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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calorie_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Calorie structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calorie_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Regional variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Meals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Meals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_kitchens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_kitchens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Medieval kitchens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_kitchens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Preservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_cooking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_cooking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Professional cooking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_cooking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cereals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cereals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Cereals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cereals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fruits_and_vegetables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fruits_and_vegetables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Fruits and vegetables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fruits_and_vegetables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dairy_products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dairy_products"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Dairy products</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dairy_products-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Meats</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Meats-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Meats subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Meats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fish_and_seafood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish_and_seafood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Fish and seafood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish_and_seafood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drink" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drink"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Drink</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Drink-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Drink subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Drink-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Wine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Beer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distillates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distillates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Distillates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distillates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herbs,_spices,_and_condiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbs,_spices,_and_condiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Herbs, spices, and condiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbs,_spices,_and_condiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweets_and_desserts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweets_and_desserts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sweets and desserts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweets_and_desserts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Historiography and sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography_and_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography and sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cookbooks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cookbooks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Cookbooks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cookbooks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medieval cuisine</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuse_kookkuns" title="Middeleeuse kookkuns – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Middeleeuse kookkuns" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A8%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="مطبخ القرون الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مطبخ القرون الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C9%99srl%C9%99r_m%C9%99tb%C9%99xi" title="Orta əsrlər mətbəxi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta əsrlər mətbəxi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80" title="মধ্যযুগীয় রন্ধনশৈলী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগীয় রন্ধনশৈলী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Средновековна кухня – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средновековна кухня" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuina_medieval" title="Cuina medieval – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cuina medieval" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk%C3%A1_strava" title="Středověká strava – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Středověká strava" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwyd_canoloesol" title="Bwyd canoloesol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bwyd canoloesol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_i_middelalderen" title="Mad i middelalderen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mad i middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esskultur_im_Mittelalter" title="Esskultur im Mittelalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Esskultur im Mittelalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastronom%C3%ADa_de_la_Edad_Media" title="Gastronomía de la Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gastronomía de la Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoka_kuirarto" title="Mezepoka kuirarto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoka kuirarto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="خوراک‌های قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خوراک‌های قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9vale" title="Cuisine médiévale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cuisine médiévale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%EC%9A%94%EB%A6%AC" title="중세 요리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 요리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%B8%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%81" title="Միջնադարյան խոհանոց – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջնադարյան խոհանոց" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidangan_abad_pertengahan" title="Hidangan abad pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hidangan abad pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alimentazione_medievale" title="Alimentazione medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alimentazione medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%96%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="תזונת ימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תזונת ימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D" title="შუა საუკუნეების სამზარეულო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შუა საუკუნეების სამზარეულო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_coquinaria_mediaevalis" title="Ars coquinaria mediaevalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars coquinaria mediaevalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakan_Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Masakan Zaman Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Masakan Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuwse_kookkunst" title="Middeleeuwse kookkunst – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middeleeuwse kookkunst" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E6%96%99%E7%90%86" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of the Middle Ages</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Illustration of five people in a forest eating and drinking" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg/260px-Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg/390px-Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg/520px-Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption>Peasants sharing a simple meal of bread and drink; <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio</i></span>, 14th century</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Medieval cuisine</b> includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Europe" title="Culture of Europe">European cultures</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, which lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. During this period, <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diets</a> and cooking changed less than they did in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern <a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">European cuisines</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">Cereals</a> remained the most important staple during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> as <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> was introduced to Europe late, with the <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> first used in the 16th century, and much later for the wider population. <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">Barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oats</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a> were eaten by the poor while <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> was generally more expensive. These were consumed as <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>, <a href="/wiki/Porridge" title="Porridge">porridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gruel" title="Gruel">gruel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pasta" title="Pasta">pasta</a> by people of all classes. <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">Cheese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a> were important supplements for the lower orders while <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a> was more expensive and generally more prestigious. <a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a>, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were <a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">pork</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicken_as_food" title="Chicken as food">chicken</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">poultry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">Beef</a>, which required greater investment in land, was less common. A wide variety of freshwater and saltwater <a href="/wiki/Fish_as_food" title="Fish as food">fish</a> was also eaten, with <a href="/wiki/Cod_as_food" title="Cod as food">cod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herring_as_food" title="Herring as food">herring</a> being mainstays among the northern populations. </p><p>Slow and inefficient transports made long-distance <a href="/wiki/Trade#Middle_Ages" title="Trade">trade</a> of many foods very expensive (perishability made other foods untransportable). Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society attempted to imitate the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and <a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">sumptuary laws</a> limited <a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption" title="Conspicuous consumption">conspicuous consumption</a> among the <a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">nouveau riche</a>. <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a> also dictated that the food of the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's way of life and one's food; hard manual labor required coarser, cheaper food. </p><p>A type of refined cooking that developed in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common <a href="/wiki/Seasoning" title="Seasoning">seasonings</a> in the highly spiced <a href="/wiki/Sweet-sour" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet-sour">sweet-sour</a> repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included <a href="/wiki/Verjuice" title="Verjuice">verjuice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a> in combination with spices such as <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">ginger</a>. These, along with the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">Almonds</a> were very popular as a <a href="/wiki/Thickener" class="mw-redirect" title="Thickener">thickener</a> in <a href="/wiki/Soup" title="Soup">soups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stew" title="Stew">stews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sauce" title="Sauce">sauces</a>, particularly as <a href="/wiki/Almond_milk" title="Almond milk">almond milk</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dietary_norms">Dietary norms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dietary norms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cuisines of the cultures of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a> since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>. Porridge, gruel, and later bread became the basic staple foods that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three-quarters.<sup id="cite_ref-HM_16_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HM_16-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only olive oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This bread retells your history<span class="nowrap"> </span>[...] You were brought to the <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshing</a> floor of the Lord and were threshed<span class="nowrap"> </span>[...] While awaiting <a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">catechism</a>, you were like grain kept in the granary<span class="nowrap"> </span>[...] At the baptismal font you were kneaded into a single dough. In the oven of the Holy Ghost you were baked into God's true bread.<sup id="cite_ref-HM_16_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HM_16-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Church">The Church</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Five nuns eating in a dining hall with a senior nun watching over them from above" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg/170px-Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg/255px-Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg/340px-Pietro_Lorenzetti_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2243" /></a><figcaption>Nuns dining in silence while listening to a Bible reading. The nuns use hand gestures to communicate. <i>The Life of Blessed <a href="/wiki/Saint_Humility" title="Saint Humility">Saint Humility</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Lorenzetti" title="Pietro Lorenzetti">Pietro Lorenzetti</a>, 1341.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Churches</a>, and their calendars, had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity#High_Middle_Ages_(800–1299)" title="History of Christianity">Christians</a>. All animal products, including <a href="/wiki/Egg_as_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg as food">eggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dairy_product" title="Dairy product">dairy products</a> (during the strictest fasting periods also fish), were generally prohibited during <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fast</a>. Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast before taking the Eucharist. These fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the Eastern and the Western churches ordained that feast should alternate with fast. In most of Europe, Fridays were fast days, and fasting was observed on various other days and periods, including Lent and <a href="/wiki/Advent" title="Advent">Advent</a>. Meat, and animal products such as milk, cheese, butter, and eggs, were not allowed, and at times also fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, and also to remind the faster of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Christ</a>'s sacrifice for humanity. The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather to teach a spiritual lesson in self-restraint through abstention. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made <a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">penance</a> when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing them, a conflict of ideals and practice summarized by writer Bridget Ann Henisch: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is the nature of man to build the most complicated cage of rules and regulations in which to trap himself, and then, with equal ingenuity and zest, to bend his brain to the problem of wriggling triumphantly out again. Lent was a challenge; the game was to ferret out the loopholes.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beaver_fish_tail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image of a poorly drawn beaver with a tail that looks like the body of a fish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Beaver_fish_tail.jpg/220px-Beaver_fish_tail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Beaver_fish_tail.jpg/330px-Beaver_fish_tail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Beaver_fish_tail.jpg/440px-Beaver_fish_tail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>During the Middle Ages it was believed that <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beaver</a> tails were of such a fish-like nature that they could be eaten on fast days; <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Livre des simples médecines</i></span>, about 1480.</figcaption></figure> <p>While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose" title="Barnacle goose">barnacle geese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puffin" title="Puffin">puffins</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beavers</a>. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese, and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be moulded to look like <a href="/wiki/Venison" title="Venison">venison</a> and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish <a href="/wiki/Roe" title="Roe">roe</a> and almond milk and cooking them in coals. While <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their Western counterparts were far more lenient.<sup id="cite_ref-henisch43_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-henisch43-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigours of fasting among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trend from the 13th century onward was toward a more legalistic interpretation of fasting. Nobles were careful not to eat meat on fast days, but still dined in style; fish replaced meat, often as imitation hams and bacon; almond milk replaced animal milk as an expensive non-dairy alternative; faux eggs made from almond milk were cooked in blown-out eggshells, flavoured and coloured with exclusive spices. In some cases, the lavishness of noble tables was outdone by <a href="/wiki/Benedictines" title="Benedictines">Benedictine</a> monasteries, which served as many as sixteen courses during certain feast days. Exceptions from fasting were frequently made for very broadly defined groups. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (about 1225–1274) believed dispensation should be provided for children, the old, <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim">pilgrims</a>, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many accounts of members of <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monastic orders</a> who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many Benedictine <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friars</a> would simply eat their fast day meals in what was called the <a href="/wiki/Misericord#Misericord_.28room.29" title="Misericord">misericord</a> (at those times) rather than the <a href="/wiki/Refectory" title="Refectory">refectory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newly-assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnations, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days.<sup id="cite_ref-henisch43_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-henisch43-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class_constraints">Class constraints</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Class constraints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval society was highly stratified. In a time when <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> was commonplace and <a href="/wiki/Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">social hierarchies</a> were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>. According to the ideological norm, society consisted of the three <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates of the realm</a>: <a href="/wiki/Commoners" class="mw-redirect" title="Commoners">commoners</a>, that is, the working classes—by far the largest group; the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>. The relationship between the classes was strictly hierarchical, with the nobility and clergy claiming worldly and spiritual overlordship over commoners. Within the nobility and clergy there were also a <a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">number of ranks</a> ranging from <a href="/wiki/King" title="King">kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">popes</a> to <a href="/wiki/Duke" title="Duke">dukes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> and their subordinates, such as <a href="/wiki/Squire" title="Squire">squires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a>. One was expected to remain in one's social class and to respect the authority of the ruling classes. Political power was displayed not just by rule, but also by displaying wealth. Refined nobles dined on fresh game seasoned with exotic spices, and displayed refined table manners. Rough laborers could make do with coarse barley bread, salt pork and beans and were not expected to display etiquette. Even dietary recommendations were different: the diet of the upper classes was considered to be as much a requirement of their refined physical constitution as a sign of economic reality. The digestive system of a lord was considered to be more refined than that of lower-class subordinates and therefore required finer foods.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy. This threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: literature warning of the dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">sumptuary laws</a> that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal parts were even assigned to different social classes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dietetics">Dietetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dietetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medieval medicine of Western Europe</a></div> <p>Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle—including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies—was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the <a href="/wiki/Four_humours" class="mw-redirect" title="Four humours">four bodily humours</a> theory proposed by <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medieval scholars considered human <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a> to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very slowly and cause <a href="/wiki/Putrefaction" title="Putrefaction">putrefaction</a> of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.<sup id="cite_ref-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an <a href="/wiki/Ap%C3%A9ritif_and_digestif" title="Apéritif and digestif">apéritif</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">aperire</i></span>, 'to open') that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: <a href="/wiki/Confection" class="mw-redirect" title="Confection">confections</a> made from <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>- or <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>-coated spices like <a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">ginger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caraway" title="Caraway">caraway</a>, and seeds of <a href="/wiki/Anise" title="Anise">anise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fennel" title="Fennel">fennel</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">cumin</a>, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a <a href="/wiki/Drag%C3%A9e" title="Dragée">dragée</a>, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or <a href="/wiki/Hypocras" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypocras">hypocras</a>, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lettuce" title="Lettuce">lettuce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portulaca_oleracea" title="Portulaca oleracea">purslane</a>, herbs, moist fruits, and light meats, such as chicken or <a href="/wiki/Goat_meat" title="Goat meat">goat kid</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Pottage" title="Pottage">pottages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broth" title="Broth">broths</a>. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as <a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">pork</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">beef</a>, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calorie_structure">Calorie structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Calorie structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The calorie content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford it, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even among the lay nobility of medieval England, grain provided 65–70% of calories in the early 14th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Woolgar_2006,_page_11_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolgar_2006,_page_11-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black Death as well. In one early-15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the <a href="/wiki/Richard_Beauchamp,_13th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick">Earl of Warwick</a>), <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentle</a> members of the household received a staggering 3.8 pounds (1.7 kg) of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and 2.4 pounds (1.1 kg) in the winter, in addition to 0.9 pounds (0.41 kg) of bread and <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford</a> in 1469, gentle members received 2.1 pounds (0.95 kg) of meat per meal, and all others received 1.04 pounds (0.47 kg), and everyone was given 0.4 pounds (0.18 kg) of bread and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of alcohol.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and wine.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In monasteries, the basic structure of the diet was laid down by the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Rule of Saint Benedict</a> in the 7th century and tightened by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XII" title="Pope Benedict XII">Pope Benedict XII</a> in 1336, but (as mentioned above) monks were adept at "working around" these rules. Wine was restricted to about 10 imperial fluid ounces (280 mL; 9.6 US fl oz) per day, but there was no corresponding limit on beer, and, at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, each monk was given an allowance of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day.<sup id="cite_ref-Woolgar_2006,_page_11_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolgar_2006,_page_11-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meat of "four-footed animals" was prohibited altogether, year-round, for everyone but the very weak and the sick. This was circumvented in part by declaring that <a href="/wiki/Offal" title="Offal">offal</a>, and various processed foods such as <a href="/wiki/Bacon" title="Bacon">bacon</a>, were not meat. Secondly, Benedictine monasteries contained a room called the misericord, where the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Rule of Saint Benedict</a> did not apply, and where a large number of monks ate. Each monk would be regularly sent either to the misericord or to the refectory. When Pope Benedict XII ruled that at least half of all monks should be required to eat in the refectory on any given day, monks responded by excluding the sick and those invited to the abbot's table from the reckoning.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, a monk at Westminster Abbey in the late 15th century would have been allowed 2.25 pounds (1.02 kg) of bread per day; 5 eggs per day, except on Fridays and in Lent; 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of meat per day, four days per week (excluding Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday), except in Advent and Lent; and 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of fish per day, three days per week and every day during Advent and Lent.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overall calorie intake is subject to some debate. One typical estimate is that an adult peasant male needed 2,900 calories (12,000 kJ) per day, and an adult female needed 2,150 calories (9,000 kJ).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both lower and higher estimates have been proposed. Those engaged in particularly heavy physical labor, as well as sailors and soldiers, may have consumed 3,500 calories (15,000 kJ) or more per day. Intakes of aristocrats may have reached 4,000 to 5,000 calories (17,000 to 21,000 kJ) per day.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monks consumed 6,000 calories (25,000 kJ) per day on "normal" days, and 4,500 calories (19,000 kJ) per day when fasting. As a consequence of these excesses, obesity was common among upper classes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monks, especially, frequently suffered from conditions that were more common among the obese, such as <a href="/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_variation">Regional variation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Regional variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regional_cuisines_of_medieval_Europe" title="Regional cuisines of medieval Europe">Regional cuisines of medieval Europe</a></div> <p>The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, the northern German-speaking areas, <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic</a>, the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grapes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olives</a>. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second-<a href="/wiki/Pressing_(wine)" title="Pressing (wine)">pressing</a> wine) while <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and <a href="/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">pomegranates</a> were common around the Mediterranean. Dried <a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">figs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">dates</a> were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">Olive oil</a> was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of <a href="/wiki/Poppy" title="Poppy">poppy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut">walnut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hazelnut" title="Hazelnut">hazel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corylus_maxima" title="Corylus maxima">filbert</a> were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and <a href="/wiki/Lard" title="Lard">lard</a>, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almond</a>, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile <a href="/wiki/Almond_milk" title="Almond milk">almond milk</a>, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meals">Meals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Meals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg/170px-Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg/255px-Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg/340px-Banquet_de_Charles_V_le_Sage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="2345" /></a><figcaption>Banquet given in Paris in 1378 by <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V of France</a> (second from right) for <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor</a> (left), and his son <a href="/wiki/Wenceslaus_IV_of_Bohemia" title="Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia">Wenceslaus</a>, King of the Romans. Each diner has two knives, a <a href="/wiki/Salt_cellar" title="Salt cellar">salt cellar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Napkin" title="Napkin">napkin</a>, bread and a plate (<i>Banquet de Charles V le Sage</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fouquet" title="Jean Fouquet">Jean Fouquet</a>, around 1455–60).</figcaption></figure> <p>In Europe, there were typically two meals a day: <a href="/wiki/Dinner" title="Dinner">dinner</a> at mid-day and a lighter <a href="/wiki/Supper" title="Supper">supper</a> in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them.<sup id="cite_ref-Kisban_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kisban-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Moralists</a> frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons, <a href="/wiki/Breakfast" title="Breakfast">breakfast</a> was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against <a href="/wiki/Gluttony" title="Gluttony">gluttony</a> and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banquets</a> and late-night <i>reresopers</i> (from <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a> <i>rèire-sopar</i>, "late supper") with considerable <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverage</a> consumption were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-henisch17_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-henisch17-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Minor meals and <a href="/wiki/Snack_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Snack food">snacks</a> were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy <i>nuncheons</i>, small morsels to be eaten during breaks.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etiquette">Etiquette</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Etiquette"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg/170px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg/255px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg/340px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_Janvier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1333" data-file-height="2062" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John,_Duke_of_Berry" title="John, Duke of Berry">John</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Berry" title="Duke of Berry">Duke of Berry</a>, enjoys a grand meal, sitting at the high table in front of the fireplace, served by a <a href="/wiki/Meat_carving" title="Meat carving">carver</a> and other servants. On the table to the Duke's left is a golden <a href="/wiki/Salt_cellar" title="Salt cellar">salt cellar</a>, or <i>nef</i>, in the shape of a ship; <i><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berry" title="Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry</a></i>, about 1410.</figcaption></figure> <p>As with almost every part of life at the time, a medieval meal was generally a communal affair. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient <a href="/wiki/Egotism" title="Egotism">egotism</a> in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Lincoln" title="Bishop of Lincoln">bishop</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> advised the <a href="/wiki/Margaret_de_Quincy,_Countess_of_Lincoln" title="Margaret de Quincy, Countess of Lincoln">Countess of Lincoln</a>: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honor to the lord and lady." He also recommended watching that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rere-suppers" class="extiw" title="wikt:rere-suppers">rere-suppers</a>, rather than giving it as <a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">alms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-henisch17_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-henisch17-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the wealthy increasingly sought to escape this regime of stern collectivism. When possible, rich hosts retired with their consorts to private chambers where the meal could be enjoyed in greater exclusivity and privacy. Being invited to a lord's chambers was a great privilege and could be used as a way to reward friends and allies and to awe subordinates. It allowed lords to distance themselves further from the household and to enjoy more luxurious treats while serving inferior food to the rest of the household that still dined in the great hall. At major occasions and banquets, however, the host and hostess generally dined in the great hall with the other diners.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day-to-day meals of the elite or about the <a href="/wiki/Table_manners" title="Table manners">table manners</a> of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as <a href="/wiki/Multicourse_meal" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicourse meal">multiple courses</a>, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water in everyday meals.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> <a href="/wiki/Towel" title="Towel">towels</a> were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the ideal of immaculate neatness and delicacy while enjoying a meal, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage or ate very little at such feasts. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her <a href="/wiki/Lady-in-waiting" title="Lady-in-waiting">ladies-in-waiting</a>. The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by <a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">etiquette</a> where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the <a href="/wiki/Dais" title="Dais">high table</a>, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Food was mostly served on <a href="/wiki/Plate_(dishware)" title="Plate (dishware)">plates</a> or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on <a href="/wiki/Trencher_(tableware)" title="Trencher (tableware)">trenchers</a> of stale bread, wood or <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a> with the help of <a href="/wiki/Spoon" title="Spoon">spoons</a> or bare hands. In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table. <a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knives</a> were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favoured guests would be given a personal knife. A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well acquainted with the host. <a href="/wiki/Fork" title="Fork">Forks</a> for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_European_cuisine" title="Early modern European cuisine">early modern period</a>, and early on were limited to Italy. Even there it was not until the 14th century that the fork became common among Italians of all social classes. The change in attitudes can be illustrated by the reactions to the table manners of the Byzantine princess <a href="/wiki/Theodora_Doukaina_Selvo" title="Theodora Doukaina Selvo">Theodora Doukaina</a> in the late 11th century. She was the wife of <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Selvo" title="Domenico Selvo">Domenico Selvo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Doge_of_Venice" title="Doge of Venice">Doge of Venice</a>, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The princess' insistence on having her food cut up by her <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that there was a claim that <a href="/wiki/Peter_Damian" title="Peter Damian">Peter Damian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Bishop_of_Ostia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Bishop of Ostia">Cardinal Bishop of Ostia</a>, later interpreted her refined foreign manners as <a href="/wiki/Pride" title="Pride">pride</a> and referred to her as "... the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_preparation">Food preparation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Food preparation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kuchenmaistrey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Kuchenmaistrey.jpg/170px-Kuchenmaistrey.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Kuchenmaistrey.jpg/255px-Kuchenmaistrey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Kuchenmaistrey.jpg/340px-Kuchenmaistrey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>A cook at the hearth with his ladle; <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcut</a> from the first printed cookbook in German, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuchenmaistrey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuchenmaistrey (page does not exist)">Kuchenmaistrey</a></i>, 1485</figcaption></figure> <p>All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire. <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_stove" title="Kitchen stove">Kitchen stoves</a> did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire. <a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">Ovens</a> were used, but they were expensive to construct and existed only in fairly large households and <a href="/wiki/Bakery" title="Bakery">bakeries</a>. It was common for a <a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">community</a> to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell <a href="/wiki/Pie" title="Pie">pies</a> in the streets of medieval towns. But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making <a href="/wiki/Pottage" title="Pottage">potages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stew" title="Stew">stews</a> the most common dishes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a> content, or at least when fat could be afforded. This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance—even desirability—of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetics</a>, were thin.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for <i>Tart de brymlent</i>, a fish pie from the recipe collection <i><a href="/wiki/The_Forme_of_Cury" title="The Forme of Cury">The Forme of Cury</a></i>, includes a mix of figs, <a href="/wiki/Raisin" title="Raisin">raisins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apples</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pear" title="Pear">pears</a> with fish (<a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Haddock" title="Haddock">haddock</a>) and pitted damson <a href="/wiki/Plum" title="Plum">plums</a> under the top crust.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dietetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietetics">dietetics</a>. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, <a href="/wiki/Condiment" title="Condiment">condiments</a> and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as <a href="/wiki/Frying" title="Frying">frying</a> or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be <a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">boiled</a>; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be <a href="/wiki/Roasting" title="Roasting">roasted</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humoral</a> nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for <a href="/wiki/Quince" title="Quince">quince</a> pie, <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a> is said to work equally well, and in another <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a> could be replaced by pears.<sup id="cite_ref-Scully_1995,_page_70_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scully_1995,_page_70-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The completely edible <a href="/wiki/Shortcrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortcrust">shortcrust</a> pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as <a href="/wiki/Huff_paste" title="Huff paste">huff paste</a>. Extant recipe collections show that <a href="/wiki/Gastronomy" title="Gastronomy">gastronomy</a> in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_kitchens">Medieval kitchens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medieval kitchens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg/170px-Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg/255px-Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg/340px-Decameron_1432-cooking_on_spit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Fowl roasting on a spit. A shallow basin collects the drippings to use in sauces or for <a href="/wiki/Basting_(cooking)" title="Basting (cooking)">basting</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/The_Decameron" title="The Decameron">The Decameron</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, 1432.</figcaption></figure> <p>In most households, cooking was done on an open <a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">hearth</a> in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> a separate <a href="/wiki/Kitchen" title="Kitchen">kitchen</a> area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered <a href="/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)" title="Arcade (architecture)">arcade</a>. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few medieval kitchens survive as they were "notoriously ephemeral structures".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as <a href="/wiki/Frying_pan" title="Frying pan">frying pans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cookware_and_bakeware" title="Cookware and bakeware">pots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kettle" title="Kettle">kettles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Waffle_iron" title="Waffle iron">waffle irons</a>, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were <a href="/wiki/Spit_(cooking_aide)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spit (cooking aide)">spits</a> of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate <a href="/wiki/Quail" title="Quail">quails</a> to whole <a href="/wiki/Cattle#Oxen" title="Cattle">oxen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and <a href="/wiki/Cauldron" title="Cauldron">cauldrons</a> could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, <a href="/wiki/Ladle_(spoon)" title="Ladle (spoon)">ladles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grater" title="Grater">graters</a>. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the <a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">mortar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sieve" title="Sieve">sieve</a> cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was <i>farcing</i> (from the Latin <i>farcio</i> 'to cram'), to skin and <a href="/wiki/Game_(food)#Preparation" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">dress</a> an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg/300px-Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg/450px-Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg/600px-Fortezza_Verrucole_Archeopark_interno.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2670" /></a><figcaption>A restored medieval kitchen inside <a href="/wiki/Verrucole_Castle" title="Verrucole Castle">Verrucole Castle</a>, Tuscany</figcaption></figure> <p>The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds: <a href="/wiki/Pantler" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantler">pantlers</a>, bakers, <a href="/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer">waferers</a>, sauciers, <a href="/wiki/Larder" title="Larder">larderers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butcher" title="Butcher">butchers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meat_carving" title="Meat carving">carvers</a>, page boys, <a href="/wiki/Milkmaid" title="Milkmaid">milkmaids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butler" title="Butler">butlers</a>, and numerous <a href="/wiki/Scullery_maid" title="Scullery maid">scullions</a>. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the cookbook <i><a href="/wiki/Du_fait_de_cuisine" title="Du fait de cuisine">Du fait de cuisine</a></i> ('On cookery') written in 1420 in part to compete with the court of Burgundy<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by Maistre Chiquart, master chef of Duke <a href="/wiki/Amadeus_VIII,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy">Amadeus VIII of Savoy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large <i>barnful</i> of coal.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preservation">Preservation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Preservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Food preservation</a> methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of <a href="/wiki/Canning" title="Canning">canning</a> in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove <a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">moisture</a>, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Stockfish" title="Stockfish">stockfish</a>), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as <a href="/wiki/Smoking_(cooking_technique)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking (cooking technique)">smoking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salting_(food)" title="Salting (food)">salting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brining" title="Brining">brining</a>, conserving, or <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermenting</a> also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months. <a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">Butter</a> tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs, or fish were also often <a href="/wiki/Pickling" title="Pickling">pickled</a> in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (<a href="/wiki/Lemon_juice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemon juice">lemon juice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verjuice" title="Verjuice">verjuice</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a>). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in honey, sugar, or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains and fruits were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and <a href="/wiki/Cheese#Curdling" title="Cheese">curdled</a> into a multitude of <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheeses</a> or <a href="/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk">buttermilk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_cooking">Professional cooking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Professional cooking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaucer_cook.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chaucer_cook.jpg/170px-Chaucer_cook.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chaucer_cook.jpg/255px-Chaucer_cook.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chaucer_cook.jpg/340px-Chaucer_cook.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The disreputable cook from <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Chaucer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a></i>. The long meat hook in his left hand was one of the most common medieval cook's tools; from the Ellesmere manuscripts, about 1410.</figcaption></figure> <p>The majority of the European population before <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of <a href="/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">fast food</a>, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travelers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional <a href="/wiki/Cook_(profession)" title="Cook (profession)">cooks</a> to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban cookshops that catered to workers or the destitute were regarded as unsavory and disreputable places by the well-to-do and professional cooks tended to have a bad reputation. <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>'s Hodge of Ware, the London cook from the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, is described as a sleazy purveyor of unpalatable food. French cardinal <a href="/wiki/Jacques_de_Vitry" title="Jacques de Vitry">Jacques de Vitry</a>'s sermons from the early 13th century describe sellers of cooked meat as an outright health hazard.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the necessity of the cook's services was occasionally recognized and appreciated, they were often disparaged since they catered to the baser of bodily human needs rather than spiritual betterment. The stereotypical cook in art and literature was male, hot-tempered, prone to drunkenness, and often depicted guarding his stewpot from being pilfered by both humans and animals. In the early 15th century, the English monk <a href="/wiki/John_Lydgate" title="John Lydgate">John Lydgate</a> articulated the beliefs of many of his contemporaries by proclaiming that "Hoot ffir [fire] and smoke makith many an angry cook."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cereals">Cereals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cereals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baker_punishment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Baker_punishment.jpg/170px-Baker_punishment.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Baker_punishment.jpg/255px-Baker_punishment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Baker_punishment.jpg/340px-Baker_punishment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2084" data-file-height="2052" /></a><figcaption>A baker caught trying to cheat customers is punished by being dragged around the community on a sleigh with the offending loaf of bread tied around his neck.</figcaption></figure> <p>The period between 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a> was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based. <a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavened</a> bread was more common in <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye, or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Kisban_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kisban-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common grains were <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buckwheat" title="Buckwheat">buckwheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oats</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutritious</a> of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a> that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its <a href="/wiki/Bran" title="Bran">bran</a> content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like <a href="/wiki/Chestnut" title="Chestnut">chestnuts</a>, dried <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acorn" title="Acorn">acorns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were <a href="/wiki/Sop" title="Sop">sops</a>, pieces of bread with which a liquid like <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soup" title="Soup">soup</a>, broth, or <a href="/wiki/Sauce" title="Sauce">sauce</a> could be soaked up and eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the <a href="/wiki/Frumenty" title="Frumenty">frumenty</a>, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as <a href="/wiki/Dessert" title="Dessert">desserts</a> or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were <a href="/wiki/Turnover_(food)" title="Turnover (food)">turnovers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritter" title="Fritter">fritters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doughnut" title="Doughnut">doughnuts</a>, and many similar <a href="/wiki/Pastry" title="Pastry">pastries</a>. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the Late Middle Ages <a href="/wiki/Biscuit" title="Biscuit">biscuits</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cookie" title="Cookie">cookies</a> in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg/220px-Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg/330px-Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg/440px-Medieval_bakerFXD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2088" data-file-height="1292" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Baker" title="Baker">baker</a> with his assistant making bread rolls or <i>manchets</i>; from a book of hours manuscript from about 1500</figcaption></figure> <p>The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Bread consumption was high in most of Western Europe by the 14th century. Estimates of bread consumption from different regions are fairly similar: around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to 3.3 lb) of bread per person per day. Among the first town <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> to be organized were the bakers, and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. The English <i><a href="/wiki/Assize_of_Bread_and_Ale" title="Assize of Bread and Ale">Assize of Bread and Ale</a></i> of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread were regulated in relation to grain prices. The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the <a href="/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Bakers" title="Worshipful Company of Bakers">London Baker's Company</a> by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught tampering with weights or adulterating <a href="/wiki/Dough" title="Dough">dough</a> with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. This gave rise to the "<a href="/wiki/Dozen#Baker's_dozen" title="Dozen">baker's dozen</a>": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fruits_and_vegetables">Fruits and vegetables</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fruits and vegetables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg/170px-Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg/255px-Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg/340px-Tacuinum_Sanitatis-cabbage_harvest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Harvesting <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i>, 15th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Fruits were popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since honey and sugar were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were <a href="/wiki/Lemon" title="Lemon">lemons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citron" title="Citron">citrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitter_orange" title="Bitter orange">bitter oranges</a> (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), <a href="/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">pomegranates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quince" title="Quince">quinces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grapes</a>. Farther north, <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pear" title="Pear">pears</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plum" title="Plum">plums</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fragaria_vesca" title="Fragaria vesca">wild strawberries</a> were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chard" title="Chard">chard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">garlic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carrot" title="Carrot">carrots</a> were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers and were less prestigious than meat. Cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like <a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">chickpeas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicia_faba" title="Vicia faba">fava beans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pea#Field_peas" title="Pea">field peas</a> were also common and important sources of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause <a href="/wiki/Flatulence" title="Flatulence">flatulence</a> but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate <a href="/wiki/Sauerkraut" title="Sauerkraut">sauerkraut</a> from three to four times a day.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_bean" title="Kidney bean">kidney beans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cacao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">vanilla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili peppers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas. Even after their wider availability in Europe it often took considerable time (sometimes several centuries) for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dairy_products">Dairy products</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Dairy products"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9-alimenti,_formaggi,Taccuino_Sanitatis,_Casanatense_4182..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/170px-9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/255px-9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/340px-9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption>Preparing and serving <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i>, 14th century</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</a> was an important source of animal protein for those who could not afford meat. It would mostly come from cows, but milk from goats and sheep was also common. Plain fresh milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, and was usually reserved for the very young or elderly. Poor adults would sometimes drink buttermilk or <a href="/wiki/Whey" title="Whey">whey</a> or milk that was soured or watered down.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. On occasion it was used in upper-class kitchens in stews, but it was difficult to keep fresh in bulk and almond milk was generally used in its place.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">Cheese</a> was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch <a href="/wiki/Edam_(cheese)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edam (cheese)">Edam</a>, Northern French <a href="/wiki/Brie" title="Brie">Brie</a> and Italian <a href="/wiki/Parmesan" title="Parmesan">Parmesan</a>, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also <a href="/wiki/Whey_cheese" title="Whey cheese">whey cheeses</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Ricotta" title="Ricotta">ricotta</a>, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meats">Meats</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Meats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:13-alimenti,carni_suine,Taccuino_Sanitatis,_Casanatense_4182.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/13-alimenti%2Ccarni_suine%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182.jpg/170px-13-alimenti%2Ccarni_suine%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/13-alimenti%2Ccarni_suine%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182.jpg/255px-13-alimenti%2Ccarni_suine%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/13-alimenti%2Ccarni_suine%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182.jpg/340px-13-alimenti%2Ccarni_suine%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1095" /></a><figcaption>A 14th-century butcher shop. A large pig is being bled in preparation for slaughter. A whole pig carcass and cuts are hanging from a rack and various cuts are being prepared for a customer.</figcaption></figure> <p>While all forms of wild <a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">game</a> were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic <a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">working animals</a> that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat. <a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">Beef</a> was not as common as today because raising <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a> was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk. <a href="/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">Lamb and mutton</a> were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a> industry, as was <a href="/wiki/Veal" title="Veal">veal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Goat_meat" title="Goat meat">Goat meat</a> was consumed in some parts of medieval Europe. Far more common was <a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">pork</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">domestic pigs</a> required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and <a href="/wiki/Suckling_pig" title="Suckling pig">suckling pig</a> was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines, <a href="/wiki/Pig_bladder" title="Pig bladder">bladder</a>, and stomach could be used as <a href="/wiki/Sausage_casing" title="Sausage casing">casings</a> for <a href="/wiki/Sausage" title="Sausage">sausage</a> or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the <a href="/wiki/Hedgehog" title="Hedgehog">hedgehog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Porcupine" title="Porcupine">porcupine</a>, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">Rabbits</a> remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further south, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_rabbit" title="Domestic rabbit">domesticated rabbits</a> were commonly <a href="/wiki/Cuniculture" title="Cuniculture">bred and raised</a> both for their meat and fur. It is frequently and falsely claimed that they were of particular value for monasteries because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or at least not meat) by church officials, allowing them to be eaten during Lent.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A wide range of birds were eaten, including <a href="/wiki/Pheasant" title="Pheasant">pheasants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan">swans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peafowl" title="Peafowl">peafowl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quail" title="Quail">quail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partridge" title="Partridge">partridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">storks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">cranes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbidae" title="Columbidae">pigeons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lark" title="Lark">larks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finch" title="Finch">finches</a>, and just about any other wild bird that could be captured. Swans and peafowl were domesticated to some extent, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance as stunning entertainment dishes, <a href="/wiki/Entremet" title="Entremet">entremets</a>, than for their meat. As today, <a href="/wiki/Duck_as_food" title="Duck as food">ducks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goose_as_food" title="Goose as food">geese</a> had been domesticated but were not as popular as the <a href="/wiki/Chicken_as_food" title="Chicken as food">chicken</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">poultry</a> equivalent of the pig.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose" title="Barnacle goose">barnacle goose</a> was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a>, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent. But at the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a> (1215), <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a> explicitly prohibited the eating of barnacle geese during Lent, arguing that they lived and fed like ducks and so were of the same nature as other birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Lankester2_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lankester2-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meats were more expensive than plant foods and could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making it available for <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> and putting more meat on the market.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish_and_seafood">Fish and seafood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fish and seafood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg/170px-Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg/255px-Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg/340px-Tacuinum_Sanitatis-fishing_lamprey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>Fishing for <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a> in a stream; <i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i>, 15th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days, <a href="/wiki/Seafood" title="Seafood">seafood</a> was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a> such as whales and <a href="/wiki/Porpoise" title="Porpoise">porpoises</a>. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles.<sup id="cite_ref-Heron-Allen_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heron-Allen-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though the rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of <a href="/wiki/Leo_of_Rozmital" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo of Rozmital">Leo of Rozmital</a> wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Especially important was the fishing and trade in <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. <a href="/wiki/Kipper" title="Kipper">Kippers</a> made from herring caught in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> could be found in markets as far away as <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusks</a> including <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oysters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">scallops</a> were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a> were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esox" title="Esox">pike</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carp" title="Carp">carp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bream" title="Bream">bream</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perch" title="Perch">perch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lamprey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trout" title="Trout">trout</a> were common.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drink">Drink</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Drink"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg/170px-Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg/255px-Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg/340px-Monk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="2052" /></a><figcaption>An abbey cellarer testing his wine. Illumination from a copy of <i>Li livres dou santé</i> by Aldobrandino of Siena. British Library, Sloane 2435, f. 44v.</figcaption></figure> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> is often drunk with a meal in modern times, in the Middle Ages concerns over purity, medical recommendations, and its low prestige value made it less favored. As such, alcoholic beverages were preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content. <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">Wine</a> was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or <a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">ale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Juice" title="Juice">Juices</a>, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman antiquity</a> and were still consumed in the Middle Ages: <a href="/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">pomegranate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mulberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry">mulberry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blackberry" title="Blackberry">blackberry</a> wines, <a href="/wiki/Perry" title="Perry">perry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">cider</a> which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include <i>prunellé</i> from wild plums (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Slivovitz" title="Slivovitz">slivovitz</a>), mulberry <a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">gin</a> and blackberry wine. Many variants of <a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">mead</a> have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and was eventually relegated to medicinal use.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavs</a>. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptismal</a> parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_medieval_Poland" title="Culture of medieval Poland">Poland</a>, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kumis" title="Kumis">Kumis</a>, the fermented milk of <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">mares</a> or <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a>, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plain <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as <a href="/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk">buttermilk</a> or <a href="/wiki/Whey" title="Whey">whey</a>. Fresh milk was overall less common than other <a href="/wiki/Dairy" title="Dairy">dairy</a> products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">Tea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, both made from plants found in the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wine">Wine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Wine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg/170px-Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg/255px-Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg/340px-Medieval_wine_conservation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1288" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>A matron demonstrates how to properly treat and conserve wine.</figcaption></figure> <p>Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>'s dietetics, it was considered hot and dry; however, these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially <a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">red wine</a>) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> and brighten the mood.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quality of wine differed considerably according to <a href="/wiki/Vintage" title="Vintage">vintage</a>, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap <a href="/wiki/White_wine" title="White wine">white</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ros%C3%A9" title="Rosé">rosé</a> from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar (similar to Ancient Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Posca" title="Posca">posca</a></i>) would often be the only available choice.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aging of high-quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. The 14th-century cookbook <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Viandier" title="Le Viandier">Le Viandier</a></i> describes several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled <a href="/wiki/White_grape" class="mw-redirect" title="White grape">white grape</a> seeds with the ash of dried and burnt <a href="/wiki/Lees_(fermentation)" title="Lees (fermentation)">lees</a> of white wine were both effective <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bactericides</a>, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spiced or <a href="/wiki/Mulled_wine" title="Mulled wine">mulled wine</a> was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger, <a href="/wiki/Cardamom" title="Cardamom">cardamom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piper_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Piper (genus)">pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aframomum_melegueta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aframomum melegueta">grains of paradise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">cloves</a> and sugar. These would be contained in small bags which were either <a href="/wiki/Steeping" title="Steeping">steeped</a> in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce <a href="/wiki/Hypocras" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypocras">hypocras</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Claret#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Claret">claré</a></i>. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beer">Beer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Beer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_beer" title="History of beer">History of beer</a></div> <p>While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine; even for nobility in these areas, however, it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end of the Middle Ages. In <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England</a>, the Low Countries, northern <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Middle_Ages" title="History of Germany">Germany</a>, Poland and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. By the mid-15th century, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereal</a> known to be somewhat poorly suited for breadmaking but excellent for <a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">brewing</a>, accounted for 27% of all cereal acreage in England.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the heavy influence from <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab</a> and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often disfavoured. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>. Even comparatively exotic products like <a href="/wiki/Camel_milk" title="Camel milk">camel milk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a> meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Sienese</a> physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way: </p> <blockquote><p>But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes <a href="/wiki/Bad_breath" title="Bad breath">bad breath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tooth_decay" title="Tooth decay">ruins the teeth</a>, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating <a href="/wiki/Urination" title="Urination">urination</a> and makes one's flesh white and smooth.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th century <a href="/wiki/Cookbook" title="Cookbook">cookbook</a> <i>Le Menagier de Paris</i> was called <i>godale</i> (most likely a direct borrowing from the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> 'good ale') and was made from barley and <a href="/wiki/Spelt" title="Spelt">spelt</a>, but without <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">hops</a>. In England there were also the variants <i><a href="/wiki/Posset" title="Posset">poset ale</a></i>, made from hot milk and cold ale, and <i>brakot</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Mead#Mead_variants" title="Mead">braggot</a></i>, a spiced honey ale prepared much like hypocras.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian</a> times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. Before the widespread use of hops, <a href="/wiki/Gruit" title="Gruit">gruit</a>, a mix of various <a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a>, had been used. Gruit had the same preserving properties as hops, though less reliable depending on what herbs were in it; as such, the end result was much more variable. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. Hops may have been widely used in England in the tenth century; they were grown in Austria by 1208 and in Finland by 1249, and possibly much earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before hops became popular as an ingredient, it was difficult to preserve this beverage for any time, so it was mostly consumed fresh.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was unfiltered, and therefore cloudy, and likely had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Quantities of beer consumed by medieval residents of Europe, as recorded in contemporary literature, far exceed intakes in the modern world. For example, sailors in 16th-century <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> received a ration of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Polish peasants consumed up to 3 litres (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of beer per day.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, beer was brewed primarily in <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>, and on a smaller scale, in individual households. By the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>, breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> in the 14th century, then to <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, and reached England by the 15th century. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275 to 300 litres (60 to 66 imp gal; 73 to 79 US gal), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Late Medieval England, the word beer came to mean a hopped beverage, whereas ale had to be unhopped. In turn, ale or beer was classified as "strong" or "small", the latter less intoxicating, regarded as a drink of temperate people, and suitable for consumption by children. As late as 1693, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> stated that the only drink he considered suitable for children of all ages was <a href="/wiki/Small_beer" title="Small beer">small beer</a>, while criticizing the apparently common practice among Englishmen of the time to give their children wine and strong alcohol.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By modern standards, the brewing process was relatively inefficient, but capable of producing quite strong alcohol when that was desired. A 1998 attempt to recreate medieval English "strong ale" using recipes and techniques of the era (albeit with the use of modern yeast strains) yielded a strongly alcoholic brew with <a href="/wiki/Gravity_(alcoholic_beverage)" title="Gravity (alcoholic beverage)">original gravity</a> of 1.091 (corresponding to a potential alcohol content over 9%) and "pleasant, apple-like taste".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distillates">Distillates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Distillates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> knew of the technique of <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>, but it was not practiced on a major scale in Europe until after the invention of <a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">alembics</a>, which feature in manuscripts from the ninth century onwards. Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term <i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_vitae" title="Aqua vitae">aqua vitae</a></i> ('water of life') was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early use of various <a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">distillates</a>, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape <a href="/wiki/Syrup" title="Syrup">syrup</a> mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and <a href="/wiki/Rosewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosewater">rosewater</a> was used as a <a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfume</a> and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing <a href="/wiki/Entremets" class="mw-redirect" title="Entremets">entremets</a> (a type of entertainment dish after a course) by soaking a piece of <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> in spirits. It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Aqua vitae</i> in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309, <a href="/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova" title="Arnaldus de Villa Nova">Arnaldus of Villanova</a> wrote that "[i]t prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth."<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Late Middle Ages, the production of <a href="/wiki/Moonshine" title="Moonshine">moonshine</a> started to pick up, especially in the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>-speaking regions. By the 13th century, <i>Hausbrand</i> (literally 'home-burnt' from <i>gebrannter wein, brandwein</i> 'burnt [distilled] wine') was commonplace, marking the origin of <a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">brandy</a>. Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so ingrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496, the city of <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> issued restrictions on the selling of <i>aquavit</i> on Sundays and official holidays.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Herbs,_spices,_and_condiments"><span id="Herbs.2C_spices.2C_and_condiments"></span>Herbs, spices, and condiments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Herbs, spices, and condiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg/220px-Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg/330px-Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg/440px-Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2252" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>Harvesting pepper; French manuscript of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">The Travels of Marco Polo</a></i>, early 15th century</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">Spices</a> were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> (and the cheaper alternative <a href="/wiki/Cinnamomum_aromaticum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinnamomum aromaticum">cassia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">cumin</a>, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper, for example, was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">tons</a> of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not the most obscure in its origin) was <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities;<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a> provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Riario" title="Pietro Riario">Cardinal Riario</a> offered to <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Naples,_Duchess_of_Ferrara" title="Eleanor of Naples, Duchess of Ferrara">Eleanor of Naples</a> in June 1473, the bread was gilded.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are <a href="/wiki/Grains_of_paradise" title="Grains of paradise">grains of paradise</a>, a relative of <a href="/wiki/Cardamom" title="Cardamom">cardamom</a> which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, <a href="/wiki/Long_pepper" title="Long pepper">long pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mace_(spice)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mace (spice)">mace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spikenard" title="Spikenard">spikenard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galangal" title="Galangal">galangal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cubeb" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubeb">cubeb</a>. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a> or pepper and ginger.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common herbs such as <a href="/wiki/Common_sage" class="mw-redirect" title="Common sage">sage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parsley" title="Parsley">parsley</a> were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were <a href="/wiki/Caraway" title="Caraway">caraway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mentha" title="Mentha">mint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dill" title="Dill">dill</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fennel" title="Fennel">fennel</a>. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat dishes and was described by <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a> (1098–1179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. <a href="/wiki/Anise" title="Anise">Anise</a> was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated <a href="/wiki/Comfit" title="Comfit">comfits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg/170px-Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg/255px-Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg/340px-Fabrication_du_verjus_BnF_Latin_9333_fol._83.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Picking green grapes for making verjuice; <i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i>, 1474</figcaption></figure> <p>Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine, <a href="/wiki/Verjuice" title="Verjuice">verjuice</a> (the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive "pungeant, fruity" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">Salt</a> was ubiquitous and indispensable in medieval cooking. Salting and drying was the most common form of food preservation and meant that fish and meat in particular were often heavily salted. Many medieval recipes specifically warn against oversalting and there were recommendations for soaking certain products in water to get rid of excess salt.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salt was present during more elaborate or expensive meals. The richer the host, and the more prestigious the guest, the more elaborate would be the container in which it was served and the higher the quality and price of the salt. Wealthy guests were seated "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/above_the_salt" class="extiw" title="wikt:above the salt">above the salt</a>", while others sat "below the salt", where <a href="/wiki/Salt_cellar" title="Salt cellar">salt cellars</a> were made of <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a>, precious metals or other fine materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a diner also decided how finely ground and white the salt was. Salt for cooking, preservation or for use by common people was coarser; <a href="/wiki/Sea_salt" title="Sea salt">sea salt</a>, or "bay salt", in particular, had more impurities, and was described in colors ranging from black to green. Expensive salt, on the other hand, looked like the standard commercial salt common today.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sweets_and_desserts">Sweets and desserts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sweets and desserts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "dessert" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> <i>desservir</i>, 'to clear a table', literally 'to un-serve', and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of <a href="/wiki/Drag%C3%A9e" title="Dragée">dragées</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mulled_wine" title="Mulled wine">mulled wine</a> accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in honey, sugar, or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes. <a href="/wiki/History_of_sugar#Cane_sugar_in_the_Muslim_World_and_Europe" title="History of sugar">Sugar</a>, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener; its long-lived medieval reputation as an exotic luxury encouraged its appearance in elite contexts accompanying meats and other dishes that to modern taste are more naturally savoury. There were a wide variety of fritters, <a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%AApe" title="Crêpe">crêpes</a> with sugar, sweet <a href="/wiki/Custard" title="Custard">custards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dariole" title="Dariole">darioles</a>, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for <i><a href="/wiki/Berliner_(doughnut)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berliner (doughnut)">krapfen</a></i>: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings. <a href="/wiki/Marzipan" title="Marzipan">Marzipan</a> in many forms was well-known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s, and is assumed to be of Arab origin.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Norman</a> cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards, <a href="/wiki/Potage" class="mw-redirect" title="Potage">potages</a>, sauces, and <a href="/wiki/Tart" title="Tart">tarts</a> with strawberries, <a href="/wiki/Cherry" title="Cherry">cherries</a>, apples, and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals such as <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">roses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viola_odorata" title="Viola odorata">violets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sambucus" title="Sambucus">elder</a> flowers. An early form of <a href="/wiki/Quiche" title="Quiche">quiche</a> can be found in <i>Forme of Cury</i>, a 14th-century recipe collection, as a <i>Torte de Bry</i> with a cheese and egg yolk filling.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Le Ménagier de Paris</i> ("Parisian Household Book"), written in 1393, includes a <a href="/wiki/Quiche" title="Quiche">quiche</a> recipe made with three kinds of cheese, eggs, beet greens, spinach, fennel fronds, and parsley.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In northern France, a wide assortment of <a href="/wiki/Waffle" title="Waffle">waffles</a> and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet <a href="/wiki/Malvasia" title="Malvasia">malmsey</a> as <i>issue de table</i> ('departure from the table'). The ever-present candied ginger, <a href="/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">coriander</a>, aniseed and other spices were referred to as <i>épices de chambre</i> ('parlor spices') and were taken as digestibles at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like their Muslim counterparts in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Spain</a>, the Arab conquerors of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like <a href="/wiki/Montpellier" title="Montpellier">Montpellier</a>, Sicily was once famous for its <i>comfits</i>, <a href="/wiki/Nougat" title="Nougat">nougat</a> candy (<i>torrone</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Turr%C3%B3n" title="Turrón">turrón</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>) and almond clusters (<i>confetti</i>). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of <a href="/wiki/Ice_cream" title="Ice cream">ice cream</a>-making that produced <a href="/wiki/Sorbet" title="Sorbet">sorbet</a> and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries; <i>cassata alla Siciliana</i> (from <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <i>qas'ah</i>, the term for the <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan, <a href="/wiki/Sponge_cake" title="Sponge cake">sponge cake</a> with sweetened ricotta, and <i><a href="/wiki/Cannoli" title="Cannoli">cannoli</a> alla Siciliana</i>, originally <i>cappelli di turchi</i> ('Turkish hats'), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography_and_sources">Historiography and sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Historiography and sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research into medieval <a href="/wiki/Foodways" title="Foodways">foodways</a> was, until around 1980, a somewhat neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were quite common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. This has been demonstrated to be an unfounded theory by historians such as Terence Scully.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The numerous descriptions of banquets from the later Middle Ages concentrated on the pageantry of the event rather than the minutiae of the food, which was not the same for most banqueters as those choice <i>mets</i> served at the high table. Banquet dishes were apart from mainstream of cuisine, and have been described as "the outcome of grand banquets serving political ambition rather than gastronomy; today as yesterday" by historian Maguelonne Toussant-Samat.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cookbooks">Cookbooks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cookbooks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg/170px-Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg/255px-Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg/340px-Forme_of_Cury-MS_7-18v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>A page from a late-14th-century manuscript of <i><a href="/wiki/Forme_of_Cury" class="mw-redirect" title="Forme of Cury">Forme of Cury</a></i> with recipes for "drepee", parboiled birds with almonds and fried onions, and the first part of a recipe for "mawmenee", a sweet stew of <a href="/wiki/Capon" title="Capon">capon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pheasant" title="Pheasant">pheasant</a> with cinnamon, ginger, cloves, dates and pine nuts and colored with <a href="/wiki/Sandalwood" title="Sandalwood">sandalwood</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Cookbooks, or more specifically, recipe collections, compiled in the Middle Ages are among the most important historical sources for medieval cuisine. The first cookbooks began to appear towards the end of the 13th century. The <i><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_Coquina" title="Liber de Coquina">Liber de Coquina</a></i>, perhaps originating near <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, and the <i>Tractatus de modo preparandi</i> have found a modern editor in Marianne Mulon, and a cookbook from <a href="/wiki/Assisi" title="Assisi">Assisi</a> found at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2lons-en-Champagne" title="Châlons-en-Champagne">Châlons-sur-Marne</a> has been edited by Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it is assumed that they describe real dishes, food scholars do not believe they were used as cookbooks might be today, as a step-by-step guide through the cooking procedure that could be kept at hand while preparing a dish. Few in a kitchen, at those times, would have been able to read, and working texts have a low survival rate.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The recipes were often brief and did not give precise quantities. Cooking times and temperatures were seldom specified since accurate portable clocks were not available and since all cooking was done with fire. At best, cooking times could be specified as the time it took to say a certain number of prayers or how long it took to walk around a certain field. Professional cooks were taught their trade through apprenticeship and practical training, working their way up in the highly defined kitchen hierarchy. A medieval cook employed in a large household would most likely have been able to plan and produce a meal without the help of recipes or written instruction. Due to the generally good condition of surviving manuscripts it has been proposed by food historian Terence Scully that they were records of household practices intended for the wealthy and literate master of a household, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Le_M%C3%A9nagier_de_Paris" title="Le Ménagier de Paris">Le Ménagier de Paris</a></i> from the late 14th century. Over 70 collections of medieval recipes survive today, written in several major European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The repertory of housekeeping instructions laid down by manuscripts like the <i>Ménagier de Paris</i> also include many details of overseeing correct preparations in the kitchen. Towards the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, in 1474, the Vatican librarian <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeo_Platina" title="Bartolomeo Platina">Bartolomeo Platina</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/De_honesta_voluptate_et_valetudine" title="De honesta voluptate et valetudine">De honesta voluptate et valetudine</a></i> ("On honorable pleasure and health") and the physician Iodocus Willich edited <i><a href="/wiki/Apicius" title="Apicius">Apicius</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> in 1563.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High-status exotic spices and rarities like ginger, pepper, cloves, <a href="/wiki/Sesame" title="Sesame">sesame</a>, citron leaves and "onions of Escalon"<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all appear in an eighth-century list of spices that the Carolingian cook should have at hand. It was written by <a href="/wiki/Vinidarius" title="Vinidarius">Vinidarius</a>, whose excerpts of <i>Apicius</i><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> survive in an eighth-century <a href="/wiki/Uncial_script" title="Uncial script">uncial</a> manuscript. Vinidarius's own dates may not be much earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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England">Guild feasts in medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_food_and_drink" title="Tudor food and drink">Tudor food and drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Medieval household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cuisine" title="Pre-Columbian cuisine">Pre-Columbian cuisine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-HM_16-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HM_16_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HM_16_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hunt & Murray (1999), page 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 29–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), page 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-henisch43-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-henisch43_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-henisch43_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), page 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), page 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bynum (1987), page 41; see also Scully (1995), pages 58–64 and Adamson (2004), page 72, 191–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), page 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 190–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, pages 155–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, pages 160–59; Scully (1995), page 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gale+%E2%80%93+Product+Login&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fretrieve.do%3FtabID%3DReference%26resultListType%3DRESULT_LIST%26searchResultsType%3DSingleTab%26retrievalId%3D0e821be3-7082-462e-848e-638886ce7f3b%26hitCount%3D7%26searchType%3DBasicSearchForm%26currentPosition%3D1%26docId%3DGALE%257CBT2353200750%26docType%3DTopic%2Boverview%26sort%3DRelevance%26contentSegment%3DZXAG-MOD1%26prodId%3DWHIC%26pageNum%3D1%26contentSet%3DGALE%257CBT2353200750%26searchId%3DR1%26userGroupName%3Dazstatelibdev%26inPS%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 41–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scully_1995,_pages_135–136_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 135–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 126–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Terence Scully, "Tempering Medieval Food" in <i>Food in the Middle Ages</i>, pages 7–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dyer (2000), page 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woolgar_2006,_page_11-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woolgar_2006,_page_11_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woolgar_2006,_page_11_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Woolgar (2006), page 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hicks (2001), pages 15–17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hicks (2001), page10–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hicks (2001), page 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey (1993), pages 38–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey (1993), pages 64–65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dyer (1989), page 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hicks (2001), page 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jul/15/highereducation.artsandhumanities">"Bones reveal chubby monks aplenty"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 15 July 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121003004006/http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2004/jul/15/highereducation.artsandhumanities">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Bones+reveal+chubby+monks+aplenty&rft.date=2004-07-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk%2F2004%2Fjul%2F15%2Fhighereducation.artsandhumanities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._J._Verlaan2007" class="citation journal cs1">J. J. Verlaan (August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2200769">"Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in ancient clergymen"</a>. <i>Eur Spine J</i>. <b>16</b> (8): 1129–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00586-007-0342-x">10.1007/s00586-007-0342-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2200769">2200769</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17390155">17390155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eur+Spine+J&rft.atitle=Diffuse+idiopathic+skeletal+hyperostosis+in+ancient+clergymen&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1129-35&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2200769%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17390155&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00586-007-0342-x&rft.au=J.+J.+Verlaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2200769&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kisban-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kisban_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kisban_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eszter Kisbán, "Food Habits in Change: The Example of Europe" in <i>Food in Change</i>, pages 2–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-henisch17-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-henisch17_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-henisch17_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), page 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 161–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 185–186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 55–56, 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dembinska (1999), page 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995). pages 44–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scully_1995,_page_70-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scully_1995,_page_70_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara Santich, "The Evolution of Culinary Techniques in the Medieval Era" in <i>Food in the Middle Ages</i>, pages 61–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 95–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creighton & Christie (2015), page 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Terence Scully, <i>The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages</i> 1995 0851154301 page94 "Such a fireplace and such equipment afforded the medieval cook in some respects more control over what was happening to his food ... Depending on the size and weight of the meat, the cook chose a heavy or light spit of various lengths."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 57–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liane Plouvier, "La gastronomie dans les Pays-Bas méridionaux sous les ducs de Bourgogne: le témoignage des livres de cuisine" <i>Publications du Centre Européen d'Etudes Bourguignonnes</i> <b>47</b> (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edited from the Ms. S 103 Bibliothèque Supersaxo, (in the Bibliothèque cantonale du Valais, Sion, by Terence Scully, <i>Du fait de cuisine par Maître Chiquart, 1420</i> Vallesia, 40, 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beth Marie Forrest, "Food storage and preservation" in <i>Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine</i>, pages 176–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martha Carling, "Fast Food and Urban Living Standards in Medieval England" in <i>Food and Eating in Medieval Europe</i>, pages 27–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret Murphy, "Feeding Medieval Cities: Some Historical Approaches" in <i>Food and Eating in Medieval Europe</i>, pages 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 64–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in <i>Food in Change</i>, pages 16–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 1–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 3; Adamson (2004), page 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 1–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), page 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 35–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully 1995, page 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 19–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cabbage and other foodstuffs in common use by most German-speaking peoples are mentioned in Walther Ryff's dietary from 1549 and <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a>'s <i>Deutsche Speißkamer</i> ('German Larder') from 1550; see Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, page 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), chapter 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in <i>Food in Change</i>, page 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 46–7; Johanna Maria van Winter, "The Low Countries in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, page 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 30–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Varey, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy, A. The Peninsula" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, page 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Rabbit and the Medieval East Anglian Economy, Mark Bailey</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All Things Medieval: An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World, Ruth A Johnston, page 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorman2018" class="citation web cs1">Gorman, James (14 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/13/science/rabbits-pope-domestication.html">"Debunked: The Strange Tale of Pope Gregory and the Rabbits"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220504003231/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/13/science/rabbits-pope-domestication.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Debunked%3A+The+Strange+Tale+of+Pope+Gregory+and+the+Rabbits&rft.date=2018-02-14&rft.aulast=Gorman&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F02%2F13%2Fscience%2Frabbits-pope-domestication.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lankester2-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lankester2_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLankester1970" class="citation book cs1">Lankester, Edwin Ray (1970) [1915]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1GnwwmfvC8C&q=innocent-iii+barnacle-goose&pg=PA119"><i>Diversions of a Naturalist</i></a>. Books for Libraries Press. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-1471-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-1471-9"><bdi>978-0-8369-1471-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diversions+of+a+Naturalist&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Books+for+Libraries+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-8369-1471-9&rft.aulast=Lankester&rft.aufirst=Edwin+Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd1GnwwmfvC8C%26q%3Dinnocent-iii%2Bbarnacle-goose%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heron-Allen-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heron-Allen_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Giraldus_Cambrensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giraldus Cambrensis">Giraldus Cambrensis</a> "Topographica Hiberniae" (1187), quoted in <a href="/wiki/Edward_Heron-Allen" title="Edward Heron-Allen">Edward Heron-Allen</a>, <i>Barnacles in Nature and in Myth</i>, 1928, reprinted in 2003, page 10. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-5755-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-5755-5">0-7661-5755-5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oVJU6ruH7SIC&pg=PA10">full text at Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melitta Weiss Adamson, "The Greco-Roman World" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, page 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 45–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 48–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 154–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dembinska (1999), page 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 48–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 138–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 140–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 143–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 147–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. M. S. Campbell, Mark Overton (1991), Land, labour, and livestock: historical studies in European agricultural productivity, page 167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Scully (1995), page 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 151–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Unger (2007), page 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Though there are references to the use of hops in beer as early as 822 AD; Eßlinger (2009), page 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanson (1995), page 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard W. Unger, "Brewing" in <i>Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine</i>, pages 102–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Locke (1693), "<a href="/wiki/Some_Thoughts_Concerning_Education" title="Some Thoughts Concerning Education">Some Thoughts Concerning Education</a>", §16–19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~pwp/tofi/medieval_english_ale.html">"Recreating Medieval English Ales (a recreation of late-13–14th unhopped English ales)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190829231529/http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~pwp/tofi/medieval_english_ale.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recreating+Medieval+English+Ales+%28a+recreation+of+late-13%E2%80%9314th+unhopped+English+ales%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cmu.edu%2F~pwp%2Ftofi%2Fmedieval_english_ale.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 158–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 162, 164–65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Scully (1995), page 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 163–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 65. By comparison, the estimated population of Britain in 1340, right before the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, was only 5 million, and was a mere 3 million by 1450; see J.C Russel "Population in Europe 500–1500" in <i>The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages</i>, page 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully notes the importance of appearance to the medieval cook, who prized yellow foods achieved with saffron; Scully (1995), page 114. See also <i>The Appetite and the Eye: Visual aspects of food and its presentation within their historic context.</i> Anne Wilson (ed.) Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dickie (2008), page 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 15–19, 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 11–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 111–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), pages 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henisch (1976), pages 161–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Le Ménagier de Paris, page218, "Pour Faire une Tourte."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adamson (2004), page 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Habeeb Saloum, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy: B. Sicily" in <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe</i>, pages 120–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constance B. Hieatt, "Making Sense of Medieval Culinary Records: Much Done, But Much More to Do" in <i>Food and Eating in Medieval Europe</i>, pages 101–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Paul Freedman, the idea is presented as a fact even by some modern scholars, despite the lack of any credible support; Freedman (2008), pages 3–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 84–86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), page 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toussanit-Samat (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulon1971" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mulon, Marianne (1971). "Deux traités d'art culinaire médié". <i>Bulletin Philologique et Historique</i> (in French). Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0775-955X">0775-955X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+Philologique+et+Historique&rft.atitle=Deux+trait%C3%A9s+d%27art+culinaire+m%C3%A9di%C3%A9&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=0775-955X&rft.aulast=Mulon&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The manuscripts from which early books were printed rarely survive, as a scan of introductory materials in the <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a> demonstrates, and old <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Children's book">children's books</a> are rare collectibles today.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scully (1995), pages 7–9, 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Notaker (2021), pages 49–66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In modern botany the <i><a href="/wiki/Allium" title="Allium">Allium</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ascalon</a> in Palestine is the <a href="/wiki/Shallot" title="Shallot">shallot</a>, <i>A. ascalonensis</i> (W.F. Giles, "Onions and other edible Alliums" <i>Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society</i> <b> 68</b>: (1943) pp 193–200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A generic Roman term for a cookery book, as <i>Webster</i> is of American dictionaries.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The list, however, includes <a href="/wiki/Silphium_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Silphium (antiquity)">silphium</a>, which had been extinct for centuries, so may have included some purely literary items; Toussaint-Samat (2009), page 434.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson1995" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (1995). <i>Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays</i>. New York: Garland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85976-145-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85976-145-2"><bdi>0-85976-145-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+A+Book+of+Essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Garland&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-85976-145-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2002" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (2002). <i>Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92994-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92994-6"><bdi>0-415-92994-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regional+Cuisines+of+Medieval+Europe%3A+A+Book+of+Essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-92994-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2004" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foodinmedievalti0000adam"><i>Food in Medieval Times</i></a></span>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32147-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32147-7"><bdi>0-313-32147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+Medieval+Times&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-313-32147-7&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Melitta+Weiss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoodinmedievalti0000adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBynum1987" class="citation book cs1">Bynum, Caroline Walker (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/holyfeastholyfas00bynu/mode/2up"><i>Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women</i></a></span>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-05722-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-05722-8"><bdi>0-520-05722-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holy+Feast+and+Holy+Fast%3A+The+Religious+Significance+of+Food+to+Medieval+Women&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-520-05722-8&rft.aulast=Bynum&rft.aufirst=Caroline+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fholyfeastholyfas00bynu%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlinRosenthal1998" class="citation book cs1">Carlin, Martha; Rosenthal, Joel T., eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/food-trade-and-commodities/Food%20and%20Eating%20in%20Medieval%20Europe%20%28%20PDFDrive%20%29/"><i>Food and Eating in Medieval Europe</i></a>. London: The Hambledon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-148-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-148-1"><bdi>1-85285-148-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+and+Eating+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Hambledon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-85285-148-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffood-trade-and-commodities%2FFood%2520and%2520Eating%2520in%2520Medieval%2520Europe%2520%2528%2520PDFDrive%2520%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarnevale_Schianca2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Carnevale Schianca, Enrico (2011). <i>La cucina medievale. Lessico, storia, preparazioni</i> (in Italian). Florence: Olschki. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-222-6073-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-222-6073-4"><bdi>978-88-222-6073-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+cucina+medievale.+Lessico%2C+storia%2C+preparazioni&rft.place=Florence&rft.pub=Olschki&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-88-222-6073-4&rft.aulast=Carnevale+Schianca&rft.aufirst=Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreightonChristie2015" class="citation book cs1">Creighton, Oliver; Christie, Neil (2015). "The Archaeology of Wallingford Castle: a summary of the current state of knowledge". In Keats-Rohan, K. S. B.; <a href="/wiki/Neil_Christie" title="Neil Christie">Christie, Neil</a>; Roffe, David (eds.). <i>Wallingford: The Castle and the Town in Context</i>. BAR British Series. Oxford: Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-1418-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-1418-1"><bdi>978-1-4073-1418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Archaeology+of+Wallingford+Castle%3A+a+summary+of+the+current+state+of+knowledge&rft.btitle=Wallingford%3A+The+Castle+and+the+Town+in+Context&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=BAR+British+Series&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-1418-1&rft.aulast=Creighton&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Christie%2C+Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDembinska1999" class="citation book cs1">Dembinska, Maria (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/840d-38aea-35ce-2a-3e-697a-6b-71fe-1d-69c-76fc-71a-6806b-109c-19c-69d-394d-6c-79bf/"><i>Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past</i></a>. Translated by Thomas, Magdalena. revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-3224-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-3224-0"><bdi>0-8122-3224-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+and+Drink+in+Medieval+Poland%3A+Rediscovering+a+Cuisine+of+the+Past&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8122-3224-0&rft.aulast=Dembinska&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F840d-38aea-35ce-2a-3e-697a-6b-71fe-1d-69c-76fc-71a-6806b-109c-19c-69d-394d-6c-79bf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickie2008" class="citation book cs1">Dickie, John (2008). <i>Delizia! The epic history of the Italians and their food</i>. London: Sceptre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0340896419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0340896419"><bdi>978-0340896419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delizia%21+The+epic+history+of+the+Italians+and+their+food&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Sceptre&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0340896419&rft.aulast=Dickie&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Dyer, Christopher (2000). <i>Everyday Life in Medieval England</i>. Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-201-6"><bdi>978-1-85285-201-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+in+Medieval+England&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85285-201-6&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEßlinger2009" class="citation book cs1">Eßlinger, Hans Michael, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbook_of_brewing_processes__technology__markets"><i>Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets</i></a>. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-31674-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-31674-8"><bdi>978-3-527-31674-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:106720072">106720072</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Brewing%3A+Processes%2C+Technology%2C+Markets&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A106720072%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-3-527-31674-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbook_of_brewing_processes__technology__markets&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFentonKisbán1986" class="citation book cs1">Fenton, Alexander; Kisbán, Eszter, eds. (1986). <i>Food in Change: Eating Habits from the Middle Ages to the Present Day</i>. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85976-145-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85976-145-2"><bdi>0-85976-145-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160758319">160758319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+Change%3A+Eating+Habits+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=John+Donald+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160758319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=0-85976-145-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCipolla1972" class="citation book cs1">Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fontanaeconomich0000unse_z6m6"><i>The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages</i></a></span>. London: Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-632841-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-632841-5"><bdi>0-00-632841-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fontana+Economic+History+of+Europe%3A+The+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-00-632841-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffontanaeconomich0000unse_z6m6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedman2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Freedman" title="Paul Freedman">Freedman, Paul</a> (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/outofeastspicesm0000free"><i>Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination</i></a></span>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11199-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11199-6"><bdi>978-0-300-11199-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+East%3A+Spices+and+the+Medieval+Imagination&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-11199-6&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foutofeastspicesm0000free&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2005" class="citation book cs1">Glick, Thomas; Livesey, Steven J.; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalsciencet0000unse"><i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: an Encyclopedia</i></a></span>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-96930-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-96930-1"><bdi>0-415-96930-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+an+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-96930-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalsciencet0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1995" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, David J (1995). <i>Preventing Alcohol Abuse: alcohol, culture, and control</i>. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-94926-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-94926-5"><bdi>0-275-94926-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preventing+Alcohol+Abuse%3A+alcohol%2C+culture%2C+and+control&rft.place=Westport&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-275-94926-5&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=David+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1993" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Barbara F. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingdyingineng0000harv"><i>Living and Dying in England, 1100–1540: The Monastic Experience</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820161-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820161-3"><bdi>0-19-820161-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+and+Dying+in+England%2C+1100%E2%80%931540%3A+The+Monastic+Experience&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-820161-3&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Barbara+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivingdyingineng0000harv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenisch1976" class="citation book cs1">Henisch, Bridget Ann (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fastfeastfoodinm0000heni"><i>Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society</i></a></span>. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01230-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01230-7"><bdi>0-271-01230-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fast+and+Feast%3A+Food+in+Medieval+Society&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=The+Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-271-01230-7&rft.aulast=Henisch&rft.aufirst=Bridget+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffastfeastfoodinm0000heni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2001" class="citation book cs1">Hicks, Michael A., ed. (2001). <i>Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0851158327" title="Special:BookSources/978-0851158327"><bdi>978-0851158327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+Consumption+in+Late+Medieval+England&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0851158327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntMurray1999" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Edwin S.; Murray, James H. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbusines0000hunt"><i>A History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1200–1550</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-49923-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-49923-2"><bdi>0-521-49923-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Business+in+Medieval+Europe%2C+1200%E2%80%931550&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-49923-2&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Edwin+S.&rft.au=Murray%2C+James+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbusines0000hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNotaker2017" class="citation book cs1">Notaker, Henry (2017). <i>A history of cookbooks: from kitchen to page over seven centuries</i>. California Studies in Food and Culture. Oakland: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520294004" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520294004"><bdi>978-0520294004</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1rv6298">j.ctt1rv6298</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+cookbooks%3A+from+kitchen+to+page+over+seven+centuries&rft.place=Oakland&rft.series=California+Studies+in+Food+and+Culture&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1rv6298%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0520294004&rft.aulast=Notaker&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRambourg2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rambourg, Patrick (2010). <i>Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises</i> (in French). Paris: Perrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-262-03318-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-262-03318-7"><bdi>978-2-262-03318-7</bdi></a>. coll. tempus n° 359.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+cuisine+et+de+la+gastronomie+fran%C3%A7aises&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-2-262-03318-7&rft.aulast=Rambourg&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScully1995" class="citation book cs1">Scully, Terence (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofcookeryinmi0000scul"><i>The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages</i></a></span>. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-611-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-611-8"><bdi>0-85115-611-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Cookery+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=The+Boydell+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-85115-611-8&rft.aulast=Scully&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofcookeryinmi0000scul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToussant-Samat2009" class="citation book cs1">Toussant-Samat, Maguelonne (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyoffood0000tous_i8l0"><i>The History of Food</i></a></span>. Translated by Bell, Anthea (New Expanded ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8119-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8119-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-8119-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Food&rft.place=Chichester&rft.edition=New+Expanded&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8119-8&rft.aulast=Toussant-Samat&rft.aufirst=Maguelonne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryoffood0000tous_i8l0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2007" class="citation book cs1">Unger, Richard W. (2007). <i>Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1999-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1999-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-1999-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt3fj2zx">j.ctt3fj2zx</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beer+in+the+Middle+Ages+and+the+Renaissance&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt3fj2zx%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1999-9&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolgarSerjeantsonWaldron2006" class="citation book cs1">Woolgar, Chris M.; Serjeantson, Dale; <a href="/wiki/Tony_Waldron" title="Tony Waldron">Waldron, Tony</a>, eds. (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foodinmedievalen0000unse/mode/2up"><i>Food in Medieval England: Diet and Nutrition</i></a></span>. Medieval History and Archaeology. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956335-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956335-7"><bdi>978-0-19-956335-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+Medieval+England%3A+Diet+and+Nutrition&rft.series=Medieval+History+and+Archaeology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956335-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoodinmedievalen0000unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+cuisine" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_cuisine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Medieval_cuisine" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Medieval cuisine">Medieval cuisine</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medievalists.net/2011/01/27/medieval-food/">Academic resources</a> about medieval cuisine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/booksforcooks/med/medievalfood.html">Medieval cookbooks</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070420130057/http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/booksforcooks/med/medievalfood.html">Archived</a> 20 April 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8102"><i>The Forme of Cury</i></a>, a medieval cookbook on <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/cariadoc/miscellany.html">Resources</a> on medieval and early modern European food</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engr.psu.edu/MTAH/articles/pdf/daily_bread_outline.pdf">Information</a> on medieval bread</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/charity/cw2.htm">Book chapter</a> on feeding the poor in medieval Catalonia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/history_fac_pubs/1">Journal article</a> on early-medieval diet</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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title="Cuisine">Cuisines</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_cuisine" title="Maghrebi cuisine">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_African_cuisine" title="West African cuisine">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_cuisines" title="List of African cuisines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Cuisine of the Americas">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_cuisine" title="Caribbean cuisine">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_cuisine" title="North American cuisine">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American_cuisine" title="South American cuisine">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cuisines_of_the_Americas" title="List of cuisines of the Americas">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_cuisine" title="Asian cuisine">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dishes_from_the_Caucasus" title="List of dishes from the Caucasus">Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_cuisine" title="Central Asian cuisine">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_cuisine" title="Levantine cuisine">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_cuisine" title="South Asian cuisine">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_cuisines" title="List of Asian cuisines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_cuisine" title="Balkan cuisine">Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_cuisine" title="Central European cuisine">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_cuisine" title="Eastern European cuisine">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_cuisines" title="List of European cuisines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_cuisine" title="Oceanian cuisine">Oceanian</a></li> <li>Intercontinental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_cuisine" title="Global cuisine">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_cuisine" title="Latin American cuisine">Latin American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_cuisine" title="Mediterranean cuisine">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_cuisine" title="Middle Eastern cuisine">Middle Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_dish" title="National dish">National</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Regional_cuisine" title="Regional cuisine">regional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_cuisine" title="Afghan cuisine">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_cuisine" title="Albanian cuisine">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_cuisine" title="Algerian cuisine">Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_cuisine" title="California cuisine">Californian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floribbean_cuisine" title="Floribbean cuisine">Floribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Hawaii" title="Cuisine of Hawaii">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowcountry_cuisine" title="Lowcountry cuisine">Lowcountry (South Carolina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Midwestern_United_States" title="Cuisine of the Midwestern United States">Midwestern US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_New_England" title="Cuisine of New England">New English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexican_cuisine" title="New Mexican cuisine">New Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_cuisine" title="Pacific Northwest cuisine">Pacific Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_cuisine" title="Puerto Rican cuisine">Puerto Rican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="Cuisine of the Southern United States">Southern US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Cuisine of the Southwestern United States">Southwestern US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texan_cuisine" title="Texan cuisine">Texan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_cuisine" title="Angolan cuisine">Angolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_cuisine" title="Argentine cuisine">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_cuisine" title="Armenian cuisine">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_cuisine" title="Australian cuisine">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_cuisine" title="Austrian cuisine">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_cuisine" title="Azerbaijani cuisine">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_cuisine" title="Bahraini cuisine">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_cuisine" title="Bangladeshi cuisine">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_cuisine" title="Barbadian cuisine">Barbadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_cuisine" title="Belarusian cuisine">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_cuisine" title="Belgian cuisine">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_cuisine" title="Belizean cuisine">Belizean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin_cuisine" title="Benin cuisine">Beninese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutanese_cuisine" title="Bhutanese cuisine">Bhutanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_cuisine" title="Bolivian cuisine">Bolivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_cuisine" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine">Bosnian-Herzegovinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botswana_cuisine" title="Botswana cuisine">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_cuisine" title="Brazilian cuisine">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anguillian_cuisine" title="Anguillian cuisine">Anguillia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands_cuisine" title="Channel Islands cuisine">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_cuisine" title="English cuisine">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltarian_cuisine" title="Gibraltarian cuisine">Gibraltarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Irish_cuisine" title="Northern Irish cuisine">Northern Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Saint_Helena" title="Cuisine of Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_cuisine" title="Scottish cuisine">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_cuisine" title="Welsh cuisine">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_cuisine" title="Bruneian cuisine">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_cuisine" title="Bulgarian cuisine">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkinabe_cuisine" title="Burkinabe cuisine">Burkinabé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_cuisine" title="Burmese cuisine">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundian_cuisine" title="Burundian cuisine">Burundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_cuisine" title="Cambodian cuisine">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_cuisine" title="Cameroonian cuisine">Cameroonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_cuisine" title="Canadian cuisine">Canadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_cuisine" title="Acadian cuisine">Acadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Quebec" title="Cuisine of Quebec">Québécois</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Cuisine of the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_cuisine" title="Chadian cuisine">Chadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_cuisine" title="Chilean cuisine">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_cuisine" title="Beijing cuisine">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_cuisine" title="Cantonese cuisine">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_cuisine" title="Hong Kong cuisine">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_cuisine" title="Macanese cuisine">Macanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandong_cuisine" title="Shandong cuisine">Shandong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_cuisine" title="Tibetan cuisine">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_cuisine" title="Uyghur cuisine">Xinjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_cuisine" title="Colombian cuisine">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_cuisine" title="Congolese cuisine">Congolese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_cuisine" title="Croatian cuisine">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_cuisine" title="Cuban cuisine">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_cuisine" title="Cypriot cuisine">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_cuisine" title="Czech cuisine">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_cuisine" title="Danish cuisine">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_cuisine" title="Faroese cuisine">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_cuisine" title="Greenlandic cuisine">Greenlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djiboutian_cuisine" title="Djiboutian cuisine">Djiboutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominica_cuisine" title="Dominica cuisine">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic_cuisine" title="Dominican Republic cuisine">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_cuisine" title="Dutch cuisine">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_East_Timor" title="Cuisine of East Timor">East Timorese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_cuisine" title="Ecuadorian cuisine">Ecuadorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_cuisine" title="Emirati cuisine">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Cuisine of Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_cuisine" title="Eritrean cuisine">Eritrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_cuisine" title="Estonian cuisine">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_cuisine" title="Ethiopian cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijian_cuisine" title="Fijian cuisine">Fijian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_cuisine" title="Filipino cuisine">Filipino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapampangan_cuisine" title="Kapampangan cuisine">Kapampangan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_cuisine" title="Finnish cuisine">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_cuisine" title="French cuisine">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Corsica" title="Cuisine of Corsica">Corsican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_R%C3%A9union" title="Cuisine of Réunion">La Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guianan_cuisine" title="French Guianan cuisine">French Guianan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_cuisine" title="Occitan cuisine">Occitan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabonese_cuisine" title="Gabonese cuisine">Gabonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_cuisine" title="Gambian cuisine">Gambian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_cuisine" title="Georgian cuisine">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_cuisine" title="German cuisine">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_cuisine" title="Ghanaian cuisine">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_cuisine" title="Greek cuisine">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_cuisine" title="Cretan cuisine">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirotic_cuisine" title="Epirotic cuisine">Epirotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Macedonian_cuisine" title="Greek Macedonian cuisine">Greek Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Ionian_Islands" title="Cuisine of the Ionian Islands">Heptanesean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_cuisine" title="Guatemalan cuisine">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissauan_cuisine" title="Guinea-Bissauan cuisine">Guinea-Bissauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Guinea" title="Cuisine of Guinea">Guinean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_cuisine" title="Haitian cuisine">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honduran_cuisine" title="Honduran cuisine">Honduran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_cuisine" title="Hungarian cuisine">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_cuisine" title="Icelandic cuisine">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andhra_cuisine" title="Andhra cuisine">Andhra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arunachali_cuisine" title="Arunachali cuisine">Arunachali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_cuisine" title="Assamese cuisine">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_cuisine" title="Bengali cuisine">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihari_cuisine" title="Bihari cuisine">Bihari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarhi_cuisine" title="Chhattisgarhi cuisine">Chhattisgarhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goan_cuisine" title="Goan cuisine">Goan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_cuisine" title="Gujarati cuisine">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Haryanvi cuisine">Haryanvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_cuisine" title="Kashmiri cuisine">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jharkhandi_cuisine" title="Jharkhandi cuisine">Jharkhandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnataka_cuisine" title="Karnataka cuisine">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_cuisine" title="Kerala cuisine">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtrian_cuisine" title="Maharashtrian cuisine">Maharashtrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipuri_cuisine" title="Manipuri cuisine">Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meghalayan_cuisine" title="Meghalayan cuisine">Meghalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_cuisine" title="Mizo cuisine">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naga_cuisine" title="Naga cuisine">Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Odia cuisine">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_cuisine" title="Punjabi cuisine">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_cuisine" title="Rajasthani cuisine">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_cuisine" title="Sikkimese cuisine">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_cuisine" title="Sindhi cuisine">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_cuisine" title="Tamil cuisine">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telangana_cuisine" title="Telangana cuisine">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripuri_cuisine" title="Tripuri cuisine">Tripuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh_cuisine" title="Uttar Pradesh cuisine">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhandi_cuisine" title="Uttarakhandi cuisine">Uttarakhandi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acehnese_cuisine" title="Acehnese cuisine">Acehnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_cuisine" title="Balinese cuisine">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjar_cuisine" title="Banjar cuisine">Banjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_cuisine" title="Batak cuisine">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betawi_cuisine" title="Betawi cuisine">Betawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorontalo_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorontalo cuisine">Gorontalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo_cuisine" title="Indo cuisine">Indo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_cuisine" title="Javanese cuisine">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurese_cuisine" title="Madurese cuisine">Madurese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makassar_cuisine" title="Makassar cuisine">Makassar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minahasan_cuisine" title="Minahasan cuisine">Minahasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padang_cuisine" title="Padang cuisine">Minangkabau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang_cuisine" title="Palembang cuisine">Palembangese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_cuisine" title="Sundanese cuisine">Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_cuisine" title="Irish cuisine">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Abruzzo" title="Cuisine of Abruzzo">Abruzzese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apulian_cuisine" title="Apulian cuisine">Apulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Liguria" title="Cuisine of Liguria">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_cuisine" title="Lombard cuisine">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Basilicata" title="Cuisine of Basilicata">Lucanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_cuisine" title="Neapolitan cuisine">Neapolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_cuisine" title="Piedmontese cuisine">Piedmontese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_cuisine" title="Roman cuisine">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Sardinia" title="Cuisine of Sardinia">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_cuisine" title="Sicilian cuisine">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_food" title="Tuscan food">Tuscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Veneto" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Veneto">Venetian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivorian_cuisine" title="Ivorian cuisine">Ivorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_cuisine" title="Jamaican cuisine">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_cuisine" title="Japanese cuisine">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_cuisine" title="Okinawan cuisine">Okinawan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_cuisine" title="Jordanian cuisine">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_cuisine" title="Kazakh cuisine">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenyan cuisine">Kenyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_cuisine" title="Korean cuisine">Korean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_cuisine" title="North Korean cuisine">North Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korean_cuisine" title="South Korean cuisine">South Korean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovan_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosovan cuisine">Kosovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_cuisine" title="Kuwaiti cuisine">Kuwaiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_cuisine" title="Kyrgyz cuisine">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_cuisine" title="Lao cuisine">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_cuisine" title="Latvian cuisine">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_cuisine" title="Lebanese cuisine">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Lesotho" title="Cuisine of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_cuisine" title="Liberian cuisine">Liberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_cuisine" title="Libyan cuisine">Libyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_cuisine" title="Liechtenstein cuisine">Liechtensteiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_cuisine" title="Lithuanian cuisine">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Luxembourg" title="Cuisine of Luxembourg">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_cuisine" title="Macedonian cuisine">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_cuisine" title="Malagasy cuisine">Malagasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawian_cuisine" title="Malawian cuisine">Malawian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_cuisine" title="Malaysian cuisine">Malaysian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabahan_cuisine" title="Sabahan cuisine">Sabahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarawakian_cuisine" title="Sarawakian cuisine">Sarawakian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_cuisine" title="Maldivian cuisine">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malian_cuisine" title="Malian cuisine">Malian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_cuisine" title="Maltese cuisine">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshallese_cuisine" title="Marshallese cuisine">Marshallese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritanian_cuisine" title="Mauritanian cuisine">Mauritanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritian_cuisine" title="Mauritian cuisine">Mauritian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_cuisine" title="Mexican cuisine">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldovan_cuisine" title="Moldovan cuisine">Moldovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%C3%A9gasque_cuisine" title="Monégasque cuisine">Monégasque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_cuisine" title="Mongolian cuisine">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_cuisine" title="Montenegrin cuisine">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_cuisine" title="Moroccan cuisine">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_cuisine" title="Mozambican cuisine">Mozambican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_cuisine" title="Namibian cuisine">Namibian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_cuisine" title="Nauruan cuisine">Nauruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_cuisine" title="Nepalese cuisine">Nepalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_cuisine" title="New Zealand cuisine">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_cuisine" title="Nicaraguan cuisine">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Niger" title="Cuisine of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_cuisine" title="Nigerian cuisine">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niuean_cuisine" title="Niuean cuisine">Niuean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_cuisine" title="Norwegian cuisine">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_cuisine" title="Omani cuisine">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_cuisine" title="Pakistani cuisine">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_cuisine" title="Palestinian cuisine">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panamanian_cuisine" title="Panamanian cuisine">Panamanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinean_cuisine" title="Papua New Guinean cuisine">Papua New Guinean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_cuisine" title="Paraguayan cuisine">Paraguayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_cuisine" title="Peruvian cuisine">Peruvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_cuisine" title="Polish cuisine">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_cuisine" title="Portuguese cuisine">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_cuisine" title="Qatari cuisine">Qatari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_cuisine" title="Romanian cuisine">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cuisine" title="Russian cuisine">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bashkir_cuisine" title="Bashkir cuisine">Bashkir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_cuisine" title="Chechen cuisine">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_cuisine" title="Circassian cuisine">Circassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_cuisine" title="Cossack cuisine">Cossack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_cuisine" title="Komi cuisine">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordovian_cuisine" title="Mordovian cuisine">Mordovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakha_cuisine" title="Sakha cuisine">Sakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_cuisine" title="Tatar cuisine">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_cuisine" title="Udmurt cuisine">Udmurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamal_cuisine" title="Yamal cuisine">Yamal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_cuisine" title="Rwandan cuisine">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_cuisine" title="Saint Lucian cuisine">Saint Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_cuisine" title="Salvadoran cuisine">Salvadoran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammarinese_cuisine" title="Sammarinese cuisine">Sammarinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Cuisine of São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_cuisine" title="Saudi Arabian cuisine">Saudi Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegalese_cuisine" title="Senegalese cuisine">Senegalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_cuisine" title="Serbian cuisine">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychellois_cuisine" title="Seychellois cuisine">Seychellois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_cuisine" title="Sierra Leonean cuisine">Sierra Leonean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_cuisine" title="Singaporean cuisine">Singaporean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_cuisine" title="Slovak cuisine">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_cuisine" title="Slovenian cuisine">Slovenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_cuisine" title="Somali cuisine">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_cuisine" title="South African cuisine">South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_cuisine" title="Spanish cuisine">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_cuisine" title="Andalusian cuisine">Andalusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_cuisine" title="Asturian cuisine">Asturian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balearic_cuisine" title="Balearic cuisine">Balearic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_cuisine" title="Basque cuisine">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canarian_cuisine" title="Canarian cuisine">Canarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_cuisine" title="Cantabrian cuisine">Cantabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_cuisine" title="Catalan cuisine">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremaduran_cuisine" title="Extremaduran cuisine">Extremaduran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_cuisine" title="Galician cuisine">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchego_cuisine" title="Manchego cuisine">Manchegan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valencian_cuisine" title="Valencian cuisine">Valencian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_cuisine" title="Sri Lankan cuisine">Sri Lankan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_cuisine" title="Sudanese cuisine">Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Eswatini" title="Cuisine of Eswatini">Swazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_cuisine" title="Swedish cuisine">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cuisine" title="Swiss cuisine">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_cuisine" title="Taiwanese cuisine">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_cuisine" title="Tajik cuisine">Tajik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanzanian cuisine">Tanzanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibari_cuisine" title="Zanzibari cuisine">Zanzibari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_cuisine" title="Thai cuisine">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togolese_cuisine" title="Togolese cuisine">Togolese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_cuisine" title="Tunisian cuisine">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_cuisine" title="Turkish cuisine">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_cuisine" title="Turkmen cuisine">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvaluan_cuisine" title="Tuvaluan cuisine">Tuvaluan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_cuisine" title="Trinidad and Tobago cuisine">Trinidadian and Tobagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_cuisine" title="Ugandan cuisine">Ugandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_cuisine" title="Ukrainian cuisine">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_cuisine" title="Uruguayan cuisine">Uruguayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_cuisine" title="Uzbek cuisine">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanuatuan_cuisine" title="Vanuatuan cuisine">Vanuatuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_cuisine" title="Venezuelan cuisine">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_cuisine" title="Vietnamese cuisine">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Saharan_cuisine" title="Western Saharan cuisine">Western Saharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_cuisine" title="Yemeni cuisine">Yemeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambian_cuisine" title="Zambian cuisine">Zambian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimbabwean cuisine">Zimbabwean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_cuisine" title="Ainu cuisine">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Arab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Indonesian_cuisine" title="Arab Indonesian cuisine">Arab-Indonesian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_cuisine" title="Aromanian cuisine">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuisine" title="Assyrian cuisine">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_cuisine" title="Balochi cuisine">Balochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_cuisine" title="Berber cuisine">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buryat_cuisine" title="Buryat cuisine">Buryat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cajun_cuisine" title="Cajun cuisine">Cajun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Chinese_cuisine" title="American Chinese cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Chinese_cuisine" title="Australian Chinese cuisine">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Chinese_cuisine" title="British Chinese cuisine">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Chinese_cuisine" title="Cambodian Chinese cuisine">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Chinese_cuisine" title="Canadian Chinese cuisine">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Chinese_cuisine" title="Filipino Chinese cuisine">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Chinese_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Chinese cuisine">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Indonesian_cuisine" title="Chinese Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese_cuisine" title="Malaysian Chinese cuisine">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Chinese_cuisine" title="Pakistani Chinese cuisine">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chifa" title="Chifa">Peruvian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_cuisine" title="Crimean Tatar cuisine">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_cuisine" title="Gagauz cuisine">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek-American_cuisine" title="Greek-American cuisine">Greek-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaragi_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazaragi cuisine">Hazaragi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_cuisine" title="Hmong cuisine">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indian_cuisine" title="Anglo-Indian cuisine">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indian Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Indian_cuisine" title="Malaysian Indian cuisine">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Indian_cuisine" title="North Indian cuisine">North Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Indian_cuisine" title="South Indian cuisine">South Indian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Indigenous American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_tucker" title="Bush tucker">Indigenous Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_cuisine" title="Inuit cuisine">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian-American_cuisine" title="Italian-American cuisine">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Moroccan Jewish cuisine">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Syrian Jewish cuisine">Syrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_cuisine" title="Kurdish cuisine">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_cuisine" title="Livonian cuisine">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_cuisine" title="Louisiana Creole cuisine">Louisiana Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_cuisine" title="Malay cuisine">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_cuisine" title="Ossetian cuisine">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_cuisine" title="Parsi cuisine">Parsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtun_cuisine" title="Pashtun cuisine">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Pennsylvania_Dutch" title="Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peranakan_cuisine" title="Peranakan cuisine">Peranakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_cuisine" title="Pontic Greek cuisine">Pontic Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_cuisine" title="Romani cuisine">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_cuisine" title="Sámi cuisine">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tex-Mex" title="Tex-Mex">Tejano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_cuisine" title="Transylvanian Saxon cuisine">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yup%27ik_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Yup'ik cuisine">Yup'ik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_dietary_laws" title="Christian dietary laws">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goan_Catholic_cuisine" title="Goan Catholic cuisine">Goan Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangalorean_Catholic_cuisine" title="Mangalorean Catholic cuisine">Mangalorean Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonite_cuisine" title="Mennonite cuisine">Mennonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_in_Hinduism" title="Diet in Hinduism">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Islamic_cuisine" title="Chinese Islamic cuisine">Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ital" title="Ital">Ital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_vegetarianism" title="Jain vegetarianism">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosher_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher food">Kosher food</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_slaughter" title="Ritual slaughter">Ritual slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_in_Sikhism" title="Diet in Sikhism">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_cuisines" title="List of historical cuisines">Historical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Ancient Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Ancient Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Antebellum_America" title="Cuisine of Antebellum America">Antebellum America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_cuisine" title="Aztec cuisine">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_European_cuisine" title="Early modern European cuisine">Early modern European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Argentine_cuisine" title="History of Argentine cuisine">Historical Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_cuisine" title="History of Chinese cuisine">Historical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_cuisine" title="History of Indian cuisine">Historical Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_cuisine" title="History of Japanese cuisine">Historical Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_North_Indian_and_Pakistani_foods" title="Origins of North Indian and Pakistani foods">Historical North Indian and Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alcoholic_drinks" title="History of alcoholic drinks">History of alcoholic drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bread" title="History of bread">History of bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_seafood" title="History of seafood">History of seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_vegetarianism" title="History of vegetarianism">History of vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuisine" title="Hittite cuisine">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_cuisine" title="Inca cuisine">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_cuisine" title="Ancient Maya cuisine">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_cuisine" title="Muisca cuisine">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughlai_cuisine" title="Mughlai cuisine">Mughal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_foods" title="Peasant foods">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_cuisine_of_Hawaii" title="Native cuisine of Hawaii">Pre-contact Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_royal_court_cuisine" title="Korean royal court cuisine">Korean royal court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_the_Scottish_royal_household" title="Food and the Scottish royal household">Scottish royal household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_cuisine" title="Soviet cuisine">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Styles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_classique" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine classique">Classique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">Fast food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_cuisine" title="Fusion cuisine">Fusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_American_cuisine" title="New American cuisine">New American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_cuisine_of_Singapore_and_Malaysia" title="Eurasian cuisine of Singapore and Malaysia">Eurasian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haute_cuisine" title="Haute cuisine">Haute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_gastronomy" title="Molecular gastronomy">Molecular gastronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Note_by_Note_cuisine" title="Note by Note cuisine">Note by Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_cuisine" title="Nouvelle cuisine">Nouvelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_cuisine" title="Vegetarian cuisine">Vegetarian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cuisines" title="List of cuisines">List of cuisines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_cuisines" title="List of historical cuisines">List of historical cuisines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_foods" title="Lists of foods">Lists of foods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_prepared_foods" title="Lists of prepared foods">Prepared</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cookbook" title="Cookbook">Cookbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culinary_arts" title="Culinary arts">Culinary arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drink" title="Drink">Drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_history" title="Food history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">sociology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">Diet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meal" title="Meal">Meal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meal_preparation" title="Meal preparation">Meal preparation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Cuisine" title="Category:Cuisine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_cuisines" title="Outline of cuisines">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" 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