CINXE.COM

The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space-Time | Quanta Magazine

<!doctype html> <html lang='en'> <head> <meta charset='utf-8'> <meta name='viewport' content='width=device-width, initial-scale=1, minimum-scale=1'> <link rel='icon' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/themes/quanta2024/frontend/images/favicon.png' /> <link rel='apple-touch-icon' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/themes/quanta2024/frontend/images/apple-touch-icon.png' /> <title>The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space&#x2d;Time | Quanta Magazine</title> <!-- The SEO Framework by Sybre Waaijer --> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/" /> <meta name="description" content="These three imagined scenarios lead many physicists to doubt that space&#x2d;time is fundamental." /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_US" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Quanta Magazine" /> <meta property="og:title" content="The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space&#x2d;Time | Quanta Magazine" /> <meta property="og:description" content="These three imagined scenarios lead many physicists to doubt that space&#x2d;time is fundamental." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/ThoughtExperiments_ThoughtExperiments-crMarkBelan-Social.webp" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1201" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="631" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2024-09-25T16:02:50+00:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2024-09-25T17:48:31+00:00" /> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@QuantaMagazine" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@walkingthedot" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space&#x2d;Time | Quanta Magazine" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="These three imagined scenarios lead many physicists to doubt that space&#x2d;time is fundamental." /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/ThoughtExperiments_ThoughtExperiments-crMarkBelan-Social.webp" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/#/schema/WebSite","url":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/","name":"Quanta Magazine","description":"Illuminating science","inLanguage":"en-US","potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/search/{search_term_string}/"},"query-input":"required name=search_term_string"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/#/schema/Organization","name":"Quanta Magazine","url":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/"}},{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/","url":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/","name":"The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space&#x2d;Time | Quanta Magazine","description":"These three imagined scenarios lead many physicists to doubt that space&#x2d;time is fundamental.","inLanguage":"en-US","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/#/schema/WebSite"},"breadcrumb":{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/#/schema/BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/","name":"Quanta Magazine"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/./physics/","name":"Physics News, Interviews and Columns"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space&#x2d;Time"}]},"potentialAction":{"@type":"ReadAction","target":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/"},"datePublished":"2024-09-25T16:02:50+00:00","dateModified":"2024-09-25T17:48:31+00:00","author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/#/schema/Person/cc78194aeac9ea0863bfd3c1e5ffee33","name":"Charlie Wood","sameAs":"https://twitter.com/walkingthedot","description":"Charlie Wood is a staff writer covering physics at Quanta Magazine. His articles about advances in the physical sciences both on and off the planet have appeared in Popular Science, Scientific American, The Christian Science Monitor and other..."}}]}</script> <!-- / The SEO Framework by Sybre Waaijer | 6.57ms meta | 0.27ms boot --> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Quanta Magazine &raquo; The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space-Time Comments Feed" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/feed/" /> <script type="text/javascript"> /* <![CDATA[ */ window._wpemojiSettings = {"baseUrl":"https:\/\/s.w.org\/images\/core\/emoji\/15.0.3\/72x72\/","ext":".png","svgUrl":"https:\/\/s.w.org\/images\/core\/emoji\/15.0.3\/svg\/","svgExt":".svg","source":{"concatemoji":"https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/wp-includes\/js\/wp-emoji-release.min.js?ver=6.6.2"}}; /*! This file is auto-generated */ !function(i,n){var o,s,e;function c(e){try{var t={supportTests:e,timestamp:(new Date).valueOf()};sessionStorage.setItem(o,JSON.stringify(t))}catch(e){}}function p(e,t,n){e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(t,0,0);var t=new Uint32Array(e.getImageData(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height).data),r=(e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(n,0,0),new Uint32Array(e.getImageData(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height).data));return t.every(function(e,t){return e===r[t]})}function u(e,t,n){switch(t){case"flag":return n(e,"\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f\u200d\u26a7\ufe0f","\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f\u200b\u26a7\ufe0f")?!1:!n(e,"\ud83c\uddfa\ud83c\uddf3","\ud83c\uddfa\u200b\ud83c\uddf3")&&!n(e,"\ud83c\udff4\udb40\udc67\udb40\udc62\udb40\udc65\udb40\udc6e\udb40\udc67\udb40\udc7f","\ud83c\udff4\u200b\udb40\udc67\u200b\udb40\udc62\u200b\udb40\udc65\u200b\udb40\udc6e\u200b\udb40\udc67\u200b\udb40\udc7f");case"emoji":return!n(e,"\ud83d\udc26\u200d\u2b1b","\ud83d\udc26\u200b\u2b1b")}return!1}function f(e,t,n){var r="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope?new OffscreenCanvas(300,150):i.createElement("canvas"),a=r.getContext("2d",{willReadFrequently:!0}),o=(a.textBaseline="top",a.font="600 32px Arial",{});return e.forEach(function(e){o[e]=t(a,e,n)}),o}function t(e){var t=i.createElement("script");t.src=e,t.defer=!0,i.head.appendChild(t)}"undefined"!=typeof Promise&&(o="wpEmojiSettingsSupports",s=["flag","emoji"],n.supports={everything:!0,everythingExceptFlag:!0},e=new Promise(function(e){i.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",e,{once:!0})}),new Promise(function(t){var n=function(){try{var e=JSON.parse(sessionStorage.getItem(o));if("object"==typeof e&&"number"==typeof e.timestamp&&(new Date).valueOf()<e.timestamp+604800&&"object"==typeof e.supportTests)return e.supportTests}catch(e){}return null}();if(!n){if("undefined"!=typeof Worker&&"undefined"!=typeof OffscreenCanvas&&"undefined"!=typeof URL&&URL.createObjectURL&&"undefined"!=typeof Blob)try{var e="postMessage("+f.toString()+"("+[JSON.stringify(s),u.toString(),p.toString()].join(",")+"));",r=new Blob([e],{type:"text/javascript"}),a=new Worker(URL.createObjectURL(r),{name:"wpTestEmojiSupports"});return void(a.onmessage=function(e){c(n=e.data),a.terminate(),t(n)})}catch(e){}c(n=f(s,u,p))}t(n)}).then(function(e){for(var t in e)n.supports[t]=e[t],n.supports.everything=n.supports.everything&&n.supports[t],"flag"!==t&&(n.supports.everythingExceptFlag=n.supports.everythingExceptFlag&&n.supports[t]);n.supports.everythingExceptFlag=n.supports.everythingExceptFlag&&!n.supports.flag,n.DOMReady=!1,n.readyCallback=function(){n.DOMReady=!0}}).then(function(){return e}).then(function(){var e;n.supports.everything||(n.readyCallback(),(e=n.source||{}).concatemoji?t(e.concatemoji):e.wpemoji&&e.twemoji&&(t(e.twemoji),t(e.wpemoji)))}))}((window,document),window._wpemojiSettings); /* ]]> */ </script> <style id='wp-emoji-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> img.wp-smiley, img.emoji { display: inline !important; border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; height: 1em !important; width: 1em !important; margin: 0 0.07em !important; vertical-align: -0.1em !important; background: none !important; padding: 0 !important; } </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wp-block-library-css' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=6.6.2' type='text/css' media='all' /> <style id='co-authors-plus-coauthors-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .wp-block-co-authors-plus-coauthors.is-layout-flow [class*=wp-block-co-authors-plus]{display:inline} </style> <style id='co-authors-plus-avatar-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .wp-block-co-authors-plus-avatar :where(img){height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:bottom}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-coauthors.is-layout-flow .wp-block-co-authors-plus-avatar :where(img){vertical-align:middle}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-avatar:is(.alignleft,.alignright){display:table}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-avatar.aligncenter{display:table;margin-inline:auto} </style> <style id='co-authors-plus-image-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .wp-block-co-authors-plus-image{margin-bottom:0}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-image :where(img){height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:bottom}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-coauthors.is-layout-flow .wp-block-co-authors-plus-image :where(img){vertical-align:middle}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-image:is(.alignfull,.alignwide) :where(img){width:100%}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-image:is(.alignleft,.alignright){display:table}.wp-block-co-authors-plus-image.aligncenter{display:table;margin-inline:auto} </style> <style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> /*! This file is auto-generated */ .wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} </style> <style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> :root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} :where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;} :where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;} :root :where(.wp-block-pullquote){font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;} </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='privacy-consent-front-css' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/sf-privacy-consent/css/front.min.css?ver=6.6.2' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='fonts-css' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/themes/quanta2024/frontend/css/fonts.css' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='main-css' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/themes/quanta2024/frontend/dist/main.min.css?ver=1730911106' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='simple-favorites-css' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/quanta-favorites/assets/css/favorites.css?ver=2.3.4' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-json/" /><link rel="alternate" title="JSON" type="application/json" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-json/wp/v2/posts/141609" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (JSON)" type="application/json+oembed" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.quantamagazine.org%2Fthe-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925%2F" /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (XML)" type="text/xml+oembed" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.quantamagazine.org%2Fthe-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925%2F&#038;format=xml" /> <script> // Define dataLayer and the gtag function. window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} // Set default consent to 'denied' gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'analytics_storage': 'granted' }); </script> <!-- Google Tag Manager --> <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-KZGMXJ7');</script> <!-- End Google Tag Manager --> <style> #postBody {--theme-text: #1a1a1a;--theme-accent: #ff8600;--theme-background: #FFFFFF;}.theme__text {color: #1a1a1a;}.theme__text-background,.flickity-page-dots .dot {background-color: #1a1a1a;}.theme__text-hover:hover {color: #1a1a1a;}.theme__background {color: #FFFFFF;}.theme__background-background {background-color: #FFFFFF;}.putz__inner,.theme__accent {color: #ff8600;}.theme__accent-background, .theme__accent-bg-hover:hover,.flickity-page-dots .dot.is-selected {background-color: #ff8600;}.theme__accent-hover:hover, .download-button * {color: #ff8600;}.theme__accent-hover-child:hover * {color: #ff8600;}.theme__anchors--underline a {box-shadow: inset 0 0 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0), 0 1px 0 #1a1a1a;}.theme__anchors--underline a:hover {box-shadow: inset 0 0 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0), 0 1px 0 #ff8600;}.theme__anchors--solid a {color: #ff8600;}.theme__anchors--solid a:hover {color: #1a1a1a;}.theme__anchors--underline h2.large a {color: #1a1a1a;box-shadow: none;}.theme__anchors--underline h2.large a:hover {color: #ff8600;}.is-hover .card__title {color: #ff8600;}.text-bfa0ff,.text-bfa0ff:hover{color:#bfa0ff;}.text-1a1a1a,.text-1a1a1a:hover{color:#1a1a1a;}.text-ffffff,.text-ffffff:hover{color:#ffffff;}.text-999999,.text-999999:hover{color:#999999;}.text-ff8600,.text-ff8600:hover{color:#ff8600;}.background-130036,.background-130036:hover{background:#130036;}.border-5d1cc1{border-bottom: 1px solid #5d1cc1;} </style> </head> <body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-141609 single-format-standard "> <header class='nav fixed fit-t fit-l fit-r z9 '> <div class="relative z0"> <div class="mega fixed fit-x z0 bg-black transition-opacity duration-500 opacity-0 invisible" id="menu" role="menu"> <div class="mega__outer flex flex-items-center"> <div class="mega__inner pv2 transition-transform duration-500 transition-opacity ease-in-out -translate-y-10 opacity-0"> <div class="flex fill-h mha container--m"> <section class="outer flex scale0 fill-h"> <div class="flex flex-wrap flex-items-start align-c pv2 fill-h"> <div class="mega__logo relative mv1 fill-h align-c"> <a href="/"> <svg x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 353.5 49.5" enable-background="new 0 0 353.5 49.5" class='inline-block'> <title>Quanta Homepage</title> <g id="logo"> <path id="logo__mark" class='transition--color orange' fill="currentColor" d="M28.4,5.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9c0-1-0.8-1.9-1.9-1.9c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9C26.5,5.1,27.3,5.9,28.4,5.9z M28.4,43.6c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9c0,1,0.8,1.9,1.9,1.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9C30.3,44.5,29.4,43.6,28.4,43.6z M10.9,33.3 c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2c-0.4,0.3-0.7,0.7-0.9,1.1c-0.1,0.5-0.1,1,0.2,1.4c0.4,0.6,1,0.9,1.6,0.9c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3 c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C11.8,33.7,11.4,33.4,10.9,33.3z M46.8,12.6c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2 c-0.9,0.5-1.2,1.7-0.7,2.6c0.3,0.4,0.7,0.7,1.1,0.9c0.2,0,0.3,0.1,0.5,0.1c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1 c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C47.7,13,47.3,12.7,46.8,12.6z M47.3,33.5c-0.4-0.3-0.9-0.3-1.4-0.2c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.3-0.8,0.5l-3.4-2 c0.2-0.5,0.2-1,0.1-1.5c-0.2-0.7-0.6-1.2-1.2-1.6c-1.3-0.7-2.9-0.3-3.6,1c-0.4,0.6-0.4,1.3-0.3,2c0,0.1,0,0.1,0.1,0.2l-6.3,3.6 c-0.5-0.6-1.2-0.9-2-0.9c-0.8,0-1.5,0.4-2,0.9l-6.3-3.6c0-0.1,0-0.1,0.1-0.2c0.2-0.7,0.1-1.4-0.3-2c-0.4-0.6-0.9-1-1.6-1.2 c-0.1,0-0.1,0-0.2,0v-7.3c0.1,0,0.1,0,0.2,0c0.7-0.2,1.2-0.6,1.6-1.2c0.4-0.6,0.4-1.3,0.3-2c0-0.1,0-0.1-0.1-0.2l6.3-3.6 c0.5,0.6,1.2,0.9,2,0.9c1.5,0,2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6s-1.2-2.6-2.6-2.6s-2.6,1.2-2.6,2.6c0,0.3,0.1,0.6,0.2,0.9l-6.3,3.6 c-0.2-0.2-0.4-0.4-0.7-0.6c-0.6-0.4-1.3-0.4-2-0.3c-0.7,0.2-1.2,0.6-1.6,1.2c-0.7,1.3-0.3,2.9,1,3.6l0,0c0.3,0.1,0.5,0.2,0.8,0.3 v7.3c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.1-0.8,0.3c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2c0.4,0.6,0.9,1,1.6,1.2c0.2,0.1,0.5,0.1,0.7,0.1 c0.5,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c0.3-0.1,0.5-0.3,0.7-0.6l6.3,3.6c-0.1,0.3-0.2,0.6-0.2,0.9c0,1.5,1.2,2.6,2.6,2.6s2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6 c0-0.3-0.1-0.6-0.2-0.9l6.3-3.6c0.2,0.2,0.4,0.4,0.7,0.6l0,0c0.4,0.2,0.9,0.4,1.3,0.4c0.7,0,1.5-0.3,2-0.9l3.4,2 c-0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6,0,1c0.1,0.5,0.4,0.9,0.9,1.1c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9 c0.3-0.4,0.3-0.9,0.2-1.4C48,34.2,47.7,33.7,47.3,33.5z M9.5,16c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1 c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9c0.5-0.9,0.2-2.1-0.7-2.6c-0.9-0.5-2.1-0.2-2.6,0.7c-0.3,0.4-0.3,0.9-0.2,1.4C8.7,15.4,9,15.8,9.5,16z M15.7,2.8c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2c-0.4-0.7-1.3-0.9-2-0.5c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2C14.1,2.9,15,3.2,15.7,2.8z M41.1,46.8 c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2c0.4,0.7,1.3,0.9,2,0.5c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2C42.7,46.6,41.8,46.4,41.1,46.8z M15.7,46.8 c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5c-0.4,0.7-0.2,1.6,0.5,2c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5C16.6,48.1,16.4,47.2,15.7,46.8z M41.1,2.8 c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5c0.4-0.7,0.2-1.6-0.5-2c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5C40.1,1.4,40.4,2.3,41.1,2.8z M55.3,23.3 c-0.8,0-1.5,0.7-1.5,1.5c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5c0.8,0,1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C56.7,24,56.1,23.3,55.3,23.3z M1.5,23.3C0.7,23.3,0,24,0,24.8 c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5s1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C2.9,24,2.3,23.3,1.5,23.3z M39.1,21.2c0.4,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c1.3-0.7,1.7-2.3,1-3.6 c-0.7-1.3-2.3-1.7-3.6-1l0,0c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2C37.3,20.7,38.2,21.2,39.1,21.2z"></path> <path id="logo__quanta" class='transition--color orange' fill="currentColor" d="M309.9,14c0,1.1-0.9,1.8-2,1.8c-0.9,0-1.8-0.7-1.8-1.8c0-1.2,0.8-2,1.9-2C309.2,12,309.9,12.8,309.9,14z M85.5,28.7c0.6-1.3,0.8-2.6,0.8-4.2c0-2.9-1-5.2-2.9-7.1c-1.9-1.9-4.2-2.8-7-2.8s-5.1,0.9-7,2.8c-1.9,1.9-2.9,4.2-2.9,7.1 c0,2.9,1,5.2,2.9,7.1c1.9,1.9,4.2,2.8,7,2.8c2.7,0,4.9-0.9,6.8-2.6l2.6,1.7l2.2-3.3L85.5,28.7z M82.1,26.5L79.8,25l-2.2,3.3l2.3,1.5 c-1,0.7-2.1,1.1-3.5,1.1c-1.8,0-3.2-0.6-4.3-1.7c-1.1-1.2-1.6-2.7-1.6-4.6c0-1.9,0.5-3.4,1.6-4.6c1.1-1.2,2.5-1.7,4.3-1.7 c1.8,0,3.2,0.6,4.3,1.7c1.1,1.1,1.6,2.7,1.6,4.6C82.3,25.2,82.2,25.9,82.1,26.5z M103.2,27.3c0,1.2-0.3,2.1-0.9,2.8 c-0.6,0.6-1.5,1-2.5,1s-1.9-0.3-2.5-1c-0.6-0.6-0.9-1.6-0.9-2.8v-8.5h-3.9v9c0,2,0.6,3.7,1.7,4.8c1.1,1.2,2.5,1.7,4.3,1.7 c2.2,0,3.6-0.4,4.8-1.7v1.5h3.9V18.9h-3.9V27.3z M144.3,18.9c-2.2,0-3.6,0.4-4.8,1.7v-1.5h-3.9v15.4h3.9V26c0-1.2,0.3-2.1,0.9-2.8 c0.6-0.6,1.5-1,2.5-1c1.1,0,1.9,0.3,2.5,1c0.6,0.6,0.9,1.6,0.9,2.8v8.5h3.9v-9c0-2-0.6-3.7-1.7-4.8C147.4,19.5,146,18.9,144.3,18.9z M124.8,18.9v1.5c-0.8-0.8-2.7-1.7-4.8-1.7c-2.1,0-3.8,0.7-5.2,2.2c-1.4,1.5-2.1,3.4-2.1,5.7c0,2.3,0.7,4.2,2.1,5.7 c1.4,1.5,3.1,2.2,5.2,2.2c1.3,0,3-0.2,4.8-1.6v1.4h3.9V18.9H124.8z M123.6,29.9c-0.8,0.8-1.8,1.2-2.8,1.2c-1.1,0-2-0.4-2.8-1.2 c-0.8-0.8-1.2-1.9-1.2-3.3c0-1.4,0.4-2.5,1.2-3.3c0.8-0.8,1.8-1.2,2.8-1.2c1.1,0,2,0.4,2.9,1.2c0.8,0.8,1.2,1.9,1.2,3.3 C124.8,28,124.4,29.1,123.6,29.9z M180.1,18.9v1.5c-0.8-0.8-2.7-1.7-4.8-1.7c-2.1,0-3.8,0.7-5.2,2.2c-1.4,1.5-2.1,3.4-2.1,5.7 c0,2.3,0.7,4.2,2.1,5.7c1.4,1.5,3.1,2.2,5.2,2.2c1.3,0,3-0.2,4.8-1.6v1.4h3.9V18.9H180.1z M178.9,29.9c-0.8,0.8-1.8,1.2-2.8,1.2 c-1.1,0-2-0.4-2.8-1.2c-0.8-0.8-1.2-1.9-1.2-3.3c0-1.4,0.4-2.5,1.2-3.3C174,22.4,175,22,176,22c1.1,0,2,0.4,2.9,1.2 c0.8,0.8,1.2,1.9,1.2,3.3C180.1,28,179.7,29.1,178.9,29.9z M161.4,31c-1.1,0-1.9-0.7-1.9-2.1v-6.4h4.1v-3.2h-4.1v-4h-3.7v4v3.2v6.4 c0,3.7,2.1,5.5,5.3,5.4c1.1,0,2-0.2,3-0.6l-1-3.1C162.6,30.9,161.9,31,161.4,31z"></path> <path id="logo__magazine" class='transition--color gray2' fill="currentColor" d="M218.3,33.5l-0.1,1c-1.1,0-2.4-0.1-3.9-0.1c-1.5,0-2.7,0.1-3.6,0.1v-1c1.6-0.1,2-0.3,2-0.9 c0.1-0.8,0.1-2.4,0.1-5.1c0-4.4,0-4.9-0.3-5.4c-0.4-0.9-1.2-1.4-2.4-1.4c-1.6,0-3,1-3.7,2.3c-0.2,0.5-0.4,0.9-0.4,1.5v4.7 c0,1.3,0,2.6,0.1,3.4c0,0.7,0.4,0.9,2.2,0.9l-0.1,1c-0.9,0-2.5-0.1-3.9-0.1c-1.4,0-2.6,0.1-3.5,0.1v-1c1.6-0.1,2-0.2,2-1 c0.1-1.1,0.1-2.2,0.1-4.4v-2.8c0-2.4,0-2.8-0.2-3.3c-0.4-0.9-1.1-1.3-2.3-1.3c-1.5,0-3,0.9-3.8,2.4c-0.3,0.6-0.4,0.9-0.4,1.7v4.6 c0,1.4,0,2.5,0.1,3.3c0.1,0.7,0.4,0.8,2.1,0.9l-0.1,0.9c-0.8,0-2.5-0.1-3.8-0.1c-1.3,0-2.6,0.1-3.7,0.1v-1c1.8,0,2.1-0.2,2.1-1 c0-0.9,0.1-2.3,0.1-4.2v-2.9c0-1.9,0-3.4-0.1-4.3c0-0.5-0.3-0.6-2.2-0.6l0.1-0.9c1.7,0,3.6-0.2,5.2-0.5c0.1,0.6,0.2,2.2,0.2,2.7 c1.3-1.3,3.2-2.9,5.7-2.9c2,0,2.9,0.8,3.4,1.5c0.3,0.4,0.5,0.9,0.6,1.3c1.2-1.2,3-2.8,5.7-2.8c2.1,0,3.3,1.1,3.8,2 c0.4,0.7,0.5,1.5,0.5,2.3v9.4C216,33.3,216.2,33.4,218.3,33.5z M238.4,31l0.9,0.4c-0.5,2.5-1.9,3.4-3.5,3.4c-1.8,0-2.5-1.1-2.7-2.6 c-1.5,1.7-3.4,2.6-5,2.6c-2.7,0-4.3-1.9-4.3-4.3c0-1.4,0.6-2.6,2-3.2c2.4-1,6-2.1,7.4-3.1v-1.4c0-1.5-0.7-3-2.7-3 c-2.1,0-3,1.1-3,2.5c0,0.4,0.1,0.8,0.1,1.1c0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6-0.3,0.7c-0.3,0.2-0.7,0.4-1.2,0.4c-0.8,0-1.5-0.4-1.5-1.6 c0-1.8,2.6-4.1,6.4-4.1c3,0,4.3,1.3,4.7,2c0.3,0.5,0.5,1.2,0.5,1.8v8.9c0,1.3,0.4,1.5,0.8,1.5C237.5,33.1,238,32.4,238.4,31z M233,25.3c-1,0.5-2.8,1.3-4.1,2c-1.1,0.6-1.8,1.1-1.8,2.7c0,1.7,0.9,3,2.5,3c1.7,0,2.7-1,3.3-2.3c0.1-0.4,0.2-1,0.2-1.5V25.3z M255.8,27.1c-1.3,0-2.8-0.1-3.7-0.1l0,0.9l1.5,0.1c1.2,0.1,1.4,0.3,1.4,1.3c0,1,0,2.4-0.1,3.2c-0.1,0.8-1.1,1.3-2.5,1.3 c-1.5,0-2.8-0.5-3.8-1.8c-0.9-1.1-1.3-3.1-1.3-5.1c0-2.2,0.5-3.9,1.4-5.1c0.8-1.2,2-1.8,3.5-1.8c2.6,0,4.1,1.7,4.4,5l0.9,0 c-0.1-2.1,0.2-4.8,0.4-5.7l-0.8-0.3l-0.5,1.3c-0.5-0.5-1.8-1.4-4.3-1.4c-1.6,0-3,0.3-4.2,1c-2.4,1.3-3.8,3.9-3.8,7 c0,2.4,0.6,4.2,1.7,5.5c1.2,1.5,3.2,2.3,6.1,2.3c1.2,0,2.5-0.3,3.6-0.6c1-0.3,1.8-0.6,2.4-0.7c-0.1-0.5-0.2-1.3-0.2-2.5 c0-0.7,0-1.7,0.1-2.3c0-0.5,0.3-0.6,1.5-0.8l0-0.9C258.4,27.1,257.1,27.1,255.8,27.1z M279.4,31l0.9,0.4c-0.5,2.5-1.9,3.4-3.5,3.4 c-1.8,0-2.5-1.1-2.7-2.6c-1.5,1.7-3.4,2.6-5,2.6c-2.7,0-4.3-1.9-4.3-4.3c0-1.4,0.6-2.6,2-3.2c2.4-1,6-2.1,7.4-3.1v-1.4 c0-1.5-0.7-3-2.7-3c-2.1,0-3,1.1-3,2.5c0,0.4,0.1,0.8,0.1,1.1c0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6-0.3,0.7c-0.3,0.2-0.7,0.4-1.2,0.4 c-0.8,0-1.5-0.4-1.5-1.6c0-1.8,2.6-4.1,6.4-4.1c3,0,4.3,1.3,4.7,2c0.3,0.5,0.5,1.2,0.5,1.8v8.9c0,1.3,0.4,1.5,0.8,1.5 C278.5,33.1,279,32.4,279.4,31z M274,25.3c-1,0.5-2.8,1.3-4.1,2c-1.1,0.6-1.8,1.1-1.8,2.7c0,1.7,0.9,3,2.5,3c1.7,0,2.7-1,3.3-2.3 c0.1-0.4,0.2-1,0.2-1.5V25.3z M295.1,33c-1,0.2-2.8,0.3-5.6,0.3c1.8-2.8,7.1-10.8,7.9-12c0.4-0.7,0.8-1.4,0.9-2.1 c-1.4,0-2.6,0.1-5.3,0.1h-3c-2,0-3.2-0.1-3.8-0.4c0,2.1-0.2,4.4-0.4,5.8l0.9-0.2c0.2-0.8,0.4-1.7,0.7-2.6c0.4-1.1,0.9-1.4,2.4-1.5 c1.4-0.1,2.9-0.1,4.4-0.1c-0.9,1.8-5.2,8.8-9,13.4l0.4,0.7c0.6,0,1.7-0.1,3.7-0.1c3.8,0,7.8,0.1,9.1,0.2c0.1-1.6,0.4-4.3,0.6-5.8 l-0.9-0.2C297.3,32,296.5,32.9,295.1,33z M309.9,32.5c0-0.7-0.1-1.9-0.1-4.1v-4.1c0-2.6,0.1-4.6,0.1-5.4c-1.6,0.4-3.9,0.5-5.6,0.6 l0,0.9c1.9-0.1,2.2,0,2.2,0.5c0,0.5,0.1,1.7,0.1,3.6v3.9c0,2-0.1,3.5-0.1,4.1c0,0.6-0.3,0.9-2.4,1l0,1c1.1,0,2.1-0.1,3.8-0.1 c1.7,0,3,0.1,4,0.1l0-1C310.3,33.4,309.9,33.3,309.9,32.5z M332.9,32.5v-9.3c0-0.8-0.1-1.6-0.5-2.2c-0.5-1.1-1.7-2.1-4-2.1 c-2.5,0-4.2,1.5-5.5,2.7c0-0.5-0.1-1.9-0.2-2.6c-1.6,0.3-3.4,0.5-5.1,0.5l-0.1,0.9c1.8,0,2.1,0.1,2.1,0.6c0.1,0.9,0.1,2.4,0.1,4.3 v3.1c0,1.7-0.1,3-0.1,4c0,0.8-0.3,0.9-2.1,1v1c1,0,2.2-0.1,3.7-0.1c1.3,0,3,0.1,3.9,0.1l0.1-1c-1.8-0.1-2.1-0.2-2.1-0.9 c-0.1-0.8-0.1-2.2-0.1-3.7v-4.1c0-0.8,0.1-1.3,0.4-1.8c0.8-1.4,2.1-2.2,3.8-2.2c1.2,0,1.9,0.5,2.4,1.3c0.3,0.6,0.4,1,0.4,5.4 c0,2.8-0.1,4.4-0.1,5.1c-0.1,0.7-0.4,0.8-2,0.9l0,1c0.8,0,2-0.1,3.6-0.1c1.5,0,2.8,0.1,3.9,0.1l0.1-1 C333.1,33.4,332.9,33.3,332.9,32.5z M352.5,29.8l0.9,0.5c-1.1,3.2-3.3,4.5-6.3,4.5c-2.7,0-4.4-0.8-5.6-2.4c-0.9-1.2-1.5-3.2-1.5-5.3 c0-4.4,2.5-8.3,7.4-8.3c5.1,0,6,4,6,6.1c0,0.7-0.2,1.2-0.7,1.4c-0.6,0.2-2.3,0.4-4.6,0.5c-1.2,0-3.1,0-4.6,0 c-0.1,1.9,0.4,3.6,1.1,4.6c0.8,1.2,1.9,1.8,3.5,1.8C350.3,33.2,351.6,32.2,352.5,29.8z M343.6,25.7h2.9c1.7,0,2.6-0.1,3.1-0.2 c0.5-0.1,0.7-0.5,0.7-1.2c0-1.9-0.8-4.4-3.1-4.4C344.8,19.9,343.7,22.8,343.6,25.7z"></path> </g></svg> </a> </div> <nav class="mega__main mega__group h2 orange fill-h"> <ul> <li class="pv05"> <a class="mega__link pangram mbold" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./physics/">Physics</a> </li> <li class="pv05"> <a class="mega__link pangram mbold" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./mathematics/">Mathematics</a> </li> <li class="pv05"> <a class="mega__link pangram mbold" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./biology/">Biology</a> </li> <li class="pv05"> <a class="mega__link pangram mbold" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./computer-science/">Computer Science</a> </li> <li class="pv05"> <a class="mega__link pangram mbold" role="menuitem" href="/topics">Topics</a> </li> <li class="pv05"> <a class="mega__link pangram mbold" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/archive/">Archive</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <nav class="mega__secondary mega__group h3 gray3 fill-h"> <ul> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./abstractions/">Blog</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="/tag/quantized">Columns</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./qa/">Interviews</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="/podcasts/">Podcasts</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./puzzles/">Puzzles</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/./multimedia/">Multimedia</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="/videos">Videos</a> </li> <li class="pv075"> <a class="mega__link merriweather" role="menuitem" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/about/">About Quanta</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <div class="mega__other mega__group white fill-h grid"> <div class="mega__notice mb2"> <p class="h5 mt025 italic o6"> <em>An editorially independent publication supported by the Simons Foundation.</em> </p> </div> <div class="mega__social"> <div class="mv0 bold h2t"> Follow Quanta </div> <div class='social-links flex flex-justify-between flex-items-center social-links--mega mt1 pt05 flex-justify-center'> <a href='https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative facebook mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa " viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M13 16.5h5.1v-5c-.2-2.7.3-5.4 1.7-7.7 1.8-2.5 4.9-4 8-3.8 3.1-.1 6.2.2 9.2 1l-1.3 7.7C34.4 8.3 33 8 31.6 8c-2 0-3.8.7-3.8 2.7v5.9H36l-.6 7.5h-7.6V50h-9.6V23.9H13v-7.4z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://twitter.com/QuantaMagazine' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative twitter mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa " viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>X Twitter</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M50 9.9c-1.9.8-3.8 1.3-5.9 1.6 2.1-1.3 3.7-3.2 4.5-5.6-2 1.2-4.2 2-6.5 2.5-3.8-4.1-10.3-4.5-14.5-.8-2.8 2.5-4 6.3-3.1 10-8.2-.5-15.8-4.3-21-10.6-2.7 4.6-1.3 10.5 3.2 13.5C5 20.4 3.4 20 2 19.2c0 4.8 3.4 8.9 8.2 9.9-.9.2-1.8.4-2.7.3-.6 0-1.3-.1-1.9-.2 1.3 4.1 5.2 6.9 9.5 7C10.8 39.5 5.4 41 0 40.4c13.5 8.5 31.5 4.6 40.2-8.7 3-4.6 4.6-10 4.6-15.5v-1.3c2-1.3 3.7-3.1 5.2-5"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://www.youtube.com/c/QuantaScienceChannel' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative youtube mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="c-1a1a1a absolute fit-x mxa " viewBox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" width="50" height="50" > <title>Youtube</title> <path fill="currentColor" d="M18.7 33.7V16.1l15.7 8.8-15.7 8.8zM43.3 8.2c-12.2-.9-24.4-.9-36.6 0-1.8.2-3.4 1.2-4.3 2.8C1.3 12.5.6 14.3.3 16.2c-.5 5.9-.5 11.8 0 17.7.2 1.9.9 3.7 2.1 5.2 1 1.5 2.5 2.6 4.3 2.9 12.2.8 24.4.8 36.6 0 1.8-.4 3.3-1.5 4.3-3 1.1-1.5 1.8-3.3 2.1-5.1.5-6 .5-12.1 0-18.1-.2-1.8-.8-3.6-1.9-5.1-1-1.6-2.7-2.5-4.5-2.5z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://instagram.com/quantamag' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative instagram mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="c-1a1a1a absolute fit-x mxa " viewBox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" width="50" height="50" > <title>Instagram</title> <path fill="currentColor" d="M33.4 0H16.6C7.5 0 0 7.5 0 16.6v16.8C0 42.5 7.5 50 16.6 50h16.8C42.5 50 50 42.5 50 33.4V16.6C50 7.5 42.5 0 33.4 0zM25 36.6c-6.4 0-11.6-5.2-11.6-11.6S18.6 13.4 25 13.4 36.6 18.6 36.6 25 31.4 36.6 25 36.6zm15.1-23.2c-1.8 0-3.2-1.4-3.2-3.2S38.3 7 40.1 7s3.2 1.4 3.2 3.2c0 1.7-1.5 3.2-3.2 3.2z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/feed/' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative rss mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg class="c-1a1a1a absolute fit-x mxa " viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50"><title>RSS</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M0 0v8.8c22.7 0 41.2 18.5 41.2 41.2H50C50 22.4 27.6 0 0 0z"></path><path fill="currentColor" d="M0 17.2v8.7c13.3 0 24.1 10.8 24.1 24.1h8.7c0-18.1-14.7-32.8-32.8-32.8z"></path><circle fill="currentColor" cx="7.4" cy="42.6" r="7.4"></circle></svg></div> </a> </div> <div class='mega__other__divider mv2 white o2'></div> </div> <section class='outer mega__newsletter ' id='nav-newsletter'> <div class='scale0 mt1 mha container--xs pt05'> <div class='mt0 bold h2t'> Newsletter </div> <p class='h5 mt025 italic o6'> <em>Get the latest news delivered to your inbox.</em> </p> <div class='newsletter__form block mha newsletter--mega mb2' id='mc_embed_signup'> <form action='https://quantamagazine.us1.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618&id=f0cb61321c' target='_blank' method='post' class='bg-white' id='mc-embedded-subscribe-form' name='mc-embedded-subscribe-form' target='_blank'> <div class='newsletter__form__inner flex flex-items-start mha'> <div class='newsletter__form__field flex flex-auto relative fill-v'> <label class='screen-reader-text' for='mce-EMAIL'>Email</label> <input type='email' class='flex fill-h px1 input--transparent pangram light scale3 placeholder-gray-808' name='EMAIL' id='mce-EMAIL' placeholder='Email address' autocorrect='off' autocapitalize='off' required> </div> <!--notice from mailchimp: real people should not fill this in and expect good things - do not remove this or risk form bot signups--> <div class='absolute left-n-infini' aria-hidden='true'> <input type='text' name='b_0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618_f0cb61321c' tabindex='-1' value=''> </div> <button type='submit' class='ph2 pangram scale5 medium fill-v orange hover--black' id='mc-embedded-subscribe'>Subscribe</button> </div> </form> <div id='mce-responses' class='theme__anchors--solid'> <div class='response h5 merriweather italic hidden mt1' id='mce-error-response'></div> <div class='response h5 merriweather italic hidden mt1' id='mce-success-response'></div> </div> </div> <div class='h4t mb0'> <a target='_blank' href='http://us1.campaign-archive2.com/home/?u=0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618&id=f0cb61321c' class='mega__newsletter__link pangram bold scale5 relative'> <span class='p'>Recent newsletters</span> <svg class='icon inline orange ml05' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </div> </div> <div class='mega__other__divider mv2 white o2 shop_divider'></div> </section> <div class="mega__store shop"> <div class="mv0 bold h2t"> Gift Store </div> <div class="mt025 h4t"> <a class="mega__newsletter__link pangram bold scale5 relative" href="/gift-store"> <span class="p">Shop Quanta gear</span> <svg class='icon inline orange ml05' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div> </div> <div class='relative z0'> <div class='nav-search h-screen fit-x z0 bg-black hidden' role='dialog' data-function='toggle' data-name='nav-search'> <div class='nav-search__outer relative pt-0'> <div class='nav-search__inner pv2 relative flex flex-items-center opacity-100 translate-y-0'> <div class='fill-h mha container--sm'> <div class='scale0 fill-h'> <div class='pv2 fill-h'> <div class='white fill-h scale1 nav-search__form-container'> <p class='white pangram h6 uppercase kern--w bold'>Type search term(s)<span class='nav-search__title-addon'> and press enter</span></p> <form action='/' class='fill-h align-l relative' method='get' data-name='search-form'> <div class='search-input-container h0 '> <input id='nav-search-input' value='' name='s' class='search-input ' type='text' /> <label for='nav-search-input' data-label='What are you looking for?'>What are you looking for?</label> </div> <button class='nav-search__submit ' type='submit' value='Submit' disabled='disabled'> <svg class="nav-search__icon orange hover--white" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Search</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M48.8 46.2l-9.2-9.4c3.5-3.9 5.7-9.1 5.7-14.7C45.3 9.9 35.4 0 23.2 0s-22 9.9-22 22.1 9.9 22.1 22 22.1c4.4 0 8.5-1.3 12-3.6l9.5 9.5 4.1-3.9zM7.1 22.1c0-8.9 7.2-16.2 16.2-16.2 8.9 0 16.2 7.3 16.2 16.2s-7.3 16.2-16.2 16.2c-9-.1-16.2-7.3-16.2-16.2z"></path></svg> </button> </form> </div> <nav class='nav-search__popular scale1 theme fill-h align-l flex flex-wrap'> <p class='nav-search__popular-title gray4 pangram h6 uppercase kern bold mt1'>Popular Searches</p> <ul class='nav-search__popular-list relative flex flex-wrap'> <li class='nav-search__popular-item pv05 scale0'> <a class='nav-search__popular-link pangram white block theme__primary--hover color-transition' href='/?s=math'> Mathematics<svg class='icon icon-s orange float-r icon-offset--lg' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </li> <li class='nav-search__popular-item pv05 scale0'> <a class='nav-search__popular-link pangram white block theme__primary--hover color-transition' href='/?s=physics'> Physics<svg class='icon icon-s orange float-r icon-offset--lg' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </li> <li class='nav-search__popular-item pv05 scale0'> <a class='nav-search__popular-link pangram white block theme__primary--hover color-transition' href='/?s=black+holes'> Black Holes<svg class='icon icon-s orange float-r icon-offset--lg' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </li> <li class='nav-search__popular-item pv05 scale0'> <a class='nav-search__popular-link pangram white block theme__primary--hover color-transition' href='/?s=evolution'> Evolution<svg class='icon icon-s orange float-r icon-offset--lg' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <main> <div id='postContent' class='post'> <div class='nav__container interactive fixed fit-t fit-l fit-r z10'> <div class='nav__interactive fill-v z1 absolute fit-x'> <section class='outer header__inner flex fill-v relative background-130036 border-5d1cc1' data-border-color=' border-5d1cc1'> <div class='header__group flex relative z1'> <a class='header__logo header__logo--interactive flex flex-items-center fit-t fit-b' href='/'> <svg x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 353.5 49.5" enable-background="new 0 0 353.5 49.5" class='icon-logo'> <title>Quanta Homepage</title> <g id="logo"> <path id="logo__mark" class='transition--color ' fill="currentColor" d="M28.4,5.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9c0-1-0.8-1.9-1.9-1.9c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9C26.5,5.1,27.3,5.9,28.4,5.9z M28.4,43.6c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9c0,1,0.8,1.9,1.9,1.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9C30.3,44.5,29.4,43.6,28.4,43.6z M10.9,33.3 c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2c-0.4,0.3-0.7,0.7-0.9,1.1c-0.1,0.5-0.1,1,0.2,1.4c0.4,0.6,1,0.9,1.6,0.9c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3 c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C11.8,33.7,11.4,33.4,10.9,33.3z M46.8,12.6c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2 c-0.9,0.5-1.2,1.7-0.7,2.6c0.3,0.4,0.7,0.7,1.1,0.9c0.2,0,0.3,0.1,0.5,0.1c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1 c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C47.7,13,47.3,12.7,46.8,12.6z M47.3,33.5c-0.4-0.3-0.9-0.3-1.4-0.2c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.3-0.8,0.5l-3.4-2 c0.2-0.5,0.2-1,0.1-1.5c-0.2-0.7-0.6-1.2-1.2-1.6c-1.3-0.7-2.9-0.3-3.6,1c-0.4,0.6-0.4,1.3-0.3,2c0,0.1,0,0.1,0.1,0.2l-6.3,3.6 c-0.5-0.6-1.2-0.9-2-0.9c-0.8,0-1.5,0.4-2,0.9l-6.3-3.6c0-0.1,0-0.1,0.1-0.2c0.2-0.7,0.1-1.4-0.3-2c-0.4-0.6-0.9-1-1.6-1.2 c-0.1,0-0.1,0-0.2,0v-7.3c0.1,0,0.1,0,0.2,0c0.7-0.2,1.2-0.6,1.6-1.2c0.4-0.6,0.4-1.3,0.3-2c0-0.1,0-0.1-0.1-0.2l6.3-3.6 c0.5,0.6,1.2,0.9,2,0.9c1.5,0,2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6s-1.2-2.6-2.6-2.6s-2.6,1.2-2.6,2.6c0,0.3,0.1,0.6,0.2,0.9l-6.3,3.6 c-0.2-0.2-0.4-0.4-0.7-0.6c-0.6-0.4-1.3-0.4-2-0.3c-0.7,0.2-1.2,0.6-1.6,1.2c-0.7,1.3-0.3,2.9,1,3.6l0,0c0.3,0.1,0.5,0.2,0.8,0.3 v7.3c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.1-0.8,0.3c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2c0.4,0.6,0.9,1,1.6,1.2c0.2,0.1,0.5,0.1,0.7,0.1 c0.5,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c0.3-0.1,0.5-0.3,0.7-0.6l6.3,3.6c-0.1,0.3-0.2,0.6-0.2,0.9c0,1.5,1.2,2.6,2.6,2.6s2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6 c0-0.3-0.1-0.6-0.2-0.9l6.3-3.6c0.2,0.2,0.4,0.4,0.7,0.6l0,0c0.4,0.2,0.9,0.4,1.3,0.4c0.7,0,1.5-0.3,2-0.9l3.4,2 c-0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6,0,1c0.1,0.5,0.4,0.9,0.9,1.1c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9 c0.3-0.4,0.3-0.9,0.2-1.4C48,34.2,47.7,33.7,47.3,33.5z M9.5,16c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1 c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9c0.5-0.9,0.2-2.1-0.7-2.6c-0.9-0.5-2.1-0.2-2.6,0.7c-0.3,0.4-0.3,0.9-0.2,1.4C8.7,15.4,9,15.8,9.5,16z M15.7,2.8c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2c-0.4-0.7-1.3-0.9-2-0.5c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2C14.1,2.9,15,3.2,15.7,2.8z M41.1,46.8 c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2c0.4,0.7,1.3,0.9,2,0.5c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2C42.7,46.6,41.8,46.4,41.1,46.8z M15.7,46.8 c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5c-0.4,0.7-0.2,1.6,0.5,2c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5C16.6,48.1,16.4,47.2,15.7,46.8z M41.1,2.8 c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5c0.4-0.7,0.2-1.6-0.5-2c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5C40.1,1.4,40.4,2.3,41.1,2.8z M55.3,23.3 c-0.8,0-1.5,0.7-1.5,1.5c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5c0.8,0,1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C56.7,24,56.1,23.3,55.3,23.3z M1.5,23.3C0.7,23.3,0,24,0,24.8 c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5s1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C2.9,24,2.3,23.3,1.5,23.3z M39.1,21.2c0.4,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c1.3-0.7,1.7-2.3,1-3.6 c-0.7-1.3-2.3-1.7-3.6-1l0,0c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2C37.3,20.7,38.2,21.2,39.1,21.2z"></path> <path id="logo__quanta" class='transition--color ' fill="currentColor" d="M309.9,14c0,1.1-0.9,1.8-2,1.8c-0.9,0-1.8-0.7-1.8-1.8c0-1.2,0.8-2,1.9-2C309.2,12,309.9,12.8,309.9,14z M85.5,28.7c0.6-1.3,0.8-2.6,0.8-4.2c0-2.9-1-5.2-2.9-7.1c-1.9-1.9-4.2-2.8-7-2.8s-5.1,0.9-7,2.8c-1.9,1.9-2.9,4.2-2.9,7.1 c0,2.9,1,5.2,2.9,7.1c1.9,1.9,4.2,2.8,7,2.8c2.7,0,4.9-0.9,6.8-2.6l2.6,1.7l2.2-3.3L85.5,28.7z M82.1,26.5L79.8,25l-2.2,3.3l2.3,1.5 c-1,0.7-2.1,1.1-3.5,1.1c-1.8,0-3.2-0.6-4.3-1.7c-1.1-1.2-1.6-2.7-1.6-4.6c0-1.9,0.5-3.4,1.6-4.6c1.1-1.2,2.5-1.7,4.3-1.7 c1.8,0,3.2,0.6,4.3,1.7c1.1,1.1,1.6,2.7,1.6,4.6C82.3,25.2,82.2,25.9,82.1,26.5z M103.2,27.3c0,1.2-0.3,2.1-0.9,2.8 c-0.6,0.6-1.5,1-2.5,1s-1.9-0.3-2.5-1c-0.6-0.6-0.9-1.6-0.9-2.8v-8.5h-3.9v9c0,2,0.6,3.7,1.7,4.8c1.1,1.2,2.5,1.7,4.3,1.7 c2.2,0,3.6-0.4,4.8-1.7v1.5h3.9V18.9h-3.9V27.3z M144.3,18.9c-2.2,0-3.6,0.4-4.8,1.7v-1.5h-3.9v15.4h3.9V26c0-1.2,0.3-2.1,0.9-2.8 c0.6-0.6,1.5-1,2.5-1c1.1,0,1.9,0.3,2.5,1c0.6,0.6,0.9,1.6,0.9,2.8v8.5h3.9v-9c0-2-0.6-3.7-1.7-4.8C147.4,19.5,146,18.9,144.3,18.9z M124.8,18.9v1.5c-0.8-0.8-2.7-1.7-4.8-1.7c-2.1,0-3.8,0.7-5.2,2.2c-1.4,1.5-2.1,3.4-2.1,5.7c0,2.3,0.7,4.2,2.1,5.7 c1.4,1.5,3.1,2.2,5.2,2.2c1.3,0,3-0.2,4.8-1.6v1.4h3.9V18.9H124.8z M123.6,29.9c-0.8,0.8-1.8,1.2-2.8,1.2c-1.1,0-2-0.4-2.8-1.2 c-0.8-0.8-1.2-1.9-1.2-3.3c0-1.4,0.4-2.5,1.2-3.3c0.8-0.8,1.8-1.2,2.8-1.2c1.1,0,2,0.4,2.9,1.2c0.8,0.8,1.2,1.9,1.2,3.3 C124.8,28,124.4,29.1,123.6,29.9z M180.1,18.9v1.5c-0.8-0.8-2.7-1.7-4.8-1.7c-2.1,0-3.8,0.7-5.2,2.2c-1.4,1.5-2.1,3.4-2.1,5.7 c0,2.3,0.7,4.2,2.1,5.7c1.4,1.5,3.1,2.2,5.2,2.2c1.3,0,3-0.2,4.8-1.6v1.4h3.9V18.9H180.1z M178.9,29.9c-0.8,0.8-1.8,1.2-2.8,1.2 c-1.1,0-2-0.4-2.8-1.2c-0.8-0.8-1.2-1.9-1.2-3.3c0-1.4,0.4-2.5,1.2-3.3C174,22.4,175,22,176,22c1.1,0,2,0.4,2.9,1.2 c0.8,0.8,1.2,1.9,1.2,3.3C180.1,28,179.7,29.1,178.9,29.9z M161.4,31c-1.1,0-1.9-0.7-1.9-2.1v-6.4h4.1v-3.2h-4.1v-4h-3.7v4v3.2v6.4 c0,3.7,2.1,5.5,5.3,5.4c1.1,0,2-0.2,3-0.6l-1-3.1C162.6,30.9,161.9,31,161.4,31z"></path> <path id="logo__magazine" class='transition--color ' fill="currentColor" d="M218.3,33.5l-0.1,1c-1.1,0-2.4-0.1-3.9-0.1c-1.5,0-2.7,0.1-3.6,0.1v-1c1.6-0.1,2-0.3,2-0.9 c0.1-0.8,0.1-2.4,0.1-5.1c0-4.4,0-4.9-0.3-5.4c-0.4-0.9-1.2-1.4-2.4-1.4c-1.6,0-3,1-3.7,2.3c-0.2,0.5-0.4,0.9-0.4,1.5v4.7 c0,1.3,0,2.6,0.1,3.4c0,0.7,0.4,0.9,2.2,0.9l-0.1,1c-0.9,0-2.5-0.1-3.9-0.1c-1.4,0-2.6,0.1-3.5,0.1v-1c1.6-0.1,2-0.2,2-1 c0.1-1.1,0.1-2.2,0.1-4.4v-2.8c0-2.4,0-2.8-0.2-3.3c-0.4-0.9-1.1-1.3-2.3-1.3c-1.5,0-3,0.9-3.8,2.4c-0.3,0.6-0.4,0.9-0.4,1.7v4.6 c0,1.4,0,2.5,0.1,3.3c0.1,0.7,0.4,0.8,2.1,0.9l-0.1,0.9c-0.8,0-2.5-0.1-3.8-0.1c-1.3,0-2.6,0.1-3.7,0.1v-1c1.8,0,2.1-0.2,2.1-1 c0-0.9,0.1-2.3,0.1-4.2v-2.9c0-1.9,0-3.4-0.1-4.3c0-0.5-0.3-0.6-2.2-0.6l0.1-0.9c1.7,0,3.6-0.2,5.2-0.5c0.1,0.6,0.2,2.2,0.2,2.7 c1.3-1.3,3.2-2.9,5.7-2.9c2,0,2.9,0.8,3.4,1.5c0.3,0.4,0.5,0.9,0.6,1.3c1.2-1.2,3-2.8,5.7-2.8c2.1,0,3.3,1.1,3.8,2 c0.4,0.7,0.5,1.5,0.5,2.3v9.4C216,33.3,216.2,33.4,218.3,33.5z M238.4,31l0.9,0.4c-0.5,2.5-1.9,3.4-3.5,3.4c-1.8,0-2.5-1.1-2.7-2.6 c-1.5,1.7-3.4,2.6-5,2.6c-2.7,0-4.3-1.9-4.3-4.3c0-1.4,0.6-2.6,2-3.2c2.4-1,6-2.1,7.4-3.1v-1.4c0-1.5-0.7-3-2.7-3 c-2.1,0-3,1.1-3,2.5c0,0.4,0.1,0.8,0.1,1.1c0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6-0.3,0.7c-0.3,0.2-0.7,0.4-1.2,0.4c-0.8,0-1.5-0.4-1.5-1.6 c0-1.8,2.6-4.1,6.4-4.1c3,0,4.3,1.3,4.7,2c0.3,0.5,0.5,1.2,0.5,1.8v8.9c0,1.3,0.4,1.5,0.8,1.5C237.5,33.1,238,32.4,238.4,31z M233,25.3c-1,0.5-2.8,1.3-4.1,2c-1.1,0.6-1.8,1.1-1.8,2.7c0,1.7,0.9,3,2.5,3c1.7,0,2.7-1,3.3-2.3c0.1-0.4,0.2-1,0.2-1.5V25.3z M255.8,27.1c-1.3,0-2.8-0.1-3.7-0.1l0,0.9l1.5,0.1c1.2,0.1,1.4,0.3,1.4,1.3c0,1,0,2.4-0.1,3.2c-0.1,0.8-1.1,1.3-2.5,1.3 c-1.5,0-2.8-0.5-3.8-1.8c-0.9-1.1-1.3-3.1-1.3-5.1c0-2.2,0.5-3.9,1.4-5.1c0.8-1.2,2-1.8,3.5-1.8c2.6,0,4.1,1.7,4.4,5l0.9,0 c-0.1-2.1,0.2-4.8,0.4-5.7l-0.8-0.3l-0.5,1.3c-0.5-0.5-1.8-1.4-4.3-1.4c-1.6,0-3,0.3-4.2,1c-2.4,1.3-3.8,3.9-3.8,7 c0,2.4,0.6,4.2,1.7,5.5c1.2,1.5,3.2,2.3,6.1,2.3c1.2,0,2.5-0.3,3.6-0.6c1-0.3,1.8-0.6,2.4-0.7c-0.1-0.5-0.2-1.3-0.2-2.5 c0-0.7,0-1.7,0.1-2.3c0-0.5,0.3-0.6,1.5-0.8l0-0.9C258.4,27.1,257.1,27.1,255.8,27.1z M279.4,31l0.9,0.4c-0.5,2.5-1.9,3.4-3.5,3.4 c-1.8,0-2.5-1.1-2.7-2.6c-1.5,1.7-3.4,2.6-5,2.6c-2.7,0-4.3-1.9-4.3-4.3c0-1.4,0.6-2.6,2-3.2c2.4-1,6-2.1,7.4-3.1v-1.4 c0-1.5-0.7-3-2.7-3c-2.1,0-3,1.1-3,2.5c0,0.4,0.1,0.8,0.1,1.1c0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6-0.3,0.7c-0.3,0.2-0.7,0.4-1.2,0.4 c-0.8,0-1.5-0.4-1.5-1.6c0-1.8,2.6-4.1,6.4-4.1c3,0,4.3,1.3,4.7,2c0.3,0.5,0.5,1.2,0.5,1.8v8.9c0,1.3,0.4,1.5,0.8,1.5 C278.5,33.1,279,32.4,279.4,31z M274,25.3c-1,0.5-2.8,1.3-4.1,2c-1.1,0.6-1.8,1.1-1.8,2.7c0,1.7,0.9,3,2.5,3c1.7,0,2.7-1,3.3-2.3 c0.1-0.4,0.2-1,0.2-1.5V25.3z M295.1,33c-1,0.2-2.8,0.3-5.6,0.3c1.8-2.8,7.1-10.8,7.9-12c0.4-0.7,0.8-1.4,0.9-2.1 c-1.4,0-2.6,0.1-5.3,0.1h-3c-2,0-3.2-0.1-3.8-0.4c0,2.1-0.2,4.4-0.4,5.8l0.9-0.2c0.2-0.8,0.4-1.7,0.7-2.6c0.4-1.1,0.9-1.4,2.4-1.5 c1.4-0.1,2.9-0.1,4.4-0.1c-0.9,1.8-5.2,8.8-9,13.4l0.4,0.7c0.6,0,1.7-0.1,3.7-0.1c3.8,0,7.8,0.1,9.1,0.2c0.1-1.6,0.4-4.3,0.6-5.8 l-0.9-0.2C297.3,32,296.5,32.9,295.1,33z M309.9,32.5c0-0.7-0.1-1.9-0.1-4.1v-4.1c0-2.6,0.1-4.6,0.1-5.4c-1.6,0.4-3.9,0.5-5.6,0.6 l0,0.9c1.9-0.1,2.2,0,2.2,0.5c0,0.5,0.1,1.7,0.1,3.6v3.9c0,2-0.1,3.5-0.1,4.1c0,0.6-0.3,0.9-2.4,1l0,1c1.1,0,2.1-0.1,3.8-0.1 c1.7,0,3,0.1,4,0.1l0-1C310.3,33.4,309.9,33.3,309.9,32.5z M332.9,32.5v-9.3c0-0.8-0.1-1.6-0.5-2.2c-0.5-1.1-1.7-2.1-4-2.1 c-2.5,0-4.2,1.5-5.5,2.7c0-0.5-0.1-1.9-0.2-2.6c-1.6,0.3-3.4,0.5-5.1,0.5l-0.1,0.9c1.8,0,2.1,0.1,2.1,0.6c0.1,0.9,0.1,2.4,0.1,4.3 v3.1c0,1.7-0.1,3-0.1,4c0,0.8-0.3,0.9-2.1,1v1c1,0,2.2-0.1,3.7-0.1c1.3,0,3,0.1,3.9,0.1l0.1-1c-1.8-0.1-2.1-0.2-2.1-0.9 c-0.1-0.8-0.1-2.2-0.1-3.7v-4.1c0-0.8,0.1-1.3,0.4-1.8c0.8-1.4,2.1-2.2,3.8-2.2c1.2,0,1.9,0.5,2.4,1.3c0.3,0.6,0.4,1,0.4,5.4 c0,2.8-0.1,4.4-0.1,5.1c-0.1,0.7-0.4,0.8-2,0.9l0,1c0.8,0,2-0.1,3.6-0.1c1.5,0,2.8,0.1,3.9,0.1l0.1-1 C333.1,33.4,332.9,33.3,332.9,32.5z M352.5,29.8l0.9,0.5c-1.1,3.2-3.3,4.5-6.3,4.5c-2.7,0-4.4-0.8-5.6-2.4c-0.9-1.2-1.5-3.2-1.5-5.3 c0-4.4,2.5-8.3,7.4-8.3c5.1,0,6,4,6,6.1c0,0.7-0.2,1.2-0.7,1.4c-0.6,0.2-2.3,0.4-4.6,0.5c-1.2,0-3.1,0-4.6,0 c-0.1,1.9,0.4,3.6,1.1,4.6c0.8,1.2,1.9,1.8,3.5,1.8C350.3,33.2,351.6,32.2,352.5,29.8z M343.6,25.7h2.9c1.7,0,2.6-0.1,3.1-0.2 c0.5-0.1,0.7-0.5,0.7-1.2c0-1.9-0.8-4.4-3.1-4.4C344.8,19.9,343.7,22.8,343.6,25.7z"></path> </g></svg><svg x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 56.7 49.5" enable-background="new 0 0 56.7 49.5" class="logo-mark text-bfa0ff" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path id="logo__mark__icon" class="c-1a1a1a" fill="currentColor" d="M28.4,5.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9c0-1-0.8-1.9-1.9-1.9c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9C26.5,5.1,27.3,5.9,28.4,5.9z M28.4,43.6c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9c0,1,0.8,1.9,1.9,1.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9C30.3,44.5,29.4,43.6,28.4,43.6z M10.9,33.3 c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2c-0.4,0.3-0.7,0.7-0.9,1.1c-0.1,0.5-0.1,1,0.2,1.4c0.4,0.6,1,0.9,1.6,0.9c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3 c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C11.8,33.7,11.4,33.4,10.9,33.3z M46.8,12.6c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2 c-0.9,0.5-1.2,1.7-0.7,2.6c0.3,0.4,0.7,0.7,1.1,0.9c0.2,0,0.3,0.1,0.5,0.1c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1 c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C47.7,13,47.3,12.7,46.8,12.6z M47.3,33.5c-0.4-0.3-0.9-0.3-1.4-0.2c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.3-0.8,0.5l-3.4-2 c0.2-0.5,0.2-1,0.1-1.5c-0.2-0.7-0.6-1.2-1.2-1.6c-1.3-0.7-2.9-0.3-3.6,1c-0.4,0.6-0.4,1.3-0.3,2c0,0.1,0,0.1,0.1,0.2l-6.3,3.6 c-0.5-0.6-1.2-0.9-2-0.9c-0.8,0-1.5,0.4-2,0.9l-6.3-3.6c0-0.1,0-0.1,0.1-0.2c0.2-0.7,0.1-1.4-0.3-2c-0.4-0.6-0.9-1-1.6-1.2 c-0.1,0-0.1,0-0.2,0v-7.3c0.1,0,0.1,0,0.2,0c0.7-0.2,1.2-0.6,1.6-1.2c0.4-0.6,0.4-1.3,0.3-2c0-0.1,0-0.1-0.1-0.2l6.3-3.6 c0.5,0.6,1.2,0.9,2,0.9c1.5,0,2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6s-1.2-2.6-2.6-2.6s-2.6,1.2-2.6,2.6c0,0.3,0.1,0.6,0.2,0.9l-6.3,3.6 c-0.2-0.2-0.4-0.4-0.7-0.6c-0.6-0.4-1.3-0.4-2-0.3c-0.7,0.2-1.2,0.6-1.6,1.2c-0.7,1.3-0.3,2.9,1,3.6l0,0c0.3,0.1,0.5,0.2,0.8,0.3 v7.3c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.1-0.8,0.3c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2c0.4,0.6,0.9,1,1.6,1.2c0.2,0.1,0.5,0.1,0.7,0.1 c0.5,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c0.3-0.1,0.5-0.3,0.7-0.6l6.3,3.6c-0.1,0.3-0.2,0.6-0.2,0.9c0,1.5,1.2,2.6,2.6,2.6s2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6 c0-0.3-0.1-0.6-0.2-0.9l6.3-3.6c0.2,0.2,0.4,0.4,0.7,0.6l0,0c0.4,0.2,0.9,0.4,1.3,0.4c0.7,0,1.5-0.3,2-0.9l3.4,2 c-0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6,0,1c0.1,0.5,0.4,0.9,0.9,1.1c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9 c0.3-0.4,0.3-0.9,0.2-1.4C48,34.2,47.7,33.7,47.3,33.5z M9.5,16c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1 c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9c0.5-0.9,0.2-2.1-0.7-2.6c-0.9-0.5-2.1-0.2-2.6,0.7c-0.3,0.4-0.3,0.9-0.2,1.4C8.7,15.4,9,15.8,9.5,16z M15.7,2.8c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2c-0.4-0.7-1.3-0.9-2-0.5c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2C14.1,2.9,15,3.2,15.7,2.8z M41.1,46.8 c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2c0.4,0.7,1.3,0.9,2,0.5c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2C42.7,46.6,41.8,46.4,41.1,46.8z M15.7,46.8 c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5c-0.4,0.7-0.2,1.6,0.5,2c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5C16.6,48.1,16.4,47.2,15.7,46.8z M41.1,2.8 c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5c0.4-0.7,0.2-1.6-0.5-2c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5C40.1,1.4,40.4,2.3,41.1,2.8z M55.3,23.3 c-0.8,0-1.5,0.7-1.5,1.5c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5c0.8,0,1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C56.7,24,56.1,23.3,55.3,23.3z M1.5,23.3C0.7,23.3,0,24,0,24.8 c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5s1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C2.9,24,2.3,23.3,1.5,23.3z M39.1,21.2c0.4,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c1.3-0.7,1.7-2.3,1-3.6 c-0.7-1.3-2.3-1.7-3.6-1l0,0c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2C37.3,20.7,38.2,21.2,39.1,21.2z"></path></svg> </a> </div> <div class='nav__interactive__right header__group flex relative flex-items-center flex-auto flex-justify-end h5'> <span class='header__account header__icon flex flex-items-center mh05 z1 text-ffffff' aria-haspopup='dialog' data-icon-color=' text-ffffff'> <button class='relative ' data-function='trigger' data-name='nav-account'> <svg viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class=""><title>Login</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M35.2 29.9c3.9-3.1 6.4-7.8 6.4-13.2C41.7 7.5 34.2 0 25 0S8.3 7.5 8.3 16.7c0 5.4 2.5 10.1 6.4 13.2C6.1 33.4 0 41.1 0 50h5.6c0-9.1 8.7-16.5 19.4-16.5S44.4 40.9 44.4 50H50c0-8.9-6.1-16.6-14.8-20.1zM25 5.6c6.1 0 11.1 5 11.1 11.2S31.1 28 25 28s-11.1-5-11.1-11.2S18.9 5.6 25 5.6z"></path></svg> </button> <div class='q-tooltip hidden force-mobile-placement w-28 top-19-5 ml-n14'> <div class='q-tooltip-content'> <div class='q-tooltip-arrow '></div> <div class='q-tooltip-inner py-1 pl-1' role='tooltip'> <div class='relative align-c pv05 ph1'> <h4 id='logout' class='pb075 mv0 relative theme__accent z1 link'>Log out</h4> <hr class='o2 mb075'> <h4 id='resetPW' class='mv0 relative theme__accent z1 link' data-function='trigger' data-name='reset-password'>Change password</h4> </div> </div> </div> </div> </span> <div class='relative'> <button class='bookmark-button mh05 flex flex-items-center theme__accent-hover text-ffffff' data-toggle-hover='tooltip' data-id='141609' data-active-class=' text-bfa0ff' aria-expanded='false'> <svg class="icon" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Save Article</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M2.1 0h45.8v50L25.5 37.5 2.1 50V0z"></path></svg> </button> <div class='q-tooltip hidden force-mobile-placement w-32 ml-n16 top-13-75'> <div class='q-tooltip-content'> <div class='q-tooltip-arrow '></div> <div class='q-tooltip-inner py-1 pl-1' role='tooltip'> <div class='h6t relative z1 uppercase kern--w mx025'> <span class='small no-wrap'>Read Later</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='nav__local__share interactive mr1 ph05 pv2 flex flex-items-center transition--color pointer relative text-ffffff'> <span class='__label flex flex-items-center absolute fit-t fit-b fit-r mr05' data-toggle-hover='q-tooltip'> <svg class='icon-l ' x='0px' y='0px' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50' xml:space='preserve' xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'><path fill='currentColor' d='M41.9,34.2c-2.2,0-4.1,0.9-5.5,2.3L15.7,26.2c0.1-0.4,0.1-0.8,0.1-1.2c0-0.4,0-0.8-0.1-1.2l20.7-10.3 c1.4,1.4,3.4,2.3,5.5,2.3c4.2,0,7.7-3.4,7.7-7.7s-3.4-7.7-7.7-7.7c-4.2,0-7.7,3.4-7.7,7.7c0,0.4,0,0.8,0.1,1.2L13.6,19.7 c-1.4-1.4-3.4-2.3-5.5-2.3c-4.2,0-7.7,3.4-7.7,7.7c0,4.2,3.4,7.7,7.7,7.7c2.2,0,4.1-0.9,5.5-2.3l20.7,10.3c-0.1,0.4-0.1,0.8-0.1,1.2 c0,4.2,3.4,7.7,7.7,7.7c4.2,0,7.7-3.4,7.7-7.7C49.6,37.7,46.1,34.2,41.9,34.2L41.9,34.2z M41.9,34.2'></path></svg><div class='q-tooltip hidden force-mobile-placement w-48 top-17-5 ml-n24 h-11'> <div class='q-tooltip-content'> <div class='q-tooltip-arrow '></div> <div class='q-tooltip-inner py-1 px-4' role='tooltip'> <div data-id='social-links'> <div class='social-links social-links--share flex flex-justify-between'> <a href='http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M13 16.5h5.1v-5c-.2-2.7.3-5.4 1.7-7.7 1.8-2.5 4.9-4 8-3.8 3.1-.1 6.2.2 9.2 1l-1.3 7.7C34.4 8.3 33 8 31.6 8c-2 0-3.8.7-3.8 2.7v5.9H36l-.6 7.5h-7.6V50h-9.6V23.9H13v-7.4z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://twitter.com/share?url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/&text=The+Thought+Experiments+That+Fray+the+Fabric+of+Space-Time&via=QuantaMagazine' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>X Twitter</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M50 9.9c-1.9.8-3.8 1.3-5.9 1.6 2.1-1.3 3.7-3.2 4.5-5.6-2 1.2-4.2 2-6.5 2.5-3.8-4.1-10.3-4.5-14.5-.8-2.8 2.5-4 6.3-3.1 10-8.2-.5-15.8-4.3-21-10.6-2.7 4.6-1.3 10.5 3.2 13.5C5 20.4 3.4 20 2 19.2c0 4.8 3.4 8.9 8.2 9.9-.9.2-1.8.4-2.7.3-.6 0-1.3-.1-1.9-.2 1.3 4.1 5.2 6.9 9.5 7C10.8 39.5 5.4 41 0 40.4c13.5 8.5 31.5 4.6 40.2-8.7 3-4.6 4.6-10 4.6-15.5v-1.3c2-1.3 3.7-3.1 5.2-5"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' data-function="copy"> <div class='q-tooltip hidden force-mobile-placement w-17-5 top-10-5 ml-n8-75'> <div class='q-tooltip-content'> <div class='q-tooltip-arrow '></div> <div class='q-tooltip-inner py-1 pl-1' role='tooltip'> <div class='h6t relative z1 uppercase kern mv0'>Copied!</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Copy link</title><g><path fill="currentColor" d="M20.6,38.5c-0.8,0-1.6,0.3-2.2,0.8L16,41.9c-1.1,1-2.4,1.6-3.9,1.6c-1.5,0-2.8-0.5-3.9-1.6c-0.5-0.5-0.9-1.1-1.2-1.8 c-0.3-0.7-0.4-1.4-0.4-2.1c0-0.7,0.1-1.4,0.4-2.1c0.3-0.7,0.7-1.2,1.2-1.8l9.1-9c1-0.9,2.2-1.8,3.8-2.7s3-0.7,4.3,0.7 c0.6,0.6,1.3,0.8,2.2,0.8s1.5-0.3,2.1-0.9c0.6-0.6,0.9-1.3,0.9-2.2s-0.3-1.6-0.9-2.2c-2.2-2.2-4.8-3.1-7.8-2.7 c-3,0.4-5.9,2-8.8,4.8l-9.2,9c-1.1,1.1-1.9,2.4-2.5,3.8C0.7,35,0.4,36.5,0.4,38c0,1.6,0.3,3,0.9,4.4c0.6,1.4,1.4,2.7,2.5,3.8 c1.1,1.1,2.4,2,3.8,2.5c1.4,0.6,2.9,0.8,4.4,0.8s2.9-0.3,4.3-0.8c1.4-0.6,2.7-1.4,3.8-2.5l2.5-2.5c0.6-0.6,0.9-1.3,0.9-2.1 s-0.3-1.6-0.9-2.2C22.1,38.8,21.4,38.5,20.6,38.5z"></path><path fill="currentColor" d="M48.7,7.9c-0.6-1.4-1.4-2.7-2.5-3.8c-2.4-2.4-5.1-3.6-8-3.7c-3-0.1-5.5,0.9-7.7,3.1l-3.1,3.1c-0.6,0.6-0.9,1.3-0.9,2.1 s0.3,1.6,0.9,2.2s1.3,0.9,2.2,0.9s1.6-0.3,2.2-0.8l3.1-3.1c1.2-1.1,2.4-1.5,3.7-1.3c1.3,0.3,2.5,0.9,3.4,1.9 c0.5,0.5,0.9,1.1,1.2,1.8c0.3,0.7,0.4,1.4,0.4,2.1c0,0.7-0.1,1.4-0.4,2.1c-0.3,0.7-0.7,1.2-1.2,1.8l-9.7,9.6 c-2.2,2.2-3.9,3.1-5.1,2.7s-2-0.8-2.4-1.3c-0.6-0.6-1.3-0.8-2.2-0.8s-1.5,0.3-2.1,0.9c-0.6,0.6-0.9,1.3-0.9,2.2s0.3,1.5,0.9,2.1 c1,1,2.1,1.8,3.2,2.3s2.4,0.7,3.6,0.7c1.5,0,3-0.4,4.6-1.1c1.6-0.7,3.1-1.9,4.6-3.4l9.8-9.6c1.1-1.1,1.9-2.4,2.5-3.8 c0.6-1.4,0.9-2.9,0.9-4.4C49.6,10.8,49.3,9.3,48.7,7.9z"></path></g></svg></div> </a> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#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" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Email</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M25,29.5l-5.2-4.3L1.8,43.8h46L30.1,25.2L25,29.5z M32.6,23.2l17.2,17.9c0-0.2,0.1-0.3,0.1-0.5c0-0.2,0-0.4,0-0.6V9.1 L32.6,23.2z M0,9.1v31c0,0.2,0,0.4,0,0.6s0.1,0.3,0.1,0.5l17.3-17.8L0,9.1z M48.4,6.2H1.6L25,25L48.4,6.2z"></path></svg></div> </a> </div> <div class='social-hide closed' data-function='toggle' data-name='social-show-more'> <div class='social-links social-links--share flex flex-justify-between'> <a href='https://getpocket.com/save?url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/&title=The+Thought+Experiments+That+Fray+the+Fabric+of+Space-Time' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" viewbox="0 0 30 30" enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Pocket</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M2.6,1.7C1.3,1.6,0.1,2.7,0,4.1c0,0.1,0,0.3,0,0.4v9.9c0,8.1,8,14.4,15,14.4c8-0.1,14.6-6.4,15-14.4v-10 c0.1-1.4-0.9-2.6-2.3-2.8c-0.2,0-0.4,0-0.5,0L2.6,1.7z M9,9.8l6,5.7l6-5.7c2.8-1.1,3.9,2,2.8,2.8L16,20.1c-0.6,0.3-1.3,0.3-1.9,0 l-7.9-7.5C5.2,11.5,6.5,8.4,9,9.8L9,9.8z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" viewbox="4 0 33 33" enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Reddit</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M39.58,19.65A4.72,4.72,0,0,0,31.91,16a22.4,22.4,0,0,0-10.42-3.09l2-6.38,5.6,1.31a3.91,3.91,0,1,0,.43-2.08L23.05,4.27A1.08,1.08,0,0,0,21.79,5L19.26,12.9A22.6,22.6,0,0,0,8,16a4.68,4.68,0,1,0-5.56,7.51,8.32,8.32,0,0,0-.08,1.12c0,3.21,1.89,6.2,5.31,8.41a22.69,22.69,0,0,0,12.23,3.3A22.67,22.67,0,0,0,32.15,33c3.43-2.21,5.31-5.2,5.31-8.41a8.77,8.77,0,0,0-.06-1,4.65,4.65,0,0,0,2.18-3.93M33.05,5.8a1.78,1.78,0,1,1-1.8,1.78,1.79,1.79,0,0,1,1.8-1.78M11.52,22.53a2.71,2.71,0,0,1,2.69-2.66,2.65,2.65,0,1,1-2.69,2.66m14.93,7.73c-1.37,1.35-3.47,2-6.43,2h0c-3,0-5.06-.65-6.43-2a1.05,1.05,0,0,1,0-1.5,1.09,1.09,0,0,1,1.52,0c.94.93,2.54,1.38,4.91,1.38h0c2.37,0,4-.45,4.91-1.38a1.08,1.08,0,0,1,1.52,0,1.07,1.07,0,0,1,0,1.5m-.63-5.1a2.65,2.65,0,1,1,2.66-2.63,2.65,2.65,0,0,1-2.66,2.63" transform="translate(-0.42 -3.68)"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://news.ycombinator.com/submitlink?u=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/&t=The+Thought+Experiments+That+Fray+the+Fabric+of+Space-Time' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" viewbox="0 0 30 30" enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Ycombinator</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M12.9,18L3.2-0.1h4.4l5.7,11.5l0.3,0.6c0.1,0.2,0.2,0.4,0.3,0.7c0,0.1,0,0.2,0,0.2v0.2l0.4,0.9l0.5,0.7 l0.8-1.6l0.9-1.8l5.8-11.5h4.1l-9.8,18.3v11.7h-3.7V18z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href=' https://share.flipboard.com/bookmarklet/popout?v=The+Thought+Experiments+That+Fray+the+Fabric+of+Space-Time&url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925/' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 hover--opaque theme__text'> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa theme__text" viewbox="0 0 30 30" enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Flipboard</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M30,0 0,0 0,30 10,30 10,20 20,20 20,10 30,10 z"></path></svg></div> </a> </div> </div> <div class='flex flex-justify-center social-more' data-function='trigger' data-name='social-show-more'> <svg class="ml05 icon icon-offset closed" viewbox="0 0 30 30" enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path fill="currentColor" d="M15,20.7c-0.1,0-0.3,0-0.4-0.1L0.3,10.7l0.9-1.2L15,19l13.8-9.5l0.9,1.2l-14.3,9.8C15.3,20.6,15.1,20.7,15,20.7 z"></path></svg> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </span> </div> </div> <div class='nav__local__menu flex flex-items-center flex-justify-end fill-v'> <div class='header__hamburger-outer flex flex-items-center mh05 relative'> <div class='header__hamburger'> <button class='hamburger block z10 relative theme__header-primary mha text-bfa0ff' aria-haspopup='menu' aria-label='open the menu'> <span class='hamburger__bar absolute fit-x mxa'></span> <span class='hamburger__bar absolute fit-x mxa'></span> <span class='hamburger__bar absolute fit-x mxa'></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> </div> <script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script type='text/javascript'> let headerArray = '{"type":"default","solid_primary_color":" text-bfa0ff","solid_secondary_color":" text-ffffff","solid_hover_color":" text-bfa0ff","solid_background_color":" background-130036","solid_border_color":" border-5d1cc1"}'; </script> <div id='postBody' class='theme__background-background theme__text'> <iframe src='https://st.quantamagazine.org/explainer' data-id='interactive' frameborder='0' class='full-size-interactive' title='The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space-Time'> </iframe> </div> </div> </main> <script type='text/javascript'> let ga4Array = '{"kicker":"fundamental physics","author":"Charlie Wood","category":["Multimedia","Physics"]}'; </script> <footer class='footer hide-on-screen'> <section class='outer footer__outer'> <div class='relative z0 fill-v mha container--m'> <section class='outer footer__section footer__section--top flex flex-column flex-items-center flex-justify-between outer--content'> <div class='flex flex-justify-center'> <a href='/' class='footer__logo block'> <svg x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 353.5 49.5" enable-background="new 0 0 353.5 49.5" class='inline-block'> <title>Quanta Homepage</title> <g id="logo"> <path id="logo__mark" class='transition--color text-1a1a1a' fill="currentColor" d="M28.4,5.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9c0-1-0.8-1.9-1.9-1.9c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9C26.5,5.1,27.3,5.9,28.4,5.9z M28.4,43.6c-1,0-1.9,0.8-1.9,1.9c0,1,0.8,1.9,1.9,1.9c1,0,1.9-0.8,1.9-1.9C30.3,44.5,29.4,43.6,28.4,43.6z M10.9,33.3 c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2c-0.4,0.3-0.7,0.7-0.9,1.1c-0.1,0.5-0.1,1,0.2,1.4c0.4,0.6,1,0.9,1.6,0.9c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3 c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C11.8,33.7,11.4,33.4,10.9,33.3z M46.8,12.6c-0.5-0.1-1-0.1-1.4,0.2 c-0.9,0.5-1.2,1.7-0.7,2.6c0.3,0.4,0.7,0.7,1.1,0.9c0.2,0,0.3,0.1,0.5,0.1c0.3,0,0.6-0.1,0.9-0.3c0.4-0.3,0.8-0.7,0.9-1.1 c0.1-0.5,0.1-1-0.2-1.4C47.7,13,47.3,12.7,46.8,12.6z M47.3,33.5c-0.4-0.3-0.9-0.3-1.4-0.2c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.3-0.8,0.5l-3.4-2 c0.2-0.5,0.2-1,0.1-1.5c-0.2-0.7-0.6-1.2-1.2-1.6c-1.3-0.7-2.9-0.3-3.6,1c-0.4,0.6-0.4,1.3-0.3,2c0,0.1,0,0.1,0.1,0.2l-6.3,3.6 c-0.5-0.6-1.2-0.9-2-0.9c-0.8,0-1.5,0.4-2,0.9l-6.3-3.6c0-0.1,0-0.1,0.1-0.2c0.2-0.7,0.1-1.4-0.3-2c-0.4-0.6-0.9-1-1.6-1.2 c-0.1,0-0.1,0-0.2,0v-7.3c0.1,0,0.1,0,0.2,0c0.7-0.2,1.2-0.6,1.6-1.2c0.4-0.6,0.4-1.3,0.3-2c0-0.1,0-0.1-0.1-0.2l6.3-3.6 c0.5,0.6,1.2,0.9,2,0.9c1.5,0,2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6s-1.2-2.6-2.6-2.6s-2.6,1.2-2.6,2.6c0,0.3,0.1,0.6,0.2,0.9l-6.3,3.6 c-0.2-0.2-0.4-0.4-0.7-0.6c-0.6-0.4-1.3-0.4-2-0.3c-0.7,0.2-1.2,0.6-1.6,1.2c-0.7,1.3-0.3,2.9,1,3.6l0,0c0.3,0.1,0.5,0.2,0.8,0.3 v7.3c-0.3,0.1-0.6,0.1-0.8,0.3c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2c0.4,0.6,0.9,1,1.6,1.2c0.2,0.1,0.5,0.1,0.7,0.1 c0.5,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c0.3-0.1,0.5-0.3,0.7-0.6l6.3,3.6c-0.1,0.3-0.2,0.6-0.2,0.9c0,1.5,1.2,2.6,2.6,2.6s2.6-1.2,2.6-2.6 c0-0.3-0.1-0.6-0.2-0.9l6.3-3.6c0.2,0.2,0.4,0.4,0.7,0.6l0,0c0.4,0.2,0.9,0.4,1.3,0.4c0.7,0,1.5-0.3,2-0.9l3.4,2 c-0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6,0,1c0.1,0.5,0.4,0.9,0.9,1.1c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9 c0.3-0.4,0.3-0.9,0.2-1.4C48,34.2,47.7,33.7,47.3,33.5z M9.5,16c0.3,0.2,0.6,0.3,0.9,0.3c0.2,0,0.3,0,0.5-0.1 c0.5-0.1,0.9-0.4,1.1-0.9c0.5-0.9,0.2-2.1-0.7-2.6c-0.9-0.5-2.1-0.2-2.6,0.7c-0.3,0.4-0.3,0.9-0.2,1.4C8.7,15.4,9,15.8,9.5,16z M15.7,2.8c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2c-0.4-0.7-1.3-0.9-2-0.5c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2C14.1,2.9,15,3.2,15.7,2.8z M41.1,46.8 c-0.7,0.4-0.9,1.3-0.5,2c0.4,0.7,1.3,0.9,2,0.5c0.7-0.4,0.9-1.3,0.5-2C42.7,46.6,41.8,46.4,41.1,46.8z M15.7,46.8 c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5c-0.4,0.7-0.2,1.6,0.5,2c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5C16.6,48.1,16.4,47.2,15.7,46.8z M41.1,2.8 c0.7,0.4,1.6,0.2,2-0.5c0.4-0.7,0.2-1.6-0.5-2c-0.7-0.4-1.6-0.2-2,0.5C40.1,1.4,40.4,2.3,41.1,2.8z M55.3,23.3 c-0.8,0-1.5,0.7-1.5,1.5c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5c0.8,0,1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C56.7,24,56.1,23.3,55.3,23.3z M1.5,23.3C0.7,23.3,0,24,0,24.8 c0,0.8,0.7,1.5,1.5,1.5s1.5-0.7,1.5-1.5C2.9,24,2.3,23.3,1.5,23.3z M39.1,21.2c0.4,0,0.9-0.1,1.3-0.4c1.3-0.7,1.7-2.3,1-3.6 c-0.7-1.3-2.3-1.7-3.6-1l0,0c-0.6,0.4-1,0.9-1.2,1.6c-0.2,0.7-0.1,1.4,0.3,2C37.3,20.7,38.2,21.2,39.1,21.2z"></path> <path id="logo__quanta" class='transition--color text-1a1a1a' fill="currentColor" d="M309.9,14c0,1.1-0.9,1.8-2,1.8c-0.9,0-1.8-0.7-1.8-1.8c0-1.2,0.8-2,1.9-2C309.2,12,309.9,12.8,309.9,14z M85.5,28.7c0.6-1.3,0.8-2.6,0.8-4.2c0-2.9-1-5.2-2.9-7.1c-1.9-1.9-4.2-2.8-7-2.8s-5.1,0.9-7,2.8c-1.9,1.9-2.9,4.2-2.9,7.1 c0,2.9,1,5.2,2.9,7.1c1.9,1.9,4.2,2.8,7,2.8c2.7,0,4.9-0.9,6.8-2.6l2.6,1.7l2.2-3.3L85.5,28.7z M82.1,26.5L79.8,25l-2.2,3.3l2.3,1.5 c-1,0.7-2.1,1.1-3.5,1.1c-1.8,0-3.2-0.6-4.3-1.7c-1.1-1.2-1.6-2.7-1.6-4.6c0-1.9,0.5-3.4,1.6-4.6c1.1-1.2,2.5-1.7,4.3-1.7 c1.8,0,3.2,0.6,4.3,1.7c1.1,1.1,1.6,2.7,1.6,4.6C82.3,25.2,82.2,25.9,82.1,26.5z M103.2,27.3c0,1.2-0.3,2.1-0.9,2.8 c-0.6,0.6-1.5,1-2.5,1s-1.9-0.3-2.5-1c-0.6-0.6-0.9-1.6-0.9-2.8v-8.5h-3.9v9c0,2,0.6,3.7,1.7,4.8c1.1,1.2,2.5,1.7,4.3,1.7 c2.2,0,3.6-0.4,4.8-1.7v1.5h3.9V18.9h-3.9V27.3z M144.3,18.9c-2.2,0-3.6,0.4-4.8,1.7v-1.5h-3.9v15.4h3.9V26c0-1.2,0.3-2.1,0.9-2.8 c0.6-0.6,1.5-1,2.5-1c1.1,0,1.9,0.3,2.5,1c0.6,0.6,0.9,1.6,0.9,2.8v8.5h3.9v-9c0-2-0.6-3.7-1.7-4.8C147.4,19.5,146,18.9,144.3,18.9z M124.8,18.9v1.5c-0.8-0.8-2.7-1.7-4.8-1.7c-2.1,0-3.8,0.7-5.2,2.2c-1.4,1.5-2.1,3.4-2.1,5.7c0,2.3,0.7,4.2,2.1,5.7 c1.4,1.5,3.1,2.2,5.2,2.2c1.3,0,3-0.2,4.8-1.6v1.4h3.9V18.9H124.8z M123.6,29.9c-0.8,0.8-1.8,1.2-2.8,1.2c-1.1,0-2-0.4-2.8-1.2 c-0.8-0.8-1.2-1.9-1.2-3.3c0-1.4,0.4-2.5,1.2-3.3c0.8-0.8,1.8-1.2,2.8-1.2c1.1,0,2,0.4,2.9,1.2c0.8,0.8,1.2,1.9,1.2,3.3 C124.8,28,124.4,29.1,123.6,29.9z M180.1,18.9v1.5c-0.8-0.8-2.7-1.7-4.8-1.7c-2.1,0-3.8,0.7-5.2,2.2c-1.4,1.5-2.1,3.4-2.1,5.7 c0,2.3,0.7,4.2,2.1,5.7c1.4,1.5,3.1,2.2,5.2,2.2c1.3,0,3-0.2,4.8-1.6v1.4h3.9V18.9H180.1z M178.9,29.9c-0.8,0.8-1.8,1.2-2.8,1.2 c-1.1,0-2-0.4-2.8-1.2c-0.8-0.8-1.2-1.9-1.2-3.3c0-1.4,0.4-2.5,1.2-3.3C174,22.4,175,22,176,22c1.1,0,2,0.4,2.9,1.2 c0.8,0.8,1.2,1.9,1.2,3.3C180.1,28,179.7,29.1,178.9,29.9z M161.4,31c-1.1,0-1.9-0.7-1.9-2.1v-6.4h4.1v-3.2h-4.1v-4h-3.7v4v3.2v6.4 c0,3.7,2.1,5.5,5.3,5.4c1.1,0,2-0.2,3-0.6l-1-3.1C162.6,30.9,161.9,31,161.4,31z"></path> <path id="logo__magazine" class='transition--color text-999999' fill="currentColor" d="M218.3,33.5l-0.1,1c-1.1,0-2.4-0.1-3.9-0.1c-1.5,0-2.7,0.1-3.6,0.1v-1c1.6-0.1,2-0.3,2-0.9 c0.1-0.8,0.1-2.4,0.1-5.1c0-4.4,0-4.9-0.3-5.4c-0.4-0.9-1.2-1.4-2.4-1.4c-1.6,0-3,1-3.7,2.3c-0.2,0.5-0.4,0.9-0.4,1.5v4.7 c0,1.3,0,2.6,0.1,3.4c0,0.7,0.4,0.9,2.2,0.9l-0.1,1c-0.9,0-2.5-0.1-3.9-0.1c-1.4,0-2.6,0.1-3.5,0.1v-1c1.6-0.1,2-0.2,2-1 c0.1-1.1,0.1-2.2,0.1-4.4v-2.8c0-2.4,0-2.8-0.2-3.3c-0.4-0.9-1.1-1.3-2.3-1.3c-1.5,0-3,0.9-3.8,2.4c-0.3,0.6-0.4,0.9-0.4,1.7v4.6 c0,1.4,0,2.5,0.1,3.3c0.1,0.7,0.4,0.8,2.1,0.9l-0.1,0.9c-0.8,0-2.5-0.1-3.8-0.1c-1.3,0-2.6,0.1-3.7,0.1v-1c1.8,0,2.1-0.2,2.1-1 c0-0.9,0.1-2.3,0.1-4.2v-2.9c0-1.9,0-3.4-0.1-4.3c0-0.5-0.3-0.6-2.2-0.6l0.1-0.9c1.7,0,3.6-0.2,5.2-0.5c0.1,0.6,0.2,2.2,0.2,2.7 c1.3-1.3,3.2-2.9,5.7-2.9c2,0,2.9,0.8,3.4,1.5c0.3,0.4,0.5,0.9,0.6,1.3c1.2-1.2,3-2.8,5.7-2.8c2.1,0,3.3,1.1,3.8,2 c0.4,0.7,0.5,1.5,0.5,2.3v9.4C216,33.3,216.2,33.4,218.3,33.5z M238.4,31l0.9,0.4c-0.5,2.5-1.9,3.4-3.5,3.4c-1.8,0-2.5-1.1-2.7-2.6 c-1.5,1.7-3.4,2.6-5,2.6c-2.7,0-4.3-1.9-4.3-4.3c0-1.4,0.6-2.6,2-3.2c2.4-1,6-2.1,7.4-3.1v-1.4c0-1.5-0.7-3-2.7-3 c-2.1,0-3,1.1-3,2.5c0,0.4,0.1,0.8,0.1,1.1c0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6-0.3,0.7c-0.3,0.2-0.7,0.4-1.2,0.4c-0.8,0-1.5-0.4-1.5-1.6 c0-1.8,2.6-4.1,6.4-4.1c3,0,4.3,1.3,4.7,2c0.3,0.5,0.5,1.2,0.5,1.8v8.9c0,1.3,0.4,1.5,0.8,1.5C237.5,33.1,238,32.4,238.4,31z M233,25.3c-1,0.5-2.8,1.3-4.1,2c-1.1,0.6-1.8,1.1-1.8,2.7c0,1.7,0.9,3,2.5,3c1.7,0,2.7-1,3.3-2.3c0.1-0.4,0.2-1,0.2-1.5V25.3z M255.8,27.1c-1.3,0-2.8-0.1-3.7-0.1l0,0.9l1.5,0.1c1.2,0.1,1.4,0.3,1.4,1.3c0,1,0,2.4-0.1,3.2c-0.1,0.8-1.1,1.3-2.5,1.3 c-1.5,0-2.8-0.5-3.8-1.8c-0.9-1.1-1.3-3.1-1.3-5.1c0-2.2,0.5-3.9,1.4-5.1c0.8-1.2,2-1.8,3.5-1.8c2.6,0,4.1,1.7,4.4,5l0.9,0 c-0.1-2.1,0.2-4.8,0.4-5.7l-0.8-0.3l-0.5,1.3c-0.5-0.5-1.8-1.4-4.3-1.4c-1.6,0-3,0.3-4.2,1c-2.4,1.3-3.8,3.9-3.8,7 c0,2.4,0.6,4.2,1.7,5.5c1.2,1.5,3.2,2.3,6.1,2.3c1.2,0,2.5-0.3,3.6-0.6c1-0.3,1.8-0.6,2.4-0.7c-0.1-0.5-0.2-1.3-0.2-2.5 c0-0.7,0-1.7,0.1-2.3c0-0.5,0.3-0.6,1.5-0.8l0-0.9C258.4,27.1,257.1,27.1,255.8,27.1z M279.4,31l0.9,0.4c-0.5,2.5-1.9,3.4-3.5,3.4 c-1.8,0-2.5-1.1-2.7-2.6c-1.5,1.7-3.4,2.6-5,2.6c-2.7,0-4.3-1.9-4.3-4.3c0-1.4,0.6-2.6,2-3.2c2.4-1,6-2.1,7.4-3.1v-1.4 c0-1.5-0.7-3-2.7-3c-2.1,0-3,1.1-3,2.5c0,0.4,0.1,0.8,0.1,1.1c0.1,0.3-0.1,0.6-0.3,0.7c-0.3,0.2-0.7,0.4-1.2,0.4 c-0.8,0-1.5-0.4-1.5-1.6c0-1.8,2.6-4.1,6.4-4.1c3,0,4.3,1.3,4.7,2c0.3,0.5,0.5,1.2,0.5,1.8v8.9c0,1.3,0.4,1.5,0.8,1.5 C278.5,33.1,279,32.4,279.4,31z M274,25.3c-1,0.5-2.8,1.3-4.1,2c-1.1,0.6-1.8,1.1-1.8,2.7c0,1.7,0.9,3,2.5,3c1.7,0,2.7-1,3.3-2.3 c0.1-0.4,0.2-1,0.2-1.5V25.3z M295.1,33c-1,0.2-2.8,0.3-5.6,0.3c1.8-2.8,7.1-10.8,7.9-12c0.4-0.7,0.8-1.4,0.9-2.1 c-1.4,0-2.6,0.1-5.3,0.1h-3c-2,0-3.2-0.1-3.8-0.4c0,2.1-0.2,4.4-0.4,5.8l0.9-0.2c0.2-0.8,0.4-1.7,0.7-2.6c0.4-1.1,0.9-1.4,2.4-1.5 c1.4-0.1,2.9-0.1,4.4-0.1c-0.9,1.8-5.2,8.8-9,13.4l0.4,0.7c0.6,0,1.7-0.1,3.7-0.1c3.8,0,7.8,0.1,9.1,0.2c0.1-1.6,0.4-4.3,0.6-5.8 l-0.9-0.2C297.3,32,296.5,32.9,295.1,33z M309.9,32.5c0-0.7-0.1-1.9-0.1-4.1v-4.1c0-2.6,0.1-4.6,0.1-5.4c-1.6,0.4-3.9,0.5-5.6,0.6 l0,0.9c1.9-0.1,2.2,0,2.2,0.5c0,0.5,0.1,1.7,0.1,3.6v3.9c0,2-0.1,3.5-0.1,4.1c0,0.6-0.3,0.9-2.4,1l0,1c1.1,0,2.1-0.1,3.8-0.1 c1.7,0,3,0.1,4,0.1l0-1C310.3,33.4,309.9,33.3,309.9,32.5z M332.9,32.5v-9.3c0-0.8-0.1-1.6-0.5-2.2c-0.5-1.1-1.7-2.1-4-2.1 c-2.5,0-4.2,1.5-5.5,2.7c0-0.5-0.1-1.9-0.2-2.6c-1.6,0.3-3.4,0.5-5.1,0.5l-0.1,0.9c1.8,0,2.1,0.1,2.1,0.6c0.1,0.9,0.1,2.4,0.1,4.3 v3.1c0,1.7-0.1,3-0.1,4c0,0.8-0.3,0.9-2.1,1v1c1,0,2.2-0.1,3.7-0.1c1.3,0,3,0.1,3.9,0.1l0.1-1c-1.8-0.1-2.1-0.2-2.1-0.9 c-0.1-0.8-0.1-2.2-0.1-3.7v-4.1c0-0.8,0.1-1.3,0.4-1.8c0.8-1.4,2.1-2.2,3.8-2.2c1.2,0,1.9,0.5,2.4,1.3c0.3,0.6,0.4,1,0.4,5.4 c0,2.8-0.1,4.4-0.1,5.1c-0.1,0.7-0.4,0.8-2,0.9l0,1c0.8,0,2-0.1,3.6-0.1c1.5,0,2.8,0.1,3.9,0.1l0.1-1 C333.1,33.4,332.9,33.3,332.9,32.5z M352.5,29.8l0.9,0.5c-1.1,3.2-3.3,4.5-6.3,4.5c-2.7,0-4.4-0.8-5.6-2.4c-0.9-1.2-1.5-3.2-1.5-5.3 c0-4.4,2.5-8.3,7.4-8.3c5.1,0,6,4,6,6.1c0,0.7-0.2,1.2-0.7,1.4c-0.6,0.2-2.3,0.4-4.6,0.5c-1.2,0-3.1,0-4.6,0 c-0.1,1.9,0.4,3.6,1.1,4.6c0.8,1.2,1.9,1.8,3.5,1.8C350.3,33.2,351.6,32.2,352.5,29.8z M343.6,25.7h2.9c1.7,0,2.6-0.1,3.1-0.2 c0.5-0.1,0.7-0.5,0.7-1.2c0-1.9-0.8-4.4-3.1-4.4C344.8,19.9,343.7,22.8,343.6,25.7z"></path> </g></svg> </a> </div> <div class='footer__social flex flex-justify-center scale0'> <div class='social-links flex flex-justify-between flex-items-center social-links--footer'> <a href='https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative facebook mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa " viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M13 16.5h5.1v-5c-.2-2.7.3-5.4 1.7-7.7 1.8-2.5 4.9-4 8-3.8 3.1-.1 6.2.2 9.2 1l-1.3 7.7C34.4 8.3 33 8 31.6 8c-2 0-3.8.7-3.8 2.7v5.9H36l-.6 7.5h-7.6V50h-9.6V23.9H13v-7.4z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://twitter.com/QuantaMagazine' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative twitter mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg class="absolute fit-x mxa " viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>X Twitter</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M50 9.9c-1.9.8-3.8 1.3-5.9 1.6 2.1-1.3 3.7-3.2 4.5-5.6-2 1.2-4.2 2-6.5 2.5-3.8-4.1-10.3-4.5-14.5-.8-2.8 2.5-4 6.3-3.1 10-8.2-.5-15.8-4.3-21-10.6-2.7 4.6-1.3 10.5 3.2 13.5C5 20.4 3.4 20 2 19.2c0 4.8 3.4 8.9 8.2 9.9-.9.2-1.8.4-2.7.3-.6 0-1.3-.1-1.9-.2 1.3 4.1 5.2 6.9 9.5 7C10.8 39.5 5.4 41 0 40.4c13.5 8.5 31.5 4.6 40.2-8.7 3-4.6 4.6-10 4.6-15.5v-1.3c2-1.3 3.7-3.1 5.2-5"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://www.youtube.com/c/QuantaScienceChannel' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative youtube mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="c-1a1a1a absolute fit-x mxa " viewBox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" width="50" height="50" > <title>Youtube</title> <path fill="currentColor" d="M18.7 33.7V16.1l15.7 8.8-15.7 8.8zM43.3 8.2c-12.2-.9-24.4-.9-36.6 0-1.8.2-3.4 1.2-4.3 2.8C1.3 12.5.6 14.3.3 16.2c-.5 5.9-.5 11.8 0 17.7.2 1.9.9 3.7 2.1 5.2 1 1.5 2.5 2.6 4.3 2.9 12.2.8 24.4.8 36.6 0 1.8-.4 3.3-1.5 4.3-3 1.1-1.5 1.8-3.3 2.1-5.1.5-6 .5-12.1 0-18.1-.2-1.8-.8-3.6-1.9-5.1-1-1.6-2.7-2.5-4.5-2.5z"></path></svg></div> </a> <a href='https://instagram.com/quantamag' target="_blank" class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative instagram mh05 theme__accent theme__text-hover transition--color'> <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer '> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa '> </div> <svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="c-1a1a1a absolute fit-x mxa " viewBox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" width="50" height="50" > <title>Instagram</title> <path fill="currentColor" d="M33.4 0H16.6C7.5 0 0 7.5 0 16.6v16.8C0 42.5 7.5 50 16.6 50h16.8C42.5 50 50 42.5 50 33.4V16.6C50 7.5 42.5 0 33.4 0zM25 36.6c-6.4 0-11.6-5.2-11.6-11.6S18.6 13.4 25 13.4 36.6 18.6 36.6 25 31.4 36.6 25 36.6zm15.1-23.2c-1.8 0-3.2-1.4-3.2-3.2S38.3 7 40.1 7s3.2 1.4 3.2 3.2c0 1.7-1.5 3.2-3.2 3.2z"></path></svg></div> </a> </div> </div> </section> <section class='outer footer__section footer__section--bottom flex flex-wrap flex-justify-center flex-items-center pt2 outer--content'> <nav class='footer__nav fill-h'> <ul class='footer__list flex flex-column flex-items-center flex-justify-center gray3'> <li class='footer__list-item mb1'> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/about/' class='footer__link h5 pangram gray3 flex flex-items-center relative mh05 ph025 light'> <span>About Quanta</span> </a> </li> <li class='footer__list-item mb1'> <a href='/archive' class='footer__link h5 pangram gray3 flex flex-items-center relative mh05 ph025 light'> <span>Archive</span> </a> </li> <li class='footer__list-item mb1'> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/contact-us/' class='footer__link h5 pangram gray3 flex flex-items-center relative mh05 ph025 light'> <span>Contact Us</span> </a> </li> <li class='footer__list-item mb1'> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/terms-conditions/' class='footer__link h5 pangram gray3 flex flex-items-center relative mh05 ph025 light'> <span>Terms &#038; Conditions</span> </a> </li> <li class='footer__list-item mb1'> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/privacy-policy/' class='footer__link h5 pangram gray3 flex flex-items-center relative mh05 ph025 light'> <span>Privacy Policy</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav> </section> <hr class='footer__section-divider hide gray2'> <section class='outer footer__section outer--content pt125--s pt0875--slmax pb2813 ph25--mmax flex flex-items-center flex-justify-between flex-column--smax outer--content'> <div class='flex flex-justify-center'> <div class='footer__copyright flex-shrink h5 pangram gray3 light'> <small>All Rights Reserved 漏 2024</small> </div> </div> <div class='footer__support flex g093 flex-justify-center gray3'> <em class='footer__text scale6'>An editorially independent publication supported by the Simons Foundation.</em> <a href='https://www.simonsfoundation.org'> <span class='screen-reader-text'>Simons Foundation</span> <svg width="78" height="22" viewBox="0 0 71 20" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <g clip-path="url(#clip0_53_3732)"> <path d="M1.00378 19.9386V16.7742H3.17876V17.1368H1.43878V18.1867H2.80901V18.546H1.43878V19.9369L1.00378 19.9386Z"/> <path d="M9.38237 19.9999C8.44881 19.9999 7.79297 19.3375 7.79297 18.3573C7.79297 17.377 8.44881 16.7146 9.38237 16.7146C10.3159 16.7146 10.9701 17.377 10.9701 18.3573C10.9701 19.3375 10.3109 19.9999 9.38237 19.9999ZM9.38237 17.0855C8.6914 17.0855 8.24469 17.5823 8.24469 18.3573C8.24469 19.1322 8.6914 19.6273 9.38237 19.6273C10.0733 19.6273 10.5134 19.1306 10.5134 18.3573C10.5134 17.5839 10.0717 17.0855 9.38237 17.0855Z"/> <path d="M15.864 18.7281V16.7742H16.3007V18.7331C16.3007 19.3359 16.6002 19.6323 17.159 19.6323C17.7178 19.6323 18.0256 19.3359 18.0256 18.7381V16.7742H18.4573V18.7281C18.4573 19.6521 17.8784 19.9999 17.159 19.9999C16.4395 19.9999 15.864 19.6521 15.864 18.7281Z" /> <path d="M25.7048 19.1951V16.7742H26.1164V19.9386H25.765L23.9079 17.3968V19.9386H23.498V16.7742H23.9548L25.7048 19.1951Z"/> <path d="M31.2026 16.7742H32.3587C33.3626 16.7742 33.9983 17.367 33.9983 18.3572C33.9983 19.3474 33.3642 19.9386 32.3587 19.9386H31.2026V16.7742ZM32.3336 19.5892C33.1149 19.5892 33.5416 19.1322 33.5416 18.3638C33.5416 17.5955 33.1149 17.1385 32.3336 17.1385H31.6443V19.5892H32.3336Z" /> <path d="M40.3204 16.7742L41.6589 19.9386H41.1921L40.8056 19.0096H39.3484L38.9736 19.9386H38.5303L39.8353 16.7742H40.3204ZM39.4839 18.6636H40.6551L40.0712 17.2577H40.0511L39.4839 18.6636Z" /> <path d="M47.0532 19.9386V17.1368H45.8904V16.7742H48.671V17.1368H47.4881V19.9386H47.0532Z"/> <path d="M53.9964 16.7742V19.9386H53.5547V16.7742H53.9964Z"/> <path d="M60.5228 19.9999C59.5892 19.9999 58.9333 19.3375 58.9333 18.3573C58.9333 17.377 59.5892 16.7146 60.5228 16.7146C61.4563 16.7146 62.1105 17.377 62.1105 18.3573C62.1105 19.3375 61.4513 19.9999 60.5228 19.9999ZM60.5228 17.0855C59.8318 17.0855 59.3851 17.5823 59.3851 18.3573C59.3851 19.1322 59.8318 19.6273 60.5228 19.6273C61.2137 19.6273 61.6537 19.1306 61.6537 18.3573C61.6537 17.5839 61.2121 17.0855 60.5228 17.0855Z"/> <path d="M69.2531 19.1951V16.7742H69.663V19.9386H69.3133L67.4562 17.3968V19.9386H67.0447V16.7742H67.5014L69.2531 19.1951Z"/> <path d="M2.46789 8.77673C2.57497 10.8567 4.09753 11.7906 5.98149 11.7906C7.65463 11.7906 8.72879 11.1282 8.72879 10.0071C8.72879 8.9887 7.9123 8.60617 6.49682 8.32962L3.9252 7.856C1.82373 7.47347 0.364745 6.32753 0.364745 4.11844C0.364745 1.61459 2.35913 0 5.52138 0C9.05338 0 11.0428 1.80503 11.0913 4.77752L8.62506 4.86198C8.53805 3.04039 7.33674 2.08158 5.49293 2.08158C3.90512 2.08158 3.01166 2.78206 3.01166 3.928C3.01166 4.90504 3.7194 5.25279 4.94247 5.47801L7.43211 5.92347C10.0824 6.41198 11.3272 7.66557 11.3272 9.8316C11.3272 12.4646 9.03163 13.8871 5.98484 13.8871C2.50972 13.8871 0 12.1036 0 8.87609L2.46789 8.77673Z"/> <path d="M15.3578 0.254883V13.632H12.6808V0.254883H15.3578Z"/> <path d="M33.7976 13.632C32.7569 12.8475 31.9133 11.8357 31.3326 10.6756C30.7519 9.51539 30.4498 8.23815 30.4498 6.94342C30.4498 5.64869 30.7519 4.37145 31.3326 3.21128C31.9133 2.0511 32.7569 1.03935 33.7976 0.254883H27.2623L24.4531 9.97884H24.3878L21.428 0.254883H17.2017V13.632H19.6896V3.09987H19.775L23.0794 13.632H25.375L28.6108 3.09987H28.6962V13.632H33.7976Z"/> <path d="M61.8117 8.77779C61.9188 10.858 63.4432 11.792 65.3257 11.792C66.9991 11.792 68.0717 11.1296 68.0717 10.0083C68.0717 8.98978 67.2568 8.6072 65.8411 8.33062L63.2658 7.86357C61.1624 7.48099 59.705 6.33491 59.705 4.12556C59.71 1.61478 61.7046 0 64.8589 0C68.3997 0 70.3943 1.80524 70.4428 4.7781L67.9746 4.86256C67.8893 3.04076 66.6878 2.08183 64.8421 2.08183C63.2541 2.08183 62.3539 2.78239 62.3539 3.92847C62.3539 4.90562 63.0617 5.25342 64.2849 5.47866L66.7615 5.92418C69.4221 6.41275 70.667 7.66649 70.667 9.83278C70.667 12.4661 68.3712 13.8888 65.3241 13.8888C61.8485 13.8888 59.3385 12.1051 59.3385 8.87716L61.8117 8.77779Z"/> <path d="M55.7641 0.254883V9.17345L49.3702 0.254883H44.0958C45.1366 1.03944 45.9803 2.05132 46.5611 3.21163C47.1419 4.37194 47.444 5.64933 47.444 6.94422C47.444 8.23911 47.1419 9.5165 46.5611 10.6768C45.9803 11.8371 45.1366 12.849 44.0958 13.6336H49.1912V4.20489L56.1004 13.6336H58.2456V0.254883H55.7641Z" /> </g></svg> </a> </div> </section> </div> </section> </footer> <section class='modal-portal hidden ' data-function='toggle' data-name='nav-account'> <div class='modal flex login flex-items-start'> <div class='modal__overlay fixed inset-0 z-0'> </div> <div class='modal__content bg-white mha is-open is-visible relative size--large'> <div class='modal__close align-r pt1 pr1 absolute fit-r fit-t z10 transition--color theme__accent theme__text-hover'> <button class='px1' data-function='trigger' data-name='nav-account'> <svg class="icon inline-block" x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xml:space="preserve"><title>Close</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M29.8,25l19.6,19.6l-4.8,4.8L25,29.8L5.4,49.4l-4.8-4.8L20.2,25L0.6,5.4l4.8-4.8L25,20.2L44.6,0.6l4.8,4.8L29.8,25z"></path></svg> </button> </div> <div class='login-modal' role='dialog' aria-labelledby='login-dialog-title'> <div class='noe h0 align-c mt0 mb1' id='login-dialog-title'>Log in to Quanta</div> <div class='login__error fill-h px2 theme__accent bg-gray1 h5 pangram uppercase kern align-c mb3 medium hidden'></div> <div class='login-modal__inner flex flex-wrap'> <div class='login-modal__left'> <h2 class='bold login-modal__social-title mt0'>Use your social network</h2> <div class='facebook-blue'> <a href='/mechanix?loginSocial=facebook' data-provider='facebook'> <button class='button button--border pangram bold scale5 fill-h flex flex-items-center hover--black'> <svg class="icon mr1 icon-offset" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M13 16.5h5.1v-5c-.2-2.7.3-5.4 1.7-7.7 1.8-2.5 4.9-4 8-3.8 3.1-.1 6.2.2 9.2 1l-1.3 7.7C34.4 8.3 33 8 31.6 8c-2 0-3.8.7-3.8 2.7v5.9H36l-.6 7.5h-7.6V50h-9.6V23.9H13v-7.4z"></path></svg> <span>Connect with Facebook</span> </button> </a> </div> <div class='google-red mt1'> <a href='/mechanix?loginSocial=google' data-provider='google'> <button class='button button--border pangram bold scale5 fill-h flex flex-items-center hover--black'> <svg class='icon mr1 icon-offset' x='0px' y='0px' viewBox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50' xml:space='preserve'><path fill='currentColor' d='M28.4,22.9c0.1,0.7,0.2,1.5,0.2,2.4c0,8.3-5.6,14.2-14,14.2C6.5,39.6,0,33.1,0,25c0-8.1,6.5-14.6,14.6-14.6 c3.9,0,7.2,1.4,9.8,3.8l-4,3.8c-1.1-1-3-2.2-5.8-2.2c-5,0-9,4.1-9,9.2c0,5.1,4.1,9.2,9,9.2c5.8,0,7.9-4.1,8.3-6.3h-8.3v-5H28.4z M43.8,22.9l0-6.2l-4.2,0l0,6.2l-6.2,0l0,4.2l6.2,0l0,6.2l4.2,0l0-6.2l6.2,0l0-4.2L43.8,22.9z'></path></svg> <span>Connect with Google</span> </button> </a> </div> </div> <div class='login-modal__center'> <span class='login-modal__center__or gray2 italic mbold'>or</span> </div> <div class='login-modal__right'> <form class='login-form'> <div class='input-container'> <input type='email' name='login_email' id='login_email' value='' class='' autocomplete='off' required> <label for='login_email' data-label='email'>email</label> </div> <div class='input-container'> <input type='password' name='login_password' id='login_password' value='' class='' required> <label for='login_password' data-label='password'>password</label> </div> <div class='checkbox-container'> <input type='checkbox' value='login_remember' id='login_remember' name='login_remember' readonly checked> <i class='psuedo-checkbox'></i> <label for='login_remember'>Remember me</label> </div> <div class='login-modal__submit'> <input type='submit' class='button login__submit orange mr1' value='Log in' disabled> <p class='theme__accent link scale5 pangram inline medium color-transition hover--black' data-function='trigger' data-name='forgot-password'> <span class='no-wrap' aria-haspopup='dialog'>Forgot your password ?</span> <svg class='icon ml05 icon icon-offset' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </p> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div class='login__signup fill-h align-c h4 pangram bold'>Don't have an account yet? <span class='theme__accent link no-wrap color-transition hover--black' aria-haspopup='dialog' data-function='trigger' data-name='sign-up'> Sign up</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class='modal-portal hidden ' data-function='toggle' data-name='forgot-password'> <div class='modal flex forgot-password flex-items-start'> <div class='modal__overlay fixed inset-0 z-0'> </div> <div class='modal__content bg-white mha is-open is-visible relative size--small'> <div class='modal__close align-r pt1 pr1 absolute fit-r fit-t z10 transition--color theme__accent theme__text-hover'> <button class='px1' data-function='trigger' data-name='forgot-password'> <svg class="icon inline-block" x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xml:space="preserve"><title>Close</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M29.8,25l19.6,19.6l-4.8,4.8L25,29.8L5.4,49.4l-4.8-4.8L20.2,25L0.6,5.4l4.8-4.8L25,20.2L44.6,0.6l4.8,4.8L29.8,25z"></path></svg> </button> </div> <div class='forgot-password-modal align-l' role='dialog' aria-labelledby='forgot-password-dialog-title'> <div class='forgot-password-modal__inner'> <div class='noe h0 mt0 mb025' id='forgot-password-dialog-title'>Forgot your password?</div> <p class='italic gray4 mt0'>We鈥檒l email you instructions to reset your password</p> </div> <div class='modal__error fill-h px2 mb2 theme__accent bg-gray1 h5 pangram uppercase kern align-c medium hidden'> <div class='forgot-password-modal__inner'></div> </div> <div class='forgot-password-message'></div> <div class='forgot-password-modal__inner'> <form class='forgot-password-form'> <div class='input-container'> <input type='email' name='forgot_password_email' id='forgot_password_email' value='' required> <label for='forgot_password_email' data-label='email'>email</label> </div> <input type='submit' class='login__submit button orange' value='Send' disabled> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class='modal-portal hidden ' data-function='toggle' data-name='reset-password'> <div class='modal flex reset-password flex-items-start'> <div class='modal__overlay fixed inset-0 z-0'> </div> <div class='modal__content bg-white mha is-open is-visible relative size--small'> <div class='modal__close align-r pt1 pr1 absolute fit-r fit-t z10 transition--color theme__accent theme__text-hover'> <button class='px1' data-function='trigger' data-name='reset-password'> <svg class="icon inline-block" x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xml:space="preserve"><title>Close</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M29.8,25l19.6,19.6l-4.8,4.8L25,29.8L5.4,49.4l-4.8-4.8L20.2,25L0.6,5.4l4.8-4.8L25,20.2L44.6,0.6l4.8,4.8L29.8,25z"></path></svg> </button> </div> <div class='reset-password-modal align-l'> <div class='reset-password-modal__inner'> <div class='noe h0 mt0 mb025'>Change your password</div> <p class='italic gray4 mt0'>Enter your new password</p> </div> <div class='reset-password-message'></div> <div class='modal__error fill-h px2 mb2 theme__accent bg-gray1 h5 pangram uppercase kern hidden'> <div class='reset-password-modal__inner'></div> </div> <div class='reset-password-modal__inner'> <form class='reset-password-form'> <div class='input-container'> <input type='password' name='new_password' id='new_password' value='' class='password' required> <label for='new_password' data-label='Password'>Password</label> </div> <div class='input-container'> <input type='password' name='new_password_verify' id='new_password_verify' value='' class='password-verify' required> <label for='new_password_verify' data-label='Retype new password'>Retype new password</label> </div> <input type='submit' class='login__submit button orange' value='Send' disabled> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class='modal-portal hidden ' data-function='toggle' data-name='sign-up'> <div class='modal flex sign-up flex-items-start'> <div class='modal__overlay fixed inset-0 z-0'> </div> <div class='modal__content bg-white mha is-open is-visible relative size--small'> <div class='modal__close align-r pt1 pr1 absolute fit-r fit-t z10 transition--color theme__accent theme__text-hover'> <button class='px1' data-function='trigger' data-name='sign-up'> <svg class="icon inline-block" x="0px" y="0px" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xml:space="preserve"><title>Close</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M29.8,25l19.6,19.6l-4.8,4.8L25,29.8L5.4,49.4l-4.8-4.8L20.2,25L0.6,5.4l4.8-4.8L25,20.2L44.6,0.6l4.8,4.8L29.8,25z"></path></svg> </button> </div> <div class='signup-modal' role='dialog' aria-labelledby='signup-dialog-title'> <div class='signup-modal__inner'> <div class='noe h0 align-c mt0 mb1' id='signup-dialog-title'>Sign Up</div> </div> <div class='modal__error fill-h px2 mb2 theme__accent bg-gray1 h5 pangram uppercase kern align-c medium hidden'> <div class='signup-modal__inner'></div> </div> <div class='signup-modal__inner'> <form class='sign-up-form'> <div class='input-container'> <input type='text' name='sign_up_first_name' id='sign_up_first_name' value='' class='' required> <label for='sign_up_first_name' data-label='First Name'>First Name</label> </div> <div class='input-container'> <input type='text' name='sign_up_last_name' id='sign_up_last_name' value='' class='' required> <label for='sign_up_last_name' data-label='Last Name'>Last Name</label> </div> <div class='input-container'> <input type='email' name='sign_up_email' id='sign_up_email' value='' class='' required> <label for='sign_up_email' data-label='Email'>Email</label> </div> <div class='input-container'> <input type='password' name='sign_up_password' id='sign_up_password' value='' class='password' required> <label for='sign_up_password' data-label='Password'>Password</label> </div> <div class='input-container'> <input type='password' name='sign_up_password_verify' id='sign_up_password_verify' value='' class='password-verify' required> <label for='sign_up_password_verify' data-label='Retype Password'>Retype Password</label> </div> <div class='align-c pv1'> <input type='submit' class='button login__submit orange mr1' value='Create an account' disabled> </div> </form> <div class='px2 gray3 pangram align-c light signup-modal__terms'> Creating an account means you accept Quanta Magazine's <br /> <a class='theme__accent link' href='/terms-conditions'>Terms &amp; Conditions</a> and <a class='theme__accent link' href='/privacy-policy'>Privacy Policy</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <script type="text/javascript" id="disqus_count-js-extra"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var countVars = {"disqusShortname":"quanta-mag"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/disqus-comment-system/public/js/comment_count.js?ver=3.1.1" id="disqus_count-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" id="disqus_embed-js-extra"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var embedVars = {"disqusConfig":{"integration":"wordpress 3.1.1"},"disqusIdentifier":"141609 https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/?p=141609","disqusShortname":"quanta-mag","disqusTitle":"The Thought Experiments That Fray the Fabric of Space-Time","disqusUrl":"https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/the-thought-experiments-that-fray-the-fabric-of-space-time-20240925\/","postId":"141609"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/disqus-comment-system/public/js/comment_embed.js?ver=3.1.1" id="disqus_embed-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/quanta-education-interactive/jquery.validate.min.js?ver=6.6.2" id="jquery-validate-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" id="edin-js-js-extra"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var EDIN = {"ajaxurl":"https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/quanta-education-interactive/edin.js?ver=6.6.2" id="edin-js-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" id="privacy-consent-front-js-extra"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var privacyArgs = {"hideEffect":"fade","cookieTime":"2592000","secure":"1"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/sf-privacy-consent/js/front.min.js?ver=1.10" id="privacy-consent-front-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" id="main-js-extra"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var qAjax = {"ajaxurl":"https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/themes/quanta2024/frontend/dist/main.min.js?ver=1730911106" id="main-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/themes/quanta2024/frontend/js/mathjax/MathJax.js" id="mathjax-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" id="favorites-js-extra"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var favorites_data = {"ajaxurl":"https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","nonce":"6bc07a37f1","favorite":"Favorite","favorited":"Favorited","includecount":"","indicate_loading":"","loading_text":"Loading","loading_image":"","loading_image_active":"","loading_image_preload":"","cache_enabled":"1","button_options":{"button_type":"custom","custom_colors":false,"box_shadow":false,"include_count":false,"default":{"background_default":false,"border_default":false,"text_default":false,"icon_default":false,"count_default":false},"active":{"background_active":false,"border_active":false,"text_active":false,"icon_active":false,"count_active":false}},"authentication_modal_content":"<p>Please login to add favorites.<\/p><p><a href=\"#\" data-favorites-modal-close>Dismiss this notice<\/a><\/p>","authentication_redirect":"","dev_mode":"","logged_in":"","user_id":"0","authentication_redirect_url":"https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/mechanix\/"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/plugins/quanta-favorites/assets/js/favorites.min.js?ver=2.3.4" id="favorites-js"></script> <div role="banner" class="sf-top sf-fixed-bar"><div class="sf-fixed-bar-container"><div class="sf-fixed-bar-text-wrapper"><span class="sf-notice-text">We care about your data, and we'd like to use cookies to give you a smooth browsing experience. Please agree and read more about our <a href='/privacy-policy'>privacy policy.</a></span><a href="#" data-cookie-value="true" data-function="sf-set-consent" class="sf-button" >AGREE</a><a href="#" data-cookie-value="revoke" data-function="sf-set-consent" class="sf-button">DISMISS</a></div></div></div> </body> </html>

Pages: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10