">Françafrique</a></i></span> had replaced formal direct rule. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence on one hand, he was maintaining French dominance through the operations of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Foccart" title="Jacques Foccart">Jacques Foccart</a>, his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular Biafra in the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a> during the late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there was trouble in French Somaliland (<a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> remains a special case under French suzerainty.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian Ocean island of <a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and not become independent like the other three islands of the Comoro archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <p>French census statistics from 1936 show an imperial population, outside of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> itself, of 69.1 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-Code_Officiel_Géographique_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Code_Officiel_Géographique-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the total population, 16.1 million lived in North Africa, 25.5 million in sub-Saharan Africa, 3.2 million in the Middle East, 0.3 million in the Indian subcontinent, 23.2 million in East and South-East Asia, 0.15 million in the South Pacific, and 0.6 million in the Caribbean.<sup id="cite_ref-pop_1936_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pop_1936-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest colonies were the general governorate of <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> (grouping five separate colonies and protectorates), with 23.0 million, the general governorate of <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> (grouping eight separate colonies), with 14.9 million, the general governorate of <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a> (grouping three <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_France#Departments_of_Algeria_(Départements_d'Algérie)" title="Departments of France">departments</a> and four Saharan territories), with 7.2 million, the <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">protectorate of Morocco</a>, with 6.3 million, the general governorate of <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> (grouping four separate colonies), with 3.9 million, and <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar and Dependencies</a> (incl. the <a href="/wiki/Comoro_Islands" title="Comoro Islands">Comoro Islands</a>), with 3.8 million.<sup id="cite_ref-pop_1936_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pop_1936-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>2.7 million Europeans (French and non-French citizens) and assimilated natives (non-European French citizens) lived in the French colonial empire in 1936 besides 66.4 million non-assimilated natives (French subjects but not citizens).<sup id="cite_ref-pop_1936_131-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pop_1936-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of Europeans lived in North Africa. Non-European French citizens lived essentially in the four "old colonies" (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>), as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Four_Communes" title="Four Communes">Four Communes</a> of Senegal (<a href="/wiki/Saint-Louis,_Senegal" title="Saint-Louis, Senegal">Saint-Louis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rufisque" title="Rufisque">Rufisque</a>) and in the colonies of the South Pacific. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Empire_1919-1939.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/French_Empire_1919-1939.png/960px-French_Empire_1919-1939.png" decoding="async" width="520" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/French_Empire_1919-1939.png 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="524" /></a></span> <br />Population of the French Empire between 1919 and 1939 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th> 1921 </th> <th> 1926 </th> <th> 1931 </th> <th> 1936  </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a></td> <td align="center">39,140,000</td> <td align="center">40,710,000</td> <td align="center">41,550,000</td> <td align="center">41,500,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Colonies, protectorates, and mandates</td> <td align="center">55,556,000</td> <td align="center">59,474,000</td> <td align="center">64,293,000</td> <td align="center">69,131,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><b>Total</b></td> <td align="center"><b>94,696,000</b></td> <td align="center"><b>100,184,000</b></td> <td align="center"><b>105,843,000</b></td> <td align="center"><b>110,631,000</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Percentage of the world population</td> <td align="center">5.02%</td> <td align="center">5.01%</td> <td align="center">5.11%</td> <td align="center">5.15% </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" align="center"><small>Sources: INSEE,</small><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <small>SGF</small><sup id="cite_ref-Code_Officiel_Géographique_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Code_Officiel_Géographique-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_settlers">French settlers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foire_chevaux.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Foire_chevaux.JPG/220px-Foire_chevaux.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Foire_chevaux.JPG/330px-Foire_chevaux.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Foire_chevaux.JPG/440px-Foire_chevaux.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Caldoche" title="Caldoche">Caldoches</a>, French people born in <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to the Americas, except for the <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> in British or Dutch colonies. France generally had close to the slowest natural population growth in Europe, and emigration pressures were therefore quite small<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. A small but significant emigration, numbering only in the tens of thousands, of mainly <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> French populations led to the settlement of the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a>, Canada, and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, both (at the time) French possessions, and colonies in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mascarene" class="mw-redirect" title="Mascarene">Mascarene</a> islands and Africa. In New France, Huguenots were banned from settling in the territory, and Quebec was one of the most staunchly Catholic areas in the world until the <a href="/wiki/Quiet_Revolution" title="Quiet Revolution">Quiet Revolution</a>. The current <a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French Canadian</a> population, which numbers in the millions, is descended almost entirely from New France's small settler population. </p><p>On 31 December 1687 a community of French <a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">Huguenots</a> settled in South Africa. Most of these originally settled in the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>, but have since been quickly absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaner">Afrikaner</a> population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>. Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1787, there were 30,000 white colonists on France's colony of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>. In 1804 <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Dessalines</a>, the first ruler of an independent Haiti (St. Domingue), ordered the <a href="/wiki/1804_Haiti_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="1804 Haiti massacre">massacre of whites</a> remaining on the island.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out of the 40,000 inhabitants on <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, at the end of the 17th century, there were more than 26,000 blacks and 9,000 whites.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bill Marshall wrote, "The first French effort to colonize <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">Guiana</a>, in 1763, failed utterly when tropical diseases and climate killed all but 2,000 of the initial 12,000 settlers."<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French law made it easy for thousands of <i>colons</i>, ethnic or national French from former colonies of North and West Africa, India and <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a>, to live in mainland France. It is estimated that 20,000 <i>colons</i> were living in <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> in 1945. 1.6 million European <i><a href="/wiki/Pieds_noirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieds noirs">pieds noirs</a></i> migrated from <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, Tunisia and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 <a href="/wiki/Pied-noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-noir">French Algerians</a> left <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> in the largest relocation of population in Europe since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Naylor_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naylor-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, over 30,000 French <i>colons</i> left <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a> regime as the <a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a> government confiscated their farms and land properties. In November 2004, several thousand of the estimated 14,000 French nationals in <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> left the country after days of anti-white violence.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from <a href="/wiki/French-Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="French-Canadians">French-Canadians</a> (<a href="/wiki/French-speaking_Quebecer" class="mw-redirect" title="French-speaking Quebecer">Québécois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a>), francophone Louisianians (<a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creoles</a>), and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people">Métis</a>, other populations of French ancestry outside metropolitan France include the <i><a href="/wiki/Caldoche" title="Caldoche">Caldoches</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Zoreilles" title="Zoreilles">Zoreilles</a></i>, <i>Petits-blancs</i> with the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Mauritian" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Mauritian">Franco-Mauritian</a> of various <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Beke_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Beke people">Beke people</a> of the French West Indies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Territories">Territories</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_3">Africa</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_l%27Afrique-Occidentale_fran%C3%A7aise,_1935.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Carte_de_l%27Afrique-Occidentale_fran%C3%A7aise%2C_1935.svg/250px-Carte_de_l%27Afrique-Occidentale_fran%C3%A7aise%2C_1935.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Carte_de_l%27Afrique-Occidentale_fran%C3%A7aise%2C_1935.svg/500px-Carte_de_l%27Afrique-Occidentale_fran%C3%A7aise%2C_1935.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="839" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Map of the colonies in <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> in 1935</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> (1830–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fezzan-Ghadames_Military_Territory" title="Fezzan-Ghadames Military Territory">French Military Territory in Libya</a> (1943–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate in Morocco">French Protectorate in Morocco</a> (1912–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Tunisia">French Protectorate of Tunisia</a> (1881–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> (1895–1958) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mauritania">French Mauritania</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">French Senegal</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guinea" title="French Guinea">French Guinea</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="French Ivory Coast">French Ivory Coast</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="French Niger">French Niger</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Upper_Volta" title="French Upper Volta">French Upper Volta</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Dahomey" title="French Dahomey">French Dahomey</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Togoland" title="French Togoland">French Togoland</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">French Sudan</a> (1959–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> (1910–1958) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">French Gabon</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangui-Shari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubangui-Shari">Ubangui-Shari</a> (1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a> (1958–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Cameroon" title="French Cameroon">French Cameroon</a> (1920–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">French Madagascar</a> (1897–1958) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> (1756–1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_de_France_(Mauritius)" class="mw-redirect" title="Île de France (Mauritius)">Île de France (Mauritius)</a> (1715–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> (1841–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> (1843–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> (1665–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerguelen">Kerguelen</a> (1924–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Paul" title="Île Saint-Paul">Île Saint-Paul</a> (1924–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Amsterdam Island">Amsterdam Island</a> (1924–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a> (1772–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassas_da_India" title="Bassas da India">Bassas da India</a> (1897–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Island" title="Europa Island">Europa Island</a> (1897 )</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Nova_Island" title="Juan de Nova Island">Juan de Nova Island</a> (1897–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorioso_Islands" title="Glorioso Islands">Glorioso Islands</a> (1892–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tromelin_Island" title="Tromelin Island">Tromelin</a> (1722–)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Somalia">French Somalia</a> (1896–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_domains_of_St_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="French domains of St Helena">French domains of St Helena</a> (1854–)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia_3">Asia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French mandate of Syria</a> (1923–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a> (1923–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a> (1673–1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> (1887–1954) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French Cochinchina</a> (1862–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a> (1883–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a> (1883–1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">French protectorate of Cambodia</a> (1863–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">French protectorate of Laos</a> (1893–1953)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhouwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhouwan">Leased territory of Guangzhouwan </a> (1898–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> concessions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_concessions_in_Tianjin" title="Foreign concessions in Tianjin">French concession in Tianjin</a> (1896–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_French_Concession" title="Shanghai French Concession">Shanghai French Concession</a> (1896–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamian_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamian Island">Shamian Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (1896–1943)</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Caribbean">The Caribbean</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Dominica" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Dominica">Commonwealth of Dominica</a> (1690–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> (1649–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> (1635–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> (1697–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> (1635–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a> (1878–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> (1674–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Martin_(island)" title="Saint Martin (island)">Saint Martin</a> (1648–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> (1795–1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Islands" title="Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix" title="Saint Croix">Saint Croix</a> (1664–1733)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vieques" class="mw-redirect" title="Vieques">Vieques</a> (1698–1811)</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a> (1555–1567)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> (1503–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Equinoctial France</a> (1612–1615)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> (1534–1763) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> (1604–1713)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois Country</a> (1675–1769), (1801–1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a> (1535–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> (1682–1762), (1801–1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terre-Neuve_(New_France)" title="Terre-Neuve (New France)">Newfoundland</a> (1658–1713) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a> (1536–)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> (1853–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a> (1842–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a> (1887–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a> (1858–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> (1887–1980)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/60px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/120px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Levant" title="Army of the Levant">Army of the Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFA_franc" title="CFA franc">CFA franc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_French_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of the French Empire">Evolution of the French Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francization" title="Francization">Francization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a> units with a tradition of service overseas <ul><li>1900–1958: <a href="/wiki/Troupes_de_marine" title="Troupes de marine">Troupes de marine</a></li> <li>1900–1958: <a href="/wiki/Troupes_coloniales" title="Troupes coloniales">Troupes coloniales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirailleurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirailleurs">Tirailleurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spahis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spahis">Spahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zouaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Zouaves">Zouaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_flags" title="French colonial flags">French colonial flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonisation of the Americas">French colonisation of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_law_on_colonialism" title="French law on colonialism">French law on colonialism</a> (for teachers, 2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies" title="List of French possessions and colonies">List of French possessions and colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_internationale_de_la_Francophonie" title="Organisation internationale de la Francophonie">Organisation internationale de la Francophonie</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overseas_France" title="Overseas France">Overseas France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_of_the_French_colonies" title="Postage stamps of the French colonies">Postage stamps of the French colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of imperialism">Timeline of imperialism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Aldrich, <i>Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion</i> (1996) p 304</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMelvin_E._Page2003" class="citation book cs1">Melvin E. Page, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC&pg=PA218"><i>Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576073353" title="Special:BookSources/9781576073353"><bdi>9781576073353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism%3A+An+International+Social%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Political+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781576073353&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqFTHBoRvQbsC%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:JD-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:JD_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHyman1998" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, Paula (1998). <i>The Jews of modern France</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520919297" title="Special:BookSources/9780520919297"><bdi>9780520919297</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44955842">44955842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+modern+France&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44955842&rft.isbn=9780520919297&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHinsonFerris2010" class="citation cs2">Hinson, Glenn; Ferris, William (2010), <i>The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 14: Folklife</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>, p. 241, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807898550" title="Special:BookSources/9780807898550"><bdi>9780807898550</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Southern+Culture%3A+Volume+14%3A+Folklife&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780807898550&rft.aulast=Hinson&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft.au=Ferris%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGordon2000" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Leah (2000). <i>The Book of Vodou</i>. Barron's Educational Series. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7641-5249-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7641-5249-1"><bdi>0-7641-5249-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Vodou&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7641-5249-1&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Leah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJerryson2017" class="citation book cs1">Jerryson, Michael K. (2017). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199362387" title="Special:BookSources/9780199362387"><bdi>9780199362387</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Contemporary+Buddhism&rft.pages=279&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780199362387&rft.aulast=Jerryson&rft.aufirst=Michael+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeenanLamontagne2014" class="citation book cs1">Heenan, Patrick; Lamontagne, Monique, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tMG2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA318"><i>The South America Handbook</i></a>. Routledge. p. 318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135973216" title="Special:BookSources/9781135973216"><bdi>9781135973216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+South+America+Handbook&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781135973216&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtMG2AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTony_Chafer2002" class="citation book cs1">Tony Chafer (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GseKljgaW0C&pg=PA84"><i>The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization?</i></a>. Berg. pp. <span class="nowrap">84–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781859735572" title="Special:BookSources/9781859735572"><bdi>9781859735572</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Empire+in+French+West+Africa%3A+France%27s+Successful+Decolonization%3F&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781859735572&rft.au=Tony+Chafer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9GseKljgaW0C%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Ingram_Priestley2018" class="citation book cs1">Herbert Ingram Priestley (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W3dZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT192"><i>France Overseas: A Study of Modern Imperialism</i></a>. Routledge. p. 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351002417" title="Special:BookSources/9781351002417"><bdi>9781351002417</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+Overseas%3A+A+Study+of+Modern+Imperialism&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781351002417&rft.au=Herbert+Ingram+Priestley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW3dZDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mathew Burrows, "'Mission civilisatrice': French cultural policy in the Middle East, 1860–1914." <i>Historical Journal</i> 29.1 (1986): 109–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julian Jackson, <i>The Other Empire</i>, Radio 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarclayChopinEvans2018" class="citation journal cs1">Barclay, Fiona; Chopin, Charlotte Ann; Evans, Martin (3 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F2201473X.2016.1273862">"Introduction: settler colonialism and French Algeria"</a>. <i>Settler Colonial Studies</i>. <b>8</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">115–</span>130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F2201473X.2016.1273862">10.1080/2201473X.2016.1273862</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1893%2F25105">1893/25105</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2201-473X">2201-473X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151527670">151527670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Settler+Colonial+Studies&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+settler+colonialism+and+French+Algeria&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=2018-04-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1893%2F25105&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151527670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2201-473X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F2201473X.2016.1273862&rft.aulast=Barclay&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rft.au=Chopin%2C+Charlotte+Ann&rft.au=Evans%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F2201473X.2016.1273862&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Chafer, <i>The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization?</i> (2002)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.port.ac.uk/3567/">see Chafer abstract</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170314200825/http://eprints.port.ac.uk/3567/">Archived</a> 14 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinger,_BarnettLangdon,_John2008" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Barnett; Langdon, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAzkoxSB4MwC&pg=PA24"><i>Cultured Force: Makers and Defenders of the French Colonial Empire</i></a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299199043" title="Special:BookSources/9780299199043"><bdi>9780299199043</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultured+Force%3A+Makers+and+Defenders+of+the+French+Colonial+Empire&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780299199043&rft.au=Singer%2C+Barnett&rft.au=Langdon%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAzkoxSB4MwC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven R. Pendery, "A Survey of French Fortifications in the New World, 1530–1650." in <i>First Forts: Essays on the Archaeology of Proto-colonial Fortifications</i> ed by Eric Klingelhofer (Brill 2010) pp. 41–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcel Trudel, <i>The Beginnings of New France, 1524–1663</i> (McClelland & Stewart, 1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James R. Miller, <i>Skyscrapers hide the heavens: A history of Indian-white relations in Canada</i> (University of Toronto Press, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Robert_Adair" title="Edward Robert Adair">Edward Robert Adair</a>, "France and the Beginnings of New France." <i>Canadian Historical Review</i> 25.3 (1944): 246–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helen Dewar, "Canada or Guadeloupe?: French and British Perceptions of Empire, 1760–1762." <i>Canadian Historical Review</i> 91.4 (2010): 637–660.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl J. Ekberg, <i>French roots in the Illinois country: The Mississippi frontier in colonial times</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Cheney, <i>Revolutionary Commerce: Globalization and the French Monarchy</i> (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.P.Davis, <i>Black Democracy The Story of Haiti</i> (1928) pp 16–86 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackdemocracyth008705mbp">online free</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lach2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 1</i>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_F._Lach" title="Donald F. Lach">Donald F. Lach</a> pp. 93–94 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PjVKjJ-WgOYC&pg=PA94">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge2-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge2_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge2_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge2_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNewton1936" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Arthur Percival (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA61"><i>The Cambridge History of the British Empire, volume 2</i></a>. p. 61<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+British+Empire%2C+volume+2&rft.pages=61&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Percival&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY-08AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Making2-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Making2_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Making2_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Making2_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Making2_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLachVan_Kley1998" class="citation book cs1">Lach, Donald F; Van Kley, Edwin J (15 December 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SqTQjve2VLsC&pg=RA1-PA393"><i>Asia in the Making of Europe</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 393. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226467658" title="Special:BookSources/9780226467658"><bdi>9780226467658</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Making+of+Europe&rft.pages=393&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998-12-15&rft.isbn=9780226467658&rft.aulast=Lach&rft.aufirst=Donald+F&rft.au=Van+Kley%2C+Edwin+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSqTQjve2VLsC%26pg%3DRA1-PA393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A history of modern India, 1480–1950<i>, Claude Markovits p. 144: The account of the experiences of François Martin de Vitré "incited the king to create a company in the image of that of the United Provinces"</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/europe/empire_fran%C3%A7ais.htm">"Empire colonial français"</a>. www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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ABC-CLIO. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598843361" title="Special:BookSources/9781598843361"><bdi>9781598843361</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+and+Conquest+in+the+Islamic+World%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781598843361&rft.au=Alexander+Mikaberidze&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWjQfo3a1eVMC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlzubairi2019" class="citation cs2">Alzubairi, Fatemah, ed. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Tunisia+-+The+protectorate+%281881%E2%80%931956%29+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FTunisia%2FThe-protectorate-1881-1956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Wesley Johnson, <i>Double Impact: France and Africa in the age of imperialism</i> (Greenwood 1985).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cameroonembassyusa.org/mainFolder/history.html">"Cameroon Embassy in Washington DC, USA"</a>. <i>www.cameroonembassyusa.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-02081-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-02081-1"><bdi>978-0-367-02081-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+Classes+in+Algeria%3A+A+Study+of+Colonialism+and+Socio-Political+Change&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-367-02081-1&rft.aulast=Lazreg&rft.aufirst=Marnia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLange2021" class="citation journal cs1">Lange, Erik De (September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X2000062X">"THE CONGRESS SYSTEM AND THE FRENCH INVASION OF ALGIERS, 1827–1830"</a>. <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>64</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">940–</span>962. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X2000062X">10.1017/S0018246X2000062X</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-246X">0018-246X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233913915">233913915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=THE+CONGRESS+SYSTEM+AND+THE+FRENCH+INVASION+OF+ALGIERS%2C+1827%E2%80%931830&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E940-%3C%2Fspan%3E962&rft.date=2021-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233913915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0018-246X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X2000062X&rft.aulast=Lange&rft.aufirst=Erik+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0018246X2000062X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSwain1933" class="citation journal cs1">Swain, J. 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(1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2143152">"The Occupation of Algiers in 1830: A Study in Anglo-French Diplomacy"</a>. <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>. <b>48</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">359–</span>366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2143152">10.2307/2143152</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-3195">0032-3195</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2143152">2143152</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Occupation+of+Algiers+in+1830%3A+A+Study+in+Anglo-French+Diplomacy&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E359-%3C%2Fspan%3E366&rft.date=1933&rft.issn=0032-3195&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2143152%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2143152&rft.aulast=Swain&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2143152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/la-marche-de-l-histoire/l-algerie-le-temps-colonial-4157976">"L'Algérie, le temps colonial"</a>. <i>France Inter</i> (in French). 13 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+Inter&rft.atitle=L%27Alg%C3%A9rie%2C+le+temps+colonial&rft.date=2012-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiofrance.fr%2Ffranceinter%2Fpodcasts%2Fla-marche-de-l-histoire%2Fl-algerie-le-temps-colonial-4157976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJalata2016" class="citation book cs1">Jalata, Asafa (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92"><i>Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. <span class="nowrap">92–</span>3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-55234-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-55234-1"><bdi>978-1-137-55234-1</bdi></a>. <q>Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phases+of+Terrorism+in+the+Age+of+Globalization%3A+From+Christopher+Columbus+to+Osama+bin+Laden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-55234-1&rft.aulast=Jalata&rft.aufirst=Asafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSCjxCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kiernan2007-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2007_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326"><i>Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364">364</a>–ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10098-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10098-3"><bdi>978-0-300-10098-3</bdi></a>. <q>In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of the French conquest.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Soil%3A+A+World+History+of+Genocide+and+Extermination+from+Sparta+to+Darfur&rft.pages=364-ff&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10098-3&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbloodan_kie_2007_00_0326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUfheil-Somers1981" class="citation web cs1">Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (28 January 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://merip.org/1981/01/origins-of-the-algerian-proletariat/">"Origins of the Algerian Proletariat"</a>. <i>MERIP</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MERIP&rft.atitle=Origins+of+the+Algerian+Proletariat&rft.date=1981-01-28&rft.aulast=Ufheil-Somers&rft.aufirst=Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmerip.org%2F1981%2F01%2Forigins-of-the-algerian-proletariat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBennoune2002" class="citation book cs1">Bennoune, Mahfoud (22 August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42"><i>The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521524322" title="Special:BookSources/9780521524322"><bdi>9780521524322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Contemporary+Algeria%2C+1830%E2%80%931987&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-08-22&rft.isbn=9780521524322&rft.aulast=Bennoune&rft.aufirst=Mahfoud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4nXl7h8i5scC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm#Algeria1830">"French Conquest of Algeria (1829–47)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=French+Conquest+of+Algeria+%281829%E2%80%9347%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fwars19c.htm%23Algeria1830&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girard, 1986, p. 320</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girard, 1986, p. 321-322</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987" class="citation book cs1">Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&pg=PA264"><i>A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic period</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33767-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33767-0"><bdi>978-0-521-33767-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Maghrib+in+the+Islamic+period&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33767-0&rft.aulast=Abun-Nasr&rft.aufirst=Jamil+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjdlKbZ46YYkC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJamil_M._Abun-Nasr1987" class="citation book cs1">Jamil M. Abun-Nasr (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&pg=PA264"><i>A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period</i></a>. Cambridge U.P. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521337670" title="Special:BookSources/9780521337670"><bdi>9780521337670</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Maghrib+in+the+Islamic+Period&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Cambridge+U.P.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780521337670&rft.au=Jamil+M.+Abun-Nasr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjdlKbZ46YYkC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girard, 1986, p. 322-23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Droz, « Insurrection de 1871: la révolte de Mokrani », dans Jeannine Verdès-Leroux (dir.), <i>L'Algérie et la France</i>, Paris, Robert Laffont 2009, pp. 474–475 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-221-10946-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-221-10946-5">978-2-221-10946-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShillington1995" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (1995). "North and north-east Africa in the nineteenth century". <i>History of Africa</i> (2 ed.). Macmillan. p. 276.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=North+and+north-east+Africa+in+the+nineteenth+century&rft.btitle=History+of+Africa&rft.pages=276&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorch1985" class="citation journal cs1">Porch, Douglas (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42952165">"The Dark Side of Beau Geste -- the invasion of the Sahara"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society</i>. <b>10</b>: <span class="nowrap">219–</span>230. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-7055">0362-7055</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42952165">42952165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Meeting+of+the+French+Colonial+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Dark+Side+of+Beau+Geste+--+the+invasion+of+the+Sahara&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E230&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42952165%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0362-7055&rft.aulast=Porch&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42952165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hirshfield-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hirshfield_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClaire_Hirshfield1979" class="citation book cs1">Claire Hirshfield (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vDGCuqGon0gC&pg=PA37"><i>The diplomacy of partition: Britain, France, and the creation of Nigeria, 1890–1898</i></a>. Springer. p. 37ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-2099-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-2099-6"><bdi>978-90-247-2099-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+diplomacy+of+partition%3A+Britain%2C+France%2C+and+the+creation+of+Nigeria%2C+1890%E2%80%931898&rft.pages=37ff&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-90-247-2099-6&rft.au=Claire+Hirshfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvDGCuqGon0gC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand Taithe, <i>The Killer Trail: A Colonial Scandal in the Heart of Africa</i> (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. G. Otte, "From 'War-in-Sight' to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898", <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i> (2006) 17#4 pp 693–714.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. W. Brogan, <i>France under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1930)</i> (1940) pp 321–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William L. Langer, <i>The diplomacy of imperialism: 1890–1902</i> (1951) pp 537–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garrett1982-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garrett1982_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarrett1982" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, John (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b7HYexAnWCoC"><i>To Live Among the Stars: Christian Origins in Oceania</i></a>. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_South_Pacific" title="University of the South Pacific">University of the South Pacific</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">253–</span>256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8254-0692-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8254-0692-2"><bdi>978-2-8254-0692-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17485209">17485209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Live+Among+the+Stars%3A+Christian+Origins+in+Oceania&rft.place=Suva%2C+Fiji&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.pub=Institute+of+Pacific+Studies%2C+University+of+the+South+Pacific&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17485209&rft.isbn=978-2-8254-0692-2&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db7HYexAnWCoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonschor2008-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gonschor2008_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gonschor2008_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gonschor2008_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGonschor2008" class="citation thesis cs1">Gonschor, Lorenz Rudolf (August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200102030644/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/20375/HAWN%20CB5.H3_3524_r.pdf"><i>Law as a Tool of Oppression and Liberation: Institutional Histories and Perspectives on Political Independence in Hawaiʻi, Tahiti Nui/French Polynesia and Rapa Nui</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (MA thesis). Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa. pp. <span class="nowrap">32–</span>51. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F20375">10125/20375</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/798846333">798846333</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/20375/HAWN%20CB5.H3_3524_r.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Law+as+a+Tool+of+Oppression+and+Liberation%3A+Institutional+Histories+and+Perspectives+on+Political+Independence+in+Hawai%CA%BBi%2C+Tahiti+Nui%2FFrench+Polynesia+and+Rapa+Nui&rft.inst=University+of+Hawaii+at+Manoa&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F20375&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F798846333&rft.aulast=Gonschor&rft.aufirst=Lorenz+Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu%2Fbitstream%2F10125%2F20375%2FHAWN%2520CB5.H3_3524_r.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matsuda2005-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matsuda2005_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matsuda2005_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatsuda2005" class="citation book cs1">Matsuda, Matt K. (2005). "Society Islands: Tahitian Archives". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_BBr0sZM5kC"><i>Empire of Love: Histories of France and the Pacific</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">91–</span>112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534747-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534747-0"><bdi>978-0-19-534747-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/191036857">191036857</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Society+Islands%3A+Tahitian+Archives&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Love%3A+Histories+of+France+and+the+Pacific&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F191036857&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534747-0&rft.aulast=Matsuda&rft.aufirst=Matt+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_BBr0sZM5kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gb-1-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gb-1_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_AldrichJohn_Connell2006" class="citation book cs1">Robert Aldrich; John Connell (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&pg=PA46"><i>France's Overseas Frontier: Départements et territoires d'outre-mer</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03036-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03036-6"><bdi>978-0-521-03036-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%27s+Overseas+Frontier%3A+D%C3%A9partements+et+territoires+d%27outre-mer&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03036-6&rft.au=Robert+Aldrich&rft.au=John+Connell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvRB3woPa7LAC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Linden A. Mander, "The New Hebrides Condominium". <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 13.2 (1944): 151-167 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/phr/article-pdf/13/2/151/215890/3634610.pdf">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre Milza, <i>Napoléon III</i> (in French, Paris: 2006), pp. 626–636</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur J. Dommen, <i>The Indochinese experience of the French and the Americans</i> (2001) p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Kwangchow Bay" . <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (11th ed. 1911) p. 957.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaul_French2011" class="citation book cs1">Paul French (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c-8TGS600gQC&pg=PA215"><i>The Old Shanghai A-Z</i></a>. Hong Kong University Press. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789888028894" title="Special:BookSources/9789888028894"><bdi>9789888028894</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Shanghai+A-Z&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789888028894&rft.au=Paul+French&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc-8TGS600gQC%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=USFD_d-d7FhgC&dq=french+Guangzhouwan&pg=PA83"><i>Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion</i>, Google Print, p. 83</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Robert Aldrich, Palgrave Macmillan, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-16000-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-16000-3">0-312-16000-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girard, 1986, p. 313</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDesmond_Gregory1999" class="citation book cs1">Desmond Gregory (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sun7wEcRw_YC&pg=PA103"><i>No Ordinary General: Lt. General Sir Henry Bunbury (1778–1860) : the Best Soldier Historian</i></a>. Fairleigh Dickinson U.P. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780838637913" title="Special:BookSources/9780838637913"><bdi>9780838637913</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Ordinary+General%3A+Lt.+General+Sir+Henry+Bunbury+%281778%E2%80%931860%29+%3A+the+Best+Soldier+Historian&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+U.P.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780838637913&rft.au=Desmond+Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsun7wEcRw_YC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Brown, "Palmerston and Anglo–French Relations, 1846–1865", <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i> (2006) 17#4 pp. 675–692</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. 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Taylor, <i>The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918</i> (1954) pp 286–92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChristina_Carroll2018" class="citation journal cs1">Christina Carroll (Winter 2018). 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Abrams and D. J. Miller, "Who Were the French Colonialists? A Reassessment of the Parti Colonial, 1890-1914" <i>Historical Journal</i> 19#3 (1976), pp. 685-725 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.com/stable/2638226">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBetts,_Raymond_F.2005" class="citation book cs1">Betts, Raymond F. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qykx505NU1oC&pg=PA10"><i>Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914</i></a>. University of Nebraska Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803262478" title="Special:BookSources/9780803262478"><bdi>9780803262478</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assimilation+and+Association+in+French+Colonial+Theory%2C+1890%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780803262478&rft.au=Betts%2C+Raymond+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQykx505NU1oC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Segalla_2009-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Segalla_2009_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Segalla_2009_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Segalla, Spencer. 2009, <i>The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956</i>. Nebraska University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinnacker1938" class="citation journal cs1">Winnacker, Rudolph A. (1938). "Elections in Algeria and the French Colonies under the Third Republic". <i>The American Political Science Review</i>. <b>32</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">261–</span>277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1948669">10.2307/1948669</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1948669">1948669</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145758088">145758088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Elections+in+Algeria+and+the+French+Colonies+under+the+Third+Republic&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E261-%3C%2Fspan%3E277&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145758088%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1948669%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1948669&rft.aulast=Winnacker&rft.aufirst=Rudolph+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/en-quete-de-politique/en-quete-de-politique-du-samedi-04-mars-2023-3885926">"Le colonialisme : épisode 1/2 du podcast Colonialisme, l'idée noire de la République"</a>. <i>France Inter</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of California: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fjvs.2016.11.1.1">10.1525/jvs.2016.11.1.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vietnamese+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ambiguous+Legacy+of+Ng%C3%B4+%C4%90%C3%ACnh+Di%E1%BB%87m+in+South+Vietnam%27s+Second+Republic+%281967%E2%80%931975%29&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fjvs.2016.11.1.1&rft.aulast=Fear&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2Fjvs%2Farticle-pdf%2F11%2F1%2F1%2F184976%2Fjvs_2016_11_1_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartin_S._Alexander2002" class="citation book cs1">Martin S. Alexander; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xLGHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6"><i>Algerian War and the French Army, 1954–62: Experiences, Images, Testimonies</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230500952" title="Special:BookSources/9780230500952"><bdi>9780230500952</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algerian+War+and+the+French+Army%2C+1954%E2%80%9362%3A+Experiences%2C+Images%2C+Testimonies&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780230500952&rft.au=Martin+S.+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxLGHDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpencer_C._Tucker2018" class="citation book cs1">Spencer C. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/label-france_2554/label-france-issues_2555/label-france-no.-41_4201/tourism-and-discovery_4252/guadeloupe-the-mosaic-island_6508.html">the original</a> on 16 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guadeloupe+%3A+the+mosaic+island&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.diplomatie.gouv.fr%2Fen%2Ffrance_159%2Flabel-france_2554%2Flabel-france-issues_2555%2Flabel-france-no.-41_4201%2Ftourism-and-discovery_4252%2Fguadeloupe-the-mosaic-island_6508.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bill Marshall (2005). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jfq5Tp0nq98C">France and the Americas: culture, politics, and history : a multidisciplinary encyclopedia. N – Z, index</a></i>. ABC-CLIO. Pp. 372–373. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851094113" title="Special:BookSources/1851094113">1851094113</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFDE1539F935A35757C0A96E948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">"For Pieds-Noirs, the Anger Endures"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 6 April 1988<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=For+Pieds-Noirs%2C+the+Anger+Endures&rft.date=1988-04-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D940DEFDE1539F935A35757C0A96E948260%26sec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naylor-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Naylor_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNaylor2000" class="citation book cs1">Naylor, Phillip Chiviges (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMUb8R3Cs-MC&q=pied+noir+alienation&pg=PA9"><i>France and Algeria: A History of Decolonization and Transformation</i></a>. University Press of Florida. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>23, 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-3096-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-3096-8"><bdi>978-0-8130-3096-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+and+Algeria%3A+A+History+of+Decolonization+and+Transformation&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E23%2C+14&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-3096-8&rft.aulast=Naylor&rft.aufirst=Phillip+Chiviges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZMUb8R3Cs-MC%26q%3Dpied%2Bnoir%2Balienation%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,138116,00.html">France, U.N. Start Ivory Coast Evacuation</a>, Fox News Channel</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Langley, Michael. "Bizerta to the Bight: The French in Africa". <i>History Today.</i> (Oct 1972), pp 733–739. covers 1798 to 1900.</li> <li>Horne, Alistair. (1977). <i><a href="/wiki/A_Savage_War_of_Peace:_Algeria,_1954-1962" class="mw-redirect" title="A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962">A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962</a></i>. Viking Press.</li> <li>Hutton, Patrick H. ed. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940</i> (2 vol 1986).</li> <li>McDougall, James. (2017). <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Algeria" title="A History of Algeria">A History of Algeria</a></i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>McDougall, James. (2006). <i><a href="/wiki/History_and_the_culture_of_nationalism_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria">History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria</a></i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Northcutt, Wayne, ed. <i>Historical Dictionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Republics, 1946–1991</i> (1992).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policies_and_colonies">Policies and colonies</h3></div> <ul><li>Aldrich, Robert. <i>Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion</i> (1996)</li> <li>Aldrich, Robert. <i>The French Presence in the South Pacific, 1842–1940</i> (1989).</li> <li>Anderson, Fred. <i>Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766</i> (2001), covers New France in Canada</li> <li>Baumgart, Winfried. <i>Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion, 1880–1914</i> (1982)</li> <li>Betts, Raymond. <i>Tricouleur: The French Overseas Empire</i> (1978), 174pp</li> <li>Betts, Raymond. <i>Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914</i> (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Assimilation-Association-French-Colonial-1890-1914/dp/0803262477/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurrows1986" class="citation journal cs1">Burrows, Mathew (1986). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Mission civilisatrice': French Cultural Policy in the Middle East, 1860–1914". <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">109–</span>135. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00018641">10.1017/S0018246X00018641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154801621">154801621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=%27Mission+civilisatrice%27%3A+French+Cultural+Policy+in+the+Middle+East%2C+1860%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00018641&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154801621%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burrows&rft.aufirst=Mathew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChafer,_Tony2002" class="citation book cs1">Chafer, Tony (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GseKljgaW0C"><i>The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization?</i></a>. Berg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781859735572" title="Special:BookSources/9781859735572"><bdi>9781859735572</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Empire+in+French+West+Africa%3A+France%27s+Successful+Decolonization%3F&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781859735572&rft.au=Chafer%2C+Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9GseKljgaW0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Clayton, Anthony. <i>The Wars of French Decolonization</i> (1995)</li> <li>Cogneau, Denis, et al. "Taxation in Africa from Colonial Times to Present Evidence from former French colonies 1900-2018." (2021): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-03420664/document">online</a></li> <li>Conklin, Alice L. <i>A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930</i> (1997)</li> <li>Curtis, Sarah A. <i>Civilizing habits: Women missionaries and the revival of French empire</i> (Oxford UP, 2010); role of nuns</li> <li>Evans, Martin. "From colonialism to post-colonialism: the French empire since Napoleon". in Martin S. Alexander, ed., <i>French History since Napoleon</i> (1999) pp: 391–415.</li> <li>Gamble, Harry. <i>Contesting French West Africa: Battles over Schools and the Colonial Order, 1900–1950</i> (U of Nebraska Press, 2017). 378 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=53876">online review</a></li> <li>Jennings, Eric T. <i>Imperial Heights: Dalat and the Making and Undoing of French Indochina</i> (2010).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKang2018" class="citation book cs1">Kang, Mathilde (2018). "II The affirmation of the French presence in Asia". <i>Francophonie and the Orient: French-Asian Transcultural Crossings (1840-1940)</i>. Translated by Martin Munro. <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_University_Press" title="Amsterdam University Press">Amsterdam University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv80cd6t">10.2307/j.ctv80cd6t</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048540273" title="Special:BookSources/9789048540273"><bdi>9789048540273</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv80cd6t">j.ctv80cd6t</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240251838">240251838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=II+The+affirmation+of+the+French+presence+in+Asia&rft.btitle=Francophonie+and+the+Orient%3A+French-Asian+Transcultural+Crossings+%281840-1940%29&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv80cd6t&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240251838%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv80cd6t%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9789048540273&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=Mathilde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lawrence, Adria. <i>Imperial rule and the politics of nationalism: anti-colonial protest in the French empire</i> (Cambridge UP, 2013).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNewburyKanya-Forstner1969" class="citation journal cs1">Newbury, C. W.; Kanya-Forstner, A. S. (1969). "French Policy and the Origins of the Scramble for West Africa". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>10</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">253–</span>276. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700009518">10.1017/S0021853700009518</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/179514">179514</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162656377">162656377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=French+Policy+and+the+Origins+of+the+Scramble+for+West+Africa&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E276&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162656377%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F179514%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700009518&rft.aulast=Newbury&rft.aufirst=C.+W.&rft.au=Kanya-Forstner%2C+A.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Klein, Martin A. <i>Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1998)</li> <li>Manning, Patrick. <i>Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa 1880-1995</i> (Cambridge UP, 1998).</li> <li>Neres, Philip. <i>French-speaking West Africa: From Colonial Status to Independence</i> (1962)</li> <li>Priestley, Herbert Ingram. <i>France overseas: a study of modern imperialism</i> (1938) 464pp.</li> <li>Quinn, Frederick. <i>The French Overseas Empire</i> (2000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPakenham1991" class="citation book cs1">Pakenham, Thomas (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scrambleforafric00pake"><i>The Scramble for Africa, 1876–1912</i></a></span>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-51576-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-51576-2"><bdi>978-0-394-51576-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa%2C+1876%E2%80%931912&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-394-51576-2&rft.aulast=Pakenham&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscrambleforafric00pake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., <i>A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires</i> (Edinburgh UP, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Companion-Postcolonial-Literatures-Continental/dp/0748623949/">excerpt</a> also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g0b6vw">entire text online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPetringa2006" class="citation book cs1">Petringa, Maria (2006). <i>Brazza, A Life for Africa</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4259-1198-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4259-1198-0"><bdi>978-1-4259-1198-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brazza%2C+A+Life+for+Africa&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+IN&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4259-1198-0&rft.aulast=Petringa&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Priestley, Herbert Ingram. (1938) <i>France overseas;: A study of modern imperialism</i> 463pp; encyclopedic coverage as of late 1930s</li> <li>Roberts, Stephen H. <i>History of French Colonial Policy (1870-1925)</i> (2 vol 1929) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84402">vol 1 online</a> also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89866">vol 2 online</a>; Comprehensive scholarly history</li> <li>Schnerb, Robert. "Napoleon III and the Second French Empire." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 8#3 (1936), pp. 338–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1881540">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSegalla2009" class="citation book cs1">Segalla, Spencer (2009). <i>The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956</i>. Lincoln: Nebraska UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1778-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1778-2"><bdi>978-0-8032-1778-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moroccan+Soul%3A+French+Education%2C+Colonial+Ethnology%2C+and+Muslim+Resistance%2C+1912%E2%80%931956&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=Nebraska+UP&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1778-2&rft.aulast=Segalla&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Strother, Christian. "Waging War on Mosquitoes: Scientific Research and the Formation of Mosquito Brigades in French West Africa, 1899–1920". <i>Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences</i> (2016): jrw005.</li> <li>Thomas, Martin. <i>The French Empire Between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society</i> (2007) covers 1919–1939</li> <li>Thompson, Virginia, and Richard Adloff. <i>French West Africa</i> (Stanford UP, 1958).</li> <li>Wellington, Donald C. <i>French East India companies: A historical account and record of trade</i> (Hamilton Books, 2006)</li> <li>Wesseling, H.L. and <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Pomerans" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold J. Pomerans">Arnold J. Pomerans</a>. <i>Divide and rule: The partition of Africa, 1880–1914</i> (Praeger, 1996.)</li> <li>Wesseling, H.L. <i>The European Colonial Empires: 1815–1919</i> (Routledge, 2015).</li> <li>White, Owen, and James Patrick Daughton, eds. <i>In God's Empire: French Missionaries in the Modern World</i> (Oxford University Press, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLzuDmjV_h4C&dq=French+catholic+missionaries&pg=PP1">online</a></li> <li>Winnacker, R. A. (1938). "Elections in Algeria and the French Colonies under the Third Republic." <i>The American Political Science Review</i>, 32(2), 261–277. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1948669">https://doi.org/10.2307/1948669</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decolonization_2">Decolonization</h3></div> <ul><li>Betts, Raymond F. <i>Decolonization</i> (2nd ed. 2004)</li> <li>Betts, Raymond F. <i>France and Decolonisation, 1900–1960</i> (1991)</li> <li>Chafer, Tony. <i>The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization</i> (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamberlain,_Muriel_E." class="mw-redirect" title="Chamberlain, Muriel E.">Chamberlain, Muriel E.</a> ed. <i>Longman Companion to European Decolonisation in the Twentieth Century</i> (Routledge, 2014)</li> <li>Clayton, Anthony. <i>The wars of French decolonization</i> (Routledge, 2014).</li> <li>Cooper, Frederick. "French Africa, 1947–48: Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation". <i>Critical Inquiry</i> (2014) 40#4 pp: 466–478. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676416">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Ikeda, Ryo. <i>The Imperialism of French Decolonisation: French Policy and the Anglo-American Response in Tunisia and Morocco</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)</li> <li>Jansen, Jan C. & Jürgen Osterhammel. <i>Decolonization: A Short History</i> (princeton UP, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10963.html">online</a></li> <li>Jones, Max, et al. "Decolonising imperial heroes: Britain and France". <i>Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History</i> 42#5 (2014): 787–825.</li> <li>Lawrence, Adria K. <i>Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire</i> (Cambridge UP, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/roundtables/7-18-imperial-rule-nationalism">online reviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McDougall_(academic)" title="James McDougall (academic)">McDougall, James</a>. "The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962", <i>The Journal of Modern History</i> 89#4 (December 2017) pp 772–811 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/694427">excerpt</a></li> <li>Rothermund, Dietmar. <i>Memories of Post-Imperial Nations: The Aftermath of Decolonization, 1945–2013</i> (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Memories-Post-Imperial-Nations-Aftermath-Decolonization/dp/1107102294/">excerpt</a>; Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan</li> <li>Rothermund, Dietmar. <i>The Routledge companion to decolonization</i> (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp</li> <li>Shepard, Todd. <i>The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France</i> (2006)</li> <li>Simpson, Alfred William Brian. <i>Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention</i> (Oxford University Press, 2004).</li> <li>Smith, Tony. "A comparative study of French and British decolonization". <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i> (1978) 20#1 pp: 70–102. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://w3.salemstate.edu/~cmauriello/pdfEuropean/Smith%20Compartive%20French%20and%20British%20Decolonization.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150614085733/http://w3.salemstate.edu/~cmauriello/pdfEuropean/Smith%20Compartive%20French%20and%20British%20Decolonization.pdf">Archived</a> 14 June 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Smith, Tony. "The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946–58." <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i> (1974): 217–247. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260298">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Lawrence J. Butler. <i>Crises of Empire: Decolonization and Europe's imperial states</i> (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015)</li> <li>Von Albertini, Rudolf. <i>Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919–1960</i> (Doubleday, 1971), scholarly analysis of French policies, pp 265–469..</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Images_and_impact_on_France">Images and impact on France</h3></div> <ul><li>Andrew, Christopher M., and Alexander Sydney Kanya-Forstner. "France, Africa, and the First World War". <i>Journal of African History</i> 19.1 (1978): 11–23.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrewKanya-Forstner1976" class="citation journal cs1">Andrew, C. M.; Kanya-Forstner, A. S. (1976). "French Business and the French Colonialists". <i>Historical Journal</i>. <b>19</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">981–</span>1000. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00010803">10.1017/S0018246X00010803</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159812995">159812995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=French+Business+and+the+French+Colonialists&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E981-%3C%2Fspan%3E1000&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00010803&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159812995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rft.au=Kanya-Forstner%2C+A.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638246">online</a></li> <li>Andrew, C. M., and A. S. Kanya-Forstner. "The French 'Colonial Party': Its Composition, Aims and Influence, 1885–1914". <i>Historical Journal</i> 14#1 (1971): 99–128. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637903">online</a>.</li> <li>August, Thomas G. <i>The Selling of the Empire: British and French Imperialist Propaganda, 1890–1940</i> (1985)</li> <li>Chafer, Tony, and Amanda Sackur. <i>Promoting the Colonial Idea: Propaganda and Visions of Empire in France</i> (2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConfer1964" class="citation journal cs1">Confer, Vincent (1964). "French Colonial Ideas before 1789". <i>French Historical Studies</i>. <b>3</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">338–</span>359. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F285947">10.2307/285947</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/285947">285947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=French+Colonial+Ideas+before+1789&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E338-%3C%2Fspan%3E359&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F285947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F285947%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Confer&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Conkin, Alice L. <i>A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930</i> (1997) * Dobie, Madeleine. <i>Trading Places: Colonization & Slavery in 18th-Century French Culture</i> (2010)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartin1985" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Guy (1985). "The Historical, Economic, and Political Bases of France's African Policy". <i>The Journal of Modern African Studies</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022278X00000148">10.1017/S0022278X00000148</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154727976">154727976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Historical%2C+Economic%2C+and+Political+Bases+of+France%27s+African+Policy&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E208&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022278X00000148&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154727976%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Rosenblum, Mort. <i>Mission to Civilize: The French Way</i> (1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-07-05-bk-2118-story.html">online review</a></li> <li>Rothermund, Dietmar. <i>Memories of Post-Imperial Nations: The Aftermath of Decolonization, 1945–2013</i> (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Memories-Post-Imperial-Nations-Aftermath-Decolonization/dp/1107102294/">excerpt</a>; Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan.</li> <li>Singer, Barnett, and John Langdon. <i>Cultured Force: Makers and Defenders of the French Colonial Empire</i> (2008)</li> <li>Thomas, Martin, ed. <i>The French Colonial Mind, Volume 1: Mental Maps of Empire and Colonial Encounters</i> (France Overseas: Studies in Empire and D) (2012); <i>The French Colonial Mind, Volume 2: Violence, Military Encounters, and Colonialism</i> (2012).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memoir">Historiography and memoir</h3></div> <ul><li>Bennington, Alice. "Writing Empire? The Reception of Post-Colonial Studies in France". <i>Historical Journal</i> (2016) 59#4: 1157–1186. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/div-classtitlerewriting-empire-the-reception-of-post-colonial-studies-in-francea-hreffns01-ref-typefnadiv/32DA3F5C79BF6B46BE39A67840BF1D36">abstract</a></li> <li>Dubois, Laurent. "The French Atlantic", in <i>Atlantic History: A Critical Appraisal,</i> ed. by Jack P. Greene and Philip D. Morgan, (Oxford UP, 2009) pp. 137–61.</li> <li>Dwyer, Philip. "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars", <i>French Politics, Culture & Society</i> (2008) 26#3 pp 110–122.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmerson1969" class="citation journal cs1">Emerson, Rupert (1969). "Colonialism". <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200946900400101">10.1177/002200946900400101</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220878619">220878619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Colonialism&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200946900400101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220878619%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=Rupert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+colonial+empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Greer, Allan. "National, Transnational, and Hypernational Historiographies: New France Meets Early American History", <i>Canadian Historical Review,</i> (2010) 91#4 pp 695–724, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/canadian_historical_review/v091/91.4.greer.html">in Project MUSE</a></li> <li>Hodson, Christopher, and Brett Rushforth, "Absolutely Atlantic: Colonialism and the Early Modern French State in Recent Historiography", <i>History Compass,</i> (January 2010) 8#1 pp 101–117</li> <li>Pernsteiner, Alexis (translator). (2017). <i>The Colonial Legacy in France: Fracture, Rupture, and Apartheid</i> (N. Bancel, P. Blanchard, & D. Thomas, Eds.). Indiana University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt20060bg">https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt20060bg</a>.</li> <li>Lawrence, Adria K. <i>Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire</i> (Cambridge UP, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/roundtables/7-18-imperial-rule-nationalism">online reviews</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in 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Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">West Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="French Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Dahomey" title="French Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guinea" title="French Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Mauritania" title="Colonial Mauritania">Mauritania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguin Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Niger" title="Colony of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">Senegal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Communes" title="Four Communes">Four Communes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Upper_Volta" title="French Upper Volta">Upper Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Togoland" title="French Togoland">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunta_Kinteh_Island" title="Kunta Kinteh Island">James Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albreda" title="Albreda">Albreda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">Middle Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Cameroons" class="mw-redirect" title="French Cameroons">Cameroons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Comoros" class="mw-redirect" title="French Comoros">Comoros</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anjouan" title="Anjouan">Anjouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Comore" title="Grande Comore">Grande Comore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li" title="Mohéli">Mohéli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">Somaliland (Djibouti)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_de_France_(Mauritius)" title="Isle de France (Mauritius)">Isle de France</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Former French colonies</a> <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">in the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">French North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Terre Neuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">French Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">French Texas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadines" title="Grenadines">The Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ha%C3%AFti" class="mw-redirect" title="Haïti">Haïti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Dominican Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_%26_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Kitts & Nevis">Saint Kitts & Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Vincent (island)">Saint Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Equinoctial France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inini" title="Inini">Inini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_India_Company" title="French West India Company">French West India Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania270" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Former French colonies</a> in Asia and Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandannagar" title="Chandannagar">Chandernagor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chennai" title="History of Chennai">Madras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_India" title="Mahé, India">Mahé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puducherry" title="History of Puducherry">Pondichéry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaikal" title="Karaikal">Karaikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanam" title="Yanam">Yanaon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochinese Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Kouang-Tchéou-Wan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria<br />and the Lebanon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">Damascus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawite State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabal_Druze_State" title="Jabal Druze State">Jabal al-Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Alexandretta" title="Sanjak of Alexandretta">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vanuatu" title="History of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanto-Bordelaise_Company" title="Nanto-Bordelaise Company">Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Asia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="France–Asia relations">France–Asia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV%27s_East_India_Company" title="Louis XIV's East India Company">Louis XIV's East India Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Overseas_France" title="Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Overseas_France" title="Template talk:Overseas France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Overseas_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Overseas_France298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_France" title="Overseas France">Overseas France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Inhabited_territories298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">Overseas<wbr /> regions</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_collectivity" title="Overseas collectivity">Overseas<wbr /> collectivities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" title="Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">Sui generis</a><wbr /> collectivity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Uninhabited_territories298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Uninhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">North Pacific Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_territory_(France)" title="Overseas territory (France)">Overseas territory</a><wbr /> (<a href="/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern<wbr /> and Antarctic Lands</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_domains_of_Saint_Helena" title="French domains of Saint Helena">French domains of Saint Helena</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_domains_of_the_Holy_Land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French domains of the Holy Land (page does not exist)">French domains of the Holy Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands" title="Kerguelen Islands">Kerguelen Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Paul" title="Île Saint-Paul">Saint Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Amsterdam" title="Île Amsterdam">Amsterdam Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scattered_Islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean">Scattered Islands in<wbr /> the Indian Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bassas_da_India" title="Bassas da India">Bassas da India</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Island" title="Europa Island">Europa Island</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorioso_Islands" title="Glorioso Islands">Glorioso Islands</a><sup><small>2, 3</small></sup> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Banc_du_Geyser" title="Banc du Geyser">Banc du Geyser</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Nova_Island" title="Juan de Nova Island">Juan de Nova Island</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tromelin_Island" title="Tromelin Island">Tromelin Island</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Also known as <a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">overseas departments</a></li> <li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><sup><small>3</small></sup> Claimed by <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><sup><small>4</small></sup> Claimed by <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_attempts_by_Poland" title="Colonization attempts by Poland">attempts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_imperialism" title="Ecological imperialism">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">U.S.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="New_France265" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_France" title="Template:New France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_France" title="Template talk:New France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="New_France265" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French colonial empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_New_France_history" title="Timeline of New France history">Timeline of New France history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Quebec_history_(beginnings%E2%80%931533)" title="Timeline of Quebec history (beginnings–1533)">Beginnings–1533</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_New_France_history_(1534%E2%80%931607)" title="Timeline of New France history (1534–1607)">1534–1607</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Quebec_history_(1608%E2%80%931662)" title="Timeline of Quebec history (1608–1662)">1608–1662</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Quebec_history_(1663%E2%80%931759)" title="Timeline of Quebec history (1663–1759)">1663–1759</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">1763 Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Quebec" title="History of Quebec">History of Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Acadians" title="History of the Acadians">History of the Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Franco-Americans" title="History of the Franco-Americans">History of the French-Americans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> (1604–1713)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a> (1608–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terre-Neuve_(New_France)" title="Terre-Neuve (New France)">Terre-Neuve</a> (1662–1713)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> (1682–1763, 1801–1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Île Royale</a> (1713–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Country" title="Ohio Country">Ohio Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pays_d%27en_Haut" title="Pays d'en Haut">Pays d'en Haut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domaine_du_roy" title="Domaine du roy">Domaine du roy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_and_villages_in_New_France" title="List of towns and villages in New France">Towns and<br /> villages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Acadie <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_(Acadia)" title="Port-Royal (Acadia)">Port Royal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Quebec_City" title="History of Quebec City">Quebec City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="Trois-Rivières">Trois-Rivières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montreal" title="History of Montreal">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Detroit" title="History of Detroit">Détroit</a></li></ul></li> <li>Île Royale <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_Louisbourg" title="Fortress of Louisbourg">Louisbourg</a></li></ul></li> <li>Louisiane <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mobile,_Alabama" title="History of Mobile, Alabama">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi,_Mississippi" title="Biloxi, Mississippi">Biloxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Orleans" title="History of New Orleans">New Orleans</a></li></ul></li> <li>Terre-Neuve <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placentia,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Placentia, Newfoundland and Labrador">Plaisance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_forts_in_North_America" title="List of French forts in North America">List of French forts in North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Rouill%C3%A9" title="Fort Rouillé">Fort Rouillé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Michilimackinac" title="Fort Michilimackinac">Fort Michilimackinac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_de_Buade" title="Fort de Buade">Fort de Buade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_de_Chartres" title="Fort de Chartres">Fort de Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Detroit" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Detroit">Fort Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ticonderoga" title="Fort Ticonderoga">Fort Carillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Conde" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Conde">Fort Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Duquesne" title="Fort Duquesne">Fort Duquesne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_Louisbourg" title="Fortress of Louisbourg">Fortress of Louisbourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle_Hill,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Castle Hill, Newfoundland and Labrador">Castle Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starved_Rock_State_Park" title="Starved Rock State Park">Fort St. Louis (Illinois)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">Fort St. Louis (Texas)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_New_France" title="Governor General of New France">Governor General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intendant_of_New_France" title="Intendant of New France">Intendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_New_France" title="Sovereign Council of New France">Sovereign Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Quebec" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec">Bishop of Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="List of governors of Trois-Rivières">Governor of Trois-Rivières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Montreal" title="Governor of Montreal">Governor of Montreal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Acadie <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Acadia" title="List of governors of Acadia">Governor</a></li></ul></li> <li>Terre-Neuve <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador#Governors_of_Plaisance,_1655–1713" title="List of governors of Newfoundland and Labrador">Governor</a></li></ul></li> <li>Louisiane <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Louisiana" title="List of colonial governors of Louisiana">Governor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Custom_of_Paris_in_New_France" title="Custom of Paris in New France">Custom of Paris in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seigneurial_system_of_New_France" title="Seigneurial system of New France">Seigneurial system of New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_in_New_France" title="Criminal justice in New France">Criminal justice in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intendant" title="Intendant">Intendancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_New_France" title="Sovereign Council of New France">Superior Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_court" title="Admiralty court">Admiralty court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provost_(civil)" title="Provost (civil)">Provostship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">Officiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailiff" title="Bailiff">Bailiff</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%A9chauss%C3%A9e" title="Maréchaussée">Maréchaussée</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemin_du_Roy" title="Chemin du Roy">Chemin du Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">Fur trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coureur_des_bois" title="Coureur des bois">Coureur des bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyageurs" title="Voyageurs">Voyageurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_of_One_Hundred_Associates" title="Company of One Hundred Associates">Company of One Hundred Associates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_India_Company" title="French West India Company">French West India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Law%27s_Company" title="John Law's Company">John Law's Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indies_Company" title="French Indies Company">French Indies Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_of_New_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Population of New France">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1666_census_of_New_France" title="1666 census of New France">1666 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitants" title="Habitants">Habitants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">Canadiens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Daughters" title="King's Daughters">King's Daughters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casquette_girl" title="Casquette girl">Casquette girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Gens de couleur libres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_New_France" title="Alcohol in New France">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_France_livre" title="New France livre">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Card_money_in_New_France" title="Card money in New France">card money</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_France_Intellectual_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="New France Intellectual Life">Intellectual life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Missionary groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_missions_in_North_America" title="Jesuit missions in North America">Jesuit missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recollects" title="Recollects">Récollets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_Nuns" title="Grey Nuns">Grey Nuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursulines" title="Ursulines">Ursulines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Priests_of_Saint_Sulpice" title="Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice">Sulpicians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_New_France" title="Military of New France">Military of New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Acadians" title="Military history of the Acadians">Military history of the Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_Civil_War" title="Acadian Civil War">Acadian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">Intercolonial Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">French and Iroquois Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Acadians" title="Expulsion of the Acadians">Expulsion of the Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Peace_of_Montreal" title="Great Peace of Montreal">Great Peace of Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachine_massacre" title="Lachine massacre">Lachine Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schenectady_massacre" title="Schenectady massacre">Schenectady Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Deerfield" title="Raid on Deerfield">Deerfield Raid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:New_France" title="Category:New France">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Indochina188" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Indochina" title="Template:French Indochina"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Indochina" title="Template talk:French Indochina"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Indochina" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Indochina"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Indochina188" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Asia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="France–Asia relations">France–Asia relations</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French colonial empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="France–Vietnam relations">France–Vietnam relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Thailand_relations" title="France–Thailand relations">France–Thailand relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93France_relations" title="China–France relations">France–China relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constituent<br />territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhouwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Central_Government_of_Vietnam" title="Provisional Central Government of Vietnam">Provisional Central Government of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh (1777–1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_V%C4%83n_Kh%C3%B4i_revolt" title="Lê Văn Khôi revolt">Lê Văn Khôi revolt (1833–35)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1847)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1847)">Bombardment of Tourane (1847)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tourane" title="Siege of Tourane">Siege of Tourane (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina campaign (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_campaign" title="Tonkin campaign">Tonkin campaign (1883–1886)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War (1884–1885)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Tonkin" title="Pacification of Tonkin">Pacification of Tonkin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Man%27s_Rebellion" title="Holy Man's Rebellion">Holy Man's Rebellion (1901-1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1916 Cochinchina uprising">1916 Cochinchina uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Thái Nguyên uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vue_Pa_Chay%27s_revolt" title="Vue Pa Chay's revolt">Vue Pa Chay's revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_the_recruiter_Bazin" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of the recruiter Bazin">Bazin assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Yên Bái mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">French–Thai War (1940–1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Independence_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam">Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Permanent_Military_Tribunal_in_Saigon" title="French Permanent Military Tribunal in Saigon">French Permanent Military Tribunal in Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition of Vietnam">Partition of Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1787)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1787)">Treaty of Versailles (1787)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saigon_(1862)" title="Treaty of Saigon (1862)">Treaty of Saigon (1862)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1863)" title="Treaty of Huế (1863)">Treaty of Huế (1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saigon_(1874)" title="Treaty of Saigon (1874)">Treaty of Saigon (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1883)" title="Treaty of Huế (1883)">Treaty of Huế (1883)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF_(1884)" title="Treaty of Huế (1884)">Treaty of Huế (1884)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tientsin (1885)">Treaty of Tientsin (1885)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">Geneva Conference (1954)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">French<br />personalities</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pigneau_de_Behaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Pigneau de Behaine">Pierre Pigneau de Behaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Chaigneau" title="Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau">Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_C%C3%A9cille" title="Jean-Baptiste Cécille">Jean-Baptiste Cécille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Montigny" title="Charles de Montigny">Charles de Montigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rigault_de_Genouilly" title="Charles Rigault de Genouilly">Charles Rigault de Genouilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Courbet" title="Amédée Courbet">Amédée Courbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Rivi%C3%A8re_(naval_officer)" title="Henri Rivière (naval officer)">Henri Rivière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Garnier" title="Francis Garnier">Francis Garnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Doudart_de_Lagr%C3%A9e" title="Ernest Doudart de Lagrée">Ernest Doudart de Lagrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Pavie" title="Auguste Pavie">Auguste Pavie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sarraut" title="Albert Sarraut">Albert Sarraut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society" title="Paris Foreign Missions Society">Paris Foreign Missions Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirailleurs_indochinois" title="Tirailleurs indochinois">Tirailleurs indochinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Expeditionary_Corps" title="Tonkin Expeditionary Corps">Tonkin Expeditionary Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkinese_Rifles" title="Tonkinese Rifles">Tonkinese Rifles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_French_Indochina" title="List of governors-general of French Indochina">Governor-General of French Indochina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_colonial_conflicts112" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_colonial_conflicts112" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French colonial conflicts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="North_America13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parris_Island,_South_Carolina" title="Parris Island, South Carolina">South Carolina (1562)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">Florida (1562–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_de_Gourgue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominique de Gourgue">Florida (1568)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies#Americas" title="List of French possessions and colonies">Brazil (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">Brazil (1555–67)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies#Americas" title="List of French possessions and colonies">Brazil (1590–04)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_de_Razilly" title="Isaac de Razilly">Morocco (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Senegal" title="French conquest of Senegal">Senegal (1659–77)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djidjelli_expedition" title="Djidjelli expedition">Djidjelli (1664)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1682)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1682)">Algiers (1682)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1683)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1683)">Algiers (1683)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1688)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1688)">Algiers (1688)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars (1609–1701)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Brazil (1612–15)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1627%E2%80%931629)" title="Anglo-French War (1627–1629)">North America (1627–29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">West Indies (1635–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carib_Expulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Carib Expulsion">Carib Expulsion (1660)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">Texas (1685–89)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War (1689–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sabana_Real" title="Battle of Sabana Real">Santo Domingo (1691)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1688" title="Siamese revolution of 1688">Siam (1687–90)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Seven_Years%27_War:_Africa" title="Template:Campaignbox Seven Years' War: Africa">West Africa (1758–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larache_expedition" title="Larache expedition">Morocco (1765)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War (1702–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Wars" title="Chickasaw Wars">Chickasaw Wars (1721–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War (1721–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natchez_revolt" title="Natchez revolt">Natchez revolt (1729)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War (1744–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Nova Scotia (1749–55)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War (1754–60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">North America (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">Caribbean (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Santo Domingo (1795–1809)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Myanmar_relations" title="France–Myanmar relations">Burma–France relations (1729–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carnatic_War" title="First Carnatic War">India (1746–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars#Second_Carnatic_War_(1749–1754)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">India (1749–54)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Carnatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Carnatic War">India (1756–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">Vietnam (1777–1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">East Indies (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Indies_theatre_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="East Indies theatre of the French Revolutionary Wars">East Indies (1793–1801)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius_campaign_of_1809%E2%80%9311" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauritius campaign of 1809–11">Indian Ocean (1809–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">Algeria (1830–47)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Algeria (1835–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Moroccan_War" title="Franco-Moroccan War">Morocco (1844)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Sal%C3%A9" title="Bombardment of Salé">Salé (1851)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Senegal" title="French conquest of Senegal">French conquest of Senegal (1854)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Tunisia" title="French conquest of Tunisia">Tunisia (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Madagascar_expedition" title="First Madagascar expedition">Madagascar (1883)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandingo_Wars" title="Mandingo Wars">Ivory Coast (1883–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="First Franco-Dahomean War">First Franco-Dahomean War (1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="Second Franco-Dahomean War">Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–94)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Madagascar_expedition" title="Second Madagascar expedition">Second Madagascar expedition (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menalamba_rebellion" title="Menalamba rebellion">Menalamba rebellion (1895–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voulet%E2%80%93Chanoine_Mission" title="Voulet–Chanoine Mission">Voulet–Chanoine Mission (1898–1900)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Campaign_1804%E2%80%9310" class="mw-redirect" title="West Indies Campaign 1804–10">West Indies (1804–10)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata (1838–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastry_War" title="Pastry War">Mexico (1838–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Argentina–Uruguay (1845–50)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Intervention in Mexico (1861–67)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia & Pacific Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Spice_Islands" title="Invasion of the Spice Islands">Moluccas (1810)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">Java (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Basilan#The_French_blockade" title="History of Basilan">Philippines (1844–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1847)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1847)">Tourane (1847)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Tahitian_War" title="Franco-Tahitian War">Franco-Tahitian War (1844–47)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1856)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1856)">Tourane (1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garnier_Expedition" title="Garnier Expedition">North Vietnam (1873–74)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonkin Campaign">Tonkin Campaign (1883–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War (1884–85)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Tonkin" title="Pacification of Tonkin">North Vietnam (1886–96)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimonoseki_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimonoseki Campaign">Japan (1863–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_against_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign against Korea">Korea (1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Leeward_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Leeward Islands">Leewards War (1888–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wadai_War" title="Wadai War">Wadai War (1906–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Casablanca_(1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardment of Casablanca (1907)">Casablanca (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Morocco" title="French conquest of Morocco">Morocco (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War (1914–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War (1915–16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt (1916–17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Rif War (1920–26)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo-Wara_rebellion" title="Kongo-Wara rebellion">Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–31)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising (1947–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War (1954–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon_War" title="Cameroon War">Cameroon War (1955–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War (1957–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bizerte_crisis" title="Bizerte crisis">Bizerte crisis (1961)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion (1901)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Man%27s_Rebellion" title="Holy Man's Rebellion">Holy Man's Rebellion (1901–36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1916 Cochinchina uprising">Vietnam (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Vietnam (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vue_Pa_Chay%27s_revolt" title="Vue Pa Chay's revolt">Vietnam (1918–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Syria (1919–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Cilicia (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Syria (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Vietnam (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87-T%C4%A9nh_Soviets" title="Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets">Vietnam (1930–31)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1940 Cochinchina uprising">Vietnam (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War (1940–41)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Indochina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Indochina Campaign">Indochina (1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Vietnam (1945–46)">South Vietnam (1945–46)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War (1946–54)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ouv%C3%A9a_cave_hostage_taking" title="Ouvéa cave hostage taking">Ouvéa cave hostage taking (1988)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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