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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhenium–osmium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Rhenium–osmium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhenium–osmium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noble_gas_isotopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noble_gas_isotopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Noble gas isotopes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Noble_gas_isotopes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Noble gas isotopes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Noble_gas_isotopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Helium-3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helium-3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Helium-3</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helium-3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isotopes_in_actinide_decay_chains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isotopes_in_actinide_decay_chains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Isotopes in actinide decay chains</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Isotopes_in_actinide_decay_chains-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Isotopes in actinide decay chains subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Isotopes_in_actinide_decay_chains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protactinium/Thorium_–_231Pa/230Th" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protactinium/Thorium_–_231Pa/230Th"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Protactinium/Thorium – <sup>231</sup>Pa/<sup>230</sup>Th</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protactinium/Thorium_–_231Pa/230Th-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropogenic_isotopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropogenic_isotopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Anthropogenic isotopes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Anthropogenic_isotopes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Anthropogenic isotopes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Anthropogenic_isotopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tritium/helium-3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tritium/helium-3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Tritium/helium-3</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tritium/helium-3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stable_isotopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stable_isotopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Stable isotopes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stable_isotopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-3He/4He" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#3He/4He"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span><sup>3</sup>He/<sup>4</sup>He</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-3He/4He-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Re–Os" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Re–Os"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Re–Os</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Re–Os-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoqu%C3%ADmica_d%27is%C3%B2tops" title="Geoquímica d'isòtops – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geoquímica d'isòtops" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izotopov%C3%A1_geochemie" title="Izotopová geochemie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Izotopová geochemie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopengeochemie" title="Isotopengeochemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Isotopengeochemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotoopgeoloogia" title="Isotoopgeoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Isotoopgeoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoqu%C3%ADmica_de_is%C3%B3topos" title="Geoquímica de isótopos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geoquímica de isótopos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ochimie_isotopique" title="Géochimie isotopique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géochimie isotopique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geokimia_isotop" title="Geokimia isotop – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geokimia isotop" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geochimica_isotopica" title="Geochimica isotopica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geochimica isotopica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopgeokjemi" title="Isotopgeokjemi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Isotopgeokjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopgeokjemi" title="Isotopgeokjemi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Isotopgeokjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoqu%C3%ADmica_isot%C3%B3pica" title="Geoquímica isotópica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geoquímica isotópica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Геохемија изотопа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геохемија изотопа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_h%C3%B3a_%C4%91%E1%BB%93ng_v%E1%BB%8B" title="Địa hóa đồng vị – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa hóa đồng vị" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1674549#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Aspect of geology studying variations in isotope abundances in the natural environment</div> <p><b>Isotope geochemistry</b> is an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> based upon the study of natural variations in the relative abundances of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> of various <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>. Variations in <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_abundance" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopic abundance">isotopic abundance</a> are measured by <a href="/wiki/Isotope-ratio_mass_spectrometry" title="Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry">isotope-ratio mass spectrometry</a>, and can reveal information about the ages and origins of rock, air or water bodies, or processes of mixing between them. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable isotope</a> geochemistry is largely concerned with isotopic variations arising from mass-dependent <a href="/wiki/Isotope_fractionation" title="Isotope fractionation">isotope fractionation</a>, whereas <a href="/wiki/Radiogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiogenic">radiogenic</a> isotope geochemistry is concerned with the products of natural <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stable_isotope_geochemistry">Stable isotope geochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Stable isotope geochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For most stable isotopes, the magnitude of fractionation from <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_fractionation" title="Kinetic fractionation">kinetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_fractionation" title="Equilibrium fractionation">equilibrium fractionation</a> is very small; for this reason, enrichments are typically reported in "per mil" (<a href="/wiki/Per_mille" title="Per mille">‰</a>, parts per thousand).<sup id="cite_ref-drever_2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drever_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These enrichments (δ) represent the ratio of heavy isotope to light isotope in the sample over the ratio of a <a href="/wiki/Reference_Materials_for_Stable_Isotope_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference Materials for Stable Isotope Analysis">standard</a>. That is, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{13}C}}=\left({\frac {\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{sample}}{\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{standard}}}-1\right)\times 1000}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>δ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>C</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <none></none> <mn>13</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>C</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <none></none> <mn>13</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>C</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <none></none> <mn>12</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>C</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <none></none> <mn>13</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>C</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <none></none> <mn>12</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1000</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{13}C}}=\left({\frac {\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{sample}}{\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{standard}}}-1\right)\times 1000}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/644029acd392aed9a75b552fd44d893d6639ef51" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.838ex; width:37.079ex; height:10.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{13}C}}=\left({\frac {\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{sample}}{\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{standard}}}-1\right)\times 1000}" /></span> ‰</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hydrogen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_isotope_biogeochemistry" title="Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry">Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon">Carbon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Carbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C">δ13C</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> has two <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable isotopes</a>, <sup>12</sup>C and <sup>13</sup>C, and one radioactive isotope, <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14"><sup>14</sup>C</a>. </p><p>The stable carbon isotope ratio, <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C"><i>δ</i><sup>13</sup>C</a>, is measured against Vienna Pee Dee <a href="/wiki/Belemnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Belemnite">Belemnite</a> (VPDB)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs_isotope_tracers_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs_isotope_tracers-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stable carbon isotopes are fractionated primarily by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> (Faure, 2004). The <sup>13</sup>C/<sup>12</sup>C ratio is also an indicator of paleoclimate: a change in the ratio in the remains of plants indicates a change in the amount of photosynthetic activity, and thus in how favorable the environment was for the plants. During photosynthesis, organisms using the <a href="/wiki/C3_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="C3 pathway">C<sub>3</sub> pathway</a> show different enrichments compared to those using the <a href="/wiki/C4_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="C4 pathway">C<sub>4</sub> pathway</a>, allowing scientists not only to distinguish organic matter from abiotic carbon, but also what type of photosynthetic pathway the organic matter was using.<sup id="cite_ref-drever_2002_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drever_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occasional spikes in the global <sup>13</sup>C/<sup>12</sup>C ratio have also been useful as stratigraphic markers for <a href="/wiki/Chemostratigraphy" title="Chemostratigraphy">chemostratigraphy</a>, especially during the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiocarbon"><sup>14</sup>C</a> ratio has been used to track ocean circulation, among other things. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nitrogen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> has two stable isotopes, <sup>14</sup>N and <sup>15</sup>N. The ratio between these is measured relative to nitrogen in <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">ambient air</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs_isotope_tracers_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs_isotope_tracers-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nitrogen ratios are frequently linked to agricultural activities. Nitrogen isotope data has also been used to measure the amount of exchange of air between the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> using data from the greenhouse gas <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">N<sub>2</sub>O</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-boering_2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boering_2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxygen">Oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> has three stable isotopes, <sup>16</sup>O, <sup>17</sup>O, and <sup>18</sup>O. Oxygen ratios are measured relative to <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water" title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water">Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water</a> (VSMOW) or Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB).<sup id="cite_ref-usgs_isotope_tracers_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs_isotope_tracers-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations in oxygen isotope ratios are used to track both water movement, paleoclimate,<sup id="cite_ref-drever_2002_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drever_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and atmospheric gases such as <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brenninkmeijer_2003_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brenninkmeijer_2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, the VPDB oxygen reference is used for paleoclimate, while VSMOW is used for most other applications.<sup id="cite_ref-drever_2002_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drever_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxygen isotopes appear in anomalous ratios in atmospheric ozone, resulting from <a href="/wiki/Mass-independent_fractionation" title="Mass-independent fractionation">mass-independent fractionation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mauersberger_1987_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mauersberger_1987-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isotope ratios in fossilized <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a> have been used to deduce the temperature of ancient seas.<sup id="cite_ref-edwards_1953_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edwards_1953-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sulfur">Sulfur</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sulfur"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> has four stable isotopes, with the following abundances: <sup>32</sup>S (0.9502), <sup>33</sup>S (0.0075), <sup>34</sup>S (0.0421) and <sup>36</sup>S (0.0002). These abundances are compared to those found in <a href="/wiki/Canyon_Diablo_(meteorite)" title="Canyon Diablo (meteorite)">Cañon Diablo troilite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brenninkmeijer_2003_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brenninkmeijer_2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations in sulfur isotope ratios are used to study the origin of sulfur in an <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">orebody</a> and the temperature of formation of sulfur–bearing minerals as well as a biosignature that can reveal presence of sulfate reducing microbes.<sup id="cite_ref-Rollinson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiogenic_isotope_geochemistry">Radiogenic isotope geochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Radiogenic isotope geochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a></div> <p>Radiogenic isotopes provide powerful tracers for studying the ages and origins of Earth systems.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are particularly useful to understand mixing processes between different components, because (heavy) radiogenic isotope ratios are not usually fractionated by chemical processes. </p><p>Radiogenic isotope tracers are most powerful when used together with other tracers: The more tracers used, the more control on mixing processes. An example of this application is to the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a> through geological time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lead–lead_isotope_geochemistry"><span id="Lead.E2.80.93lead_isotope_geochemistry"></span>Lead–lead isotope geochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lead–lead isotope geochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead dating</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> has four stable <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>: <sup>204</sup>Pb, <sup>206</sup>Pb, <sup>207</sup>Pb, and <sup>208</sup>Pb. </p><p>Lead is created in the Earth via decay of <a href="/wiki/Actinide_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinide elements">actinide elements</a>, primarily <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>. </p><p>Lead isotope <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemistry</a> is useful for providing <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">isotopic dates</a> on a variety of materials. Because the lead isotopes are created by decay of different transuranic elements, the ratios of the four lead isotopes to one another can be very useful in tracking the source of melts in <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rocks</a>, the source of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> and even the origin of people via <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_fingerprint" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopic fingerprint">isotopic fingerprinting</a> of their teeth, skin and bones. </p><p>It has been used to date <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a> from the Arctic shelf, and provides information on the source of atmospheric lead <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">pollution</a>. </p><p>Lead–lead isotopes has been successfully used in <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a> to fingerprint bullets, because each batch of ammunition has its own peculiar <sup>204</sup>Pb/<sup>206</sup>Pb vs <sup>207</sup>Pb/<sup>208</sup>Pb ratio. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samarium–neodymium"><span id="Samarium.E2.80.93neodymium"></span>Samarium–neodymium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Samarium–neodymium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a>–<a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">neodymium</a> is an isotope system which can be utilised to provide a date as well as <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_fingerprint" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopic fingerprint">isotopic fingerprints</a> of geological materials, and various other materials including archaeological finds (pots, ceramics). </p><p><sup>147</sup>Sm decays to produce <sup>143</sup>Nd with a half life of 1.06x10<sup>11</sup> years. </p><p>Dating is achieved usually by trying to produce an <a href="/wiki/Isochron_dating" title="Isochron dating">isochron</a> of several minerals within a rock specimen. The initial <sup>143</sup>Nd/<sup>144</sup>Nd ratio is determined. </p><p>This initial ratio is modelled relative to CHUR (the Chondritic Uniform Reservoir), which is an approximation of the chondritic material which formed the solar system. CHUR was determined by analysing <a href="/wiki/Chondrite" title="Chondrite">chondrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achondrite" title="Achondrite">achondrite</a> meteorites. </p><p>The difference in the ratio of the sample relative to CHUR can give information on a model age of extraction from the mantle (for which an assumed evolution has been calculated relative to CHUR) and to whether this was extracted from a granitic source (depleted in radiogenic Nd), the mantle, or an enriched source. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhenium–osmium"><span id="Rhenium.E2.80.93osmium"></span>Rhenium–osmium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Rhenium–osmium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rhenium%E2%80%93osmium_dating" title="Rhenium–osmium dating">Rhenium–osmium dating</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">osmium</a> are <a href="/wiki/Siderophile_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Siderophile element">siderophile elements</a> which are present at very low abundances in the crust. Rhenium undergoes <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> to produce osmium. The ratio of non-radiogenic osmium to radiogenic osmium throughout time varies. </p><p>Rhenium prefers to enter <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a> more readily than osmium. Hence, during melting of the mantle, rhenium is stripped out, and prevents the osmium–osmium ratio from changing appreciably. This <i>locks in</i> an initial osmium ratio of the sample at the time of the melting event. Osmium–osmium initial ratios are used to determine the source characteristic and age of mantle melting events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Noble_gas_isotopes">Noble gas isotopes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Noble gas isotopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural isotopic variations amongst the noble gases result from both radiogenic and nucleogenic production processes. Because of their unique properties, it is useful to distinguish them from the conventional radiogenic isotope systems described above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helium-3">Helium-3</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Helium-3"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a> was trapped in the planet when it formed. Some <sup>3</sup>He is being added by meteoric dust, primarily collecting on the bottom of oceans (although due to <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>, all oceanic <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a> are younger than continental plates). However, <sup>3</sup>He will be degassed from oceanic sediment during <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>, so cosmogenic <sup>3</sup>He is not affecting the concentration or <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> ratios of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>. </p><p>Helium-3 is created by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic ray</a> bombardment, and by <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> spallation reactions which generally occur in the crust. Lithium <a href="/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation">spallation</a> is the process by which a <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">high-energy neutron</a> bombards a <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> atom, creating a <sup>3</sup>He and a <sup>4</sup>He ion. This requires significant lithium to adversely affect the <sup>3</sup>He/<sup>4</sup>He ratio. </p><p>All degassed helium is lost to space eventually, as it is less dense than the atmosphere and thus steadily rises until subject to <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_escape" title="Atmospheric escape">charge exchange escape</a>. Thus, it is assumed the helium content and ratios of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> have remained essentially stable. </p><p>It has been observed that <sup>3</sup>He is present in <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a> emissions and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic ridge">oceanic ridge</a> samples. How <sup>3</sup>He is stored in the planet is under investigation, but it is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> and is used as a marker of material of deep origin. </p><p>Due to similarities in <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> chemistry, outgassing of helium requires the loss of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)" title="Volatile (astrogeology)">volatile components</a> (<a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>) from the mantle, which happens at depths of less than 60 km. However, <sup>3</sup>He is transported to the surface primarily trapped in the <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> lattice of minerals within <a href="/wiki/Fluid_inclusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid inclusions">fluid inclusions</a>. </p><p>Helium-4 is created by <a href="/wiki/Radiogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiogenic">radiogenic</a> production (by decay of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>-series <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> has become enriched with those elements relative to the mantle and thus more He<sup>4</sup> is produced in the crust than in the mantle. </p><p>The ratio (<b>R</b>) of <sup>3</sup>He to <sup>4</sup>He is often used to represent <sup>3</sup>He content. <b>R</b> usually is given as a multiple of the present atmospheric ratio (<b>Ra</b>). </p><p>Common values for <b>R/Ra</b>: </p> <ul><li>Old continental crust: less than 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a> <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> (MORB): 7 to 9</li> <li>Spreading ridge rocks: 9.1 plus or minus 3.6</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a> rocks: 5 to 42</li> <li>Ocean and terrestrial water: 1</li> <li>Sedimentary formation water: less than 1</li> <li>Thermal spring water: 3 to 11</li></ul> <p><sup>3</sup>He/<sup>4</sup>He isotope chemistry is being used to date <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwaters</a>, estimate groundwater flow rates, track water pollution, and provide insights into <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> processes, <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a> <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis" title="Ore genesis">ore genesis</a>. </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geotrack.com.au/uthhe/u-th-he-techinfo.htm">(U-Th)/He dating of apatite as a thermal history tool</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050210172919/http://lvo.wr.usgs.gov/helium.html">USGS: Helium Discharge at Mammoth Mountain Fumarole (MMF)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Isotopes_in_actinide_decay_chains">Isotopes in actinide decay chains</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Isotopes in actinide decay chains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Isotopes in the <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain#Actinide_alpha_decay_chains" title="Decay chain">decay chains</a> of actinides are unique amongst radiogenic isotopes because they are both radiogenic and radioactive. Because their abundances are normally quoted as activity ratios rather than atomic ratios, they are best considered separately from the other radiogenic isotope systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protactinium/Thorium_–_231Pa/230Th"><span id="Protactinium.2FThorium_.E2.80.93_231Pa.2F230Th"></span>Protactinium/Thorium – <sup>231</sup>Pa/<sup>230</sup>Th</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Protactinium/Thorium – 231Pa/230Th"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> is well mixed in the ocean, and its decay produces <a href="/wiki/Protactinium-231" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-231"><sup>231</sup>Pa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium-230" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium-230"><sup>230</sup>Th</a> at a constant activity ratio (0.093). The decay products are rapidly removed by <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a> on settling particles, but not at equal rates. <sup>231</sup>Pa has a residence equivalent to the residence time of <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">deep water</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> basin (around 1000 yrs) but <sup>230</sup>Th is removed more rapidly (centuries). <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> effectively exports <sup>231</sup>Pa from the Atlantic into the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>, while most of the <sup>230</sup>Th remains in Atlantic sediments. As a result, there is a relationship between <sup>231</sup>Pa/<sup>230</sup>Th in Atlantic sediments and the rate of overturning: faster overturning produces lower sediment <sup>231</sup>Pa/<sup>230</sup>Th ratio, while slower overturning increases this ratio. The combination of <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C">δ<sup>13</sup>C</a> and <sup>231</sup>Pa/<sup>230</sup>Th can therefore provide a more complete insight into past circulation changes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anthropogenic_isotopes">Anthropogenic isotopes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Anthropogenic isotopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tritium/helium-3"><span id="Tritium.2Fhelium-3"></span>Tritium/helium-3</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tritium/helium-3"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a> was released to the atmosphere during atmospheric testing of nuclear bombs. Radioactive decay of tritium produces the noble gas <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a>. Comparing the ratio of tritium to helium-3 (<sup>3</sup>H/<sup>3</sup>He) allows estimation of the age of recent <a href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground waters</a>. A small amount of tritium is also produced naturally by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">cosmic ray spallation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous</a> <a href="/wiki/Ternary_fission" title="Ternary fission">ternary fission</a> in natural uranium and thorium, but due to the relatively short half-life of tritium and the relatively small quantities (compared to those from anthropogenic sources) those sources of tritium usually play only a secondary role in the analysis of groundwater. </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://water.usgs.gov/lab/3h3he/background/">USGS Tritium/Helium-3 Dating</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/period/he_iig.html">Hydrologic Isotope Tracers - Helium</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmogenic isotope">Cosmogenic isotopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_isotopes" title="Environmental isotopes">Environmental isotopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotopic_signature" title="Isotopic signature">Isotopic signature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope-ratio_mass_spectrometry" title="Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry">Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_isotope_biogeochemistry" title="Sulfur isotope biogeochemistry">Sulfur isotope biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urey%E2%80%93Bigeleisen%E2%80%93Mayer_equation" title="Urey–Bigeleisen–Mayer equation">Urey–Bigeleisen–Mayer equation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDrever2002" class="citation book cs1">Drever, James (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geochemistryofna00drev/page/311"><i>The Geochemistry of Natural Waters</i></a></span>. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geochemistryofna00drev/page/311">311–322</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-272790-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-272790-7"><bdi>978-0-13-272790-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geochemistry+of+Natural+Waters&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=311-322&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-13-272790-7&rft.aulast=Drever&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeochemistryofna00drev%2Fpage%2F311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsotope+geochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usgs_isotope_tracers-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usgs_isotope_tracers_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs_isotope_tracers_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgs_isotope_tracers_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/res/funda.html">"USGS -- Isotope Tracers -- Resources -- Isotope Geochemistry"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Tertiary ocean bottom temperatures". <i>Nature</i>. <b>171</b> (4359): <span class="nowrap">887–</span>888. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953Natur.171..887E">1953Natur.171..887E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F171887c0">10.1038/171887c0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4239689">4239689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Tertiary+ocean+bottom+temperatures&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=4359&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E887-%3C%2Fspan%3E888&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4239689%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F171887c0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953Natur.171..887E&rft.au=Emiliani%2C+C.&rft.au=Edwards%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsotope+geochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rollinson-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rollinson_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rollinson, H.R. 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M. (2004), <i>Isotopes: Principles and Applications</i> (John Wiley & Sons).</li> <li>Hoefs J., 2004. <i>Stable Isotope Geochemistry</i> (Springer Verlag).</li> <li>Sharp Z., 2006. <i>Principles of Stable Isotope Geochemistry</i> (Prentice Hall).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stable_isotopes">Stable isotopes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Stable isotopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science.uottawa.ca/~eih/ch1/ch1.htm">Environmental Isotopes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208232639/http://www.science.uottawa.ca/~eih/ch1/ch1.htm">Archived</a> 2007-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>  (University of Ottawa)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/isopubs/itchch2.html">Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry</a>  (C. 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"Evidence of the proto-Iceland lume in northwestern Ireland at 42Ma from helium isotopes". <i>Journal of the Geological Society, London</i>. <b>157</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">923–</span>927. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000JGSoc.157..923K">2000JGSoc.157..923K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fjgs.157.5.923">10.1144/jgs.157.5.923</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128600558">128600558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Geological+Society%2C+London&rft.atitle=Evidence+of+the+proto-Iceland+lume+in+northwestern+Ireland+at+42Ma+from+helium+isotopes&rft.volume=157&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E923-%3C%2Fspan%3E927&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128600558%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2Fjgs.157.5.923&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000JGSoc.157..923K&rft.au=Kirstein+L.%2C+Timmerman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsotope+geochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorcelli_D.Halliday,_A._N.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Porcelli D.; <a href="/wiki/Halliday,_A._N." class="mw-redirect" title="Halliday, A. N.">Halliday, A. N.</a> (2001). "The core as a possible source of mantle helium". <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</i>. <b>192</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">45–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001E&PSL.192...45P">2001E&PSL.192...45P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0012-821x%2801%2900418-6">10.1016/s0012-821x(01)00418-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=The+core+as+a+possible+source+of+mantle+helium&rft.volume=192&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0012-821x%2801%2900418-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001E%26PSL.192...45P&rft.au=Porcelli+D.&rft.au=Halliday%2C+A.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsotope+geochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Re–Os"><span id="Re.E2.80.93Os"></span>Re–Os</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Re–Os"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArne_D.Bierlein_F._P.Morgan_J._W.Stein_H._J.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Arne D.; Bierlein F. P.; Morgan J. W.; Stein H. J. (2001). "Re-Os dating of sulfides associated with gold mineralisation in central Victoria, Australia". <i>Economic Geology</i>. <b>96</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1455–</span>1459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2113%2F96.6.1455">10.2113/96.6.1455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Geology&rft.atitle=Re-Os+dating+of+sulfides+associated+with+gold+mineralisation+in+central+Victoria%2C+Australia&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1455-%3C%2Fspan%3E1459&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2113%2F96.6.1455&rft.au=Arne+D.&rft.au=Bierlein+F.+P.&rft.au=Morgan+J.+W.&rft.au=Stein+H.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsotope+geochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartin_C1991" class="citation journal cs1">Martin C (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2891%2990318-y">"Osmium isotopic characteristics of mantle-derived rocks"</a>. <i>Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</i>. <b>55</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1421–</span>1434. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991GeCoA..55.1421M">1991GeCoA..55.1421M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2891%2990318-y">10.1016/0016-7037(91)90318-y</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochimica+et+Cosmochimica+Acta&rft.atitle=Osmium+isotopic+characteristics+of+mantle-derived+rocks&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1421-%3C%2Fspan%3E1434&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0016-7037%2891%2990318-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991GeCoA..55.1421M&rft.au=Martin+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252F0016-7037%252891%252990318-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsotope+geochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isotopes.gov/">National Isotope Development Center</a> Reference information on isotopes, and coordination and management of isotope production, availability, and distribution</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.energy.gov/np/research/idpra/">Isotope Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA)</a> U.S. Department of Energy program for isotope production and production research and development</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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Era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">Ab urbe condita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Mundi" title="Anno Mundi">Anno Mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_era" title="Bosporan era">Bosporan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostran_era" title="Bostran era">Bostran era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Byzantine era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_era" title="Seleucid era">Seleucid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Caesar_(Iberian_Peninsula)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era of Caesar (Iberian Peninsula)">Era of Caesar (Iberia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Before_present" class="mw-redirect" title="Before present">Before present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">Yuga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Short_Count" title="Maya calendar">Short Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzolk%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzolk'in">Tzolk'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Haab'">Haab'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" 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href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_era_name" title="Vietnamese era name">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Pre-Julian / Julian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Pre-Julian Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Original Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Julian_calendar" title="Proleptic Julian calendar">Proleptic Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Julian_calendar" title="Revised Julian calendar">Revised Julian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Gregorian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar" title="Proleptic Gregorian calendar">Proleptic Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar" title="Adoption of the Gregorian calendar">Adoption of the Gregorian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_dating" title="Dual dating">Dual dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering" title="Astronomical year numbering">Astronomical year numbering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">Chinese sexagenary cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_Calendar" title="Geologic Calendar">Geologic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_week_date" title="ISO week date">ISO week date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_count" title="Winter count">Winter count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_Time" title="New Earth Time">New Earth Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#fff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar" title="Cosmic Calendar">Cosmic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">Ephemeris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale#Terminology" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time units</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age" title="Global Standard Stratigraphic Age">Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" title="Chronostratigraphy">Chronostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isotope geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological<br />dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">Absolute dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_dating" title="Amino acid dating">Amino acid racemisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeomagnetic_dating" title="Archaeomagnetic dating">Archaeomagnetic dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Ice core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_dating" title="Incremental dating">Incremental dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenometry" title="Lichenometry">Lichenometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">Paleomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ar_dating" title="K–Ar dating">Potassium–argon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">Thermoluminescence dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">Relative dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_absorption_dating" title="Fluorine absorption dating">Fluorine absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dating" title="Nitrogen dating">Nitrogen dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_hydration_dating" title="Obsidian hydration dating">Obsidian hydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">Seriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Genetic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Linguistic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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