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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-1961:_Freedom_Rides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1964–67:_SNCC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1964–67:_SNCC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>1964–67: SNCC</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1964–67:_SNCC-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1964–67: SNCC subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1964–67:_SNCC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mississippi_and_Cambridge,_Maryland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mississippi_and_Cambridge,_Maryland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mississippi and Cambridge, Maryland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mississippi_and_Cambridge,_Maryland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selma_to_Montgomery_marches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Selma to Montgomery marches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selma_to_Montgomery_marches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Lowndes County Freedom Organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chairman_of_SNCC_and_Black_Power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chairman_of_SNCC_and_Black_Power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Chairman of SNCC and Black Power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chairman_of_SNCC_and_Black_Power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Vietnam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1967–68:_Transition_out_of_SNCC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1967–68:_Transition_out_of_SNCC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>1967–68: Transition out of SNCC</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1967–68:_Transition_out_of_SNCC-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1967–68: Transition out of SNCC subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1967–68:_Transition_out_of_SNCC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stepping_down_as_chair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stepping_down_as_chair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Stepping down as chair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stepping_down_as_chair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Targeted_by_FBI_COINTELPRO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Targeted_by_FBI_COINTELPRO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Targeted by FBI COINTELPRO</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Targeted_by_FBI_COINTELPRO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>International activism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1968_D.C._riots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1968_D.C._riots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>1968 D.C. riots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1968_D.C._riots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1969–98:_Travel_to_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1969–98:_Travel_to_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>1969–98: Travel to Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1969–98:_Travel_to_Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1969–98: Travel to Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1969–98:_Travel_to_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Break_with_the_Black_Panthers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Break_with_the_Black_Panthers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Break with the Black Panthers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Break_with_the_Black_Panthers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_in_Guinea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_in_Guinea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Life in Guinea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_in_Guinea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._and_British_government_attention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._and_British_government_attention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>U.S. and British government attention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._and_British_government_attention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-All-African_People's_Revolutionary_Party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#All-African_People's_Revolutionary_Party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>All-African People's Revolutionary Party</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-All-African_People's_Revolutionary_Party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lecturing_in_the_Caribbean_and_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lecturing_in_the_Caribbean_and_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Lecturing in the Caribbean and the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lecturing_in_the_Caribbean_and_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illness_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illness_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Illness and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illness_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carmichael's_marriages_and_divorces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carmichael's_marriages_and_divorces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Carmichael's marriages and divorces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carmichael's_marriages_and_divorces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Controversies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Controversies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alleged_antisemitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alleged_antisemitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Alleged antisemitism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alleged_antisemitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Views on women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In popular culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exhibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exhibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Exhibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Stage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Research resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Videos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Videos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Videos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Videos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Stokely Carmichael</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84" title="ستوكلي كارمايكل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ستوكلي كارمايكل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B9_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BB" title="Στόουκλι Καρμάικλ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στόουκλι Καρμάικλ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84" title="استوکلی کارمایکل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استوکلی کارمایکل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%86%A0%ED%81%B4%EB%A6%AC_%EC%B9%B4%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%ED%81%B4" title="스토클리 카마이클 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스토클리 카마이클" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%83%D9%84%D9%89_%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84" title="ستوكلى كارمايكل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ستوكلى كارمايكل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stokely Carmichael" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AB" title="ストークリー・カーマイケル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ストークリー・カーマイケル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9B%DF%91%DF%95%DF%8F%DF%9E%DF%8B%DF%9F%DF%8C_%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%99%DF%91%DF%A1%DF%8C%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%8D%DF%9F" title="ߛߑߕߏߞߋߟߌ ߞߊߙߑߡߌߞߊߍߟ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߛߑߕߏߞߋߟߌ ߞߊߙߑߡߌߞߊߍߟ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Ture" title="Kwame Ture – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Kwame Ture" 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div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Stokely Carmichael</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="1557" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Carmichael in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, 1966</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">4th Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />May 1966 – June 1967</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Stokely Standiford Churchill Carmichael</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1941-06-29</span>)</span>June 29, 1941<br /><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Spain" title="Port of Spain">Port of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#British_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">November 15, 1998<span style="display:none">(1998-11-15)</span> (aged 57)<br /><a href="/wiki/Conakry" title="Conakry">Conakry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba" title="Miriam Makeba">Miriam Makeba</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1968; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1973)<wbr /></div><br />Marlyatou Barry (divorced)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">the Politics series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pan-African flag"><img alt="Pan-African flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Arts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">African art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_art_in_Western_collections" title="African art in Western collections">Stolen African art in Western collections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Star_of_Africa" title="Black Star of Africa">Black Star of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_colours" title="Pan-African colours">Pan-African colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_flag" title="Pan-African flag">Pan-African flag</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Africa" title="Anarchism in Africa">African anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_communalism" title="African communalism">African communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankarism" title="Sankarism">Sankarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscious_Community" title="Conscious Community">Conscious Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_N._Wilson" title="Amos N. Wilson">Amos N. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babacar_Sedikh_Diouf" title="Babacar Sedikh Diouf">Babacar Sedikh Diouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._L._R._James" title="C. L. R. James">C. L. R. James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Akumu" title="Dennis Akumu">Dennis Akumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Francis_Small" title="Edward Francis Small">Edward Francis Small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Houphou%C3%ABt-Boigny" title="Félix Houphouët-Boigny">Félix Houphouët-Boigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_Laye_Thiaw" title="Issa Laye Thiaw">Issa Laye Thiaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Malema" title="Julius Malema">Julius Malema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musa_Ngum" title="Musa Ngum">Musa Ngum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochola_Ogaye_Mak%27Anyengo" title="Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo">Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omali_Yeshitela" title="Omali Yeshitela">Omali Yeshitela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Mbah" title="Sam Mbah">Sam Mbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan" title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Dynamics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Conflicts in Africa</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">African and Black Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asians" title="Afro-Asians">Afro-Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Latin_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Latin Americans">Afro-Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Black people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BlankMap-Africa.svg/15px-BlankMap-Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BlankMap-Africa.svg/23px-BlankMap-Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BlankMap-Africa.svg/30px-BlankMap-Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Pan-Africanism" title="Portal:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pan-African" title="Template:Pan-African"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pan-African" title="Template talk:Pan-African"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-African" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-African"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Kwame Ture</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ʊər/: 'our' in 'tour'">ʊər</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span>; born <b>Stokely Standiford Churchill Carmichael</b>; June 29, 1941 – November 15, 1998) was an American activist who played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the global <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">pan-African</a> movement. Born in <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a> in the Caribbean, he grew up in the United States from the age of 11 and became an activist while attending the <a href="/wiki/Bronx_High_School_of_Science" title="Bronx High School of Science">Bronx High School of Science</a>. He was a key leader in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power movement">Black Power movement</a>, first while leading the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC), then as the "Honorary Prime Minister" of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a>, and last as a leader of the <a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a> (A-APRP).<sup id="cite_ref-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael was one of the original SNCC <a href="/wiki/Freedom_riders" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom riders">freedom riders</a> of 1961 under <a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a>'s leadership. He became a major voting rights activist in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> after being mentored by <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a>. Like most young people in the SNCC, he became disillusioned with the <a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">two-party system</a> after the 1964 Democratic National Convention failed to recognize the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> as official delegates from the state. Carmichael eventually decided to develop independent all-black political organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a> and, for a time, the national Black Panther Party. Inspired by <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>'s example, he articulated a philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">black power</a>, and popularized it both by provocative speeches and more sober writings. </p><p>Carmichael became one of the most popular and controversial Black leaders of the late 1960s. FBI director <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> secretly identified Carmichael as the man most likely to succeed Malcolm X as America's "black messiah".<sup id="cite_ref-Warden76_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warden76-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FBI targeted him for counterintelligence activity through its <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a> program,<sup id="cite_ref-Warden76_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warden76-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> causing Carmichael to move to Africa in 1968. He reestablished himself in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> by 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, he adopted the name Kwame Ture, and began campaigning internationally for <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary socialist">revolutionary socialist</a> pan-Africanism. Ture died of <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> in 1998 at the age of 57. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_years">Early years</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carmichael was born in <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Spain" title="Port of Spain">Port of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>. He attended Tranquility School before moving to <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, in 1952 at the age of 11, to rejoin his parents. They had migrated to the United States when he was two, and he was raised by his grandmother and two aunts.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had three sisters.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His mother, Mabel R. Carmichael,<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a stewardess for a <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamship</a> line. His father, Adolphus, was a carpenter who also worked as a taxi driver.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reunited Carmichaels eventually left Harlem to live in <a href="/wiki/Van_Nest" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Nest">Van Nest</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_Bronx" title="East Bronx">East Bronx</a>, at that time an aging neighborhood primarily of Jewish and Italian immigrants and descendants. According to a 1967 interview Carmichael gave to <i><a href="/wiki/Life_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Life Magazine">Life Magazine</a></i>, he was the only black member of the Morris Park Dukes, a youth gang involved in alcohol and petty theft.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stokely_Carmichael_HS_Yearbook.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Stokely_Carmichael_HS_Yearbook.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="183" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="143" data-file-height="183" /></a><figcaption>Carmichael as a high school senior, 1959</figcaption></figure> <p>Carmichael attended the <a href="/wiki/Bronx_High_School_of_Science" title="Bronx High School of Science">Bronx High School of Science</a> in New York from 1956, being selected through high achievement on its standardized entrance examination.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was acquainted with fellow Bronx Science student <a href="/wiki/Samuel_R._Delany" title="Samuel R. Delany">Samuel R. Delany</a> during his time there.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After graduation in 1960, Carmichael enrolled at <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black</a> university in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> His professors included the poet <a href="/wiki/Sterling_Allen_Brown" title="Sterling Allen Brown">Sterling Brown</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-SBrown_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SBrown-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Hare" title="Nathan Hare">Nathan Hare</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a>, who was later awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for literature">Nobel Prize for literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael and fellow civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a> helped to fund a five-day run of the <i><a href="/wiki/Three_Penny_Opera" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Penny Opera">Three Penny Opera</a>,</i> by <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weill" title="Kurt Weill">Kurt Weill</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>Tom Kahn—very shrewdly—had captured the position of Treasurer of the Liberal Arts Student Council and the infinitely charismatic and popular Carmichael as floor whip was good at lining up the votes. Before they knew what hit them the Student Council had become a patron of the arts, having voted to buy out the remaining performances. It was a classic win/win. Members of the Council got patronage packets of tickets for distribution to friends and constituents.<sup id="cite_ref-SBrown_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SBrown-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Carmichael's Washington, D.C., apartment on Euclid Street was a gathering place for his activist classmates.<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He graduated in 1964 with a degree in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael was offered a full graduate scholarship to <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> but turned it down.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Howard, Carmichael joined the <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_Action_Group" title="Nonviolent Action Group">Nonviolent Action Group</a> (NAG), the Howard campus affiliate of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC).<sup id="cite_ref-King_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kahn introduced Carmichael and the other SNCC activists to <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a>, an African-American leader who became an influential adviser to SNCC.<sup id="cite_ref-AAP_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">sit-in movement</a> in the southern United States during college, Carmichael became more active in the Civil Rights Movement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1961:_Freedom_Rides">1961: Freedom Rides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1961: Freedom Rides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his first year at Howard, in 1961, Carmichael participated in the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Rides">Freedom Rides</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> (CORE) organized to desegregate the interstate buses and bus station restaurants along U.S. Route 40 between Baltimore and Washington, D.C., as they came under federal rather than state law. They had been segregated by custom. He was frequently arrested and spent time in jail. He was arrested so many times for his activism that he lost count, sometimes estimating 29 or 32. In 1998, he told the <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i> that he thought the total was fewer than 36.<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with eight other riders, on June 4, 1961, Carmichael traveled by train from <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson</a>, Mississippi, to integrate the formerly "white" section on the train.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before getting on the train in New Orleans, they encountered white protesters blocking the way. Carmichael said, "They were shouting. Throwing cans and lit cigarettes at us. Spitting on us."<sup id="cite_ref-Arsenault_2006_362–363_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arsenault_2006_362–363-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, the group was able to board the train. When the group arrived in Jackson, Carmichael and the eight other riders entered a "white" cafeteria. They were charged with disturbing the peace, arrested, and taken to jail. </p><p>Eventually, Carmichael was transferred to the infamous <a href="/wiki/Parchman_Penitentiary" class="mw-redirect" title="Parchman Penitentiary">Parchman Penitentiary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sunflower_County,_Mississippi" title="Sunflower County, Mississippi">Sunflower County</a>, Mississippi, along with other Freedom Riders.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He gained notoriety as a witty and hard-nosed leader among the prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He served 49 days with other activists at Parchman. At 19, Carmichael was the youngest detainee in the summer of 1961. He spent 53 days at Parchman in a six-by-nine cell. He and his colleagues were allowed to shower only twice a week, were not allowed books or any other personal effects, and were at times placed in maximum security to isolate them.<sup id="cite_ref-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael said of the Parchman Farm sheriff: </p> <blockquote><p>The sheriff acted like he was scared of black folks and he came up with some beautiful things. One night he opened up all the windows, put on ten big fans and an air conditioner, and dropped the temperature to 38 degrees [Fahrenheit; 3 °C]. All we had on was T-shirts and shorts.<sup id="cite_ref-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>While being hurt on one occasion, Carmichael began singing to the guards, "I'm gonna tell God how you treat me", and the other prisoners joined in.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael kept the group's morale up in prison, often telling jokes with Steve Green and the other Freedom Riders, and making light of their situation. He knew their situation was serious: </p> <blockquote><p>What with the range of ideology, religious belief, political commitment and background, age, and experience, something interesting was always going on. Because no matter our differences, this group had one thing in common, moral stubbornness. Whatever we believed, we really believed and were not at all shy about advancing. We were where we were only because of our willingness to affirm our beliefs even at the risk of physical injury. So it was never dull on death row.<sup id="cite_ref-Arsenault_2006_362–363_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arsenault_2006_362–363-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In a 1964 interview with author <a href="/wiki/Robert_Penn_Warren" title="Robert Penn Warren">Robert Penn Warren</a>, Carmichael reflected on his motives for going on the rides: </p> <blockquote><p>I thought I have to go because you've got to keep the issue alive, and you've got to show the Southerners that you're not gonna be scared off, as we've been scared off in the past. And no matter what they do, we're still gonna keep coming back.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1964–67:_SNCC"><span id="1964.E2.80.9367:_SNCC"></span>1964–67: SNCC</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1964–67: SNCC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mississippi_and_Cambridge,_Maryland"><span id="Mississippi_and_Cambridge.2C_Maryland"></span>Mississippi and Cambridge, Maryland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mississippi and Cambridge, Maryland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_151-7659c6sr1g">“Interview with Stokely Carmichael"</a> conducted in 1986 for the <a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a> documentary in which he discusses the <a href="/wiki/Student_Non-violent_Coordinating_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee">Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a>, Lowndes County Freedom Organization and Dr. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1964, Carmichael became a full-time field organizer for SNCC in Mississippi. He worked on the <a href="/wiki/Greenwood,_Mississippi" title="Greenwood, Mississippi">Greenwood</a> voting rights project under <a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a>, he worked with grassroots African American activists, including <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a>, whom Carmichael named as one of his personal heroes.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SNCC organizer Joann Gavin wrote that Hamer and Carmichael "understood one another as perhaps no one else could."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He also worked closely with <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a>, who led the SNCC chapter in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Maryland" title="Cambridge, Maryland">Cambridge, Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a protest with Richardson in Maryland in June 1964, Carmichael was hit directly in a chemical gas attack by the National Guard and had to be hospitalized.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He soon became project director for <a href="/wiki/Mississippi%27s_2nd_congressional_district" title="Mississippi's 2nd congressional district">Mississippi's 2nd congressional district</a>, made up largely of the counties of the Mississippi Delta. At that time, most blacks in Mississippi had been disfranchised since the passage of a new constitution in 1890. The summer project was to prepare them to register to vote and conduct a parallel registration movement to demonstrate how much people wanted to vote. Grassroots activists organized the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> (MFDP), as the regular Democratic Party did not represent African Americans in the state. At the end of Freedom Summer, Carmichael went to the <a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 Democratic Convention">1964 Democratic Convention</a> in support of the MFDP, which sought to have its delegation seated.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the MFDP delegates were refused voting rights by the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee" title="Democratic National Committee">Democratic National Committee</a>, which chose to seat the regular white <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> delegation. Carmichael, along with many SNCC staff members, left the convention with a profound sense of disillusionment in the American political system, and what he later called "totalitarian liberal opinion".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He said, "what the liberal really wants is to bring about change which will not in any way endanger his position".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selma_to_Montgomery_marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Selma to Montgomery marches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Having developed an aversion to working with the Democratic Party after the 1964 convention, Carmichael decided to leave the MFDP. Instead, he began exploring SNCC projects in Alabama in 1965. During the period of the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a> recruited him to participate in a "second front" to stage protests at the Alabama State Capitol in March 1965. Carmichael became disillusioned with the growing struggles between SNCC and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC), which opposed Forman's strategy. He thought SCLC was working with affiliated black churches to undercut it.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also frustrated to be drawn again into nonviolent confrontations with police, which he no longer found empowering. After seeing protesters brutally beaten again, he collapsed from stress, and his colleagues urged him to leave the city.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within a week, Carmichael returned to protesting, this time in Selma, to participate in the final march along Route 80 to the state capital. But on March 23, 1965, Carmichael and some in SNCC who were participating in the Selma to Montgomery march declined to complete the march,<sup id="cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcfogenesis-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> instead initiating a grassroots project in <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County,_Alabama" title="Lowndes County, Alabama">"Bloody Lowndes" County</a>, along the march route,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> talking with local residents.<sup id="cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcfogenesis-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a county known for white violence against blacks during this era, where SCLC and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> had tried and failed to organize its black residents.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1877 to 1950, <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County,_Alabama" title="Lowndes County, Alabama">Lowndes County</a> had 14 documented <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a> of African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-eji_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eji-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael and the SNCC activists who accompanied him also struggled in Lowndes, as local residents were at first wary of their presence.<sup id="cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcfogenesis-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But they later achieved greater success as a result of a partnership with local activist <a href="/wiki/John_Hulett" title="John Hulett">John Hulett</a> and other local leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcfogenesis-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lowndes County Freedom Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></div> <p>In 1965, working as a SNCC activist in the black majority <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County,_Alabama" title="Lowndes County, Alabama">Lowndes County, Alabama</a>, Carmichael helped increase the number of registered black voters from 70 to 2,600, being 300 more than the number of registered white voters.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black voters had essentially been <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a> by Alabama's constitution, passed by white Democrats in 1901. After Congressional passage in August of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>, the federal government was authorized to oversee and enforce their rights. There was still tremendous resistance from wary residents, but an important breakthrough occurred when, while he was handing out voter registration material at a local school, two policemen confronted Carmichael and ordered him to leave. He refused and avoided arrest after challenging the two officers to do so. As word of this incident spread, Carmichael and the SNCC activists who stayed with him in Lowndes gained more respect from local residents and started working with Hulett and other local leaders. With the objective of registering African American voters,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael, Hulett and their local allies formed the <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a> (LCFO), a party that had the <a href="/wiki/Black_panther" title="Black panther">black panther</a> as its mascot, over the white-dominated local <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats#American_Civil_War_and_post-Reconstruction" title="Southern Democrats">Democratic Party</a>, whose mascot was a white rooster. Since federal protection from violent voter suppression by the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> and other white opponents was sporadic, most Lowndes County activists openly carried arms. </p><p>Despite Carmichael's role in forming the LCFO, Hulett served as the group's chairperson and became one of the first two African Americans whose voter registration was successfully processed in Lowndes County.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although black residents and voters outnumbered whites in Lowndes, their candidate lost the countywide election of 1965. In 1966, several LCFO candidates ran for office in the general election but lost.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970, the LCFO merged with the statewide Democratic Party, and former LCFO candidates, including Hulett, won their first offices in the county.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chairman_of_SNCC_and_Black_Power">Chairman of SNCC and Black Power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chairman of SNCC and Black Power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg/220px-Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg/330px-Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg/440px-Kwame_Ture_at_a_1966_Mississippi_press_conference.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2076" /></a><figcaption>Carmichael at a 1966 press conference in Mississippi</figcaption></figure> <p>In August 1963, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee elected as its chairman <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a>, one of the "<a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a>" activists who organized the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a>. Carmichael said Lewis was "regular guy, uncomplicated, friendly, and brave", while Carmichael himself led a faction whose direction was toward a path "less regular" and "a lot less friendly".<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1966, the SNCC convened in <a href="/wiki/Kingston_Springs,_Tennessee" title="Kingston Springs, Tennessee">Kingston Springs, Tennessee</a>, and reelected Lewis by a 60-22 vote. Activist Worth Long challenged the election on procedural grounds and, in the debate that followed, Lewis was repeatedly denounced and the meeting concluded with Carmichael elected as chairman.<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of his first actions was to call upon all fellow black activists to continue writer and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a> veteran <a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a>'s solitary <a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a>. Meredith had not wanted any well-known civil rights organizations or leaders involved in the action but would accept individual black men. On his second day out, Meredith was shot and wounded by a <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">sniper</a> and was hospitalized. </p><p>Carmichael joined King, <a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a> and others to continue Meredith's march. He was arrested while marching through <a href="/wiki/Greenwood,_Mississippi" title="Greenwood, Mississippi">Greenwood</a>, and, after his release, gave his first "<a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a>" speech at a rally that night, using the term to urge <a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">black pride</a> and socioeconomic independence: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is a call for black people in this country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community. It is a call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations.</p></blockquote> <p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/David_J._Garrow" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Garrow">David J. Garrow</a>, a few days after Carmichael spoke about Black Power at the rally during "Meredith March Against Fear", he told King: "Martin, I deliberately decided to raise this issue on the march in order to give it a national forum and force you to take a stand for Black Power." King responded, "I have been used before. One more time won't hurt."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While Black Power was not a new concept, Carmichael's speech brought it into the spotlight. It became a rallying cry for young African Americans across the country who were frustrated by slow progress in civil rights, even after federal legislation had been passed to strengthen the effort. Everywhere that Black Power spread, if accepted, Carmichael got credit. If it was condemned, he was held responsible and blamed.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Carmichael, "Black Power meant black people coming together to form a political force and either electing representatives or forcing their representatives to speak to their needs [rather than relying on established parties]."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strongly influenced by the work of <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a> and his landmark book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a></i>, along with others such as <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, Carmichael led SNCC to become more radical. The group focused on Black Power as its core goal and ideology. </p><p>During the controversial <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atlanta_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atlanta Project (page does not exist)">Atlanta Project</a> in 1966, SNCC, under the local leadership of Bill Ware, engaged in a voter drive to promote the candidacy of <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a> from an Atlanta district for a seat in the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_Legislature" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia State Legislature">Georgia State Legislature</a>. Ware excluded Northern white SNCC members from working on this drive. Carmichael initially opposed this decision but changed his mind.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the urging of the Atlanta Project, the issue of white members in SNCC came up for a vote. Carmichael ultimately sided with those calling for the expulsion of whites. He said that whites should organize poor white southern communities, of which there were plenty, while SNCC focused on promoting African American self-reliance through Black Power.<sup id="cite_ref-forman_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forman-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael considered nonviolence a tactic, not a fundamental principle, which separated him from civil rights leaders such as King. He criticized civil rights leaders who called for the integration of African Americans into existing institutions of the <a href="/wiki/Middle-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-class">middle-class</a> mainstream. </p> <blockquote><p>Now, several people have been upset because we've said that integration was irrelevant when initiated by blacks, and that in fact it was a subterfuge, an insidious subterfuge, for the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>. Now we maintain that in the past six years or so, this country has been feeding us a "<a href="/wiki/Thalidomide" title="Thalidomide">thalidomide</a> drug of integration", and that some Negroes have been walking down a dream street talking about sitting next to white people; and that that does not begin to solve the problem; that when we went to Mississippi we did not go to sit next to <a href="/wiki/Ross_Barnett" title="Ross Barnett">Ross Barnett</a>; we did not go to sit next to <a href="/wiki/Jim_Clark_(sheriff)" title="Jim Clark (sheriff)">Jim Clark</a>; we went to get them out of our way; and that people ought to understand that; that we were never fighting for the right to integrate, we were fighting against white supremacy. Now, then, in order to understand white supremacy we must dismiss the fallacious notion that white people can give anybody their freedom. No man can give anybody his freedom. A man is born free. You may enslave a man after he is born free, and that is in fact what this country does. It enslaves black people after they're born, so that the only acts that white people can do is to stop denying black people their freedom; that is, they must stop <i>denying</i> freedom. They never give it to anyone.<sup id="cite_ref-Speech_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speech-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Carmichael wrote that "in order for nonviolence to work, your opponent must have a conscience. The United States has none."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Carmichael's leadership, SNCC continued to maintain a coalition with several white radical organizations, most notably <a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">Students for a Democratic Society</a> (SDS). It encouraged the SDS to focus on militant <a href="/wiki/Draft_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Draft resistance">anti-draft</a> resistance. At an SDS-organized conference at <a href="/wiki/UC_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="UC Berkeley">UC Berkeley</a> in October 1966, Carmichael challenged the white left to escalate their resistance to the military draft in a manner similar to the black movement.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a time in 1967, he considered an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Saul Alinsky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Areas_Foundation" title="Industrial Areas Foundation">Industrial Areas Foundation</a>, and generally supported IAF's work in Rochester's and Buffalo's black communities.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnam">Vietnam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vietnam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>SNCC conducted its first actions against the military draft and the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> under Carmichael's leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He popularized the oft-repeated anti-draft slogan "Hell no, we won't go!" during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael encouraged King to demand unconditional withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam, even as some King advisers cautioned him that such opposition might have an adverse effect on financial contributions to the SCLC. King preached one of his earliest speeches calling for unconditional withdrawal with Carmichael in the front row at his invitation.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael privately took credit for pushing King toward <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialism</a>, and historians such as <a href="/wiki/Peniel_Joseph" class="mw-redirect" title="Peniel Joseph">Peniel Joseph</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a> agree.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs.org_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael joined King in New York on April 15, 1967, to share his views with protesters on race related to the Vietnam War: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The draft exemplifies as much as racism the totalitarianism which prevails in this nation in the disguise of consensus democracy. The President has conducted war in Vietnam without the consent of Congress or the American people, without the consent of anybody except maybe <a href="/wiki/Lady_Bird_Johnson" title="Lady Bird Johnson">Lady Bird</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1967–68:_Transition_out_of_SNCC"><span id="1967.E2.80.9368:_Transition_out_of_SNCC"></span>1967–68: Transition out of SNCC</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1967–68: Transition out of SNCC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stepping_down_as_chair">Stepping down as chair</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Stepping down as chair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In May 1967, Carmichael stepped down as chairman of SNCC and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a>. SNCC was a collective, working by group consensus rather than hierarchically; many members had become displeased with Carmichael's celebrity status. SNCC leaders had begun to refer to him as "Stokely Starmichael" and criticized his habit of making policy announcements independently, before achieving internal agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a>, Carmichael did not protest the transfer of power and was "eager to relinquish the chair".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is sometimes mistakenly reported that Carmichael left SNCC completely at this time and joined the Black Panther Party, but that did not occur until 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-nydailynews.com_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nydailynews.com-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SNCC officially ended its relationship with Carmichael in August 1968; in a statement, Philip Hutchings wrote: "It has been apparent for some time that SNCC and Stokely Carmichael were moving in different directions."<sup id="cite_ref-SNCC_History_and_Geography_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SNCC_History_and_Geography-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Targeted_by_FBI_COINTELPRO">Targeted by FBI COINTELPRO</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Targeted by FBI COINTELPRO"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this period, Carmichael was targeted by a section of <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a>'s <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a> (counter-intelligence program) that focused on black activists; the program promoted slander and violence against targets Hoover considered enemies of the US government. It attempted to discredit them and worse.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael accepted the position of Honorary Prime Minister in the Black Panther Party, but also remained on the SNCC staff.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He tried to forge a merger between the two organizations. A March 4, 1968, memo from Hoover states his fear of the rise of a Black Nationalist "messiah" and that Carmichael alone had the "necessary charisma to be a real threat in this way".<sup id="cite_ref-Warden76_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warden76-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1968, Hoover stepped up his efforts to divide the black power movement. Declassified documents show he launched a plan to undermine the SNCC-Panther merger, as well as to "<a href="/wiki/Bad-jacketing" title="Bad-jacketing">bad-jacket</a>" Carmichael as a <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) agent. Both efforts were largely successful: Carmichael was expelled from SNCC that year, and the Panthers began to denounce him, putting him at grave personal risk.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_activism">International activism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: International activism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After stepping down as SNCC chair, Carmichael wrote the book <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Power:_The_Politics_of_Liberation" title="Black Power: The Politics of Liberation">Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</a></i> (1967) with <a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Hamilton" title="Charles V. Hamilton">Charles V. Hamilton</a>. It is a first-person reflection on his experiences in <a href="/wiki/SNCC" class="mw-redirect" title="SNCC">SNCC</a> and his dissatisfaction with the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> in the late 1960s. Throughout the work he directly and indirectly criticizes the established leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">SCLC</a> and <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> for their tactics and results, often claiming that they were accepting symbols instead of change. </p><p>He promoted what he calls "political modernization." This idea included three major concepts: "1) questioning old values and institutions of the society; 2) searching for new and different forms of political structure to solve political and economic problems; and, 3) broadening the base of political participation to include more people in the decision-making process."<sup id="cite_ref-1941-1998._1992_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1941-1998._1992-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By questioning "old values and institutions", Carmichael was referring not only to the established Black leadership of the time but also to the values and institutions of the nation as a whole. He criticized the emphasis on the American "middle-class." "The values," he said, "of that class are based on material aggrandizement, not the expansion of humanity." (40) Carmichael believed that blacks were being lured to enter the "middle-class" as a trap, in which they would be assimilated into the white world by turning their backs on others of their race who were still suffering. This assimilation, he thought, was an inherent indictment of blackness and validation of whiteness as the preferred state. He said, "Thus we reject the goal of assimilation into middle-class America because the values of that class are in themselves anti-humanist and because that class as a social force perpetuates racism."<sup id="cite_ref-1941-1998._1992_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1941-1998._1992-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secondly, Carmichael discussed searching for different forms of political structure to solve political and economic problems. At the time, the established forms of political structure were the SCLC and the NAACP. These groups were religiously and academically based and focused on nonviolence and steady legal and legislative change within established U.S. systems and structures. Carmichael rejected that. He discusses the development of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democrats</a>, the 1966 local election in Lowndes County, and the political history of <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a>. He chose these examples as places where blacks changed the system by political and legal maneuvering within the system, but said they ultimately failed to achieve more than the bare minimum. In the process, he believed they reinforced the political and legal structures that perpetuated the racism they were fighting. </p><p>In response to these failures and to offer a way forward, Carmichael discusses the concept of coalition with regard to the Civil Rights Movement. The leadership of the movement had affirmed that anyone who truly believed in their cause was welcome to join and march. Carmichael offered a different vision. Influenced by Fanon's ideas in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a></i>, wherein two groups were not "complementary" (could have no overlap) until they were mutually exclusive (were on an equal power footing economically, socially, politically, etc.), Carmichael said that U.S. blacks had to unite and build their power independent of the white structure, or they would never be able to build a coalition that would function for both parties, not just the dominant one. He said, "we want to establish the grounds on which we feel political coalitions can be viable."<sup id="cite_ref-1941-1998._1992_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1941-1998._1992-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this to happen, Carmichael argued that blacks had to address three myths regarding coalition: "that the interests of black people are identical with the interests of certain liberal, labor, or other reform groups"; that a viable coalition can be created between "the politically and economically secure and the politically and economically insecure"; and that a coalition can be "sustained on a moral, friendly, sentimental basis; by appeals to conscience." He believed that each of these myths showed the need for two groups to be mutually exclusive, and on relatively equal footing, to be in a viable coalition. </p><p>This philosophy, grounded in the independence literature of Africa and Latin America, became the basis for a great deal of Carmichael's work. He believed the Black Power Movement had to be developed outside the white power structure. </p><p>Carmichael also continued as a strong critic of the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> and imperialism in general. During this period, he traveled and lectured extensively throughout the world, visiting <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. He became more clearly identified with the <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a> as its "Honorary Prime Minister."<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, he acted more as a speaker than an organizer, traveling throughout the country and internationally advocating for his vision of Black Power.<sup id="cite_ref-Cobb_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cobb-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael lamented the 1967 execution of <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a>, saying: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The death of Che Guevara places a responsibility on all revolutionaries of the World to redouble their decision to fight on to the final defeat of Imperialism. That is why in essence Che Guevara is not dead, his ideas are with us.<sup id="cite_ref-VivaCheSinclair_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VivaCheSinclair-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Carmichael visited the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in July 1967 to attend the <a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectics of Liberation">Dialectics of Liberation</a> conference. After recordings of his speeches were released by the organizers, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Phenomenological_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Phenomenological Studies">Institute of Phenomenological Studies</a>, he was banned from reentering the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 1967, a Cuban government magazine reported that Carmichael met with Fidel Castro for three days and called it "the most educational, most interesting, and the best apprenticeship of [my] public life." Because relations with Cuba were prohibited at the time, after his return to the US, the government withdrew his passport. In December 1967, he traveled to France to attend an antiwar rally. There he was detained by police and ordered to leave the next day, but government officials eventually intervened and allowed him to stay.<sup id="cite_ref-SNCC_History_and_Geography_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SNCC_History_and_Geography-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1968_D.C._riots">1968 D.C. riots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1968 D.C. riots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carmichael was present in Washington, D.C., on April 5, 1968, the night after the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a> He led a group through the streets, demanding that businesses close out of respect. He tried to prevent violence, but the situation escalated beyond his control. Due to his reputation as a provocateur, the news media blamed Carmichael for the ensuing violence as mobs rioted along U Street and other areas of black commercial development.<sup id="cite_ref-Risen2009ch4_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Risen2009ch4-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael held a press conference the next day at which he predicted mass racial violence in the streets.<sup id="cite_ref-Risen2009ch6_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Risen2009ch6-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since moving to Washington, he had been under nearly constant FBI surveillance. After the riots, FBI director <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> instructed a team of agents to find evidence connecting Carmichael to them. He was also subjected to <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bad-jacketing" title="Bad-jacketing">bad-jacketing</a> technique. <a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a> suggested Carmichael was a CIA agent, slander that led to Carmichael's break with the Panthers and his exile from the U.S. the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1969–98:_Travel_to_Africa"><span id="1969.E2.80.9398:_Travel_to_Africa"></span>1969–98: Travel to Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1969–98: Travel to Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Miriam_Makeba,_Kwame_Ture,_Algiers,_1969.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Miriam_Makeba%2C_Kwame_Ture%2C_Algiers%2C_1969.png/220px-Miriam_Makeba%2C_Kwame_Ture%2C_Algiers%2C_1969.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Miriam_Makeba%2C_Kwame_Ture%2C_Algiers%2C_1969.png/330px-Miriam_Makeba%2C_Kwame_Ture%2C_Algiers%2C_1969.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Miriam_Makeba%2C_Kwame_Ture%2C_Algiers%2C_1969.png/440px-Miriam_Makeba%2C_Kwame_Ture%2C_Algiers%2C_1969.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Stokely Carmichael (right) and Miriam Makeba (left) in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, 1969</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1968, he married <a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba" title="Miriam Makeba">Miriam Makeba</a>, a noted singer from <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. They left the US for <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> the next year. Carmichael became an aide to Guinean president <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a>, and a student of the exiled <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghanaian</a> president <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Review_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Review-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Makeba was appointed Guinea's delegate to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Break_with_the_Black_Panthers">Break with the Black Panthers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Break with the Black Panthers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three months after his arrival in Guinea, in July 1969 Carmichael published a formal rejection of the Black Panthers, condemning them for not being <a href="/wiki/Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">separatist</a> enough and for their "dogmatic party line favoring alliances with white radicals".<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Panthers believed that white activists could help the movement, while Carmichael had come to agree with <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> that white activists should organize their own communities before trying to lead black people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_in_Guinea">Life in Guinea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Life in Guinea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carmichael remained in Guinea after his separation from the Black Panther Party. He continued to travel, write, and speak in support of international <a href="/wiki/Leftist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leftist">leftist</a> movements. In 1971 he published his collected essays in a second book, <i>Stokely Speaks: Black Power Back to Pan-Africanism</i>. This book expounds an explicitly <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-African</a> vision, which he retained for the rest of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael changed his name to Kwame Ture in 1978 to honor Nkrumah and Touré, who had become his patrons.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of his life, friends called him by both names, "and he doesn't seem to mind".<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1986, two years after Sékou Touré's death, the <a href="/wiki/Lansana_Cont%C3%A9#The_Conté_Presidency#1984_coup_and_military_rule" title="Lansana Conté">military regime</a> that took his place arrested Carmichael for his association with Touré, and jailed him for three days on suspicion of attempting to overthrow the government. Although Touré was known for jailing and torturing his opponents (some 50,000 people are believed to have been killed under his regime) Carmichael had never publicly criticized the man he named himself after.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the late 1970s till his death, he answered his phone by announcing: "Ready for the revolution!"<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._and_British_government_attention">U.S. and British government attention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: U.S. and British government attention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carmichael's suspicions about CIA surveillance were confirmed in 2007 by declassified documents revealing that the agency had tracked him from 1968 as part of their surveillance of Black activists abroad. The surveillance continued for years.<sup id="cite_ref-CIA_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIA-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Documents declassified in 2022 revealed that the <a href="/wiki/Information_Research_Department" title="Information Research Department">Information Research Department</a> (IRD) of the British <a href="/wiki/Foreign,_Commonwealth_and_Development_Office" title="Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office">Foreign Office</a>, concerned by Carmichael's socialist and pan-Africanist views, created a fake organization which published literature critical of Carmichael. The IRD created "The Black Power – Africa's Heritage Group", supposedly based in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, and via the organization disseminated a pamphlet portraying Carmichael "as a foreign interloper in Africa who was contemptuous of the inhabitants of the continent". The pamphlet, which said, "Enough is enough – why Stokely must go! – and do his thing elsewhere", alleged that Carmichael was controlled by Nkrumah and was "weaving a bloody trail of chaos in the name of Pan-Africanism".<sup id="cite_ref-guardian-20220913_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-20220913-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="All-African_People's_Revolutionary_Party"><span id="All-African_People.27s_Revolutionary_Party"></span>All-African People's Revolutionary Party</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: All-African People's Revolutionary Party"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?104471-1/life-career-kwame-ture">"Life and Career of Kwame Ture"</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a><sup id="cite_ref-cspan_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cspan-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For the final 30 years of his life, Kwame Ture was devoted to the All-African People's Revolutionary Party (A-APRP). His mentor Nkrumah had many ideas for unifying the African continent, and Ture extended the scope of these ideas to the entire African diaspora. He was a Central Committee member during his association with the A-APRP and made many speeches on the party's behalf.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ture did not simply study with Touré and Nkrumah. The latter had been designated honorary co-president of Guinea after he was deposed by the US-backed coup in Ghana.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ture worked overtly and covertly to "Take Nkrumah Back to Ghana" (according to the movement's slogan). He became a member of the Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG), the revolutionary ruling party. He sought Nkrumah's permission to launch the All-African People's Revolutionary Party (A-APRP), which Nkrumah had called for in his book <i>Handbook of Revolutionary Warfare</i>. After several discussions, Nkrumah gave his blessing. </p><p>Ture was convinced that the A-APRP was needed as a permanent mass-based organization in all countries where people of African descent lived. For the last decades of his life, a period often ignored by popular media, Ture worked full-time as an organizer of the party. He spoke on its behalf on several continents, at college campuses, community centers, and other venues. He was instrumental in strengthening ties between the African/Black liberation movement and several revolutionary or progressive organizations, both African and non-African. Notable among them were the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a> (AIM) of the United States, <a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a>), <a href="/wiki/National_Joint_Action_Committee" title="National Joint Action Committee">National Joint Action Committee</a> (NJAC) of Trinidad and Tobago, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> (PLO), the <a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Africanist Congress">Pan Africanist Congress</a> (South Africa) and the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Republican_Socialist_Party" title="Irish Republican Socialist Party">Irish Republican Socialist Party</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Routinely, Ture was regarded as the leader of the A-APRP, but his only titles were "Organizer" and Central Committee member. Beginning in the mid-1970s, the A-APRP began each May to sponsor African Liberation Day (ALD), a continuation of the African Freedom Day Nkrumah began in 1958 in Ghana.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the party was involved in or was primary or co-sponsor of other ALD annual observances, marches, and rallies around the world, the best-known and largest event was held annually in Washington, D.C., usually at <a href="/wiki/Meridian_Hill_Park" title="Meridian Hill Park">Meridian Hill Park</a> (also known as Malcolm X Park) at 16th and W Streets, NW. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lecturing_in_the_Caribbean_and_the_United_States">Lecturing in the Caribbean and the United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lecturing in the Caribbean and the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While making his home in Guinea, Ture traveled frequently. In the last quarter of the 20th century, he became the world's most active and prominent exponent of pan-Africanism, defined by Nkrumah and the A-APRP as "The Liberation and Unification of Africa Under Scientific Socialism".<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ture often returned to speak to audiences of thousands (including students and townspeople) at his alma mater, Howard University, and other campuses. The Party worked to recruit students and other youth, and Ture hoped to attract them with his speeches. He also worked to raise the political consciousness of African/Black people in general. He formed the A-APRP with the initial goal of putting "Africa" on the lips of Black people throughout the <a href="/wiki/African_Diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="African Diaspora">diaspora</a>, knowing that many did not consciously or positively relate to their ancestral homeland. Ture was convinced that the party significantly raised international black "consciousness" of Pan-Africanism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Politics of Trinidad and Tobago">government of Trinidad and Tobago</a> barred him from lecturing in the country for fear that he would cause disturbances among black Trinidadians. </p><p>Under his leadership, the A-APRP organized the All African Women's Revolutionary Union and the <a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a> Brigade (named after the first black college student to die during the 1960s Civil Rights Movement) as component organizations. </p><p>Ture and Cuban president <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> admired each other, sharing a common opposition to imperialism. In Ture's final letter, he wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>It was Fidel Castro who before the OLAS (Organization of Latin American States) Conference said "if imperialism touches one grain of hair on his head, we shall not let the fact pass without retaliation." It was he, who on his own behalf, asked them all to stay in contact with me when I returned to the United States to offer me protection.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Ture was ill when he gave his final speech at Howard University. A standing-room-only crowd in Rankin Chapel paid tribute to him, and he spoke boldly, as usual.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small group of student leaders from Howard and a former Party member traveled to Harlem (Sugar Hill) in New York City to bid Ture farewell shortly before his final return to Guinea. Also present that evening were <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a> and another Black Panther, Dhoruba bin Wahad. Ture was in good spirits though in pain. The group included men and women born in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, as well as the USA. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Illness_and_death">Illness and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Illness and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After his diagnosis of <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> in 1996, Ture was treated for a period in Cuba, while receiving some support from the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Benefit_concert" title="Benefit concert">Benefit concerts</a> for Ture were held in Denver, New York, Atlanta, and Washington, D.C.,<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to help defray his medical expenses. The government of <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>, where he was born, awarded him a grant of $1,000 a month for the same purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He went to New York, where he was treated for two years at the <a href="/wiki/Columbia-Presbyterian_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center">Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center</a>, before returning to Guinea.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a final interview given in April 1998 to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>, Ture criticized the limited economic and electoral progress made by African Americans in the U.S. during the previous 30 years. He acknowledged that Black people had won election to the mayor's office in major cities, but said that, as the mayors' power had generally diminished over earlier decades, such progress was essentially meaningless.<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?118296-1/memorial-service-kwame-ture">"Memorial Service for Kwame Ture"</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a><sup id="cite_ref-cspan_memorial_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cspan_memorial-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1998, Ture died of prostate cancer at the age of 57 in <a href="/wiki/Conakry" title="Conakry">Conakry</a>, Guinea. He had said that his cancer "was given to me by forces of American imperialism and others who conspired with them."<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He claimed that the FBI had infected him with cancer in an assassination attempt.<sup id="cite_ref-KTcom_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KTcom-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The civil rights leader <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a> spoke in celebration of Ture's life, saying: "He was one of our generation who was determined to give his life to transforming America and Africa. He was committed to ending racial <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> in our country. He helped to bring those walls down".<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NAACP Chair <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a> said that Carmichael "ought to be remembered for having spent almost every moment of his adult life trying to advance the cause of black liberation."<sup id="cite_ref-nydailynews.com_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nydailynews.com-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carmichael's_marriages_and_divorces"><span id="Carmichael.27s_marriages_and_divorces"></span>Carmichael's marriages and divorces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Carmichael's marriages and divorces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ture married singer <a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba" title="Miriam Makeba">Miriam Makeba</a> from South Africa in the U.S. in 1968. They divorced in Guinea after separating in 1973. </p><p>Later he married Marlyatou Barry, a Guinean doctor. They divorced sometime after having a son, Bokar, in 1981. By 1998, Marlyatou Barry and Bokar were living in <a href="/wiki/Arlington_County,_Virginia" title="Arlington County, Virginia">Arlington County, Virginia</a>, near Washington, D.C. Using a statement from the <a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a> as a reference, Ture's 1998 obituary in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> said he was survived by two sons, Bokar Biro Ture and Alpha Yaya Ture; three sisters; and his mother.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ture, along with <a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Hamilton" title="Charles V. Hamilton">Charles V. Hamilton</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is credited developing the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a>", defined as racism that occurs through institutions such as public bodies and corporations, including universities. In the late 1960s Ture defined "institutional racism" as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their color, culture or ethnic origin".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his book on King, <a href="/wiki/David_J._Garrow" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Garrow">David J. Garrow</a> criticizes Ture's handling of the Black Power movement as "more destructive than constructive".<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garrow describes the period in 1966 when Ture and other SNCC members managed to register 2,600 African American voters in Lowndes County as the most consequential period in Ture's life "in terms of real, positive, tangible influence on people's lives".<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evaluations by Ture's associates are also mixed, with most praising his efforts and others criticizing him for failing to find constructive ways to achieve his objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Mike_Miller_-_Memories_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mike_Miller_-_Memories-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SNCC's final chair, Phil Hutchings, who expelled Ture over a dispute about the Black Panther Party, wrote: "Even though we kidded and called him 'Starmichael', he could sublimate his ego to get done what was needed to be done....He would say what he thought, and you could disagree with it but you wouldn't cease being a human being and someone with whom he wanted to be in relationship."<sup id="cite_ref-Mike_Miller_-_Memories_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mike_Miller_-_Memories-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Washington Post</i> staff writer Paula Span described Carmichael as someone who was rarely hesitant to push his own ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-WPOST_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Peniel_Joseph" class="mw-redirect" title="Peniel Joseph">Peniel Joseph</a>'s biography, <i>Stokely: A Life</i>, says that Black Power activist Ruby Doris Smith Robinson, the first to call him as "Stokely Starmichael," gave him the nickname in protest of his growing ego and that other SNCC staff shared her view.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph credits Ture with expanding the parameters of the civil rights movement, asserting that his black power strategy "didn't disrupt the civil rights movement. It spoke truth to power to what so many millions of young people were feeling. It actually cast a light on people who were in prisons, people who were welfare rights activists, tenants' rights activists, and also in the international arena." <a href="/wiki/Tavis_Smiley" title="Tavis Smiley">Tavis Smiley</a> calls Ture "one of the most underappreciated, misunderstood, undervalued personalities this country's ever produced".<sup id="cite_ref-pbs.org_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, the American-born scholar <a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a> listed Ture as one of his <a href="/wiki/100_Greatest_African_Americans" title="100 Greatest African Americans">100 Greatest African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ture<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is also remembered for his actions in James Meredith's March Against Fear in June 1966, when he issued the call for Black Power. When Meredith got shot, Carmichael came up with the phrase and gathered a crowd to chant it in Greenwood, Mississippi. Already, earlier that day, he had been arrested for the 27th time; he spoke to over 3,000 people that day in the park. Ture was angry that day because black people had been "chanting" freedom for almost six years with no results, so he wanted to change the chant.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also participated in and contributed to the Black Freedom Struggle. Many people have overlooked his involvement in the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He never switched from left to right in his politics as he got older, and his trajectory both marked and influenced the course of black militancy in the United States. The outrage that most affected him was King's assassination.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversies">Controversies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alleged_antisemitism">Alleged antisemitism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Alleged antisemitism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Abraham_H._Foxman" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham H. Foxman">Abraham H. Foxman</a>, National Director of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a>, Carmichael was "an unabashed racial separatist and anti-Semite" who often used the slogan "the only good Zionist is a dead Zionist" and in 1990 said that "Zionist pigs have been harassing us everywhere. . . . And when this anger rises, [we] will snap our fingers and finish them off."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he wrote in his posthumously published memoirs that he had never been antisemitic, in 1970 Carmichael proclaimed: "I have never admired a white man, but the greatest of them, to my mind, was <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Sundquist2009_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sundquist2009-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But in the same speech, Carmichael condemned Hitler on moral grounds, saying: </p> <blockquote><p>Adolf Hitler, I'm not putting a judgment on what he did. If you asked me for my judgment morally, I would say it was bad, what he did was wrong, was evil, etc. But I would say he was a genius, nevertheless ... You say he's not a genius because he committed bad acts. That's not the question. The question is, he does have genius. Now when we condemn him morally or ethically, we will say, well, he was absolutely wrong, he should be killed, he should be murdered, etc., etc. ... But if we're judging his genius objectively, we have to admit that the man was a genius. He forced the entire world to fight him. He was fighting America, France, Britain, Russia, Italy once—then they switched sides—all of them at the same time, and whipping them. That's a genius, you cannot deny that.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_women">Views on women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Views on women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In November 1964 Carmichael made a joking remark in response to a SNCC <a href="/wiki/Position_paper" title="Position paper">position paper</a> written by his friends <a href="/wiki/Casey_Hayden" title="Casey Hayden">Casey Hayden</a> and Mary E. King on the position of women in the movement. In the course of an irreverent comedy monologue he performed at a party after SNCC's Waveland conference, Carmichael said, "The position of women in the movement is prone."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of women were offended. In a 2006 <i>The Chronicle of Higher Education</i> article, historian <a href="/wiki/Peniel_E._Joseph" title="Peniel E. Joseph">Peniel E. Joseph</a> later wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>While the remark was made in jest during a 1964 conference, Carmichael and black-power activists did embrace an aggressive vision of manhood—one centered on black men's ability to deploy authority, punishment, and power. In that, they generally reflected their wider society's blinders about women and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-stoksexist_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stoksexist-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Carmichael's colleague, <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a>, stated in his autobiography, <i><a href="/wiki/March_(comics)" title="March (comics)">March</a></i>, that the comment was a joke, uttered as Carmichael and other SNCC officials were "blowing off steam" following the adjournment of a meeting at a staff retreat in <a href="/wiki/Waveland,_Mississippi" title="Waveland, Mississippi">Waveland, Mississippi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When asked about the comment, former SNCC field secretary Casey Hayden stated: "Our paper on the position of women came up, and Stokely in his hipster rap comedic way joked that 'the proper position of women in SNCC is prone'. I laughed, he laughed, we all laughed. Stokely was a friend of mine."<sup id="cite_ref-Mike_Miller_-_Memories_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mike_Miller_-_Memories-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her memoir, <a href="/wiki/Mary_King_(political_scientist)" title="Mary King (political scientist)">Mary E. King</a> wrote that Carmichael was "poking fun at his own attitudes" and that "Casey and I felt, and continue to feel, that Stokely was one of the most responsive men at the time that our anonymous paper appeared in 1964."<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carmichael appointed several women to posts as project directors during his tenure as chairman of SNCC; by the latter half of the 1960s (considered to be the "Black Power era"), more women were in charge of SNCC projects than during the first half.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Spike_Lee" title="Spike Lee">Spike Lee</a>'s 2018 film <i><a href="/wiki/BlacKkKlansman" title="BlacKkKlansman">BlacKkKlansman</a></i>, Kwame Ture is portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Corey_Hawkins" title="Corey Hawkins">Corey Hawkins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the 1995 film <a href="/wiki/Panther_(film)" title="Panther (film)"><i>Panther</i></a> based on <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Van_Peebles" title="Melvin Van Peebles">Melvin Van Peebles</a>'s screenplay, Stokely Carmichael is portrayed by director <a href="/wiki/Mario_Van_Peebles" title="Mario Van Peebles">Mario Van Peebles</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exhibition">Exhibition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Exhibition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In 2018 a national tribute <i> 'the fight of a lifetime' </i> is dedicated to him during a one-month exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser_University_of_Conakry" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry">Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Carmichael's speeches have been sampled by composer and DJ <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Naganuma" title="Hideki Naganuma">Hideki Naganuma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stage">Stage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Stage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Nambi E. Kelley's play <i>Stokely: The Unfinished Revolution</i> premiered at the <a href="/wiki/Court_Theatre_(Chicago)" title="Court Theatre (Chicago)">Court Theatre</a> in Chicago in May 2024. Anthony Irons portrayed Carmichael.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Stokely Speaks: From Black Power to Pan-Africanism</i> (1965), <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-649-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-649-7">978-1-55652-649-7</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Power:_The_Politics_of_Liberation" title="Black Power: The Politics of Liberation">Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</a></i> (1967), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679743138" title="Special:BookSources/0679743138">0679743138</a></li> <li><i>Black Power</i> (1968), Liberation Records DL-6</li> <li><i>Free Huey!</i> (1970), Black Forum/Motown Records BF-452 (reissued in 2022 as Black Forum/Motown/UMe/Universal 456 139)</li> <li><i>Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture)</i> (2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684850047" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684850047">978-0684850047</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_rights_leaders" title="List of civil rights leaders">List of civil rights leaders</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-American_Experience,_PBS,_biography_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/people/stokely-carmichael">"Freedom Riders | Meet the Players: Movement Leaders | Stokely Carmichael" biography</a>, <i>American Experience</i>, <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>, Retrieved April 8, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warden76-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warden76_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warden76_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warden76_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarden1976" class="citation news cs1">Warden, Rob (February 10, 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/F%20Disk/FBI/FBI%20Hampton%20Case%20ONeil%20William%20Jr/Item%2005.pdf">"Hoover rated Carmichael as 'black messiah'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Chicago Tribune</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Hoover+rated+Carmichael+as+%27black+messiah%27&rft.date=1976-02-10&rft.aulast=Warden&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjfk.hood.edu%2FCollection%2FWeisberg%2520Subject%2520Index%2520Files%2FF%2520Disk%2FFBI%2FFBI%2520Hampton%2520Case%2520ONeil%2520William%2520Jr%2FItem%252005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Asante, Molefi K.; Ama Mazama. <i>Encyclopedia of Black Studies</i>. pp. 78–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTobit-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufman, Michael T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/16/us/stokely-carmichael-rights-leader-who-coined-black-power-dies-at-57.html">"Stokely Carmichael, Rights Leader Who Coined 'Black Power', Dies at 57"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, November 16, 1998. Accessed March 27, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230628190628/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/16/us/stokely-carmichael-rights-leader-who-coined-black-power-dies-at-57.html">Archived</a> on June 28, 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biography.yourdictionary.com/stokely-carmichael">"Stokely Carmichael Facts"</a>, YourDictionary.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WPOST-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPOST_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpan1998" class="citation news cs1">Span, Paula (April 8, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1998/04/08/the-undying-revolutionary-as-stokely-carmichael-he-fought-for-black-power-now-kwame-tures-fighting-for-his-life/4adb14ec-0db8-4668-8af6-84f877b3c61a/">"The Undying Revolutionary: As Stokely Carmichael, He Fought for Black Power. Now Kwame Ture's Fighting For His Life"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. p. D01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Undying+Revolutionary%3A+As+Stokely+Carmichael%2C+He+Fought+for+Black+Power.+Now+Kwame+Ture%27s+Fighting+For+His+Life&rft.pages=D01&rft.date=1998-04-08&rft.aulast=Span&rft.aufirst=Paula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Flifestyle%2F1998%2F04%2F08%2Fthe-undying-revolutionary-as-stokely-carmichael-he-fought-for-black-power-now-kwame-tures-fighting-for-his-life%2F4adb14ec-0db8-4668-8af6-84f877b3c61a%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1980" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Jacqueline (1980). <i>Stokely Carmichael: the story of Black power</i>. Silver Burdett Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">16–</span>17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0382099206" title="Special:BookSources/0382099206"><bdi>0382099206</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stokely+Carmichael%3A+the+story+of+Black+power&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.pub=Silver+Burdett+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0382099206&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelany2004" class="citation book cs1">Delany, Samuel R. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/motionoflightinw0000dela"><i>The Motion of Light in Water: Sex and Science Fiction Writing in the East Village</i></a></span> (1st University of Minnesota Press ed.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0816645248" title="Special:BookSources/0816645248"><bdi>0816645248</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55142525">55142525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Motion+of+Light+in+Water%3A+Sex+and+Science+Fiction+Writing+in+the+East+Village&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.edition=1st+University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55142525&rft.isbn=0816645248&rft.aulast=Delany&rft.aufirst=Samuel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmotionoflightinw0000dela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SBrown-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SBrown_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SBrown_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThelwell1999–2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ekwueme_Michael_Thelwell" title="Ekwueme Michael Thelwell">Thelwell, Ekwueme Michael</a> (1999–2000). "The professor and the activists: A memoir of Sterling Brown". <i>The Massachusetts Review</i>. <b>40</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">634–</span>636. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25091592">25091592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Massachusetts+Review&rft.atitle=The+professor+and+the+activists%3A+A+memoir+of+Sterling+Brown&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E634-%3C%2Fspan%3E636&rft.date=1999%2F2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25091592%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thelwell&rft.aufirst=Ekwueme+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuckey, Sterling. <i>Going Through the Storm: The Influence of African American Art in History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1994, p. 142, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508604-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508604-X">0-19-508604-X</a>, 9780195086041.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Safire" title="William Safire">Safire, William</a>, <i>Safire's Political Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2008, p. 58, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-534334-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-534334-4">0-19-534334-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534334-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534334-2">978-0-19-534334-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskins, Jim. <i>Toni Morrison: Telling a Tale Untold</i>. Twenty-First Century Books, 2002, p. 44, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7613-1852-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7613-1852-6">0-7613-1852-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7613-1852-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7613-1852-1">978-0-7613-1852-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2010" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Bruce (2010). <i>Freedom Summer: The Savage Season That Made Mississippi Burn and Made America a Democracy</i>. Viking. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+Summer%3A+The+Savage+Season+That+Made+Mississippi+Burn+and+Made+America+a+Democracy&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-King_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021104093038/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/carmichael_stokely.html">"Stokely Carmichael"</a>, <i>King Encyclopedia</i>, The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University. Accessed November 20, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAP-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAP_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmethurst2010" class="citation book cs1">Smethurst, James (2010). "The Black arts movement and historically Black colleges and universities". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nwq1Pq9BRmQC&q=%22Tom+Kahn%22"><i>African-American poets: 1950s to the present</i></a>. Vol. 2. Chelsea House. pp. <span class="nowrap">112–</span>113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438134369" title="Special:BookSources/9781438134369"><bdi>9781438134369</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Black+arts+movement+and+historically+Black+colleges+and+universities&rft.btitle=African-American+poets%3A+1950s+to+the+present&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E112-%3C%2Fspan%3E113&rft.pub=Chelsea+House&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781438134369&rft.aulast=Smethurst&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnwq1Pq9BRmQC%26q%3D%2522Tom%2BKahn%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmichael2005" class="citation book cs1">Carmichael, Stokely (2005). <i>Ready for Revolution</i>. New York: Scribner. pp. <span class="nowrap">171–</span>215.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ready+for+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E171-%3C%2Fspan%3E215&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Carmichael&rft.aufirst=Stokely&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arsenault_2006_362–363-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arsenault_2006_362–363_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arsenault_2006_362–363_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArsenault2006" class="citation book cs1">Arsenault, Raymond (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomriders1960000arse"><i>Freedom Riders</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomriders1960000arse/page/362">362–363</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513674-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513674-6"><bdi>978-0-19-513674-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+Riders&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=362-363&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513674-6&rft.aulast=Arsenault&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreedomriders1960000arse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carmichael, <i>Ready for Revolution</i> (2003), p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carmichael, Stokely, and Ekwueme Michael Thelwell. <i>Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LpW9QV0MKC4C&dq=%22Stokely+Carmichael%22+Parchman&pg=PA201">p. 201</a>. Retrieved from <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> July 23, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-85003-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-85003-6">0-684-85003-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85003-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85003-0">978-0-684-85003-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FreedomRides&WhiteBacklash_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110508085731/http://stokely-carmichael.com/stokely-carmichael-part-6-freedom-rides-and-white-backlash/">"Freedom Rides and White Backlash"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stokely-carmichael.com/stokely-carmichael-part-6-freedom-rides-and-white-backlash/">the original</a> on May 8, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 8,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+Rides+and+White+Backlash&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstokely-carmichael.com%2Fstokely-carmichael-part-6-freedom-rides-and-white-backlash%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCwiklik1993" class="citation book cs1">Cwiklik, Robert (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stokelycarmichae0000cwik"><i>Stokely Carmichael and Black Power</i></a></span>. Brookfield, Connecticut: The Millbrook Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stokelycarmichae0000cwik/page/14">14–15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781562942762" title="Special:BookSources/9781562942762"><bdi>9781562942762</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stokely+Carmichael+and+Black+Power&rft.place=Brookfield%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=The+Millbrook+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9781562942762&rft.aulast=Cwiklik&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstokelycarmichae0000cwik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Penn_Warren_Center_for_the_Humanities" class="citation web cs1">Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu/interview/stokely-carmichael">"Stokely Carmichael"</a>. <i>Robert Penn Warren's Who Speaks for the Negro? Archive</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 5,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Robert+Penn+Warren%27s+Who+Speaks+for+the+Negro%3F+Archive&rft.atitle=Stokely+Carmichael&rft.au=Robert+Penn+Warren+Center+for+the+Humanities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu%2Finterview%2Fstokely-carmichael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/carmichael-stokely">"Stokely Carmichael"</a>, King Encyclopedia, Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/events/2014/stokely-carmichael-and-the-freedom-summer-that-changed-history">"American Forum – Stokely Carmichael, Freedom Summer and the Rise of Black Militancy"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006123033/http://millercenter.org/events/2014/stokely-carmichael-and-the-freedom-summer-that-changed-history">Archived</a> October 6, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Miller Center of the Humanities, University of Virginia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gavin, Joann (December 1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/mem/stokely3.htm">"Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) – Memories"</a>, Civil Rights Movement Archive website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolsaert2010" class="citation book cs1">Holsaert, Faith S., ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ngSC1iaW_x8C&dq=gloria+richardson%2C+stokely&pg=PA89"><i>Hands on the Freedom Plow: Voices of Women in SNCC</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">285–</span>287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03557-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03557-9"><bdi>978-0-252-03557-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hands+on+the+Freedom+Plow%3A+Voices+of+Women+in+SNCC&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E285-%3C%2Fspan%3E287&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-252-03557-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DngSC1iaW_x8C%26dq%3Dgloria%2Brichardson%252C%2Bstokely%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964cambridge">"Cambridge, Maryland & The White Backlash"</a>, Civil Rights Movement Archive website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim64b.htm#1964fsfs">"Mississippi Summer Project"</a>, Civil Rights Movement Archive website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim64b.htm#1964b-fsmfdpfallout">"MFDP Challenge to the Democratic Convention"</a>, Civil Rights Movement Archive website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldberg2001" class="citation book cs1">Goldberg, Bernard (February 25, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQ7nBAAAQBAJ&q=What+a+liberal+really+wants+is+to+bring+about+change+that+will+not+in+any+way+endanger+his+position&pg=PT96"><i>Bias: A CBS Insider Exposes How the Media Distort the News</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781596981485" title="Special:BookSources/9781596981485"><bdi>9781596981485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bias%3A+A+CBS+Insider+Exposes+How+the+Media+Distort+the+News&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2001-02-25&rft.isbn=9781596981485&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQ7nBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DWhat%2Ba%2Bliberal%2Breally%2Bwants%2Bis%2Bto%2Bbring%2Babout%2Bchange%2Bthat%2Bwill%2Bnot%2Bin%2Bany%2Bway%2Bendanger%2Bhis%2Bposition%26pg%3DPT96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kwame Ture, <i>Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael</i> (Simon & Schuster, 2003), p. 441–446</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranch2006" class="citation book cs1">Branch, Taylor (2006). <i>At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years 1965–1968</i>. Simon & Schuster. pp. <span class="nowrap">109–</span>110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Canaan%27s+Edge%3A+America+in+the+King+Years+1965%E2%80%931968&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E110&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lcfogenesis-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lcfogenesis_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/selma-montgomery-march/#:~:text=On%20March%2023%2C%201965%2C%20the,County%20Freedom%20Party%20(LCFP).">"March 23, 1965: Selma to Montgomery March Continues"</a>. Zinn Education<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 2,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=March+23%2C+1965%3A+Selma+to+Montgomery+March+Continues&rft.pub=Zinn+Education&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zinnedproject.org%2Fnews%2Ftdih%2Fselma-montgomery-march%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DOn%2520March%252023%252C%25201965%252C%2520the%2CCounty%2520Freedom%2520Party%2520%28LCFP%29.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch (2006), <i>At Canaan's Edge</i> (2006), pp. 132, 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim65b.htm">"Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement – History & Timeline, 1965"</a>. <i>www.crmvet.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.crmvet.org&rft.atitle=Veterans+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+%E2%80%93+History+%26+Timeline%2C+1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Ftim%2Ftim65b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eji-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eji_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eji.org/sites/default/files/lynching-in-america-second-edition-supplement-by-county.pdf"><i>Lynching in America</i>, 2nd edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180627005306/https://eji.org/sites/default/files/lynching-in-america-second-edition-supplement-by-county.pdf">Archived</a> June 27, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Supplement by County, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/lowndes-county-and-the-voting-rights-act/">"Lowndes County and the Voting Rights Act"</a>. <i>Zinn Education Project</i>. September 9, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 2,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Zinn+Education+Project&rft.atitle=Lowndes+County+and+the+Voting+Rights+Act&rft.date=2016-09-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zinnedproject.org%2Fmaterials%2Flowndes-county-and-the-voting-rights-act%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson1995" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne (1995). <i>In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674447271" title="Special:BookSources/9780674447271"><bdi>9780674447271</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Struggle%3A+SNCC+and+the+Black+Awakening+of+the+1960s&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780674447271&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"A Report from Lowndes County". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC513_scans/Lowndes_Co/513.LowndesCO.bpp.6.1966.pdf"><i>The Black Panther Party</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York, N.Y.: Merit Publishers. 1966. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Report+from+Lowndes+County&rft.btitle=The+Black+Panther+Party&rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Merit+Publishers&rft.date=1966&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffreedomarchives.org%2FDocuments%2FFinder%2FDOC513_scans%2FLowndes_Co%2F513.LowndesCO.bpp.6.1966.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/lowndes-county-freedom-organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a> Black Past.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1781">Lowndes County Freedom Organization"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130813072422/http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1781">Archived</a> August 13, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Encyclopedia of Alabama</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC513_scans/Lowndes_Co/513.LowndesCO.bpp.6.1966.pdf">"The Black Panther Party" (pamphlet)</a>, Merrit Publishers, June 1966.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyorker-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanneh2024" class="citation magazine cs1">Sanneh, Kelefa (October 7, 2024). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2024/10/14/john-lewis-a-life-david-greenberg-book-review">"How John Lewis Put a Legacy of Heroism to Use"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=How+John+Lewis+Put+a+Legacy+of+Heroism+to+Use&rft.date=2024-10-07&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Kelefa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2024%2F10%2F14%2Fjohn-lewis-a-life-david-greenberg-book-review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, David J. (1986), <i>Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1966" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lerone_Bennett_Jr." title="Lerone Bennett Jr.">Bennett, Lerone Jr.</a> (September 1966). "Stokely Carmichael Architect of Black Power". <i>Ebony Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ebony+Magazine&rft.atitle=Stokely+Carmichael+Architect+of+Black+Power&rft.date=1966-09&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Lerone+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/carmichael-stokely">"Stokely Carmichael"</a>, <i>King Encyclopedia</i>, The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University. Retrieved November 20, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140616083304/http://www.atlantahighered.org/civilrights/essay_detail.asp?phase=4">"Quest for Black Power (1966-1970)"</a>. Atlanta in the Civil Rights Movement. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantahighered.org/civilrights/essay_detail.asp?phase=4">the original</a> on June 16, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quest+for+Black+Power+%281966-1970%29&rft.pub=Atlanta+in+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlantahighered.org%2Fcivilrights%2Fessay_detail.asp%3Fphase%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-forman-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-forman_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forman, James, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2RIhBEy7dEC&dq=sncc+expulsion+of+whites&pg=PP16"><i>The Making of Black Revolutionaries</i></a>, pp. xvi–xv (2nd edn 1997). Retrieved March 17, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speech-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Speech_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carmichael, Stokely, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/stokelycarmichaelblackpower.html">"Black Power" speech</a>. Retrieved March 17, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNgwainmbi2017" class="citation book cs1">Ngwainmbi, Emmanuel K. (September 18, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IHk2DwAAQBAJ&q=in+order+for+non-violence+to+work%2C+your+opponent+must+have+a+conscience.+the+united+states+has+none&pg=PA178"><i>Citizenship, Democracies, and Media Engagement among Emerging Economies and Marginalized Communities</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319562155" title="Special:BookSources/9783319562155"><bdi>9783319562155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizenship%2C+Democracies%2C+and+Media+Engagement+among+Emerging+Economies+and+Marginalized+Communities&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-09-18&rft.isbn=9783319562155&rft.aulast=Ngwainmbi&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIHk2DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Din%2Border%2Bfor%2Bnon-violence%2Bto%2Bwork%252C%2Byour%2Bopponent%2Bmust%2Bhave%2Ba%2Bconscience.%2Bthe%2Bunited%2Bstates%2Bhas%2Bnone%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshuaMartin2016" class="citation book cs1">Joshua, Bloom; Martin, Waldo (2016). <a href="/wiki/Black_Against_Empire" title="Black Against Empire"><i>Black Against Empire: The History And Politics Of The Black Panther Party</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 29, <span class="nowrap">41–</span>42, <span class="nowrap">102–</span>103, <span class="nowrap">128–</span>130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Against+Empire%3A+The+History+And+Politics+Of+The+Black+Panther+Party&rft.pages=29%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E42%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E103%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E128-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Joshua&rft.aufirst=Bloom&rft.au=Martin%2C+Waldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/docs/alinsky.htm">"Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement – SNCC & Alinsky"</a>. <i>www.crmvet.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.crmvet.org&rft.atitle=Veterans+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+%E2%80%93+SNCC+%26+Alinsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Fdocs%2Falinsky.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plotkin, Wendy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://comm-org.wisc.edu/papers96/alinsky/woodlawn.html">"Alinsky TWO: 1960s Organizing in an African-American Community"</a>, H-Net/H-Urban Seminar on History of Community Organizing & Community-Based Development.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/docs/6608_sncc_draft-resist.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Report on Draft Program" August 1966, Civil Rights Movement Archive website"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Report+on+Draft+Program%22+August+1966%2C+Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive+website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Fdocs%2F6608_sncc_draft-resist.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wgbhnews.org/post/stokely-carmichael-and-black-power-america">"Of Stokely Carmichael, Black Power In America"</a>, Boston Public Radio.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/kingweb/about_king/encyclopedia/carmichael_stokely.html">"Stokely Carmichael"</a>, <i>King Encyclopedia</i>, Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141223180202/http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/kingweb/about_king/encyclopedia/carmichael_stokely.html">Archived</a> December 23, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pbs.org-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pbs.org_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pbs.org_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/tavissmiley/interviews/peniel-e-joseph/">"African-American History Scholar Dr. Peniel Joseph"</a>, Tavis Smiley Show, March 10, 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Eric Dyson, <i> 'I May Not Get There With You:' The True Martin Luther King Jr.</i>, (Simon & Schuster, 2000), pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1967/Protests/12303074818188-15/">"Protests – Events of 1967 – Year in Review"</a>. United Press International. 1967. p. 15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Protests+%E2%80%93+Events+of+1967+%E2%80%93+Year+in+Review&rft.pages=15&rft.date=1967&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FAudio%2FYear_in_Review%2FEvents-of-1967%2FProtests%2F12303074818188-15%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayborne Carson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instrugglesnccbl00cars/page/344"><i>In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s</i></a> (Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nydailynews.com-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nydailynews.com_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nydailynews.com_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/kwame-ture-dead-57-cancer-fells-stokely-carmichael-article-1.818886">"KWAME TURE DEAD AT 57 CANCER FELLS FORMER STOKELY CARMICHAEL"</a>, Associated Press (<i>New York Daily News</i>), November 16, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SNCC_History_and_Geography-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SNCC_History_and_Geography_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SNCC_History_and_Geography_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/moves/SNCC_intro.shtml">"SNCC History and Geography"</a>. <i>Mapping American Social Movements</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mapping+American+Social+Movements&rft.atitle=SNCC+History+and+Geography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fmoves%2FSNCC_intro.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2012" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Jay (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iD6rL_e8VZMC&q=cointelpro%2C+racism&pg=PA276"><i>Manufacturing Hysteria: A History of Scapegoating, Surveillance, and Secrecy in Modern America</i></a>. Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307388230" title="Special:BookSources/9780307388230"><bdi>9780307388230</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manufacturing+Hysteria%3A+A+History+of+Scapegoating%2C+Surveillance%2C+and+Secrecy+in+Modern+America&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780307388230&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiD6rL_e8VZMC%26q%3Dcointelpro%252C%2Bracism%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19670819&id=Bo4gAAAAIBAJ&sjid=8WYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2725,5283290">"SNCC Says Carmichael Now En route to Hanoi"</a>, Associated Press, <i>Lewiston Daily Sun</i>, August 19, 1967</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/0wp587sj#page-11">Seidman, Sarah. "Tricontinental Routes of Solidarity: Stokely Carmichael in Cuba"</a>, <i>Journal of Transnational American Studies</i>, 2012, pg. 8-11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19680822&id=nxcfAAAAIBAJ&sjid=N5sEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7039,4096385">"Stokely Carmichael Expelled by SNCC"</a>, <i>Washington Post</i> news service (<i>Tuscaloosa News</i>), August 22, 1968</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a> and George Katsiaficas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNQAwAAQBAJ&dq=carmichael%2C+sncc%2C+expulsion%2C+cia&pg=PA89"><i>Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party</i></a> (Routledge, 2014 edition), pp. 89-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin, <i>Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party</i> (University of California Press, 2013), pp. 122-23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1941-1998._1992-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1941-1998._1992_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1941-1998._1992_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1941-1998._1992_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmichael,_Stokely1992" class="citation book cs1">Carmichael, Stokely (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0"><i>Black power : the politics of liberation in America</i></a>. Hamilton, Charles V. (Vintage ed.). New York: Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679743138" title="Special:BookSources/0679743138"><bdi>0679743138</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26096713">26096713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+power+%3A+the+politics+of+liberation+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Vintage&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26096713&rft.isbn=0679743138&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Stokely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackpowerpoliti00carm_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cobb-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cobb_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/473.html">Charlie Cobb, "From Stokely Carmichael to Kwame Ture"</a>, <i>Hartford </i>, Accessed March 17, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VivaCheSinclair-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VivaCheSinclair_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sinclair" title="Andrew Sinclair">Andrew Sinclair</a>, <i>Viva Che!: The Strange Death and Life of Che Guevara</i>, 1968/rereleased in 2006, Sutton Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-4310-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-4310-6">0-7509-4310-6</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler1967" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Fowler" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Fowler">Fowler</a>, Norman (August 5, 1967). "Carmichael recordings for sale". <i>The Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Carmichael+recordings+for+sale&rft.date=1967-08-05&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Risen2009ch4-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Risen2009ch4_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisen2009" class="citation book cs1">Risen, Clay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationonfireamer00rise/page/63">"April 4: U and Fourteenth"</a>. <i>A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination</i>. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationonfireamer00rise/page/63">63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-17710-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-17710-5"><bdi>978-0-470-17710-5</bdi></a>. <q>Even as he was holding the line in front of Peoples, several young men were inside the pharmacy ransacking it...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=April+4%3A+U+and+Fourteenth&rft.btitle=A+Nation+on+Fire%3A+America+in+the+Wake+of+the+King+Assassination&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-17710-5&rft.aulast=Risen&rft.aufirst=Clay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationonfireamer00rise%2Fpage%2F63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Risen2009ch6-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Risen2009ch6_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisen2009" class="citation book cs1">Risen, Clay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationonfireamer00rise">"April 5: 'Any Man's Death Diminishes Me'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>A Nation on Fire: America in the wake of the King assassination</i>. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-17710-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-17710-5"><bdi>978-0-470-17710-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=April+5%3A+%27Any+Man%27s+Death+Diminishes+Me%27&rft.btitle=A+Nation+on+Fire%3A+America+in+the+wake+of+the+King+assassination&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-17710-5&rft.aulast=Risen&rft.aufirst=Clay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationonfireamer00rise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill2002" class="citation cs2">Churchill, Ward (2002), <i>Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement</i>, South End Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0896086463" title="Special:BookSources/978-0896086463"><bdi>978-0896086463</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50985124">50985124</a>, <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25433596M">25433596M</a>, 0896086461</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agents+of+Repression%3A+The+FBI%27s+Secret+Wars+Against+the+Black+Panther+Party+and+the+American+Indian+Movement&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50985124&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL25433596M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0896086463&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Review-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Review_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisbrot2003" class="citation news cs1">Weisbrot, Robert (November 23, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9903E6DD1438F930A15752C1A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">"Stokely Speaks"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 17,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Stokely+Speaks&rft.date=2003-11-23&rft.aulast=Weisbrot&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9903E6DD1438F930A15752C1A9659C8B63%26sec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span> (Review of <i>Ready for Revolution</i>.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allsands.com/history/people/miriammakeba_zmj_gn.htm">"Miriam Makeba Biography"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090711171006/http://www.allsands.com/history/people/miriammakeba_zmj_gn.htm">Archived</a> July 11, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, AllSands.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIA-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CIA_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-06-26-cia-misconduct-glance_N.htm">Associated Press, "Some Examples of CIA Misconduct"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i>, June 27, 2007. Accessed January 9, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-guardian-20220913-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-guardian-20220913_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2022" class="citation news cs1">Burke, Jason (September 13, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/13/revealed-how-uk-targeted-american-civil-rights-leader-stokely-carmichael-covert">"Revealed: how UK targeted American civil rights leader in covert campaign"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+how+UK+targeted+American+civil+rights+leader+in+covert+campaign&rft.date=2022-09-13&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Fsep%2F13%2Frevealed-how-uk-targeted-american-civil-rights-leader-stokely-carmichael-covert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cspan-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cspan_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?104471-1/life-career-kwame-ture">"Life and Career of Kwame Ture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>. April 15, 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Life+and+Career+of+Kwame+Ture&rft.pub=C-SPAN&rft.date=1998-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fvideo%2F%3F104471-1%2Flife-career-kwame-ture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socialjustice.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/index.php/All-African_People's_Revolutionary_Party">"Social Justice Movements: All-African People's Revolutionary Party"</a>, Columbia University website</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/kwame-nkrumah-fathered-pan-africanism">"Kwame Nkrumah"</a> at African American Registry.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africanliberationday.net/?q=history">ALD History</a>, African Liberation Day.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aaprp-intl.org/why-you-should-join-a-work-study-circle-of-the-all-african-peoples-revolutionary-party/">"All-African People's Revolutionary PartyPan-Africanism: The Total Liberation and Unification of Africa Under Scientific Socialism"</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kwameture.com/">"Stokely Carmichael Interview Part 1"</a>, KwameTure.com.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aW45PbSXyMM">"Kwame Ture's last fire side chat from the Meeca-Howard Univ part 1"</a>. YouTube.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer2008" class="citation book cs1">Schaefer, Richard T. (2008). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarace00scha"><i>Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society</i></a></span>. Thousand Oaks California: SAGE Publications. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarace00scha/page/n575">523</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412926942" title="Special:BookSources/9781412926942"><bdi>9781412926942</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Race%2C+Ethnicity+and+Society&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks+California&rft.pages=523&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781412926942&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Richard+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediarace00scha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitaker2011" class="citation book cs1">Whitaker, Matthew C., ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RSGhEUq5bp0C&dq=%22kwame+ture%22+%241000+a+month&pg=PA156"><i>Icons of Black America: Breaking Barriers and Crossing Boundaries</i></a>. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37643-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37643-6"><bdi>978-0-313-37643-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Icons+of+Black+America%3A+Breaking+Barriers+and+Crossing+Boundaries&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-37643-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRSGhEUq5bp0C%26dq%3D%2522kwame%2Bture%2522%2B%25241000%2Ba%2Bmonth%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cspan_memorial-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cspan_memorial_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?118296-1/memorial-service-kwame-ture">"Memorial Service for Kwame Ture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>. January 9, 1999<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memorial+Service+for+Kwame+Ture&rft.pub=C-SPAN&rft.date=1999-01-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fvideo%2F%3F118296-1%2Fmemorial-service-kwame-ture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KTcom-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KTcom_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kwameture.com/">Statement of Kwame Ture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230320122736/http://www.kwameture.com/">Archived</a> on March 20, 2023], undated, between 1996 diagnosis and 1998 death, Kwame Ture website. Accessed June 27, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/215245.stm">"Black Panther Leader Dies"</a>, BBC News, November 16, 1998. Accessed June 20, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhavnaniMirzaMeetoo2005" class="citation book cs1">Bhavnani, Reena; Mirza, Heidi Safia; Meetoo, Veena (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KVbRVVHoKkQC&pg=PA28"><i>Tackling the Roots of Racism: Lessons for Success</i></a>. Policy Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86134-774-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86134-774-9"><bdi>978-1-86134-774-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tackling+the+Roots+of+Racism%3A+Lessons+for+Success&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Policy+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-86134-774-9&rft.aulast=Bhavnani&rft.aufirst=Reena&rft.au=Mirza%2C+Heidi+Safia&rft.au=Meetoo%2C+Veena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKVbRVVHoKkQC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRace" class="citation web cs1">Race, Richard W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200720203958/https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.71426!/file/race_article.pdf">"Analyzing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.71426!/file/race_article.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 20, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Analyzing+ethnic+education+policy-making+in+England+and+Wales&rft.aulast=Race&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sheffield.ac.uk%2Fpolopoly_fs%2F1.71426%21%2Ffile%2Frace_article.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (July 2020)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike_Miller_-_Memories-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mike_Miller_-_Memories_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mike_Miller_-_Memories_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mike_Miller_-_Memories_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Mike (January 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/mem/stokely1.htm">"Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) – Memories"</a>, Civil Rights Movement Archive website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2014" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, Peniel E. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L5LSDQAAQBAJ&q=stokely+carmichael+growing+ego&pg=PA138"><i>Stokely: A Life</i></a>. Civitas Books, Hachette Book Group. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465013630" title="Special:BookSources/9780465013630"><bdi>9780465013630</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stokely%3A+A+Life&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Civitas+Books%2C+Hachette+Book+Group&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780465013630&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=Peniel+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL5LSDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dstokely%2Bcarmichael%2Bgrowing%2Bego%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asante, Molefi Kete (2002), <i>10 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57392-963-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-57392-963-8">1-57392-963-8</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffriesCarmichaelThelwell2004" class="citation journal cs1">Jeffries, Hasan Kwame; Carmichael, Stokely; Thelwell, Ekwueme Michael (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200219085910/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c97b/79701ae6a629ad3bc4e6916ecadab9630983.pdf">"Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Negro Education</i>. <b>73</b> (4): 459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4129630">10.2307/4129630</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4129630">4129630</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143806831">143806831</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c97b/79701ae6a629ad3bc4e6916ecadab9630983.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 19, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+Education&rft.atitle=Ready+for+Revolution%3A+The+Life+and+Struggles+of+Stokely+Carmichael+%28Kwame+Ture%29&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=459&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143806831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4129630%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4129630&rft.aulast=Jeffries&rft.aufirst=Hasan+Kwame&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Stokely&rft.au=Thelwell%2C+Ekwueme+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fc97b%2F79701ae6a629ad3bc4e6916ecadab9630983.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobb2015" class="citation journal cs1">Cobb, Charlie (April 14, 2015). "Revolution: From Stokely Carmichael To Kwame Ture". <i>The Black Scholar</i>. <b>27</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">32–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00064246.1997.11430870">10.1080/00064246.1997.11430870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Black+Scholar&rft.atitle=Revolution%3A+From+Stokely+Carmichael+To+Kwame+Ture&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=2015-04-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00064246.1997.11430870&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2009" class="citation cs2">Sullivan, Kenneth R. 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March 11, 1996<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Black+Activist+Disparages+Jews&rft.date=1996-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F03%2F11%2Fopinion%2Fl-black-activist-disparages-jews-063096.html%3Fsrc%3Dpm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sundquist2009-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sundquist2009_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundquist2009" class="citation book cs1">Sundquist, Eric J. 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Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">315–</span>317. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04414-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04414-2"><bdi>978-0-674-04414-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strangers+in+the+Land%3A+Blacks%2C+Jews%2C+Post-Holocaust+America&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E315-%3C%2Fspan%3E317&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009-06-30&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04414-2&rft.aulast=Sundquist&rft.aufirst=Eric+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9dI8cUKQplgC%26pg%3DPA316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerreti1970" class="citation news cs1">Ferreti, Fred (April 14, 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1970/04/14/archives/carmichael-in-objective-view-sees-hitler-as-greatest-white.html">"Carmichael, in 'Objective' View, Sees Hitler as 'Greatest White'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Carmichael%2C+in+%27Objective%27+View%2C+Sees+Hitler+as+%27Greatest+White%27&rft.date=1970-04-14&rft.aulast=Ferreti&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1970%2F04%2F14%2Farchives%2Fcarmichael-in-objective-view-sees-hitler-as-greatest-white.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/nars/maryking.htm#mk-women">"SNCC: Born of the Sit-Ins, Dedicated to Action-Remembrances of Mary Elizabeth King"</a>, Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stoksexist-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stoksexist_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2006" class="citation news cs1">Joseph, Peniel E. (July 21, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penielejoseph.com/legacy.html">"Black Power's Powerful Legacy"</a>. <i>The Chronicle Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle+Review&rft.atitle=Black+Power%27s+Powerful+Legacy&rft.date=2006-07-21&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=Peniel+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.penielejoseph.com%2Flegacy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">Lewis, John</a> (2016). <i><a href="/wiki/March_(comics)" title="March (comics)">March: Book Three</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Top_Shelf_Productions" title="Top Shelf Productions">Top Shelf Productions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marietta,_Georgia" title="Marietta, Georgia">Marietta, Georgia</a>), p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1988" class="citation book cs1">King, Mary E. (1988). <i>Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement</i>. 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University of North Carolina Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">310–</span>11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-5616-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-5616-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-5616-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ella+Baker+and+the+Black+Freedom+Movement%3A+A+Radical+Democratic+Vision&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E310-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-5616-1&rft.aulast=Ransby&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfC7--GihF5AC%26q%3Doff-handed%2Bremark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7349662/">"BlacKkKlansman"</a>. <i>IMDb</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Guinee360.com+%E2%80%93+Actualit%C3%A9+en+Guin%C3%A9e%2C+toute+actualit%C3%A9+du+jour&rft.atitle=Bokar+Biro+Ture+%3A+%22Stokly+est+un+patrimoine+guin%C3%A9en%2C+mais+peu+connu+en+Guin%C3%A9e%22&rft.date=2018-11-25&rft.aulast=Camara&rft.aufirst=Dansa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.guinee360.com%2F25%2F11%2F2018%2Fbokar-biro-ture-stokly-est-un-patrimoine-guineen-mais-peu-connu-en-guinee%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231015200555/https://www.whosampled.com/sample/255819/Hideki-Naganuma-The-Concept-of-Love-Stokely-Carmichael-Free-Huey/">whosampled.com</a>. Archived 10/15/23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2024" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Chris (June 3, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/2024/06/03/review-stokely-at-court-theatre-is-an-unfinished-story-of-a-uncompromising-radical/">"Review: 'Stokely' at Court Theatre is an unfinished story of a uncompromising radical"</a>. <i>Chicago Tribune</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Review%3A+%27Stokely%27+at+Court+Theatre+is+an+unfinished+story+of+a+uncompromising+radical&rft.date=2024-06-03&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2F2024%2F06%2F03%2Freview-stokely-at-court-theatre-is-an-unfinished-story-of-a-uncompromising-radical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmichael1966" class="citation journal cs1">Carmichael, Stokely (1966). "Toward Black Liberation". <i>The Massachusetts Review</i>. <b>7</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">639–</span>651. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25087498">25087498</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Massachusetts+Review&rft.atitle=Toward+Black+Liberation&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E639-%3C%2Fspan%3E651&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25087498%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carmichael&rft.aufirst=Stokely&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStokely+Carmichael" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Carmichael, Stokely (and <a href="/wiki/Ekwueme_Michael_Thelwell" title="Ekwueme Michael Thelwell">Ekwueme Michael Thelwell</a>), <i>Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture)</i>. New York: Scribner, 2005.</li> <li>Carmichael, Stokely (and <a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Hamilton" title="Charles V. Hamilton">Charles V. Hamilton</a>), <i>Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</i>. Vintage; reissued 1992.</li> <li>Carmichael, Stokely, <i>Stokely Speaks: Black Power Back to Pan-Africanism</i>. Random House, 1971, 292 pages.</li> <li>Joseph, Peniel E., <i>Waiting 'Til The Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America</i>. Henry Holt, 2007.</li> <li>Joseph, Peniel E. <i>Stokely: A Life</i>. New York: Basic Books, 2014.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Stokely_Carmichael" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" class="extiw" title="q:Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snccdigital.org/people/stokely-carmichael/">SNCC Digital Gateway: Stokely Carmichael</a>. Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0138460/">Stokely Carmichael</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spartacus-educational.com/USAcarmichael.htm">Stokely Carmichael</a> at Spartacus Educational.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.washington.edu/spcmu/carmichael/">Stokely Carmichael page</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101207163757/http://courses.washington.edu/spcmu/carmichael/">Archived</a> December 7, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Carmichael spoke to an enthusiastic crowd at <a href="/wiki/Garfield_High_School_(Seattle)" title="Garfield High School (Seattle)">Garfield High School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seattle,_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle, Washington</a>, on April 19, 1967. Audio and slideshow. Retrieved May 3, 2005.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/Stokely%20Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael FBI Records</a> – Stokely Carmichael records at FBI's The Vault Project.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0002vc0p">Image of Stokely Carmichael, speaking with a crowd of more than 6500 at Will Rogers Park in Los Angeles, California, 1966.</a> <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a> Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Young_Research_Library" title="Charles E. Young Research Library">Charles E. Young Research Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_resources">Research resources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Research resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf9x0nb46h">Stokely Carmichael-Lorna D. Smith Collection, 1964–1972</a> (5 linear ft.) is housed in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.stanford.edu/depts/spc/spc.html">Department of Special Collections and University Archives</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.stanford.edu/">Stanford University Libraries</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Videos">Videos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Videos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Montgomey Interview video at The Jack Rabin Collection of Alabama Civil Rights and Southern Activists <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libraries.psu.edu/about/collections/jack-rabin-collection-alabama-civil-rights-and-southern-activists/southern-1">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.panafricanperspective.com/zionism.html">Kwame Ture on Zionism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/hueypnewton/people/people_carmichael.html">February 17, 1968</a> on <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>.org</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackconsciousness.com/media/CONVERT_TURE.ram">Consciousness and Unconsciousness</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080627080931/http://www.blackconsciousness.com/media/CONVERT_TURE.ram">Archived</a> June 27, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://diva.sfsu.edu/bundles/189468">With H. Rap Brown, Oakland, 1968 (longer version of PBS clip)</a></li> <li><i>From Protest to Resistance: A Critical Look at the New Left</i>. A 1968 <a href="/wiki/TV_movie" class="mw-redirect" title="TV movie">TV movie</a> with interviews and footage of Carmichael's speeches, made by <a href="/wiki/Saul_Landau" title="Saul Landau">Saul Landau</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?42486">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rahjx.net/ktuno.htm">University of Nebraska Omaha, 1993</a></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_151-7659c6sr1g">Eyes on the Prize</a></i> interview (1986) in the <a href="/wiki/American_Archive_of_Public_Broadcasting" title="American Archive of Public Broadcasting">American Archive of Public Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://texasarchive.org/2018_04595">Kwame Ture Speaks at Houston Universities</a> – The KHOU-TV Collection (1967) from <a href="/wiki/Texas_Archive_of_the_Moving_Image" title="Texas Archive of the Moving Image">TexasArchive.org</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_and_Birmingham_bus_attacks" title="Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks">Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juanita_Abernathy" title="Juanita Abernathy">Juanita Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut_Jr." title="J. L. Chestnut Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_song" title="Freedom song">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chairmen_of_the_Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee_(SNCC)110" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SNCC_chairmen" title="Template:SNCC chairmen"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SNCC_chairmen" title="Template talk:SNCC chairmen"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SNCC_chairmen" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SNCC chairmen"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chairmen_of_the_Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee_(SNCC)110" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Chairmen of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a> (1960–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a> (1961–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> (1963–1966)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stokely Carmichael</a> (1966–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a> (1967–1968)</li> <li>Phil Hutchings (1968–1969)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_Panther_Party610" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#000000; color:white; −"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_Panther_Party" title="Template:Black Panther Party"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Black_Panther_Party" title="Template talk:Black Panther Party"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Black_Panther_Party" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Black Panther Party"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Black_Panther_Party610" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Black Panther Party</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Brown" title="Elaine Brown">Elaine Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Cox" title="Donald L. Cox">Donald Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hilliard" title="David Hilliard">David Hilliard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Black_Panther_Party" title="List of members of the Black Panther Party"><span style="background-color: #000000; color:white;">Members</span></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">West Coast based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JoNina_Abron-Ervin" title="JoNina Abron-Ervin">JoNina Abron-Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Aoki" title="Richard Aoki">Richard Aoki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barron" title="Charles Barron">Charles Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lee_Brent" title="William Lee Brent">William Lee Brent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Bullins" title="Ed Bullins">Ed Bullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunchy_Carter" title="Bunchy Carter">Bunchy Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Comfort" title="Mark Comfort">Mark Comfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Dixon" title="Aaron Dixon">Aaron Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emory_Douglas" title="Emory Douglas">Emory Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._Kwaku_Duren" title="B. Kwaku Duren">B. Kwaku Duren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Easley-Cox" title="Barbara Easley-Cox">Barbara Easley-Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Ford_(activist)" title="Kent Ford (activist)">Kent Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggie_Forte" title="Reggie Forte">Reggie Forte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Hewitt" title="Raymond Hewitt">Raymond "Masai" Hewitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbert_Howard" title="Elbert Howard">Elbert "Big Man" Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Huggins" title="John Huggins">John Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ericka_Huggins" title="Ericka Huggins">Ericka Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Hutton" title="Bobby Hutton">Bobby Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(activist)" title="George Jackson (activist)">George Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Tarika_Lewis" title="Joan Tarika Lewis">Joan Tarika Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalil_Muntaqim" title="Jalil Muntaqim">Jalil Muntaqim (Anthony Bottom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Parker" title="Pat Parker">Pat Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geronimo_Pratt" title="Geronimo Pratt">Geronimo Pratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Zinzun" title="Michael Zinzun">Michael Zinzun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">East Coast based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mumia_Abu-Jamal" title="Mumia Abu-Jamal">Mumia Abu-Jamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundiata_Acoli" title="Sundiata Acoli">Sundiata Acoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Ashanti Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwasi_Balagoon" title="Kuwasi Balagoon">Kuwasi Balagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhoruba_bin_Wahad" title="Dhoruba bin Wahad">Dhoruba bin Wahad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veronza_Bowers_Jr." title="Veronza Bowers Jr.">Veronza Bowers Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safiya_Bukhari" title="Safiya Bukhari">Safiya Bukhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Coates_(publisher)" title="Paul Coates (publisher)">W. Paul Coates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_%22Eddie%22_Conway" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshall "Eddie" Conway">Marshall "Eddie" Conway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Joseph" title="Jamal Joseph">Jamal Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaka_Khan" title="Chaka Khan">Chaka Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Kimbro" title="Warren Kimbro">Warren Kimbro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_McLucas" title="Lonnie McLucas">Lonnie McLucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denise_Oliver-Velez" title="Denise Oliver-Velez">Denise Oliver-Velez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Pinkney" title="Larry Pinkney">Larry Pinkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Rackley" title="Alex Rackley">Alex Rackley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Rodgers" title="Nile Rodgers">Nile Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Sams_Jr." title="George W. Sams Jr.">George W. Sams Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afeni_Shakur" title="Afeni Shakur">Afeni Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata_Shakur" title="Assata Shakur">Assata Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Maroon_Shoatz" title="Russell Maroon Shoatz">Russell Maroon Shoatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tabor_(activist)" title="Michael Tabor (activist)">Michael "Cetewayo" Tabor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashir_Hameed" title="Bashir Hameed">James Dixon York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Southern based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Essex" title="Mark Essex">Mark Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hillary_King" title="Robert Hillary King">Robert Hillary King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_O%27Neal" title="Pete O'Neal">Pete O'Neal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_Rahim" title="Malik Rahim">Malik Rahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola_Three" title="Angola Three">Herman Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola_Three" title="Angola Three">Albert Woodfox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Chicago based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Clark_(activist)" title="Mark Clark (activist)">Mark Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O%27Neal_(informant)" title="William O'Neal (informant)">William O'Neal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Rush" title="Bobby Rush">Bobby Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Stamps" title="Marion Stamps">Marion Stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akua_Njeri" title="Akua Njeri">Akua Njeri (Deborah Johnson)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connie_Matthews" title="Connie Matthews">Connie Matthews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Harry Haywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Programs and projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten-Point_Program_(Black_Panther_Party)" title="Ten-Point Program (Black Panther Party)">Ten-Point Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Breakfast_for_Children" title="Free Breakfast for Children">Free Breakfast for Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Panther_(newspaper)" title="The Black Panther (newspaper)"><i>The Black Panther</i> (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Coalition_(Fred_Hampton)" title="Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)">Rainbow Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Front_Against_Fascism" title="United Front Against Fascism">United Front Against Fascism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Inspired groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Guerrilla_Family" title="Black Guerrilla Family">Black Guerrilla Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Liberation_Army" title="Black Liberation Army">Black Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Liberators" title="Black Liberators">Black Liberators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panthers_(Israel)" title="Black Panthers (Israel)">Black Panthers (Israel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Black_Panthers" title="British Black Panthers">British Black Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Panthers" title="Dalit Panthers">Dalit Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_Brigade" title="George Jackson Brigade">George Jackson Brigade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_Panthers" title="Gray Panthers">Gray Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Wor_Kuen" title="I Wor Kuen">I Wor Kuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81_Tamatoa" title="Ngā Tamatoa">Ngā Tamatoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_Panthers" title="Polynesian Panthers">Polynesian Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guard_Party" title="Red Guard Party">Red Guard Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pink_Panthers" title="The Pink Panthers">The Pink Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viduthalai_Chiruthaigal_Katchi" title="Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi">Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Panther_Party" title="White Panther Party">White Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Lords" title="Young Lords">Young Lords</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Subsequent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assata%27s_Daughters" title="Assata's Daughters">Assata's Daughters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Militia" title="Black Panther Militia">Black Panther Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Riders_Liberation_Party" title="Black Riders Liberation Party">Black Riders Liberation Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Defense_League" title="Black Women's Defense League">Black Women's Defense League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton_Gun_Club" title="Huey P. Newton Gun Club">Huey P. Newton Gun Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Afrikan_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Afrikan Black Panther Party">New Afrikan Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Black Panther Party">New Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Panther_Vanguard_Movement" title="New Panther Vanguard Movement">New Panther Vanguard Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Black_Panther_Party" title="Revolutionary Black Panther Party">Revolutionary Black Panther Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Films and television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Black Power, We're Goin' Survive America</i> (1968)</li> <li><i>Black Panthers: A Report</i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Panthers_(film)" title="Black Panthers (film)">Black Panthers</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i>Mayday</i> (1969)</li> <li><i>Interview with Bobby Seale</i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver,_Black_Panther" title="Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther">Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i>Finally Got the News</i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Murder_of_Fred_Hampton" title="The Murder of Fred Hampton">The Murder of Fred Hampton</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i>Teach Our Children</i> (1973)</li> <li><i>In the Event Anyone Disappears</i> (1974)</li> <li><i>Charles Garry: Streetfighter in the Courtroom</i> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panther_(film)" title="Panther (film)"><i>Panther</i></a> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/All_Power_to_the_People" title="All Power to the People">All Power to the People</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i>Public Enemy</i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Huey_P._Newton_Story" title="A Huey P. Newton Story">A Huey P. Newton Story</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Night_Catches_Us" title="Night Catches Us">Night Catches Us</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Panthers:_Vanguard_of_the_Revolution" title="The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution">The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judas_and_the_Black_Messiah" title="Judas and the Black Messiah">Judas and the Black Messiah</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Cigar" title="The Big Cigar">The Big Cigar</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Soul_on_Ice_(book)" title="Soul on Ice (book)">Soul on Ice</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seize_the_Time_(book)" title="Seize the Time (book)">Seize the Time</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blood_in_My_Eye_(book)" title="Blood in My Eye (book)"> Blood in My Eye</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Suicide" title="Revolutionary Suicide">Revolutionary Suicide</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Taste_of_Power" title="A Taste of Power">A Taste of Power</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Against_Empire" title="Black Against Empire">Black Against Empire</a></i> (2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Betty_Van_Patter" title="Murder of Betty Van Patter">Murder of Betty Van Patter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Black_Panther_trials" title="New Haven Black Panther trials">New Haven Black Panther trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panther_21" title="Panther 21">Panther 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice%E2%80%93Poindexter_case" title="Rice–Poindexter case">Rice–Poindexter case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Templeton_(artist)" title="Robert Templeton (artist)">Robert Templeton</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Sweetback%27s_Baadasssss_Song" title="Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song">Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song</a></i> (1971)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Panther_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Panther Power">Panther Power</a>" (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_People%27s_Constitutional_Convention" title="Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention">Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#000000; color:white; −"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Black_Panther_Party" title="Category:Members of the Black Panther Party">Category|<span style="background-color: #000000; color:white;">Black Panther Party</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pan-Africanism673" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pan-Africanism" title="Template:Pan-Africanism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pan-Africanism" title="Template talk:Pan-Africanism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-Africanism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-Africanism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pan-Africanism673" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankarism" title="Sankarism">Sankarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Uhuru Movement">Uhuru Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zikism" title="Zikism">Zikism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_century" title="African century">African century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanists" title="Category:Pan-Africanists">Proponents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Akumu" title="Dennis Akumu">Dennis Akumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Comissiong" title="David Comissiong">David Comissiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modibo_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Modibo Keïta">Modibo Keïta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochola_Ogaye_Mak%27Anyengo" title="Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo">Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdias_do_Nascimento" title="Abdias do Nascimento">Abdias do Nascimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nyathi_Pokela" title="John Nyathi Pokela">John Nyathi Pokela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._T._A._Wallace-Johnson" title="I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson">I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marimba_Ani" title="Marimba Ani">Marimba Ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilmot_Blyden" title="Edward Wilmot Blyden">Edward Wilmot Blyden</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">John Henrik Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin R. Delany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Ashwood_Garvey" title="Amy Ashwood Garvey">Amy Ashwood Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Jackson_(writer)" title="John G. Jackson (writer)">John G. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Leonard Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan" title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Kinloch" title="Alice Kinloch">Alice Kinloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fela_Kuti" title="Fela Kuti">Fela Kuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Mafeje" title="Archie Mafeje">Archie Mafeje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Mazrui" title="Ali Mazrui">Ali Mazrui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephania_Mothopeng" title="Zephania Mothopeng">Zephania Mothopeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motsoko_Pheko" title="Motsoko Pheko">Motsoko Pheko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi" title="Runoko Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Robinson" title="Randall Robinson">Randall Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_Spear" title="Burning Spear">Burning Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_Laye_Thiaw" title="Issa Laye Thiaw">Issa Laye Thiaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Frances Cress Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sylvester_Williams" title="Henry Sylvester Williams">Henry Sylvester Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_N._Wilson" title="Amos N. Wilson">Amos N. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omali_Yeshitela" title="Omali Yeshitela">Omali Yeshitela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanist_organizations" title="Category:Pan-Africanist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Educational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_Academy" title="African Leadership Academy">African Leadership Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_University" title="African Leadership University">African Leadership University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Unification_Front" title="African Unification Front">African Unification Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Trade_Union_Federation" title="All-African Trade Union Federation">All-African Trade Union Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conseil_de_l%27Entente" title="Conseil de l'Entente">Conseil de l'Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_People%27s_Party" title="Convention People's Party">Convention People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_Fighters" title="Economic Freedom Fighters">Economic Freedom Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_African_Service_Bureau" title="International African Service Bureau">International African Service Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Trade_Union_Unity" title="Organisation of African Trade Union Unity">Organisation of African Trade Union Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_African_Association" title="Pan African Association">Pan African Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Freedom_Movement_for_East_and_Central_Africa" title="Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa">Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_and_Social_League_of_the_Great_Sahara_Tribes" title="Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes">Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_D%C3%A9mocratique_Africain" title="Rassemblement Démocratique Africain">Rassemblement Démocratique Africain</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Star_of_Africa" title="Black Star of Africa">Black Star of Africa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Marron_Inconnu" title="Le Marron Inconnu">Le Marron Inconnu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Judah" title="Lion of Judah">Lion of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_colours" title="Pan-African colours">Pan-African colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_flag" title="Pan-African flag">Pan-African flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Conflicts in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">African-American leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanization" title="Africanization">Africanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Peoples%27_Conference" title="All-African Peoples' Conference">All-African Peoples' Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Federation" title="East African Federation">East African Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_African_States" title="Union of African States">Union of African States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Latin_Africa" title="United States of Latin Africa">United States of Latin Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanism" title="Category:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Africa category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Pan-Africanism" title="Portal:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/16px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/24px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/32px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394678">@media screen{.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-solo .navbox-title{background-color:#f0e68c}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-non-vocal .navbox-title{background-color:#f4bf92}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-non-perform .navbox-title{background-color:#bfe0bf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-group .navbox-title{background-color:#b0c4de}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-cover .navbox-title{background-color:#d8bfd8}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-classical .navbox-title{background-color:#b0e0e6}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist-temp .navbox-title{background-color:#d3d3d3}.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)}html.skin-theme-clienpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist .navbox-title{background-color:inherit}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clienpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbox-musical-artist .navbox-title{background-color:inherit}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox navbox-musical-artist navbox-musical-artist-solo" aria-labelledby="Miriam_Makeba55" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks vcard mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Miriam_Makeba" title="Template:Miriam Makeba"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Miriam_Makeba" title="Template talk:Miriam Makeba"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Miriam_Makeba" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Miriam Makeba"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Miriam_Makeba55" class="fn" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba" title="Miriam Makeba">Miriam Makeba</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Studio albums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba_(album)" title="Miriam Makeba (album)">Miriam Makeba</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Many_Voices_of_Miriam_Makeba" title="The Many Voices of Miriam Makeba">The Many Voices of Miriam Makeba</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_of_Miriam_Makeba" title="The World of Miriam Makeba">The World of Miriam Makeba</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Voice_of_Africa_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="The Voice of Africa (Miriam Makeba album)">The Voice of Africa</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Makeba_Sings!" title="Makeba Sings!">Makeba Sings!</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Evening_with_Belafonte/Makeba" title="An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba">An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_of_Makeba" title="The Magic of Makeba">The Magic of Makeba</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Magnificent_Miriam_Makeba" title="The Magnificent Miriam Makeba">The Magnificent Miriam Makeba</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/All_About_Miriam" title="All About Miriam">All About Miriam</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pata_Pata_(album)" title="Pata Pata (album)">Pata Pata</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Makeba!" title="Makeba!">Makeba!</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keep_Me_in_Mind_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="Keep Me in Mind (Miriam Makeba album)">Keep Me in Mind</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Promise_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="A Promise (Miriam Makeba album)">A Promise</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba_%26_Bongi" title="Miriam Makeba & Bongi">Miriam Makeba & Bongi</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Country_Girl_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="Country Girl (Miriam Makeba album)">Country Girl</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comme_une_symphonie_d%27amour" title="Comme une symphonie d'amour">Comme une symphonie d'amour</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sangoma_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="Sangoma (Miriam Makeba album)">Sangoma</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Welela" title="Welela">Welela</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_Tomorrow" title="Eyes on Tomorrow">Eyes on Tomorrow</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sing_Me_a_Song_(album)" title="Sing Me a Song (album)">Sing Me a Song</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homeland_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="Homeland (Miriam Makeba album)">Homeland</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="Reflections (Miriam Makeba album)">Reflections</a></i> (2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compilations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Harry Belafonte and Miriam Makeba</i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Queen_of_African_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="The Queen of African Music">The Queen of African Music</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Miriam_Makeba_album)" title="Africa (Miriam Makeba album)">Africa</a></i> (1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Singles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_House_of_the_Rising_Sun" title="The House of the Rising Sun">The House of the Rising Sun</a>" (1960)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Click_Song" title="The Click Song">The Click Song</a>" / "<a href="/wiki/The_Lion_Sleeps_Tonight" title="The Lion Sleeps Tonight">The Lion Sleeps Tonight</a>" (1963)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Malaika" title="Malaika">Malaika</a>" / "Malcolm X" (1965)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Pata_Pata" title="Pata Pata">Pata Pata</a>" (1967)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Mas_que_nada" title="Mas que nada">Mas que nada</a>" (1967)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Be_Released" title="I Shall Be Released">I Shall Be Released</a>" / "Iphi Ndilela (Show Me the Way)" (1969)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Soweto_Blues" title="Soweto Blues">Soweto Blues</a>" (1988)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Brand_New_Day_(Van_Morrison_song)" title="Brand New Day (Van Morrison song)">Brand New Day</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nkosi_Sikelel%27_iAfrika" title="Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika">Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bongi_Makeba" title="Bongi Makeba">Bongi Makeba</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Masekela" title="Hugh Masekela">Hugh Masekela</a> (3rd husband)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stokely Carmichael</a> (4th husband)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q509860#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2847" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q509860#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2847" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q509860#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Stokely Carmichael"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109044526">ISNI</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/56766707">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/10901/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJdmkm4TqRBbk7TQpyKyBP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/123021774">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50032466">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13517905j">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13517905j">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00520557">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35025962">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p072989556">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90720972">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000006795&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/sq47cpdb2glpn0r">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007270817205171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058512569906706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14642640">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03346522?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/6df74405-1d8a-487e-8160-83d9180a23c6">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/123021774.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/123021774">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/069261970">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10582950">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6cd1sns">SNAC</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6p2739n">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&oldid=1274592228">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stokely_Carmichael&oldid=1274592228</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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