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era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Revolutionary era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participation_in_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participation_in_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Participation in politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participation_in_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Banking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_settlements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_settlements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Western settlements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_settlements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1880–1925" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1880–1925"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>1880–1925</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1880–1925-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1880–1925 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1880–1925-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immigration_of_Ashkenazi_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration_of_Ashkenazi_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Immigration of Ashkenazi Jews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration_of_Ashkenazi_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Response_to_Russian_pogroms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Response_to_Russian_pogroms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Response to Russian pogroms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Response_to_Russian_pogroms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restricting_immigration_from_Eastern_Europe_–_1924-1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restricting_immigration_from_Eastern_Europe_–_1924-1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Restricting immigration from Eastern Europe – 1924-1965</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restricting_immigration_from_Eastern_Europe_–_1924-1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_developments_1600s_to_1900s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_developments_1600s_to_1900s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Local developments 1600s to 1900s</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Local_developments_1600s_to_1900s-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Local developments 1600s to 1900s subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Local_developments_1600s_to_1900s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chicago,_Illinois" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chicago,_Illinois"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Chicago, Illinois</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chicago,_Illinois-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clarksburg,_West_Virginia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clarksburg,_West_Virginia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Clarksburg, West Virginia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clarksburg,_West_Virginia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wichita,_Kansas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wichita,_Kansas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Wichita, Kansas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wichita,_Kansas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oakland,_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oakland,_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Oakland, California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oakland,_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Orleans,_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Orleans,_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>New Orleans, Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Orleans,_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Maine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York_City,_New_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York_City,_New_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>New York City, New York</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_City,_New_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-San_Francisco,_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#San_Francisco,_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>San Francisco, California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-San_Francisco,_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Progressive_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progressive_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Progressive movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progressive_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Americanization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philanthropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philanthropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Philanthropy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philanthropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lynching_of_Leo_Frank" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lynching_of_Leo_Frank"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Lynching of Leo Frank</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lynching_of_Leo_Frank-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1930s_and_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1930s_and_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>1930s and World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1930s_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1930s and World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1930s_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Refugees_from_Nazi_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refugees_from_Nazi_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Refugees from Nazi Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refugees_from_Nazi_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-MS_St._Louis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MS_St._Louis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>MS St. Louis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MS_St._Louis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immigration_restrictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration_restrictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Immigration restrictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration_restrictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Jewish_response_to_The_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Jewish_response_to_The_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>American Jewish response to The Holocaust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Jewish_response_to_The_Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4.1</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Postwar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Postwar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Postwar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Postwar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exceptionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exceptionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Exceptionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exceptionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_State_of_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_State_of_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Creation of the State of Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_State_of_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Six-Day_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six-Day_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Six-Day War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Six-Day_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Civil rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_feminism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_feminism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Jewish feminism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_feminism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immigration_from_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration_from_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.7</span> <span>Immigration from the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration_from_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_developments_20th_and_21st_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_developments_20th_and_21st_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Local developments 20th and 21st centuries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Local_developments_20th_and_21st_centuries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Local developments 20th and 21st centuries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Local_developments_20th_and_21st_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nashville,_Tennessee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nashville,_Tennessee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Nashville, Tennessee</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nashville,_Tennessee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palm_Springs,_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palm_Springs,_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Palm Springs, California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palm_Springs,_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miami" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miami"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Miami</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miami-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Princeton,_New_Jersey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Princeton,_New_Jersey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.4</span> <span>Princeton, New Jersey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Princeton,_New_Jersey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beverly_Hills,_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beverly_Hills,_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.5</span> <span>Beverly Hills, California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beverly_Hills,_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York_City" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York_City"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.6</span> <span>New York City</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_City-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_to_affluence_in_the_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_to_affluence_in_the_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Rise to affluence in the 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_to_affluence_in_the_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Current situation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_situation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Current situation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Current_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Self_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Self identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antisemitism_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Antisemitism in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antisemitism_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_historical_archives_and_collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_historical_archives_and_collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Jewish historical archives and collections</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jewish_historical_archives_and_collections-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Jewish historical archives and collections subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Jewish_historical_archives_and_collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Audio_interviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio_interviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Audio interviews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio_interviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Written_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Written_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>Written resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Written_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.1</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Localities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Localities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.2</span> <span>Localities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Localities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialty_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="تاريخ اليهود في الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ اليهود في الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9" title="История на евреите в САЩ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на евреите в САЩ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_%C5%BDid%C5%AF_ve_Spojen%C3%BDch_st%C3%A1tech_americk%C3%BDch" title="Dějiny Židů ve Spojených státech amerických – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Židů ve Spojených státech amerických" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Juden_in_den_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Geschichte der Juden in den Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Juden in den Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_jud%C3%ADos_en_Estados_Unidos" title="Historia de los judíos en Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de los judíos en Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_Juifs_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Histoire des Juifs aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des Juifs aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86-%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="ԱՄՆ-ի հրեաների պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="ԱՄՆ-ի հրեաների պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi-Amerika_Serikat" title="Yahudi-Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Yahudi-Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_degli_ebrei_negli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Storia degli ebrei negli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia degli ebrei negli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AF_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87" title="په متحده ایالتونو کې د یهودو تاریخچه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په متحده ایالتونو کې د یهودو تاریخچه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="История евреев в США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История евреев в США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_%C5%BDidov_v_Spojen%C3%BDch_%C5%A1t%C3%A1toch_americk%C3%BDch" title="Dejiny Židov v Spojených štátoch amerických – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny Židov v Spojených štátoch amerických" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For contemporary American Jewish culture, see <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American Jews</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_orthographic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/USA_orthographic.svg/220px-USA_orthographic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/USA_orthographic.svg/330px-USA_orthographic.svg.png 1.5x, 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.sidebar-list-title{text-align:center;background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks US-history-sidebar vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b>This article is part of a series on the</b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States"><small>History of the </small><br />United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Timeline and periods</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until 1607</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1607–1765</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1765–1783</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1783–1788</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1788–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1801–1817</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1817–1825</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1825–1849</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1849–1865</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1865–1877</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1877–1896</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1896–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929–1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Post-World War II Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964–1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Era">Reagan Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932016)" title="History of the United States (1991–2016)">1991–2016</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post-Cold War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2016%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2016–present)">2016–present</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    Trump Era</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2016–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">Civil unrest</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Racial violence</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_flags_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime history of the United States">Maritime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">Social class</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Indian Americans">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans#History" title="German Americans">German American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transgender_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of transgender people in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic regions of the United States">Historic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">AL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">AK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">AZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">DE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">FL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">HI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">IL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">IN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">IA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">KS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">KY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">LA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">ME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">MA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">MN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">MS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">MT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">NE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">NV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">NH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">NJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">NM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">NY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">NC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">OH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">OK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">OR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">RI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">SC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">SD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">TX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">VT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">VA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">WA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">WV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">WI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">WY</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Territories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">GU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">MP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">PR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">VI</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of the Jews in the United States</b> goes back to the 1600s and 1700s. There have been <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish communities in the United States</a> since <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonial times</a>, with individuals living in various <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a> before the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. Early Jewish communities were primarily composed of <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> immigrants from Brazil, Amsterdam, or England, many of them fleeing the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>. </p><p>Private and civically unrecognized local, regional, and sometimes international networks were noted in these groups in order to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a> and business ties. This small and private colonial community largely existed as undeclared and non-practicing Jews, a great number deciding to intermarry with non-Jews. Later on, the vastly more numerous Ashkenazi Jews that came to populate New York, New Jersey, and elsewhere in what became the United States of America altered these demographics. </p><p>Until the 1830s, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="History of the Jews in Charleston, South Carolina">Jewish community of Charleston</a>, South Carolina, was the largest in North America. In the late 1800s and the beginning of the 1900s, many Jewish immigrants arrived from Europe. For example, many <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">German Jews</a> arrived in the middle of the 19th century, established clothing stores in towns across the country, formed <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform synagogues</a>, and were active in banking in New York. Immigration of Eastern <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>, in 1880–1914, brought a new wave of Jewish immigration to New York City, including many who became active in socialism and labor movements, as well as <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> Jews. </p><p>Refugees arrived from <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">diaspora</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">communities in Europe</a> during and after the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> and, after 1970, from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Politically, American Jews have been especially active as part of the liberal <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a> of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> since the 1930s, although recently there is a conservative Republican element among the Orthodox. They have displayed high education levels and high rates of upward <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> compared to several other ethnic and religious groups inside America. The Jewish communities in small towns have declined, with the population becoming increasingly concentrated in large metropolitan areas. <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism in the U.S.</a> has endured into the 21st century, although numerous cultural changes have taken place such as <a href="/wiki/American_Jews_in_politics" title="American Jews in politics">the election of many Jews into governmental positions at the local, state, and national levels</a>. </p><p>In the 1940s, Jews comprised 3.7% of the national population. As of 2019<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, at about 7.1 million,<sup id="cite_ref-USA-Jewish-pop_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA-Jewish-pop-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the population is 2% of <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States#Population" title="Demographics of the United States">the national total</a>—and shrinking as a result of low birth rates and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Jewish assimilation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest Jewish population centers are the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan areas</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area" title="New York metropolitan area">New York</a> (2.1 million), <a href="/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles" title="Greater Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> (617,000), <a href="/wiki/Miami_metropolitan_area" title="Miami metropolitan area">Miami</a> (527,750), <a href="/wiki/Washington_metropolitan_area" title="Washington metropolitan area">Washington, D.C.</a> (297,290), <a href="/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area" title="Chicago metropolitan area">Chicago</a> (294,280) and <a href="/wiki/Delaware_Valley" title="Delaware Valley">Philadelphia</a> (292,450).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_immigration">Jewish immigration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Jewish immigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism"><span class="wrap">Land of Israel</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah"><span class="wrap">Bar and bat mitzvah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"><span class="wrap">Kingdom of Judah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem"><span class="wrap">Temple in Jerusalem</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity"><span class="wrap">Assyrian captivity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity"><span class="wrap">Babylonian captivity</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty"><span class="wrap">Hasmonean dynasty</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a></span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Christianity and Judaism</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Hinduism and Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Islamic–Jewish</span> relations</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Arab–Israeli</span> conflict</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Palestine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa"><span class="wrap">South Africa</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">United Kingdom</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic"><span class="wrap">Dominican Republic</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico"><span class="wrap">Puerto Rico</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism"><span class="wrap">Reform</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism"><span class="wrap">Conversion to Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Jewish population of the U.S. is the product of waves of immigration primarily from diaspora communities in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>; emigration was initially inspired by the pull of American social and entrepreneurial opportunities, and later was a refuge from the peril of ongoing <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Europe" title="Antisemitism in Europe">antisemitism in Europe</a>. Few ever returned to Europe, although many have <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">made aliyah</a> to <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statistics demonstrate that there was a myth that no Jews returned to their previous diasporic lands, but while the rate was around 6%, it was much lower than for other ethnic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a population of 1,000–2,000 Jewish residents in 1790, mostly <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> who had immigrated to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, the American Jewish community grew to about 15,000 by 1840,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to about 250,000 by 1880. Most of the mid-19th century <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a> Jewish immigrants to the U.S. came from diaspora communities in German-speaking states, in addition to the larger concurrent <a href="/wiki/German_Americans#19th_century" title="German Americans">Christian German migration</a>. They initially spoke German, and settled across the nation, assimilating with their new countrymen; the Jews among them commonly engaged in trade, manufacturing, and operated dry goods (clothing) stores in many cities. </p><p>Between 1880 and the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1914, about 2,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>-speaking Ashkenazi Jews immigrated from diaspora communities in Eastern Europe, where repeated <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> made life untenable. They came from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Jewish diaspora communities of Russia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>), and the Russian-controlled portions of Poland. The latter group clustered in New York City, created the garment industry there, which supplied the dry goods stores across the country, and were heavily engaged in the trade unions. They immigrated alongside non-Jewish eastern and southern European immigrants, which was unlike the historically predominant American demographic from northern and western Europe; <a href="/wiki/United_States_immigration_statistics" title="United States immigration statistics">Records indicate</a> between 1880 and 1920 that these new immigrants rose from less than five percent of all European immigrants to nearly 50%. This change caused renewed <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativist</a> sentiment, the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Restriction_League" title="Immigration Restriction League">Immigration Restriction League</a>, and congressional studies by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Immigration_Commission" title="United States Congressional Joint Immigration Commission">Dillingham Commission</a> from 1907 to 1911. The <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act" title="Emergency Quota Act">Emergency Quota Act</a> of 1921 established immigration restrictions specifically on these groups, and the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a> further tightened and codified these limits. With the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and despite worsening conditions for Jews in Europe with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, these quotas remained in place with minor alterations until the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965</a>. </p><p>Jews quickly created support networks consisting of many small <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> and Ashkenazi Jewish <i><a href="/wiki/Landsmannschaft_(Studentenverbindung)" title="Landsmannschaft (Studentenverbindung)">Landsmannschaften</a></i> (German for "Territorial Associations") for Jews from the same town or village. </p><p>Leaders of the time urged <a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">assimilation</a> and integration into the wider <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">American culture</a>, and Jews quickly became part of American life. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, 500,000 American Jews, about half of all Jewish males between 18 and 50, enlisted for service, and after the war, Jewish families joined the new trend of <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a>, as they became wealthier and more mobile. The Jewish community expanded to other major cities, particularly around <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>. Their young people attended secular high schools and colleges and met non-Jews, so that <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage" title="Interfaith marriage">intermarriage</a> rates soared to nearly 50%. Synagogue membership, however, grew considerably, from 20% of the Jewish population in 1930 to 60% in 1960. </p><p>The earlier waves of immigration and immigration restriction were followed by <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> that destroyed most of the European Jewish community by 1945; these also made the United States the home for the largest Jewish diaspora population in the world. In 1900 there were 1.5 million American Jews; in 2005 there were 5.3 million. See <a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Jewish population comparisons">Historical Jewish population comparisons</a>. </p><p>The most recent Jewish communities to immigrate to the United States en masse are <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Jews" title="Iranian Jews">Iranian Jews</a>, who primarily immigrated to the United States in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Revolution">Islamic Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Jews">Soviet Jews</a> who came after the fall of the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On a theological level, <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American Jews</a> are divided into a number of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish denominations</a>, of which the most numerous are <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a>. However, roughly 25% of American Jews are unaffiliated with any denomination.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conservative Judaism arose in America and Reform Judaism was founded in Germany and popularized by American Jews. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_era">Colonial era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Colonial era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colonial_America" title="History of the Jews in Colonial America">History of the Jews in Colonial America</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Touro_Synagogue,_Newport,_RI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Touro_Synagogue%2C_Newport%2C_RI.jpg/250px-Touro_Synagogue%2C_Newport%2C_RI.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Touro_Synagogue%2C_Newport%2C_RI.jpg/375px-Touro_Synagogue%2C_Newport%2C_RI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Touro_Synagogue%2C_Newport%2C_RI.jpg/500px-Touro_Synagogue%2C_Newport%2C_RI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1843" data-file-height="1355" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Touro_Synagogue" title="Touro Synagogue">Touro Synagogue</a>, built in 1759 in <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport, Rhode Island</a>, is America's oldest surviving synagogue.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gomez_Mill_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gomez_Mill_House.jpg/250px-Gomez_Mill_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gomez_Mill_House.jpg/375px-Gomez_Mill_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gomez_Mill_House.jpg/500px-Gomez_Mill_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2478" data-file-height="1566" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gomez_Mill_House" title="Gomez Mill House">Gomez Mill House</a>, built in 1714 near <a href="/wiki/Marlboro,_New_York" title="Marlboro, New York">Marlboro, New York</a> by a Sephardic Jew from Portugal. Earliest surviving Jewish residence in the U.S.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Carvajal_y_de_la_Cueva" title="Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva">Luis de Carabajal y Cueva</a>, a Spanish conquistador and <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">converso</a> first set foot in what is now Texas in 1570. The first Jewish-born person to set foot on American soil was <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gans" title="Joachim Gans">Joachim Gans</a> in 1584. Elias Legarde (a.k.a. Legardo) was a Sephardic Jew who arrived at James City, Virginia, on the <i>Abigail</i> in 1621.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Leon Huhner, Legarde was from <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a>, France, and was hired to go to the Colony to teach people how to grow grapes for wine.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elias Legarde was living in Buckroe in Elizabeth City in February 1624. Legarde was employed by Anthonie Bonall, who was a French silk maker and vigneron (cultivator of vineyards for winemaking), one of the men from Languedoc sent to the colony by John Bonall, keeper of the silkworms of King James I.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1628, Legarde leased 100 acres (40 ha) on the west side of Harris Creek in Elizabeth City.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josef Mosse and Rebecca Isaake are documented in <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_City,_North_Carolina" title="Elizabeth City, North Carolina">Elizabeth City</a> in 1624. John Levy patented 200 acres (81 ha) of land on the main branch of <a href="/wiki/Powell%27s_Creek_(James_River_tributary)" title="Powell's Creek (James River tributary)">Powell's Creek, Virginia</a>, around 1648, Albino Lupo who traded with his brother, Amaso de Tores, in London. Two brothers named Silvedo and Manuel Rodriguez are documented to be in Lancaster County, Virginia, around 1650.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of the Jews in Virginia were forced to leave under any conditions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Franco" title="Solomon Franco">Solomon Franco</a>, a Jewish merchant, arrived in Boston in 1649; subsequently, he was given a stipend from the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> there, on the condition that he leave on the next passage back to <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1654, shortly before the <a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Jewish New Year</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_arrival_in_New_Amsterdam" title="Jewish arrival in New Amsterdam">twenty-three Jews from the Sephardic community</a> in the Netherlands, coming from <a href="/wiki/Recife" title="Recife">Recife</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, then a Dutch colony, arrived in <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>). Governor <a href="/wiki/Peter_Stuyvesant" title="Peter Stuyvesant">Peter Stuyvesant</a> tried to enhance his <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> by discriminating against other religions, but religious pluralism was already a tradition in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and his superiors at the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> overruled him.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1664 the English conquered New Amsterdam and renamed it New York. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg/220px-Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg/330px-Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg/440px-Early_Jewish_Congregations_in_the_13_Colonies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>A map of Jewish congregations in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen British North American colonies</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Religious tolerance was also established elsewhere in the colonies. The charter of the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_period_of_South_Carolina" title="Colonial period of South Carolina">colony of South Carolina</a> granted liberty of conscience to all settlers, expressly mentioning "Jews, heathens, and dissenters."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a> has a particularly <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="History of the Jews in Charleston, South Carolina">long history</a> of Sephardic settlement,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, in 1816, numbered over 600—then the largest Jewish population of any city in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sephardic Dutch Jews were also among the early settlers of <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport</a> (where <a href="/wiki/Touro_Synagogue" title="Touro Synagogue">Touro Synagogue</a>, the country's oldest surviving synagogue building, stands), <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In New York City, <a href="/wiki/Congregation_Shearith_Israel" title="Congregation Shearith Israel">Congregation Shearith Israel</a> is the oldest continuous congregation started in 1687 having their first synagogue erected in 1728, and its current building still houses some of the original pieces of that first.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutionary_era">Revolutionary era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Revolutionary era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a> in 1776, around 2,000 Jews lived in the British North American colonies, most of them <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> who immigrated from the Dutch Republic, Great Britain, and the Iberian Peninsula. Many American Jews supported the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriot cause</a>, with some enlisting in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>; <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolinian</a> planter <a href="/wiki/Francis_Salvador" title="Francis Salvador">Francis Salvador</a> became the first American Jew to be killed in action during the war, while businessman <a href="/wiki/Haym_Salomon" title="Haym Salomon">Haym Solomon</a> joined the New York branch of the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a> and became one of the key financiers to the Continental Army.<sup id="cite_ref-har_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-har-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest ranking Jewish officer in the Patriot forces was <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Sheftall" title="Mordecai Sheftall">Mordecai Sheftall</a>; whether or not <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general" title="Brigadier general">Brigadier general</a> <a href="/wiki/Moses_Hazen" title="Moses Hazen">Moses Hazen</a> was Jewish is still the subject of debate among historians.<sup id="cite_ref-NGE_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NGE-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other American Jews, including <a href="/wiki/David_Franks_(aide-de-camp)" title="David Franks (aide-de-camp)">David Franks</a>, suffered from their association with Continental Army officer <a href="/wiki/Benedict_Arnold" title="Benedict Arnold">Benedict Arnold</a> (Franks served Arnold as an <a href="/wiki/Aide-de-camp" title="Aide-de-camp">aide-de-camp</a>) during his defection to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> in 1780.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> remembered the Jewish contribution when he wrote to the <a href="/wiki/Touro_Synagogue" title="Touro Synagogue">Sephardic congregation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport, Rhode Island</a>, in a letter dated August 17, 1790: </p> <blockquote><p> May the children of the stock of Abraham who dwell in the land continue to merit and enjoy the goodwill of the other inhabitants. While everyone shall sit safely under his own vine and fig-tree and there shall be none to make him afraid. </p></blockquote> <p>A small Jewish community had developed in Newport over the 18th century; this included <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Lopez" title="Aaron Lopez">Aaron Lopez</a>, a Jewish merchant who played a significant role in the town's involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1790, the approximate 2,500-strong American Jewish community faced a number of legal restrictions in various states that prevented non-Christians from holding public office and voting, though the state governments of Delaware, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Georgia soon eliminated these barriers, as did the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">U.S. Bill of Rights</a> in 1791 more generally. Sephardic Jews became active in community affairs in the 1790s, after achieving "political equality in the five states in which they were most numerous."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other barriers did not officially fall for decades in the states of Rhode Island (1842), North Carolina (1868), and New Hampshire (1877). Despite these restrictions, which were often enforced unevenly, there were really too few Jews in 17th- and 18th-century America for anti-Jewish incidents to become a significant social or political phenomenon at the time. The evolution of Jews from toleration to full civil and political equality that followed the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> helped ensure that <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a> would never become as common as in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jewish_education_in_the_United_States_before_the_20th_century" title="History of Jewish education in the United States before the 20th century">History of Jewish education in the United States before the 20th century</a></div> <p>Following traditional religious and cultural teachings about improving a lot of their brethren, Jewish residents in the United States began to organize their communities in the early 19th century. Early examples include a Jewish orphanage set up in Charleston, South Carolina in 1801, and the first Jewish school, Polonies Talmud Torah, established in New York in 1806. In 1843, the first national secular Jewish organization in the United States, the <a href="/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith" title="B'nai B'rith">B'nai B'rith</a> was established. </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Texas" title="History of the Jews in Texas">Jewish Texans</a> have been a part of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas History</a> since the first <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> explorers arrived in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a> did not welcome easily identifiable Jews, but they came in any case. <a href="/wiki/Jao_de_la_Porta" title="Jao de la Porta">Jao de la Porta</a> was with <a href="/wiki/Jean_Lafitte" title="Jean Lafitte">Jean Laffite</a> at <a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston, Texas</a> in 1816, and Maurice Henry was in Velasco in the late 1820s. Jews fought in the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a> of 1836, some with Fannin at Goliad, others at San Jacinto. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Levy_(surgeon)" title="Albert Levy (surgeon)">Dr. Albert Levy</a> became a surgeon to revolutionary Texan forces in 1835, participated in the capture of Béxar, and joined the Texas Navy the next year.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1840, Jews constituted a tiny, but nonetheless stable, middle-class minority of about 15,000 out of the 17 million Americans counted by the U.S. Census. Jews intermarried rather freely with non-Jews, continuing a trend that had begun at least a century earlier. However, as immigration increased the Jewish population to 50,000 by 1848, negative stereotypes of Jews in newspapers, literature, drama, art and popular culture grew more commonplace, and physical attacks became more frequent. </p><p>During the 19th century, (especially the 1840s and 1850s), Jewish immigration was primarily of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> from <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, bringing a liberal, educated population that had experience with the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>, or Jewish Enlightenment. It was in the United States during the 19th century that two of the major branches of Judaism were established by these German immigrants: <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a> (out of German Reform Judaism) and <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a>, in reaction to the perceived liberalness of Reform Judaism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_War">Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JewishConfederate.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/JewishConfederate.JPG/220px-JewishConfederate.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/JewishConfederate.JPG/330px-JewishConfederate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/JewishConfederate.JPG/440px-JewishConfederate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Grave of Jewish <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate</a> soldier near <a href="/wiki/Clinton,_Louisiana" title="Clinton, Louisiana">Clinton, Louisiana</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, approximately 3,000 Jews (out of around 150,000 Jews in the United States) fought on the Confederate side and 7,000 fought on the Union side.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews also played leadership roles on both sides, with nine Jewish generals serving in the Union Army, the most notable of whom were <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)" title="Brigadier general (United States)">brigadier generals</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Salomon" title="Edward S. Salomon">Edward S. Salomon</a> (who attained the rank at the age of 29) and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Knefler" title="Frederick Knefler">Frederick Knefler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also twenty-one Jewish <a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">colonels</a> who fought for the Union, including <a href="/wiki/Marcus_M._Spiegel" title="Marcus M. Spiegel">Marcus M. Spiegel</a> of Ohio.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Max Friedman, who commanded the 65th Pennsylvania Regiment, 5th Cavalry, known as Cameron's Dragoons or the Cameron Dragoons, which had a sizable number of German Jewish immigrants from Philadelphia in its ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several dozens of Jewish officers also fought for the Confederacy, most notably Colonel <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Myers" title="Abraham Myers">Abraham Charles Myers</a>, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">West Point</a> graduate and <a href="/wiki/Quartermaster_general" title="Quartermaster general">quartermaster general</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Judah P. Benjamin</a> served as <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Secretary_of_State" title="Confederate States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> and acting <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Secretary_of_War" title="Confederate States Secretary of War">Secretary of War of the Confederacy</a>. </p><p>Several Jewish bankers played key roles in providing government financing for both sides of the Civil War: the <a href="/wiki/Speyer_family" title="Speyer family">Speyer family</a> and the <a href="/wiki/J._%26_W._Seligman_%26_Co." title="J. & W. Seligman & Co.">Seligman family</a> for the Union, and <a href="/wiki/Emile_Erlanger_%26_Co." title="Emile Erlanger & Co.">Emile Erlanger and Company</a> for the Confederacy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 1862 Major General <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, angry at the illegal trade in smuggled cotton, issued <a href="/wiki/General_Order_No._11_(1862)" title="General Order No. 11 (1862)">General Order No. 11</a> expelling Jews from areas under his control in western <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>The Jews, as a class violating every regulation of trade established by the Treasury Department and also department orders, are hereby expelled ... within twenty-four hours from the receipt of this order.</p></blockquote> <p>Jews appealed to President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, who immediately ordered General Grant to rescind the order. Sarna notes that there was a "surge in many forms of anti-Jewish intolerance" at the time. Sarna, however, concludes that the long-term implications were highly favorable, for the episode: </p> <blockquote><p>also empowered Jews with the knowledge that they could fight back against bigotry and win, even against a prominent general. The overturning of Grant's order, especially on top of the victory in the chaplaincy affair, appreciably strengthened the Jewish community and increased its self-confidence. The successes also validated an activist Jewish communal policy that based claims to equality on American law and values, while relying on help from public officials to combat prejudice and defend Jews' minority rights.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participation_in_politics">Participation in politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Participation in politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Relationship_of_American_Jews_to_the_U.S._Federal_Government_before_the_20th_century" title="Relationship of American Jews to the U.S. Federal Government before the 20th century">Relationship of American Jews to the U.S. Federal Government before the 20th century</a></div> <p>Jews also began to organize as a political group in the United States, especially in response to the United States reaction to the 1840 <a href="/wiki/Damascus_affair" title="Damascus affair">Damascus Blood Libel</a>. The first Jewish member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Charles_Levin" title="Lewis Charles Levin">Lewis Charles Levin</a>, and Senator <a href="/wiki/David_Levy_Yulee" title="David Levy Yulee">David Levy Yulee</a>, were elected in 1845 (although Yulee converted to <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopalianism</a> the following year). Official government antisemitism continued, however, with <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> only offering equality to Jews and Catholics in 1877,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the last state to do so. </p><p>Grant very much regretted his wartime order; he publicly apologized for it. When he became president in 1869, he set out to make amends. Sarna argues: </p> <blockquote><p>Eager to prove that he was above prejudice, Grant appointed more Jews to public office than had any of his predecessors and, in the name of human rights, he extended unprecedented support to persecuted Jews in Russia and Romania. Time and again, partly as a result of this enlarged vision of what it meant to be an American and partly in order to live down General Orders No. 11, Grant consciously worked to assist Jews and secure them equality. ... Through his appointments and policies, Grant rejected calls for a 'Christian nation' and embraced Jews as insiders in America, part of "we the people." During his administration, Jews achieved heightened status on the national scene, anti-Jewish prejudice declined, and Jews look forward optimistically to a liberal epoch characterized by sensitivity to human rights and interreligious cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banking">Banking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Banking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_investment_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of investment banking in the United States">History of investment banking in the United States</a></div> <p>In the middle of the 19th century, a number of German Jews founded investment banking firms which later became mainstays of the industry. Most prominent Jewish banks in the United States were <a href="/wiki/Investment_banking" title="Investment banking">investment banks</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Commercial_bank" title="Commercial bank">commercial banks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important banking firms included <a href="/wiki/Goldman_Sachs" title="Goldman Sachs">Goldman Sachs</a> (founded by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Sachs" title="Samuel Sachs">Samuel Sachs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Goldman" title="Marcus Goldman">Marcus Goldman</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kuhn,_Loeb_%26_Co." title="Kuhn, Loeb & Co.">Kuhn Loeb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solomon_Loeb" title="Solomon Loeb">Solomon Loeb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Schiff" title="Jacob Schiff">Jacob Schiff</a>), <a href="/wiki/Lehman_Brothers" title="Lehman Brothers">Lehman Brothers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henry_Lehman" title="Henry Lehman">Henry Lehman</a>), <a href="/wiki/Salomon_Brothers" title="Salomon Brothers">Salomon Brothers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bache_%26_Co." title="Bache & Co.">Bache & Co.</a> (founded by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bache" title="Jules Bache">Jules Bache</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/J._%26_W._Seligman_%26_Co." title="J. & W. Seligman & Co.">J. & W. Seligman & Co.</a> was a large investment bank from the 1860s to the 1920s. By the 1930s, Jewish presence in private investment banking had diminished dramatically.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_settlements">Western settlements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Western settlements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the nineteenth-century, Jews began settling throughout the American West. The majority were immigrants, with German Jews comprising most of the early nineteenth-century wave of Jewish immigration to the United States and therefore to the Western states and territories, while Eastern European Jews migrated in greater numbers and comprised most of the migratory westward wave at the close of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> of 1849, Jews established themselves prominently on the West Coast, with important settlements in <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a>; <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle, Washington</a>; and especially <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, which became the second-largest Jewish city in the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eisenberg, Kahn, and Toll (2009) emphasize the creative freedom Jews found in western society, unburdening them from past traditions and opening up new opportunities for entrepreneurship, philanthropy, and civic leadership. Regardless of origin, many early Jewish settlers worked as peddlers before establishing themselves as merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous entrepreneurs opened shop in large cities like San Francisco to service the mining industry, as well as in smaller communities like <a href="/wiki/Deadwood,_South_Dakota" title="Deadwood, South Dakota">Deadwood, South Dakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bisbee,_Arizona" title="Bisbee, Arizona">Bisbee, Arizona</a>, which sprung up throughout the resource-rich West. The most popular specialty was clothing merchant, followed by the small-scale manufacturing and general retailing. For example, <a href="/wiki/Levi_Strauss" title="Levi Strauss">Levi Strauss</a> (1829 – 1902) started as a wholesale dealer in with clothing, bedding, and notions; by 1873 he introduced the first <a href="/wiki/Jeans" title="Jeans">blue jeans</a>, an immediate hit for miners, and later, informal urban wear.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everyone was a newcomer, and the Jews were generally accepted with few signs of discrimination, according to Eisenberg, Kahn, and Toll (2009). </p><p>Though many Jewish immigrants to the West found success as merchants, others worked as bankers, miners, freighters, ranchers, and farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Otto_Mears" title="Otto Mears">Otto Mears</a> helped to build railroads across Colorado, while <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/don-solomono-jewish-indian-chief/">Solomon Bibo</a> became the governor of the Acoma Pueblo Indians. Though these are by no means the only two Jewish immigrants to make names for themselves in the West, they help to showcase the wide variety of paths that Jewish settlers pursued. Organizations like the <a href="/wiki/HIAS" title="HIAS">Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_de_Hirsch" title="Maurice de Hirsch">Baron Maurice de Hirsch</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish-agricultural-and-industrial-aid-society">Jewish Agricultural Society</a> served as a conduit for connecting Jewish newcomers arriving from Europe with settlements in the Upper Midwest, Southwest, and Far West. In other cases, family connections served as the primary network drawing more Jews to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jeanette Abrams argues persuasively that Jewish women played a prominent role in the establishment of Jewish communities throughout the West.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the first synagogue in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tucson,_Arizona" title="Tucson, Arizona">Tucson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Temple_Emanu-El_(Tucson)" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple Emanu-El (Tucson)">Temple Emanu-El</a>, was established by the local <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jmaw.org/temple-emanuel-tucson-synagogue/">Hebrew Ladies Benevolent Society</a>, as was the case for many synagogues in the West. Likewise, many Jewish activists and community leaders became prominent in municipal and state politics, winning election to public office with little attention paid to their Jewish identity. They set up Reform congregations and generally gave little support to Zionism down to the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 20th century, Metropolitan Los Angeles became the second-largest Jewish base in the United States. The most dramatic cast of newcomers there was in Hollywood, where Jewish producers were the dominant force in the film industry after 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1880–1925"><span id="1880.E2.80.931925"></span>1880–1925</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1880–1925"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration_of_Ashkenazi_Jews">Immigration of Ashkenazi Jews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Immigration of Ashkenazi Jews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">Antisemitism in the Russian Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Happynewyearcard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/225px-Happynewyearcard.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/338px-Happynewyearcard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>In this <a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a> greeting card from the early 20th century, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews would flee the <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> to the safety of the U.S. from 1881 to 1924.</figcaption></figure> <p>None of the early migratory movements assumed the significance and volume of that from <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and neighboring countries. Between the last two decades of the nineteenth century and the first quarter of the twentieth century, there was a mass emigration of Jewish peoples from Eastern and Southern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During that period, 2.8 million European Jews immigrated to the United States, with 94% of them coming from Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This emigration, mainly from diaspora communities in <a href="/wiki/Vistula_Land" title="Vistula Land">Russian Poland</a> and other areas of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, began as far back as 1821, but did not become especially noteworthy until after <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German immigration</a> fell off in 1870. Though nearly 50,000 Russian, Polish, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galician</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romanian</a> Jews went to the United States during the succeeding decade, it was not until the <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>, anti-Jewish riots in Russia, of the early 1880s, that the immigration assumed extraordinary proportions. From Russia alone the emigration rose from an annual average of 4,100 in the decade 1871–80 to an annual average of 20,700 in the decade 1881–90. Antisemitism and official measures of persecution over the past century combined with the desire for economic freedom and opportunity have motivated a continuing flow of Jewish immigrants from Russia and Central Europe over the past century. </p><p>The Russian pogroms, beginning in 1900, forced large numbers of Jews to seek refuge in the U.S. Though most of these immigrants arrived on the Eastern seaboard, many came as part of the <a href="/wiki/Galveston_Movement" title="Galveston Movement">Galveston Movement</a>, through which Jewish immigrants settled in Texas as well as the western states and territories.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1915, the circulation of the daily <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> newspapers was half a million in New York City alone, and 600,000 nationally. In addition, thousands more subscribed to the numerous weekly Yiddish papers and the many magazines.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yiddish theater was very well attended and provided a training ground for performers and producers who moved to Hollywood in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Response_to_Russian_pogroms">Response to Russian pogroms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Response to Russian pogroms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Repeated large-scale murderous pogroms in the late 19th and early 20th century increasingly angered American opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The well-established German Jews in the United States, although they were not directly affected by the Russian pogroms, were well organized and convinced Washington to support the cause of Jews in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Led by <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Straus_(politician)" title="Oscar Straus (politician)">Oscar Straus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Schiff" title="Jacob Schiff">Jacob Schiff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mayer_Sulzberger" title="Mayer Sulzberger">Mayer Sulzberger</a>, and Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Samuel_Wise" title="Stephen Samuel Wise">Stephen Samuel Wise</a>, they organized protest meetings, issued publicity, and met with President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> and Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Hay" title="John Hay">John Hay</a>. Stuart E. Knee reports that in April 1903, Roosevelt received 363 addresses, 107 letters, and 24 petitions signed by thousands of Christians leading public and church leaders—they all called on the Tsar to stop the persecution of Jews. Public rallies were held in scores of cities, topped off at Carnegie Hall in New York in May. The Tsar retreated a bit and fired one local official after the <a href="/wiki/Kishinev_pogrom" title="Kishinev pogrom">Kishinev pogrom</a>, which Roosevelt explicitly denounced. But Roosevelt was mediating the war between Russia and Japan and could not publicly take sides. Therefore, Secretary Hay took the initiative in Washington. Finally Roosevelt forwarded a petition to the Tsar, who rejected it claiming the Jews were at fault. Roosevelt won Jewish support in his 1904 landslide reelection. The pogroms continued, as hundreds of thousands of Jews fled Russia, most heading for London or New York. With American public opinion turning against Russia, Congress officially denounced its policies in 1906. Roosevelt kept a low profile as did his new Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</a>. In late 1906, Roosevelt appointed the first Jew to the cabinet: <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Straus_(politician)" title="Oscar Straus (politician)">Oscar Straus</a>, becoming Secretary of Commerce and Labor.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restricting_immigration_from_Eastern_Europe_–_1924-1965"><span id="Restricting_immigration_from_Eastern_Europe_.E2.80.93_1924-1965"></span>Restricting immigration from Eastern Europe – 1924-1965</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Restricting immigration from Eastern Europe – 1924-1965"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1924, 2 million Jews had arrived from Central and Eastern Europe. Anti-immigration feelings growing in the United States at this time resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">National Origins Quota of 1924</a>, which severely restricted immigration from many regions, including Eastern Europe. The Jewish community took the lead in opposing immigration restrictions. In the 1930s they worked hard to allow in Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. They had very little success; the restrictions remained in effect until 1965, although temporary opportunities were given to refugees from Europe after 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_developments_1600s_to_1900s">Local developments 1600s to 1900s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Local developments 1600s to 1900s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chicago,_Illinois"><span id="Chicago.2C_Illinois"></span>Chicago, Illinois</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Chicago, Illinois"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chicago" title="History of the Jews in Chicago">History of the Jews in Chicago</a></div> <p>The first Jews to settle in Chicago after its 1833 incorporation were Ashkenazi. In the late 1830s and early 1840s German Jews arrived in Chicago, mostly from Bavaria. Many Jews in Chicago became street peddlers or eventually opened stores, some of which grew to larger companies. In the early 20th century, a wave of Ashkenazi Jews arrived, fleeing the pogroms in Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clarksburg,_West_Virginia"><span id="Clarksburg.2C_West_Virginia"></span>Clarksburg, West Virginia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Clarksburg, West Virginia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1900, five of seven clothing merchants in Clarksburg, West Virginia, were Jewish, and into the 1930s the Jews here were primarily merchants. Because of the need to expand their synagogue, the Orthodox Jewish congregation merged with a smaller Reform group to form a compromise Conservative congregation in 1939, and Jewish community life in Clarksburg centered on this synagogue. The community, which reached a population peak of about three hundred in the mid-1950s, is still represented by about thirty families.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wichita,_Kansas"><span id="Wichita.2C_Kansas"></span>Wichita, Kansas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wichita, Kansas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Jews of Wichita, Kansas, fashioned an ethnoreligious world that was distinct, vibrant, and tailored to their circumstances. They had migrated west with capital, credit, and know-how, and their family-based businesses were extensions of family businesses in the east. They distinguished themselves in educational, leadership, and civic positions. Predominantly <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">German Jews</a> through the 1880s, their remoteness and small numbers encouraged the practice of Reform Judaism. The arrival of conservative Jews from Eastern Europe after the 1880s brought tension into the Wichita Jewish community, but also stirred an ethnoreligious revival. The German Jews were well respected in the Wichita community, which facilitated the integration of the Eastern European newcomers. The Jewish community was characterized by a "dynamic tension" between tradition and modernization.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oakland,_California"><span id="Oakland.2C_California"></span>Oakland, California</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Oakland, California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Jewish community in Oakland, California, is representative of many cities. Jews played a prominent role, and were among the pioneers of Oakland in the 1850s. In the early years, the Oakland Hebrew Benevolent Society, founded in 1862, was the religious, social, and charitable center of the community. The first synagogue, the First Hebrew Congregation of Oakland, was founded in 1875. The synagogue, also known as Temple Sinai, took over the religious and burial functions for the community. Jews from Poland predominated in the community, and most of them worked in some aspect of the clothing industry. David Solis-Cohen, the noted author,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a leader in the Oakland Jewish community in the 1870s. In 1879 Oakland's growing Jewish community organized a second congregation, a strictly orthodox group, Poel Zedek. Women's religious organizations flourished, their charitable services extending to needy gentiles as well as Jews. Oakland Jewry was part of the greater San Francisco community, yet maintained its own character. In 1881 the First Hebrew Congregation of Oakland, elected Myer Solomon Levy as its rabbi. The London-born Levy practiced traditional Judaism. Oakland's Jews were pushed hard to excel in school, both secular and religious. Fannie Bernstein was the first Jew to graduate from the University of California at Berkeley, in 1883. First Hebrew Congregation sponsored a Sabbath school which had 75 children in 1887. Oakland Jewry was active in public affairs and charitable projects in the 1880s. Rabbi Myer S. Levy was chaplain to the state legislature in 1885. The Daughters of Israel Relief Society continued its good works both inside and outside the Jewish community. Beth Jacob, the traditional congregation of Old World Polish Jews, continued its separate religious practices while it maintained friendly relations with the members of the first Hebrew Congregation. Able social and political leadership came from David Samuel Hirshberg. Until 1886 he was an officer in the Grand Lodge of B'nai B'rith. He served as Under Sheriff of Alameda County in 1883 and was active in Democratic party affairs. In 1885 he was appointed Chief Clerk of the U.S. Mint in San Francisco. As a politician, he had detractors who accused him of using his position in B'nai B'rith to foster his political career. When refugees from the fire-stricken, poorer Jewish quarter of San Francisco came to Oakland, the synagogue provided immediate aid. Food and clothing were given to the needy and 350 people were given a place to sleep. For about a week the synagogue fed up to 500 people three times a day. A large part of the expenses were paid by the Jewish Ladies' organization of the synagogue.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Orleans,_Louisiana"><span id="New_Orleans.2C_Louisiana"></span>New Orleans, Louisiana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: New Orleans, Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of the <a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a>, Jews were excluded from the French territory of Louisiana until 1803. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Cohen_Labatt" title="Abraham Cohen Labatt">Abraham Cohen Labatt</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jew</a> from South Carolina, helped found the first Jewish congregation in Louisiana in the 1830s. <a href="/wiki/Leon_Godchaux" title="Leon Godchaux">Leon Godchaux</a>, a Jewish immigrant from <a href="/wiki/Lorraine" title="Lorraine">Lorraine</a>, opened a clothing business in 1844. Isidore Newman established the <a href="/wiki/Maison_Blanche" title="Maison Blanche">Maison Blanche</a> store on <a href="/wiki/Canal_Street,_New_Orleans" title="Canal Street, New Orleans">Canal Street</a>. In 1870, the city's elite German Jews founded Temple Sinai, the first synagogue in New Orleans founded as a Reform congregation. Most Jews in New Orleans were loyal supporters of the Confederacy but Orthodox Eastern European Jews never outnumbered the Reform "German Uptown" Jews. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_D._A._Cohen" title="Elizabeth D. A. Cohen">Elizabeth D. A. Cohen</a> was the first female physician in Louisiana. <a href="/wiki/Leon_C._Weiss" title="Leon C. Weiss">Leon C. Weiss</a> became Governor <a href="/wiki/Huey_Long" title="Huey Long">Huey Long</a>'s favorite architect, and designed the new <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_Capitol" title="Louisiana State Capitol">state capitol</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana" title="Baton Rouge, Louisiana">Baton Rouge</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> in 2005, only about 70% of the city's pre-Katrina Jewish population had returned.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maine">Maine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Maine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Maine" title="History of the Jews in Maine">History of the Jews in Maine</a></div> <p>Jews have been living in Maine for 200 years, with significant Jewish communities in Bangor as early as the 1840s and in Portland since the 1880s. The arrival of Susman Abrams in 1785 was followed by a history of immigration and settlement that parallels the history of Jewish immigration to the United States. What initially brought people to these various towns around Maine was the promise of work, often linked with opportunities that supported Maine's shipbuilding, lumber and mill industries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_City,_New_York"><span id="New_York_City.2C_New_York"></span>New York City, New York</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: New York City, New York"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York" title="History of the Jews in New York">History of the Jews in New York</a></div> <p>In 1654, the first group of Jews came as refugees from Recife, Brazil to New Amsterdam, which became New York City. Over the years, German, Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews continued to arrive, playing an important part in the city's history and cultural life. In the late 1800s and early 20th century, a wave of Ashkenazi Jews fleeing the pogroms in Eastern Europe came to the city, bringing New York's Jewish population to over 1 million in 1910, the world's largest Jewish population in any city at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-NYC_JVL_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYC_JVL-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="San_Francisco,_California"><span id="San_Francisco.2C_California"></span>San Francisco, California</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: San Francisco, California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_San_Francisco" title="History of the Jews in San Francisco">History of the Jews in San Francisco</a></div> <p>Jews formed a community in San Francisco during the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>, 1848–55.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Levi_Strauss" title="Levi Strauss">Levi Strauss</a>, founder of the first company to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Jeans" title="Jeans">blue jeans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Levi_Strauss_%26_Co." title="Levi Strauss & Co.">Levi Strauss & Co.</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a>, LGBT rights activist and politician,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were famous Jewish San Franciscans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Progressive_movement">Progressive movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Progressive movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abolish_child_slavery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Abolish_child_slavery.jpg/250px-Abolish_child_slavery.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Abolish_child_slavery.jpg/375px-Abolish_child_slavery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Abolish_child_slavery.jpg/500px-Abolish_child_slavery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2811" data-file-height="1919" /></a><figcaption>Half-length portrait of two girls wearing banners with slogan "ABOLISH CHILD SLAVERY!!" in English and <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>. Most likely taken during May 1, 1909 labor parade in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the influx of Jews from Central and Eastern Europe many members of the Jewish community were attracted to labor and socialist movements and numerous Jewish newspapers such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Forward" title="The Forward">Forwerts</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Morgen_Freiheit" title="Morgen Freiheit">Morgen Freiheit</a></i> had a socialist orientation. Left wing organizations such as <a href="/wiki/The_Workers_Circle" title="The Workers Circle">The Workmen's Circle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Workers_Order" title="International Workers Order">Jewish People's Fraternal Order</a> played an important part in Jewish community life until World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jewish Americans were not just involved in nearly every important social movement but in the forefront of promoting such issues as workers rights, civil rights, civil liberties, woman's rights, freedom of religion, peace movements, and various other <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">progressive causes</a> such as fighting prejudice.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Americanization">Americanization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Americanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rapid assimilation into American culture of recent immigrants, dubbed <a href="/wiki/Americanization_(immigration)" title="Americanization (immigration)">Americanization</a>, was a high priority for the established German Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Schiff" title="Jacob Schiff">Jacob Schiff</a> played a major role. As a wealthy German Jew, Schiff shaped key decisions providing help to Eastern European Jews and fought against immigration restriction. A Reform Jew, he backed the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">Jewish Theological Seminary</a> even though it was a Conservative project. He took a stand favoring a modified form of Zionism, reversing his earlier opposition. Above all, Schiff believed that American Jewry could live in both the Jewish and American worlds, creating a balance that made possible an enduring American Jewish community.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Jewish_Women" title="National Council of Jewish Women">National Council of Jewish Women</a> (NCJW), founded in Chicago in 1893, promoted philanthropy and the Americanization of newly arrived Jewish women. Responding to the plight of Jewish women and girls from Eastern Europe, the NCJW created its Department of Immigrant Aid to assist their travels. The NCJW's Americanization program included assisting immigrants with housing, health, and employment problems, connecting them with organizations where women could begin to socialize, and conducting English classes while helping them maintain a strong Jewish identity. The council, pluralistic rather than conformist, continued its Americanization efforts and fought against restrictive immigration laws after World War I. At the forefront of its activities was the religious education of Jewish girls, who were ignored by the Orthodox community.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Philanthropy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 1820s organized philanthropy has been a core value of the American Jewish community. In most cities the philanthropic organizations are the center of the Jewish community and activism is highly valued. Much of the money now goes to Israel, as well as hospitals and higher education; previously it went to poor Jews. This meant in the 1880-1930 era wealthy German Reform Jews were subsidizing poor Orthodox newcomers, and helping their process of <a href="/wiki/Americanization" title="Americanization">Americanization</a>, thus helping bridge the cultural gap. This convergence brought Jews into the political debates in the 1900-1930 period over immigration restriction. Jews were the leading opponents of restrictions, but could not stop their passage in 1924 or their use to keep out most refugees from Hitler in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald" title="Julius Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</a> (1862–1932) moved to Chicago in the late 1880s. Purchasing a half-interest in 1895, he transformed a small mail order house <a href="/wiki/Sears" title="Sears">Sears, Roebuck</a> into the largest retailer in America. He used his wealth for philanthropy targeted especially at the plight of rural blacks in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>. From 1917 to 1932 the Julius Rosenwald Foundation set up 5,357 public schools for blacks. He funded numerous hospitals for blacks in the South as well as 24 YMCA's; he was a major contributor to the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a>. His major contributions to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> and to various Jewish philanthropies were on a similar grand scale. He spent $11 million to fund the Chicago <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Chicago)" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)">Museum of Science and Industry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lynching_of_Leo_Frank">Lynching of Leo Frank</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Lynching of Leo Frank"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1913, a Jewish factory manager in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a> named <a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> was convicted for the murder of Mary Phagan, a 13-year-old Christian girl in his employ. Frank was sentenced to death. Today, the consensus of researchers is that Frank was wrongly convicted. </p><p>In response to attacks on Jews, in October 1913, <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Livingston" title="Sigmund Livingston">Sigmund Livingston</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a> (ADL) under the sponsorship of <a href="/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith" title="B'nai B'rith">B'nai B'rith</a>. The Leo Frank affair was mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Kraus" title="Adolf Kraus">Adolf Kraus</a> when he announced the creation of the ADL, but was not the reason for the group's founding.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ADL became the leading Jewish group fighting antisemitism in the United States. </p><p>In 1915, <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Georgia" title="Governor of Georgia">Georgia governor</a> <a href="/wiki/John_M._Slaton" title="John M. Slaton">John Marshall Slaton</a>, commuted Frank's <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death sentence</a> to <a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">life imprisonment</a>. As a result of public outrage over this act, a Georgia mob kidnapped Frank from prison and lynched him. </p><p>On November 25, 1915, two months after Frank was lynched, a group led by <a href="/wiki/William_Joseph_Simmons" title="William Joseph Simmons">William J. Simmons</a> burned a cross on top of <a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain" title="Stone Mountain">Stone Mountain</a>, inaugurating a revival of the Ku Klux Klan. The event was attended by 15 charter members and a few aging survivors of the original Klan.<sup id="cite_ref-time_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Klan disseminated the view that <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> and Jews were subverting American values and ideals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg/220px-Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg/330px-Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg/440px-Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2564" data-file-height="3880" /></a><figcaption>1917 World War I poster in Yiddish. Translation: "Food will win the war – You came here seeking freedom, now you must help to preserve it – Wheat is needed for the allies – waste nothing".</figcaption></figure> <p>Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews leaning towards support of Zionism, and the established German-American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914–1916, there were few Jewish voices in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British government</a> as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well-organized Jewish community numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of anti-war activism.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of greatest concern to Jews was the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">tsarist regime in Russia</a> because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and issuing antisemitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left-wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of Jews who served in the American military during World War I was disproportionate to their representation in the American population at large. The 250,000 Jews who served represented approximately 5% of the American armed forces whereas Jews only constituted 3% of the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in 1914, the American Jewish community mobilized its resources to assist the victims of the European war. Cooperating to a degree not previously seen, the various factions of the American Jewish community—native-born and immigrant, Reform, Orthodox, secular, and socialist—coalesced to form what eventually became known as the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. All told, American Jews raised $63 million in relief funds during the war years and became more immersed in European Jewish affairs than ever before.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1930s_and_World_War_II">1930s and World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 1930s and World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While earlier Jewish elements from Germany were business oriented and voted as conservative Republicans, the wave of Eastern European Jews starting in the 1880s, were more liberal or left wing and became the political majority.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasia_Diner_2004_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasia_Diner_2004-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many came to America with experience in the socialist and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">anarchist</a> movements as well as the <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund" title="General Jewish Labour Bund">Bund</a>, based in Eastern Europe. Many Jews rose to leadership positions in the early 20th century <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">American labor movement</a> and helped to found unions in the "needle trades" (clothing industry) that played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">CIO</a> and in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> politics. <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Hillman" title="Sidney Hillman">Sidney Hillman</a> of the CIO was especially powerful in the early 1940s at the national level.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasia_Diner_2004_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasia_Diner_2004-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1930s, Jews were a major political factor in New York City, with strong support for the most liberal programs of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>. However their leaders were excluded from the Irish-controlled <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall" title="Tammany Hall">Tammany Hall</a>, which was in full charge of the Democratic Party in New York City. Therefore, they worked through third parties, such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Labor_Party" title="American Labor Party">American Labor Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_New_York" title="Liberal Party of New York">Liberal Party of New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1940s they were inside the Democratic Party, and helped overthrow Tammany Hall. They continued as a major element of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a>, giving special support to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>. By the mid-1960s, however, the Black Power movement caused a growing separation between blacks and Jews, though both groups remained solidly in the Democratic camp.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Washington, 15% of FDR's appointees were Jewish, including top positions such as Secretary of the Treasury, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a> in 1933 and Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> in 1939. Roosevelt's programs were not designed to overthrow capitalism as the left wanted, but instead created economic opportunities for working-class city people, especially Catholics and Jews in their roles as voters in a dominant <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a> and as union members. Roosevelt's coalition was so delicate that he could not afford to let ethnic or racial tensions tear it apart. His deliberate policy (until <i><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></i> in 1938) was not to publicly criticize the atrocities developing in Nazi Germany, nor the domestic anti-Semitism typified by Catholic priest <a href="/wiki/Charles_Coughlin" title="Charles Coughlin">Charles Coughlin</a> which blamed Jews for the Great Depression and the international crises in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of what Roosevelt did accomplish, "For liberal American Jews, the New Deal was a program worth fighting for even if it meant deferring concerns about the fate of German Jews."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Henry Feingold, "It was the welfare-state aspect of the New Deal, rather than Roosevelt's foreign policy, which attracted the Jewish voter. The war and the holocaust tended to reinforce the left-wing political sentiments of many Jewish voters."<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1930s, increasing antisemitism in the United States (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History of Antisemitism in the United States</a>) led to restrictions on Jewish American life from elite circles. Restrictions were mostly informal and affected Jewish presence in various universities, professions, and high-end housing communities. Many of the restrictions originated in the 1920s, but popularized and became more practiced throughout the 1930s and into the 1940s due to increasing antisemitic climate. In the East Coast, the Midwest, and the South, public and private universities imposed limits on the number of Jewish applicants they accepted, regardless of high scholastic standing. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> believed that if it accepted students based only on merit, the student body would become majority Jewish, and for the same reason, the <a href="/wiki/Douglass_Residential_College" title="Douglass Residential College">New Jersey College for Women</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Douglass_Residential_College" title="Douglass Residential College">Douglass College</a>) only accepted 31% of Jewish applicants, versus 61% of all others. Similar patterns emerged among elite professions and communities. Law firms hired fewer Jewish lawyers, hospitals gave fewer patients to Jewish doctors, and universities hired fewer Jewish professors. Across the entire United States, only 100 Jewish American professors were employed in 1930. High-end housing communities across the United States, including the social clubs, resorts, and hotels within them, adhered to pacts that prevented Jewish Americans from buying homes and sleeping in rooms in their communities. These pacts limited high-end communities to American "<a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentiles</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refugees_from_Nazi_Germany">Refugees from Nazi Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Refugees from Nazi Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the period between 1934 and 1943, the Congress, the Roosevelt Administration, and public opinion expressed concern about the fate of Jews in Europe but consistently refused to permit large-scale immigration of Jewish refugees. In a report issued by the State Department, Undersecretary of State <a href="/wiki/Stuart_E._Eizenstat" title="Stuart E. Eizenstat">Stuart Eizenstat</a> noted that the United States accepted only 21,000 refugees from Europe and did not significantly raise or even fill its restrictive quotas, accepting far fewer Jews per capita than many of the neutral European countries and fewer in absolute terms than Switzerland<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/David_Wyman" title="David Wyman">David Wyman</a>, "The United States and its Allies were willing to attempt almost nothing to save the Jews."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="MS_St._Louis">MS St. Louis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: MS St. Louis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/MS_St._Louis" title="MS St. Louis">MS St. Louis</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/MS_St._Louis" title="MS St. Louis">SS <i>St. Louis</i></a> sailed from Germany in May 1939 carrying 936 (mainly German) Jewish refugees. On 4 June 1939, it was also refused permission to unload on orders of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">President Roosevelt</a> as the ship waited in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> between Florida and Cuba. Initially, Roosevelt showed limited willingness to take in some of those on board. But the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a> made that illegal and public opinion was strongly opposed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The ship returned to Europe. 620 of the passengers were eventually accepted in continental Europe, of these only 365 survived the Holocaust. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration_restrictions">Immigration restrictions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Immigration restrictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg/250px-Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg/375px-Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg/500px-Synagogue_D-Day3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2871" data-file-height="3538" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> on West Twenty-Third Street in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> remained open 24 hours on <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">D-Day</a> for special services and prayer.</figcaption></figure> <p>The United States' tight immigration policies <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Holocaust" title="United States and the Holocaust">were not lifted during the Holocaust</a>, news of which began to reach the United States in 1941 and 1942 and it has been estimated that 190,000–200,000 Jews could have been saved during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> had it not been for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by <a href="/wiki/Breckinridge_Long" title="Breckinridge Long">Breckinridge Long</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Asylum of the European Jewish population was not a priority for the U.S. during the war, and the American Jewish community did not realize the severity of the Holocaust until late in the conflict. This is in part because the Nazis did not allow Jews to leave Occupied Europe or Germany during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Jewish_response_to_The_Holocaust">American Jewish response to The Holocaust</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: American Jewish response to The Holocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the World War II period the American Jewish community was bitterly and deeply divided, and was unable to form a common front. Most Eastern European Jews favored Zionism, which saw a return to their homeland as the only solution; this had the effect of diverting attention from the horrors in Nazi Germany. German Jews were alarmed at the Nazis but were disdainful of Zionism. Proponents of a Jewish state and Jewish army agitated, but many leaders were so fearful of an antisemitic backlash inside the U.S. that they demanded that all Jews keep a low public profile. One important development was the sudden conversion of most (but not all) Jewish leaders to Zionism late in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> was largely ignored by American media as it was happening.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Why that was is illuminated by the anti-Zionist position taken by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hays_Sulzberger" title="Arthur Hays Sulzberger">Arthur Hays Sulzberger</a>, publisher of the <i>New York Times,</i> during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Committed to classical Reform Judaism, which defined Judaism as a religious faith and not as a people, Sulzberger insisted that as an American he saw European Jews as part of a refugee problem, not separate from it. As publisher of the nation's most influential newspaper, <i>The New York Times</i>, he permitted only a handful of editorials during the war on the extermination of the Jews. He supported the anti-Zionist American Council for Judaism. Even after it became known that the Nazis had singled out the Jews for destruction, Sulzberger held that all refugees had suffered. He opposed the creation of Israel. In effect, he muted the enormous potential influence of the <i>Times</i> by keeping issues of concern regarding Jews off the editorial page and burying stories about Nazi atrocities against Jews in short items deep inside the paper. In time he grew increasingly out of step with the American Jewish community by his persistent refusal to recognize Jews as a people and despite obvious flaws in his view of American democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Jews owned few prestigious newspapers other than the <i>New York Times</i>, they had a major presence in Hollywood and in network radio. Hollywood films and radio with few exceptions avoided questioning Nazi persecution of Europe's Jews prior to Pearl Harbor. Jewish studio executives did not want to be accused of advocating Jewish propaganda by making films with overtly antifascist themes. Indeed, they were pressured by such organizations as the Anti-Defamation League and by national Jewish leaders to avoid such themes lest American Jews suffer an antisemitic backlash.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite strong public and political sentiment to the contrary, however, there were some who encouraged the U.S. government to help victims of Nazi genocide. In 1943, just before <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a>, 400, mostly Orthodox, <a href="/wiki/Rabbis%27_march_(1943)" title="Rabbis' march (1943)">rabbis marched</a> in Washington to draw attention to the plight of Holocaust victims. A week later, Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Warren_Barbour" class="mw-redirect" title="William Warren Barbour">William Warren Barbour</a> (R; New Jersey), one of a handful of politicians who met with the rabbis on the steps of the U.S. Capitol, proposed legislation that would have allowed as many as 100,000 victims of the Holocaust to emigrate temporarily to the United States. Barbour died six weeks after introducing the bill, and it was not passed. A parallel bill was introduced in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> by Rep. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dickstein" title="Samuel Dickstein">Samuel Dickstein</a> (D; New York). This also failed to pass.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Holocaust, fewer than 30,000 Jews a year reached the United States, and some were turned away due to immigration policies<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The U.S. did not change its immigration policies until 1948<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>As of 2021, <a href="/wiki/Laws_requiring_teaching_of_the_Holocaust" title="Laws requiring teaching of the Holocaust">laws requiring teaching of the Holocaust</a> are on the books in 16 U.S. states.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact">Impact</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Holocaust had a profound impact on the community in the United States, especially after 1960, as Jews tried to comprehend what had happened, and especially to commemorate and grapple with it when looking to the future.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel" title="Abraham Joshua Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</a> summarized this dilemma when he attempted to understand Auschwitz: "To try to answer is to commit a supreme blasphemy. Israel enables us to bear the agony of Auschwitz without radical despair, to sense a ray [of] God's radiance in the jungles of history."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar">Postwar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Postwar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>500,000 American Jews (or half of the eligible men) fought in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and after the war younger families joined the new trend of <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a>. There, Jews became increasingly assimilated and demonstrated rising <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage" title="Interfaith marriage">intermarriage</a>. The suburbs facilitated the formation of new centers, as Jewish school enrollment more than doubled between the end of World War II and the mid-1950s, and synagogue affiliation jumped from 20% in 1930 to 60% in 1960; the fastest growth came in Reform and, especially, Conservative congregations.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having never been subjected to the Holocaust, the United States stood after the Second World War as the largest, richest, and healthiest center of Judaism in the world. Smaller Jewish communities turned increasingly to American Jewry for guidance and support.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Immediately after the Second World War, some Jewish refugees resettled in the United States, and another wave of <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Jewish refugees from Arab nations</a> settled in the U.S. after expulsion from their home countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_Jews_in_politics" title="American Jews in politics">American Jews in politics</a></div> <p>American Jews voted 90% against the Republicans and supported Democrats <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> in the elections of 1940, 1944 and 1948,<sup id="cite_ref-JVLvote_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVLvote-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite both party platforms supporting the creation of a Jewish state in the latter two elections.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1952 and 1956 elections, they voted 60% or more for Democrat <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai Stevenson</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">General Eisenhower</a> garnered 40% for his reelection; the best showing to date for the Republicans since <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding's</a> 43% in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-JVLvote_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVLvote-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960, 83% voted for Democrat <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, a Catholic, against <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, and in 1964, 90% of American Jews voted for <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>; his Republican opponent, <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>, was raised <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopalian</a> but his paternal grandparents were Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> garnered 81% of the Jewish vote in the 1968 elections, in his losing bid for president against <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>; such a high level of Jewish support has not been seen since.<sup id="cite_ref-JVLvote_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVLvote-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Nixon re-election campaign of 1972, Jewish voters were apprehensive about <a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">George McGovern</a> and only favored the Democrat by 65%, while Nixon more than doubled Republican Jewish support to 35%. In the election of 1976, Jewish voters supported Democrat <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> by 71% over incumbent president <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a>'s 27%, but in 1980 they abandoned Carter, leaving him with only 45% support, while Republican winner, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, garnered 39%, and 14% went to independent <a href="/wiki/John_B._Anderson" title="John B. Anderson">John Anderson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JVLvote_114-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVLvote-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Reagan re-election campaign of 1984, the Jews returned home to the Democratic Party, giving Reagan only 31% compared to 67% for Democrat <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Walter Mondale</a>. The same 2–1 pattern reappeared in 1988 as Democrat <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Michael Dukakis</a> had 64%, while victorious <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George Bush</a> polled 35%. Bush's Jewish support collapsed during his re-election in 1992, to just 11%, with 80% voting for <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> and 9% going to independent <a href="/wiki/Ross_Perot" title="Ross Perot">Ross Perot</a>. Clinton's re-election campaign in 1996 maintained high Jewish support at 78%, with 16% supporting <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Bob Dole</a> and 3% supporting Perot.<sup id="cite_ref-JVLvote_114-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVLvote-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 US Presidential Election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/Joe_Lieberman" title="Joe Lieberman">Joe Lieberman</a>, was chosen by <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> to be his running mate and the vice presidential candidate for the Democratic Party, marking the first time in history that a practicing Jew was included on a major party's presidential ticket.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> won the <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_presidential_primary" title="New Hampshire presidential primary">New Hampshire Democratic primary</a> on February 9, 2016, by 22.4% of the vote (60.4% to <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a>'s 38.0%); he received strong support from voters who considered it important to nominate a candidate who is "honest and trustworthy."<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT02916_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT02916-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This made him the first Jewish American to win a U.S. presidential primary.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sanders-CNN_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanders-CNN-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(<a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>, the 1964 Republican presidential nominee, was the first winner of Jewish heritage, but was a Christian).<sup id="cite_ref-Sanders-CNN_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanders-CNN-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exceptionalism">Exceptionalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Exceptionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians believe American Jewish history has been characterized by an unparalleled degree of freedom, acceptance, and prosperity that has made it possible for Jews to bring together their ethnic identities with the demands of national citizenship far more effortlessly than Jews in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American Jewish exceptionalism differentiates Jews from other American ethnic groups by means of educational and economic attainments and, indeed, by virtue of Jewish values, including a devotion to political liberalism. Historian <a href="/wiki/Marc_Dollinger" title="Marc Dollinger">Marc Dollinger</a> has found that for the last century the most secular Jews have tended toward the most liberal or even leftist political views, while more religious Jews are politically more conservative. Modern Orthodox Jews have been less active in political movements than Reform Jews. They vote Republican more often than less traditional Jews. In contemporary political debate, strong Orthodox support for various school voucher initiatives undermines the exceptionalist belief that the Jewish community seeks a high and impenetrable barrier between church and state.<sup id="cite_ref-Dollinger_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dollinger-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the discussions of <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American Exceptionalism</a> refer to the nation as a whole. However, there have been discussions of how American Exceptionalism has applied to specific subgroups, especially minorities. Scholars comparing the record of persecution of Jews in Europe and the Middle East with the highly favorable circumstances in the United States, debate to what extent the American treatment of Jews has been unique in world history, and how much it has become a model of pluralism at least in regards to this group.<sup id="cite_ref-Dollinger_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dollinger-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_the_State_of_Israel">Creation of the State of Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Creation of the State of Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With its establishment in 1948, the State of Israel became the focal point of American Jewish life and philanthropy, as well as the symbol around which American Jews united.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Six-Day_War">Six-Day War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Six-Day War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Six-Day War of June 1967 marked a turning point in the lives of many 1960s-era Jews. The paralyzing fear of a "second Holocaust" followed by tiny Israel's seemingly miraculous victory over the combined Arab armies arrayed to destroy it struck deep emotional chords among American Jews. Their financial support for Israel rose sharply in the war's wake, and more of them than ever before chose in those years to make Israel their permanent home.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A lively internal debate commenced, following the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>. The American Jewish community was divided over whether they agreed with the Israeli response; the great majority came to accept the war as necessary. A tension existed especially for leftist Jews, between their liberal ideology and Zionist backing in the midst of this conflict. This deliberation about the Six-Day War showed the depth and complexity of Jewish responses to the varied events of the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Staub_2004_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staub_2004-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_rights">Civil rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Civil rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></div> <p>Jews proved to be strong supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">American Civil Rights Movement</a>. Jews were highly visible as leaders of movements for civil rights for all Americans, including themselves and African Americans. Seymour Siegel argues the historic struggle against prejudice faced by Jewish people led to a natural sympathy for any people confronting discrimination. This further led Jews to discuss the relationship they had with African Americans. Jewish leaders spoke at the two iconic marches of the era. Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress, appeared at the March on Washington on 28 August 1963, noting that "As Jews we bring to this great demonstration, in which thousands of us proudly participate, a twofold experience--one of the spirit and one of our history"<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two years later <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel" title="Abraham Joshua Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</a> of the Jewish Theological Seminary marched in the front row of the Selma-to-Montgomery march. </p><p>Within Judaism, increasing involvement in the civil rights movement caused some tension. Rabbi Bernard Wienberger exemplified this point of view, warning that "northern liberal Jews" put at risk southern Jews who faced hostility from white southerners because of their northern counterparts. However, most known Jewish responses to the civil rights movement and black relations lean toward acceptance and against prejudice, as the disproportionate involvement of Jews in the movement would indicate.<sup id="cite_ref-Staub_2004_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staub_2004-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this history of participation, relations between African Americans and Jews have sometimes been strained by their close proximity and class differences, especially in New York and other urban areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_feminism">Jewish feminism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Jewish feminism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish feminism</a></div> <p>In its modern form, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish feminist movement</a> can be traced to the early 1970s in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Judith_Plaskow" title="Judith Plaskow">Judith Plaskow</a>, who has focused on feminism in <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a>, the main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or <i><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a></i>, the exemption from positive time-bound <i><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">mitzvot</a></i>, and women's inability to function as witnesses, and to initiate <a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage#divorce" title="Jewish views on marriage">divorce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Plaskow1997_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plaskow1997-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sally_Priesand" title="Sally Priesand">Sally Priesand</a> was ordained by the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion">Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion</a> on June 3, 1972, at the <a href="/wiki/Isaac_M._Wise_Temple" title="Isaac M. Wise Temple">Plum Street Temple</a> in Cincinnati, thus becoming America's first female <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Semikhah" title="Semikhah">ordained</a> by a rabbinical seminary, and the second formally ordained female rabbi in Jewish history, after <a href="/wiki/Regina_Jonas" title="Regina Jonas">Regina Jonas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zola20_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zola20-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration_from_the_Soviet_Union">Immigration from the Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Immigration from the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The last large wave of immigration came from the Soviet Union after 1988, in response to heavy political pressure from the U.S. government. After the 1967 Six-Day War and the liberalization tide in Eastern Europe in 1968, Soviet policy became more restrictive. Jews were denied educational and vocational opportunities. These restrictive policies led to the emergence of a new political group—the 'refuseniks'—whose main goal was emigrating. The refuseniks (Jews who were refused exit visas) attracted the attention of the West, particularly the United States, and became an important factor influencing economic and trade relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. The 1975 Jackson Amendment to the Trade Reform Act linked granting the USSR 'most favored nation' status to liberalization of Soviet emigration laws.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in 1967 the Soviet Union allowed some Jewish citizens to leave for family reunification in Israel. Due to the break in diplomatic relations between Israel and the USSR, most émigrés traveled to Vienna, Austria, or Budapest, Hungary, from where they were then flown to Israel. After 1976 the majority of émigrés who left on visas for Israel 'dropped out' in Vienna and chose to resettle in the West. Several American Jewish organizations helped them obtain visas and aided their resettlement in the United States and other countries. However Israel wanted them and tried to prevent Soviet Jewish émigrés from resettling in the United States after having committed to immigrating to Israel. Israeli officials pressured American Jewish organizations to desist from aiding Russian Jews who wanted to resettle in the United States. Initially, American Jews resisted Israeli efforts. Following <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>'s decision in the late 1980s to allow free emigration for Soviet Jews, the American Jewish community agreed to a quota on Soviet Jewish refugees in the U.S., which resulted in most Soviet Jewish émigrés settling in Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian Jewish population in the United States is the second only to the population of Russian Jews in Israel. According to RINA, there is a core Russian-Jewish population of 350,000 in the U.S. The enlarged Russian Jewish population in the U.S. is estimated to be 700,000.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharian Jews</a> emigrated to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large pockets of Russian-Jewish Communities include <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn, New York</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Brighton_Beach" title="Brighton Beach">Brighton Beach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sheepshead_Bay,_Brooklyn" title="Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn">Sheepshead Bay</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Sunny_Isles_Beach,_Florida" title="Sunny Isles Beach, Florida">Sunny Isles Beach</a> neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/South_Florida" title="South Florida">South Florida</a>. Another large pocket of Russian Jewish residence is Northeast Philadelphia and surrounding Bucks and Montgomery Counties, as well as Northern New Jersey. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_developments_20th_and_21st_centuries">Local developments 20th and 21st centuries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Local developments 20th and 21st centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nashville,_Tennessee"><span id="Nashville.2C_Tennessee"></span>Nashville, Tennessee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Nashville, Tennessee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reform Jews, predominantly German, became Nashville's largest and most influential Jewish community in the first half of the 20th century; they enjoyed good relations with the Orthodox and Conservative congregations. Some German Jewish refugees resettled in Nashville from 1935 to 1939, helped by prominent Nashville families. Both the Orthodox and Conservative congregations had relocated their synagogues to the suburbs by 1949, and the entire Jewish community had shifted southwest by about five miles. Although subtle social discrimination existed, Nashville's Jews enjoyed the respect of the larger community. Public acceptance, however, required complicity in racial segregation. The Observer, Nashville's Jewish newspaper, tried to find a middle ground between assimilation and particularism, but after years of calling for group solidarity, accepted that the Jewish community was pluralistic.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palm_Springs,_California"><span id="Palm_Springs.2C_California"></span>Palm Springs, California</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Palm Springs, California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>About 32,000 Jews reside in the Palm Springs area, reports the <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Jewish_Congress_of_the_Desert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Jewish Congress of the Desert (page does not exist)">United Jewish Congress of the Desert</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The world-famous desert resort community has been widely known for its Hollywood celebrities. Philadelphia publisher <a href="/wiki/Walter_Annenberg" title="Walter Annenberg">Walter Annenberg</a> opened the Tamarisk Country Club in 1946, after being refused membership in the Los Angeles Lakeside country club. But his connections with Hollywood and corporations alike made his country club a success, and made it a policy to allow Jews and all people, regardless of race and religion, to have access to his facility. </p><p>Many elderly American Jews from the East coast and the Los Angeles metropolitan area come to retire in the warm climates such as the <a href="/wiki/Coachella_Valley" title="Coachella Valley">Coachella Valley</a>, favoring golf course and mobile home communities. By the 1990s they were a large component of demography in the desert resort. There are 12 Jewish places of worship, including a Jewish community center in <a href="/wiki/Palm_Desert,_California" title="Palm Desert, California">Palm Desert</a>, where an estimated 20–25 percent of the population are of Jewish descent.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Palm Springs has the annual "Winter Festival of Lights" parade, which began as a separate parade to celebrate Chanukah in the 1960s. Over time, that and the Christmas-themed parade merged into the one celebrating the season's lights of menorahs, Christmas trees and the calendar new year.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miami">Miami</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Miami"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After 1945 many northeastern Jews moved to Florida, especially to Miami, <a href="/wiki/Miami_Beach,_Florida" title="Miami Beach, Florida">Miami Beach</a>, and nearby cities. They found familiar foods and better weather, and founded more open, less tradition-bound communities, where greater materialism and more leisure-oriented, less disciplined Judaism developed. Many relaxed their religiosity and attended services only during Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur. In South Florida synagogue affiliation, Jewish community center membership, and per capita contributions to the United Jewish Appeal and the Jewish Federation are among the lowest of any Jewish community in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Princeton,_New_Jersey"><span id="Princeton.2C_New_Jersey"></span>Princeton, New Jersey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Princeton, New Jersey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of Jewish (particularly Orthodox) student life at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> improved rapidly since the end of World War II, when Jewish students were few and isolated. In 1958 Jewish students were more numerous; they protested against the Bicker system of <a href="/wiki/Eating_clubs_at_Princeton_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Eating clubs at Princeton University">eating club</a> member selection. In 1961 Yavneh House was established as Princeton's first kosher kitchen. In 1971 Stevenson Hall opened as a university-managed kosher eating facility in the midst of the older private eating clubs. Jewish student initiative and Princeton administration openness deserve credit for this progress.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beverly_Hills,_California"><span id="Beverly_Hills.2C_California"></span>Beverly Hills, California</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Beverly Hills, California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An estimated 20-25 percent of the population of this affluent <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> suburb is Jewish,<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and about 20 percent is <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kevin_West_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kevin_West-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About a quarter of the membership of <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Temple_(Los_Angeles)" title="Sinai Temple (Los Angeles)">Sinai Temple</a>, a prominent synagogue in nearby <a href="/wiki/Westwood,_Los_Angeles" title="Westwood, Los Angeles">Westwood</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a> who largely came to the United States in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Revolution">Islamic Revolution</a> in Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-Kevin_West_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kevin_West-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_City">New York City</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: New York City"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York" title="History of the Jews in New York">History of the Jews in New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York_City" title="History of the Jews in New York City">History of the Jews in New York City</a></div> <p>As of 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York state</a> has an estimated Jewish population of about 1.8 million;<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of these 1.1 million live in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_to_affluence_in_the_20th_century">Rise to affluence in the 20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Rise to affluence in the 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1983, economist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> wrote "Jewish family incomes are the highest of any large ethnic group in the US—72% above the national average."<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sowell points out that Episcopalians have also experienced similar prosperity—as a group—as Jews, but it is the "social and economic distance covered in a relatively short time" that makes the Jewish experience in America unique.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Krefetz" title="Gerald Krefetz">Gerald Krefetz</a> discusses the prosperity that Jews earned in the United States following their emigration from Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries, and he attributes their success to their familiarity with "trading and exchanging, commerce, city living, property rights, ... and accumulation of funds for future investment."<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Shapiro" title="Edward S. Shapiro">Edward S. Shapiro</a> cites a <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a></i> magazine survey from the 1980s, which showed that, of the <a href="/wiki/Forbes_400" title="Forbes 400">400 richest</a> Americans, over 100 were Jewish, which was nine times greater than would be expected based on the overall population.<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro,_pp_117-118_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro,_pp_117-118-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shapiro also estimates that over 30% of American billionaires are Jewish, and he cites a 1986 issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Financial_World" title="Financial World">Financial World</a></i> that listed the top 100 money makers in 1985, and "half the people mentioned" were Jewish, including <a href="/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">George Soros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asher_Edelman" title="Asher Edelman">Asher Edelman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Milken" title="Michael Milken">Michael Milken</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Boesky" title="Ivan Boesky">Ivan Boesky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro,_pp_117-118_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro,_pp_117-118-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Very few Jewish lawyers were hired by <a href="/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestants" title="White Anglo-Saxon Protestants">White Anglo-Saxon Protestant</a> ("WASP") upscale, <a href="/wiki/White-shoe_firm" title="White-shoe firm">white-shoe law firms</a>, but they started their own. The WASP dominance in law ended when a number of major Jewish law firms attained elite status in dealing with top-ranked corporations. As late as 1950 there was not a single large Jewish law firm in New York City. However, by 1965 six of the 20 largest firms were Jewish; by 1980 four of the ten largest were Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1990s Jews were becoming prominent in Congress and state governments throughout the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_situation">Current situation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Current situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American Jews</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261442011">.mw-parser-output .abbr-header{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-bottom:none;background-color:lavender}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-top:none;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);padding:5px}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border-top:1px #a2a9b1 solid!important}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:none}}</style><table class="table-pale" style="width:15em;border-top-width:0;border-spacing: 0;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 0.5em;"><caption class="caption-purple" style="padding:0.25em;font-weight:bold">Historical population</caption><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population" class="abbr-header">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Percent change" class="abbr-header">±%</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1790_United_States_census" title="1790 United States census">1790</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">1,500</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">—    </td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_census" title="1800 United States census">1800</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,250</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+50.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1810_United_States_census" title="1810 United States census">1810</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,625</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+16.7%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1820_United_States_census" title="1820 United States census">1820</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">3,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+14.3%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/1830_United_States_census" title="1830 United States census">1830</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">6,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+100.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_census" title="1840 United States census">1840</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">15,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+150.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1850_United_States_census" title="1850 United States census">1850</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">50,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+233.3%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_census" title="1860 United States census">1860</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">150,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+200.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1870_United_States_census" title="1870 United States census">1870</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">200,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+33.3%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/1880_United_States_census" title="1880 United States census">1880</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">250,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+25.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1890_United_States_census" title="1890 United States census">1890</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">400,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+60.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1900_United_States_census" title="1900 United States census">1900</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">1,500,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+275.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1910_United_States_census" title="1910 United States census">1910</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">1,777,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+18.5%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_census" title="1920 United States census">1920</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">3,389,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+90.7%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/1930_United_States_census" title="1930 United States census">1930</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">4,228,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+24.8%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_census" title="1940 United States census">1940</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">4,771,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+12.8%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1950_United_States_census" title="1950 United States census">1950</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,000,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+4.8%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_census" title="1960 United States census">1960</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,300,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+6.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1970_United_States_census" title="1970 United States census">1970</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,400,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.9%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_census" title="1980 United States census">1980</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">5,500,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+1.9%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/1990_United_States_census" title="1990 United States census">1990</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,515,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+0.3%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_census" title="2000 United States census">2000</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,532,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+0.3%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/2010_United_States_census" title="2010 United States census">2010</a></th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,425,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−1.9%</td></tr></tbody></table><p><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><table class="wikitable"> <caption><b>Core Jewish population as a % of the total U.S. population since 1790:</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>% Jewish<br /> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1790 </td> <th>0.04% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1800 </td> <th>0.04% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1810 </td> <th>0.04% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1820 </td> <th>0.03% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1830 </td> <th>0.05% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1840 </td> <th>0.09% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1850 </td> <th>0.22% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1860 </td> <th>0.48% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1870 </td> <th>0.52% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1880 </td> <th>0.51% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1890 </td> <th>0.64% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1900 </td> <th>1.39% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1910 </td> <th>1.93% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1920 </td> <th>3.20% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1930 </td> <th>3.43% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1940 </td> <th>3.61% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1950 </td> <th>3.30% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1960 </td> <th>2.99% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1970 </td> <th>2.89% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1980 </td> <th>2.51% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1990 </td> <th>2.22% </th></tr> <tr> <td>2000 </td> <th>1.97% </th></tr> <tr> <td>2010 </td> <th>1.76% </th></tr></tbody></table> <p><small>Note: These charts are for the U.S. core Jewish population only. 1810 is an extrapolation as figures are not available for this exact year. </small> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_Percentage_Population,_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Jewish_Percentage_Population%2C_United_States.svg/500px-Jewish_Percentage_Population%2C_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="386" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Jewish_Percentage_Population%2C_United_States.svg/750px-Jewish_Percentage_Population%2C_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Jewish_Percentage_Population%2C_United_States.svg/1000px-Jewish_Percentage_Population%2C_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>Jewish population today tends to be concentrated in larger cities, Florida, and the states of the Northeast.</figcaption></figure> <p>American Jews continued to prosper throughout the early 21st century. According to a 2016 study by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish American">Jewish</a> ranked as the most financially successful religious group in the United States, with 44% of Jews living in households with incomes of at least $100,000, followed by <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> (36%), <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopalians</a> (35%), and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_(USA)" title="Presbyterian Church (USA)">Presbyterians</a> (32%), though owing to their numbers, more <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> (13.3 million) reside in households with a yearly income of $100,000 or more than any other religious group.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2021 <a href="/wiki/Forbes_400" title="Forbes 400">Forbes 400</a> includes several Jews among the top 10 wealthiest Americans: <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Page" title="Larry Page">Larry Page</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Brin" title="Sergey Brin">Sergey Brin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Ellison" title="Larry Ellison">Larry Ellison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Ballmer" title="Steve Ballmer">Steve Ballmer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bloomberg" title="Michael Bloomberg">Michael Bloomberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American Jews are disproportionately represented in business, academia and politics. Thirty percent of American Nobel prize winners in science and 37 percent of all American Nobel winners are Jewish. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>However, a 2007 study found that 15% of American Jews live below the poverty line;<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 2016 Pew study found that number to be 16%.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 study found 20% of American Jews to be in or near poverty, with 45% of Jewish children living in poor or near-poor households.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The percentage of Jews at Ivy League Universities has dropped steadily in the past decade.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Demographically, the population is not increasing. With their success, American Jews have become increasingly assimilated into American culture, with high intermarriage rates resulting in either a falling or steady population rate at a time when the country was booming. It has not grown appreciably since 1960, comprises a smaller percentage of America's total population than it had in 1910, and seems likely to witness an actual decline in numbers in the decades ahead.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_113-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jews also began<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (June 2022)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> to move to the suburbs, with major population shifts from New York and the Northeast to Florida and California. New Jewish organizations were founded to accommodate an increasing range of Jewish worship and community activities, as well as geographic dispersal. </p><p>Politically, the Jewish population remained strongly liberal. The heavily Democratic pattern continued into the 21st century. Since 1936 the great majority of Jews have been Democrats. In 2004 74% of Jews voted for Democrat <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a>, a Catholic of partial Jewish descent, and in 2006 87% voted for Democratic candidates for the House.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self_identity">Self identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Self identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social historians analyze the American population in terms of class, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, region and urbanism. Jewish scholars generally emphasize ethnicity.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, it reflects the suppression of the term "Jewish race," a contested but fairly common usage right into the 1930s and its replacement by the more acceptable "ethnic" usage. Second, it reflects a post-religious evaluation of American Jewish identity, in which "Jewishness" (rather than "Judaism") is taken to be more inclusive, embracing the secularized as well as the religious experiences of Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Korelitz (1996) shows how American Jews during the late 19th and early 20th centuries abandoned a racial definition of Jewishness in favor of one that embraced ethnicity and culture. The key to understanding this transition from a racial self-definition to a cultural or ethnic one can be found in the <i>Menorah Journal</i> between 1915 and 1925. During this time contributors to the Menorah promoted a cultural, rather than a racial, religious, or other view of Jewishness as a means to define Jews in a world that threatened to overwhelm and absorb Jewish uniqueness. The journal represented the ideals of the menorah movement established by <a href="/wiki/Horace_Kallen" title="Horace Kallen">Horace Kallen</a> and others to promote a revival in Jewish cultural identity and combat the idea of race as a means to define or identify peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Siporin (1990) uses the family folklore of "ethnic" Jews to their collective history and its transformation into an historical art form. They tell us how Jews have survived being uprooted and transformed. Many immigrant narratives bear a theme of the arbitrary nature of fate and the reduced state of immigrants in a new culture. By contrast, ethnic family narratives tend to show the ethnic more in charge of his life, and perhaps in danger of losing his Jewishness altogether. Some stories show how a family member successfully negotiated the conflict between ethnic and American identities.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1960 memories of the Holocaust, together with the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> in 1967 that resulted in the survival of Israel had major impacts on fashioning Jewish ethnic identity. The <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Shoah" class="extiw" title="wikt:Shoah">Shoah</a> provided Jews with a rationale for their ethnic distinction at a time when other minorities were asserting their own.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antisemitism_in_the_United_States">Antisemitism in the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Antisemitism in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_antisemitism#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of antisemitism">Geography of antisemitism § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History of antisemitism in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/African_American%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="African American–Jewish relations">African American–Jewish relations</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> issued an order (quickly rescinded by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>) of expulsion against Jews from the portions of Tennessee, Kentucky and Mississippi which were under his control. (<i>See <a href="/wiki/General_Order_No._11_(1862)" title="General Order No. 11 (1862)">General Order No. 11</a></i>) </p><p>Antisemitism continued to be widespread in the United States into the first half of the 20th century. Jews were discriminated against in some fields of employment, they were not allowed to join some social clubs and they were also not allowed to stay in some resort areas, their enrollment at colleges was limited by quotas, and they were also not allowed to buy certain properties. In response, Jews established their own <a href="/wiki/Jewish_country_club" title="Jewish country club">country clubs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borscht_Belt" title="Borscht Belt">summer resorts</a>, and universities, such as <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University" title="Brandeis University">Brandeis</a>. </p><p>Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The rise of the second <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> in the 1920s, the antisemitic works of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a>, and the radio speeches of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Coughlin" title="Charles Coughlin">Father Coughlin</a> in the late 1930s indicated the intensity of attacks on the Jewish community. </p><p>Antisemitism in the United States has rarely erupted into physical violence against Jews. Some notable cases in which acts of violence were committed against Jews in the United States include the attack on the funeral procession of Rabbi Jacob Joseph by Irish workers and police in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1902, the lynching of <a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> in 1915, the <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alan_Berg" title="Alan Berg">Alan Berg</a> in 1984, and the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Heights_riot" title="Crown Heights riot">Crown Heights riot</a> of 1991. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">American Civil Rights Movement</a>, anti-Jewish sentiment waned. However, some members of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> and some members of other <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black Nationalist</a> organizations accused Jews of exploiting black laborers, bringing alcohol and drugs into black communities, and unfairly dominating the economy. Furthermore, according to annual surveys which have been conducted by the Anti-Defamation League since 1964, a <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> are significantly more likely to hold antisemitic beliefs than <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">white Americans</a> are, but among members of all races, there is a strong correlation between a person's level of education and his or her rejection of <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Jews" title="Stereotypes of Jews">antisemitic stereotypes</a>. However, black Americans of all education levels are significantly more likely to be antisemitic than whites who are of the same education level. In the 1998 survey, blacks (34%) were nearly four times more likely (9%) to fall into the most antisemitic category (those who agreed with at least 6 out of 11 statements that were potentially or clearly antisemitic) than whites were. Among blacks with no college education, 43% of them fell into the most antisemitic group (vs. 18% of the general population), which fell to 27% among blacks with some college education, and 18% among blacks with a four-year college degree (vs. 5% of the general population).<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2005 Anti-Defamation League survey includes data on the attitudes of <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanics</a>, with 29% of Hispanics being the most antisemitic (vs. 9% of whites and 36% of blacks); being born in the United States helped alleviate this attitude: 35% of foreign-born Hispanics were antisemitic, but only 19% of those Hispanics who were born in the U.S. were antisemitic.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As an example of religious tensions, in 2010, a widespread debate erupted over the <a href="/wiki/Park51" title="Park51">building of an Islamic cultural center and a mosque</a> in New York City near the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_site" title="World Trade Center site">World Trade Center site</a>. The city of New York has officially endorsed the project, but nationwide, public opinion has been hostile. A <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> poll of 1000 individuals which was conducted in August 2010 indicated that only 13 percent of Americans have unfavorable views of Jews, by contrast, the same pole indicated that 43 percent of Americans have unfavorable views of Muslims, however, only 17 percent of Americans have unfavorable views of Catholics and only 29 percent of Americans have unfavorable views of Mormons according to the pole.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, antisemitic attitudes are much higher in Europe and are growing.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A July 2013 report which was published by the Anti-Defamation League indicated that there had been a 14 percent decline in the number of recorded antisemitic incidents across the United States. The audit of the 2012 records identified 17 physical <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assaults</a>, 470 cases of <a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">harassment</a> or <a href="/wiki/Threat" title="Threat">threat</a>, and 440 cases of <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandalism</a> in which the target was Jewish and the alleged motive was hatred.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2014, the Anti-Defamation League published its 2013 audit of antisemitic incidents. According to the audit, the number of recorded antisemitic incidents had declined by 19 percent in 2013. The total number of antisemitic attacks which had occurred across the U.S. in 2013 was 751, including 31 physical assaults, 315 incidents of vandalism and 405 cases of harassment.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first few months of 2014, at least two antisemitic incidents of swastika drawings on Jewish belongings occurred in universities.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 1, a former member of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> arrived at the Jewish center of <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City</a> and murdered three people, two of whom were on their way to the church.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his capture, the suspect was heard saying "<a href="/wiki/Nazi_salute" title="Nazi salute">Heil Hitler</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that month a sprayed swastika was found in <a href="/wiki/Price_Hill,_Cincinnati" title="Price Hill, Cincinnati">Price Hill, Cincinnati</a>, on the door of a Jewish family's house.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2014, the Vassar Students for Justice in Palestine published a Nazi World War II propaganda poster. The poster displays Jews as part of a monster who tries to destroy the world. Vassar college president Catharine Hill denounced the antisemitic post.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of operation <a href="/wiki/2014_Gaza_War" title="2014 Gaza War">Protective Edge</a>, there were more antisemitic attacks during July.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the attacks were directly connected to the operation, such as graffiti paintings of swastika and the word "Hamas" outside a synagogue in South Florida.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another antisemitic trend which is spreading across the country is the republication of antisemitic leaflets which were originally published in Nazi Germany. In August 2014, two cases of this occurred, one case of this occurred during a pro-Palestinian rally which was held in Chicago and the other case of this occurred in <a href="/wiki/Westwood,_Los_Angeles" title="Westwood, Los Angeles">Westwood, Los Angeles</a>, where a Jewish store owner received handwritten flyers which contained swastikas and threats.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier that year the <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Justice_in_Palestine" title="Students for Justice in Palestine">SJP</a> in Poughkeepsie published on Twitter an antisemitic picture first published in Germany in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2014, the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">New York Post</a></i> released the contents of a report which was originally published by the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department" title="New York City Police Department">NYPD</a>. The report stated that since 2013, the number of antisemitic incidents in the city had increased by 35%.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, a report of the Los Angeles County Commission on Human Relations revealed a significant decrease of 48 percent in anti-Jewish crimes in LA compared to 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2014, the Anti-Defamation League published a report which documented Anti-Israel activities on campuses after Protective Edge. The report emphasizes that protests and rallies against Israel frequently become antisemitic: </p> <blockquote><p>Not all criticism of Israel is anti-Israel in nature, and not all anti-Israel rhetoric and activity reflect antisemitism. However, anti-Israel sentiment increasingly crosses the line to antisemitism by invoking antisemitic myths of Jewish control and demonic depictions of Israelis or comparing Israel's actions to those of the Nazis during the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A survey which was published in February 2015 by <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College_(Connecticut)" title="Trinity College (Connecticut)">Trinity College</a> and the Louis D. Brandeis Center for Human Rights Under Law found that 54 percent of its participants had been subjected to or had witnessed antisemitism on their campuses. The survey included 1,157 self-identified Jewish students at 55 campuses nationwide. The most significant origin for antisemitism, according to the survey, was "from an individual student" (29 percent). Other origins were in clubs or societies, in lectures and classes, and in student unions. The findings of the research were similar to a parallel study conducted in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1278693788">.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:none;position:relative;width:100px;height:100px;border-radius:50%;background-color:yellowgreen;color:black;border:1px solid black}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie div{position:absolute;transform-origin:left bottom;background-color:#655;color:black;top:0;left:50%;width:50%;height:50%;border-radius:0 500%0 0}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie50{transform-origin:left center;height:100%;border-radius:0 100%100%0/50%}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie12-5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,100%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,32.49197%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie7{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,47.056428%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie1{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,6.2914667%0%,0 100%)}@supports(clip-path:circle(50%)){.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:block}}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:1em;flex-wrap:wrap}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend{list-style-type:none!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li{display:flex;align-items:baseline;gap:.5em}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li>span{display:block;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li>.l-color{border:1px solid var(--color-base,black);width:.8em;height:.8em;flex-shrink:0}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-container{padding:.5em;padding-bottom:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-caption{margin-bottom:1em;font-size:94%}@media print{.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{break-inside:avoid-page}}</style> <div class="pie-thumb thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="smooth-pie-container" style="width: min-content;flex-direction: column-reverse;"> <ol class="smooth-pie-legend"> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#1b7837;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Private residence (22%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#7fbf7b;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">College campus (7%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#d9f0d3;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Jewish institution / school (11%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#762a83;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Non-Jewish school (12%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#af8dc3;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Public area (35%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#e7d4e8;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Private building / area (12%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#fc8d59;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Cemetery (1%)</span></li> </ol> <div class="smooth-pie" style="width:200px;height:200px;background:#fc8d59;color:#000;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;" title="Cemetery (1%)" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="pie12-5" style="background:#1b7837;color:#000" title="Private residence (22%)"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background:#1b7837;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.095turn)" title="Private residence (22%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#7fbf7b;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.220turn)" title="College campus (7%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#d9f0d3;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.290turn)" title="Jewish institution / school (11%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#d9f0d3;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.330turn)" title="Jewish institution / school (11%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#762a83;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.400turn)" title="Non-Jewish school (12%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#762a83;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.450turn)" title="Non-Jewish school (12%)"></div> <div class="pie25" style="background:#af8dc3;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.520turn)" title="Public area (35%)"></div> <div class="pie25" style="background:#af8dc3;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.620turn)" title="Public area (35%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#e7d4e8;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.870turn)" title="Private building / area (12%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#e7d4e8;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.920turn)" title="Private building / area (12%)"></div> </div> </div></div></div> <p>In April 2015, the Anti-Defamation League published its 2014 audit of antisemitic incidents. According to it, there were 912 antisemitic incidents across the U.S. during 2014. This represents a 21 percent increase from the 751 incidents which were reported during the same period in 2013. Most of the incidents (513) belonged to the category of "harassments, threats and events". Another finding of the audit shows that most of the vandalism incidents occurred in public areas (35%). A review of the results shows that during operation Protective Edge there was a significant increase in the number of antisemitic incidents, as compared to the rest of the year. As usual, the highest totals of antisemitic incidents occurred in states with large Jewish populations: New York State – 231 incidents, California – 184 incidents, New Jersey – 107 incidents, Florida – 70 incidents. In all of these states, more antisemitic incidents were counted in 2014 than in the previous year.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first two months of 2017, nearly 50 bomb threats were made to Jewish community centers across the country.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the massacres of October 7th, the United States saw the most significant explosion of antisemitism in American history.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_historical_archives_and_collections">Jewish historical archives and collections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Jewish historical archives and collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audio_interviews">Audio interviews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Audio interviews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The University of Pittsburgh houses and has made available a collection of audio interviews produced by the NCJW. Over one hundred audio interviews produced by the Pittsburgh Chapter of NCJW are available online. Those interviewed describe their interactions and affiliations with historical events such as emigration, synagogue events, professional activities and other topics with which they were personally involved. These interviews also include information about personal life events, episodes of discrimination against Jews, moving from Europe to America, meeting <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Caruso" title="Enrico Caruso">Enrico Caruso</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a> and other historical figures. Others that were interviewed came to America but were born elsewhere. Jews from Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Haiti, Hungary, India, Israel, Korea, Poland, and other countries describe their experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Written_resources">Written resources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Written resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other collections and archives can be found at: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digifindingaids.cjh.org/?pID=237950">Guide to the National Council of Jewish Women Collection</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute" title="Leo Baeck Institute">Leo Baeck Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100614201922/http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/special/collections/philanthropy/mss025">National Council of Jewish Women, Indianapolis Section, Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/mm87061810">National Council of Jewish Women Records</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/utsa/00067/utsa-00067.html">A Guide to the National Council of Jewish Women, San Antonio Section</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_San_Antonio_Libraries" title="University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries">University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries (UTSA Libraries)</a> Special Collections.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digifindingaids.cjh.org/?pID=109165">National Council of Jewish Women, New York Section</a> at the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a> in New York</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_American_Jews" title="Lists of American Jews">List of American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_Heritage_Month" title="Jewish American Heritage Month">Jewish American Heritage Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbolism_in_the_United_States_military" title="Religious symbolism in the United States military">United States military chaplain symbols</a>, includes information about the history of insignia for Jewish chaplains</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galveston_Movement" title="Galveston Movement">Galveston Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_American_West" title="History of the Jews in the American West">History of the Jews in the American West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ohio" title="History of the Jews in Ohio">History of the Jews in Ohio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greater_Cleveland" title="History of the Jews in Greater Cleveland">History of the Jews in Greater Cleveland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of the Jews in Pennsylvania">History of the Jews in Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Florida" title="History of the Jews in South Florida">History of the Jews in southern Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="History of the Jews in Omaha, Nebraska">History of the Jews in Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colonial_America" title="History of the Jews in Colonial America">History of the Jews in Colonial America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Dallas" title="History of the Jews in Dallas">History of the Jews in Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_San_Diego" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in San Diego">History of Jews in San Diego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in New York City">Jews in New York City</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York_City" title="History of the Jews in New York City">History of the Jews in New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Brooklyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Brooklyn">Jews in Brooklyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Long_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Long Island">Jews in Long Island</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-USA-Jewish-pop-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USA-Jewish-pop_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An estimated figure, as the following sources claim the number to be either slightly higher or lower: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSheskinDashefsky2018" class="citation book cs1">Sheskin, Ira M.; Dashefsky, Arnold (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-United_States_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_Sheskin,_Dashefsky)_DB_Final.pdf#page=10">"United States Jewish Population, 2018"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Sheskin, Ira M.; Dashefsky, Arnold (eds.). <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Year_Book" title="American Jewish Year Book"><i>The American Jewish Year Book, 2018, Volume 118</i></a>. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">251–</span>348. <q>The 2018 American Jewish Year Book (AJYB) estimate for the US Jewish population is about 6.925 million and is based, as in previous years, on the aggregation of over 900 local estimates.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=United+States+Jewish+Population%2C+2018&rft.btitle=The+American+Jewish+Year+Book%2C+2018%2C+Volume+118&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E348&rft.pub=Dordrecht%3A+Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Sheskin&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft.au=Dashefsky%2C+Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishdatabank.org%2Fcontent%2Fupload%2Fbjdb%2F2018-United_States_Jewish_Population_%28AJYB%2C_Sheskin%2C_Dashefsky%29_DB_Final.pdf%23page%3D10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTighede_KramerParmerNussbaum2009" class="citation report cs1">Tighe, Elizabeth; de Kramer, Raquel Magidin; Parmer, Daniel; Nussbaum, Daniel; Kallista, Daniel; Seabrum, Xajavion; Saxe, Leonard (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajpp.brandeis.edu/documents/2019/JewishPopulationDataBrief2019.pdf">American Jewish Population Estimates 2019: Summary and Highlights</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University#Steinhardt_Social_Research_Institute" title="Brandeis University">Steinhardt Social Research Institute, Brandeis University</a>. p. 1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2019</span>. <q>A total of 7.5 million people in the US are Jewish.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=American+Jewish+Population+Estimates+2019%3A+Summary+and+Highlights&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Steinhardt+Social+Research+Institute%2C+Brandeis+University&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Tighe&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=de+Kramer%2C+Raquel+Magidin&rft.au=Parmer%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Nussbaum%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Kallista%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Seabrum%2C+Xajavion&rft.au=Saxe%2C+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fajpp.brandeis.edu%2Fdocuments%2F2019%2FJewishPopulationDataBrief2019.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/d/dershowitz-jew.html">"The Vanishing American Jew"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Vanishing+American+Jew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.nytimes.com%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2Ffirst%2Fd%2Fdershowitz-jew.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSheskinDashefsky2018" class="citation book cs1">Sheskin, Ira M.; Dashefsky, Arnold (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-United_States_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_Sheskin,_Dashefsky)_DB_Final.pdf#page=10">"United States Jewish Population, 2018"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Sheskin, Ira M.; Dashefsky, Arnold (eds.). <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Year_Book" title="American Jewish Year Book"><i>The American Jewish Year Book, 2018, Volume 118</i></a>. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">251–</span>348. <q>The 2018 American Jewish Year Book (AJYB) estimate for the US Jewish population is about 6.925 million and is based, as in previous years, on the aggregation of over 900 local estimates.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=United+States+Jewish+Population%2C+2018&rft.btitle=The+American+Jewish+Year+Book%2C+2018%2C+Volume+118&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E348&rft.pub=Dordrecht%3A+Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Sheskin&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft.au=Dashefsky%2C+Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishdatabank.org%2Fcontent%2Fupload%2Fbjdb%2F2018-United_States_Jewish_Population_%28AJYB%2C_Sheskin%2C_Dashefsky%29_DB_Final.pdf%23page%3D10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hasia Diner, <i>The Jews of the United States</i> (2004)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brandeis.edu/hornstein/sarna/immigration/themythofnoreturn.pdf">"Jonathan D. Sarna "The Myth of No Return: Jewish Return Migration to Eastern Europe, 1881-1914" American Jewish History, December 1981, Volume LXXI, Number 2"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jonathan+D.+Sarna+%22The+Myth+of+No+Return%3A+Jewish+Return+Migration+to+Eastern+Europe%2C+1881-1914%22+American+Jewish+History%2C+December+1981%2C+Volume+LXXI%2C+Number+2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brandeis.edu%2Fhornstein%2Fsarna%2Fimmigration%2Fthemythofnoreturn.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Paul Johnson</a>, <i>A History of the Jews</i>, p. 366</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Jewish Migrations to the United States in the Late Twentieth Century, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/contemporary-jewish-migrations-to-united-states">"Jewish Migrations to the United States in the Late Twentieth Century"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Migrations+to+the+United+States+in+the+Late+Twentieth+Century&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fcontemporary-jewish-migrations-to-united-states&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Jewish Population Survey 2000-2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061028212409/http://www.ujc.org/getfile.asp?id=7579">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ujc.org/getfile.asp?id=7579">the original</a> on 2006-10-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ujc.org%2Fgetfile.asp%3Fid%3D7579&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Jews in America 1621-1977, A Chronology & Fact Book" Compiled and edited by Irving J. Sloan. Published in 1978 by Oceana Publications, Inc. Dobbs Ferry, New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine, Volume 25, The College, 1917, Page 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">volume 31 of The New England Historical and Genealogical Register published 1877, By David Clapp, 1877, page</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Virginia Immigrants and Adventurers, 1607-1635: A Biographical Dictionary</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American Jewish Historical Quarterly, Volume 20 American Jewish Historical Society, 1911</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=128">"Boston Jews Petition for First Cemetery"</a>. Mass Moments. 4 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Boston+Jews+Petition+for+First+Cemetery&rft.pub=Mass+Moments&rft.date=2008-05-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmassmoments.org%2Fmoment.cfm%3Fmid%3D128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In one of his letters, Stuyvesant wrote: "The deceitful race—such hateful enemies and blasphemers of the name of Christ—be not allowed to further infest and trouble this new colony." A year later, he informed the Dutch West India Company of the status of the Jews: "Considering the Jewish nation with regard to trade: They are not hindered, but trade with the same privilege and freedom as other inhabitants. Also, they have many times requested of us the free and public exercise of their abominable religion, but this cannot yet be accorded to them. What they may be able to obtain from your Honors time will tell." <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode7/documents/documents_1.html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=375&letter=C#ixzz0wAXsp7Nf">Charleston, S.C.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193427/http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/0103137.html">"A "portion of the People" | Harvard Magazine"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/0103137.html">the original</a> on 2008-12-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+%22portion+of+the+People%22+%26%23124%3B+Harvard+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardmagazine.com%2Fon-line%2F0103137.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/mar/southernjews/index.html">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205051/http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/mar/southernjews/index.html">Archived</a> 2013-10-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.lib.unc.edu/apop/">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140419001646/http://www2.lib.unc.edu/apop/">Archived</a> 2014-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.sc.edu/uscpress/2002/3445.html">[4]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=375&letter=C">Charleston, S.C.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishmag.com/79mag/usahistory2/usahistory2.htm">1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9218/9218.intro.html">2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930153755/http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9218/9218.intro.html">Archived</a> 2007-09-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928112446/http://www.jewsinamerica.org/">"Our Story"</a>. Jews In America. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewsinamerica.org/">the original</a> on 2010-09-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Story&rft.pub=Jews+In+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewsinamerica.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-har-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-har_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harvardmagazine.com/2003/01/a-portion-of-the-people.html">A "portion of the People"</a>", Nell Porter Brown, <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Magazine" title="Harvard Magazine">Harvard Magazine</a></i>, January–February 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140921013027/http://www.jspacenews.com/haym-solomon-man-behind-myth-dollars-star-david/">"Haym Solomon: The Man Behind the Myth of the Dollar's Star of David"</a>. 2014-01-03. Archived from the original on September 21, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Haym+Solomon%3A+The+Man+Behind+the+Myth+of+the+Dollar%27s+Star+of+David&rft.date=2014-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jspacenews.com%2Fhaym-solomon-man-behind-myth-dollars-star-david%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NGE-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NGE_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCooksey,_Elizabeth_B.2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cooksey, Elizabeth B. (January 11, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3183">"Mordecai Sheftall (1735-1797)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Georgia_Encyclopedia" title="New Georgia Encyclopedia">New Georgia Encyclopedia</a></i>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgia_Humanities_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georgia Humanities Council (page does not exist)">Georgia Humanities Council</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mordecai+Sheftall+%281735-1797%29&rft.btitle=New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Georgia+Humanities+Council&rft.date=2008-01-11&rft.au=Cooksey%2C+Elizabeth+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-3183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEverest,_Allan_S._(Allan_Seymour)" class="citation book cs1">Everest, Allan S. (Allan Seymour). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1055764297"><i>Moses Hazen and the Canadian refugees in the American Revolution</i></a>. New York State American Revolution Bicentennial Commission. (First ed.). Syracuse, N.Y. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68445-006-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68445-006-0"><bdi>978-1-68445-006-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1055764297">1055764297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moses+Hazen+and+the+Canadian+refugees+in+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+N.Y.&rft.edition=First&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1055764297&rft.isbn=978-1-68445-006-0&rft.au=Everest%2C+Allan+S.+%28Allan+Seymour%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1055764297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSolomon" class="citation web cs1">Solomon, Zachary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jta.org/jewniverse/2014/the-18th-century-jewish-merchant-prince-of-rhode-island">"The 18th-Century Jewish Merchant Prince of Rhode Island"</a>. <i>Jewish Telegraph Agency</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Telegraph+Agency&rft.atitle=The+18th-Century+Jewish+Merchant+Prince+of+Rhode+Island&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2Fjewniverse%2F2014%2Fthe-18th-century-jewish-merchant-prince-of-rhode-island&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander DeConde, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XOlcL8kgrZgC">Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History</a></i>, p.52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Sarna, <i>American Judaism</i> (2004) ch. 2 and p. 374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100616033330/http://www.texancultures.utsa.edu/publications/texansoneandall/jewish.htm">"Jewish Texans"</a>. Texancultures.utsa.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.texancultures.utsa.edu/publications/texansoneandall/jewish.htm">the original</a> on 2010-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Texans&rft.pub=Texancultures.utsa.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.texancultures.utsa.edu%2Fpublications%2Ftexansoneandall%2Fjewish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">["The Jewish Americans" Dir. David Grubin. PBS Home Video, 2008. Disc 1, Episode 1, Chapter 5, 0:30:40]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Eli_N._Evans" title="Eli N. Evans">Eli N. Evans</a>, Overview: The War Between Jewish Brothers in America, in <i>Jews and the Civil War: A Reader</i> (eds. Jonathan D. Sarna & Adam Mendelsohn), NYU Press: 2010, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George E. Berkley, <i>Jews</i>, Branden Books: 1997, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Jewish Colonel in the Civil War: Marcus M. Spiegel of the Ohio Volunteers</i> (eds. Jean Powers Soman & Frank L. Bryne), University of Nebraska Press, 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Young, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.longislandwins.com/news/detail/jews_fight_the_ban_on_rabbis_as_army_chaplains">Jews Fight the Ban on Rabbis as Army Chaplains</a> (Oct. 21, 2011).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert N. Rosen, Jewish Confederates, in <i>Jews and the Civil War: A Reader</i> (eds. Jonathan D. Sarna & Adam Mendelsohn), NYU Press: 2010, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baron, p. 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan D. Sarna, <i>American Judaism: A History</i> (2004). pp 121-22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2011" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, Susan E. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KvZoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA147"><i>The New Hampshire State Constitution</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199877706" title="Special:BookSources/9780199877706"><bdi>9780199877706</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Hampshire+State+Constitution&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199877706&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Susan+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKvZoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan D. Sarna, <i>When General Grant Expelled the Jews </i> (2012), Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krefetz p 54-55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krefetz, p 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGurock1998" class="citation book cs1">Gurock, Jeffrey S. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HMnvdbIPN7gC&pg=PA533"><i>American Jewish life, 1920-1990</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415919258" title="Special:BookSources/9780415919258"><bdi>9780415919258</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Jewish+life%2C+1920-1990&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780415919258&rft.aulast=Gurock&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHMnvdbIPN7gC%26pg%3DPA533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rochlin,_Harriet,_1924–1984_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRochlin,_Harriet,_1924-1984" class="citation book cs1">Rochlin, Harriet, 1924- (1984). <i>Pioneer Jews: a new life in the Far West</i>. Rochlin, Fred, 1923-. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-31832-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-31832-7"><bdi>0-395-31832-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9685666">9685666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pioneer+Jews%3A+a+new+life+in+the+Far+West&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9685666&rft.isbn=0-395-31832-7&rft.au=Rochlin%2C+Harriet%2C+1924-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert E. Levinson, <i>The Jews in the California Gold Rush</i> (Ktav Publishing House, 1978).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDiner,_Hasia_R.2015" class="citation book cs1">Diner, Hasia R. (January 2015). <i>Roads taken : the great Jewish migrations to the new world and the peddlers who forged the way</i>. New Haven. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21019-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21019-4"><bdi>978-0-300-21019-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/898893380">898893380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roads+taken+%3A+the+great+Jewish+migrations+to+the+new+world+and+the+peddlers+who+forged+the+way&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F898893380&rft.isbn=978-0-300-21019-4&rft.au=Diner%2C+Hasia+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Sullivan, <i>Jeans: a cultural history of an American icon</i> (Gotham, 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRischin,_Moses.1992" class="citation book cs1">Rischin, Moses. (1992). <i>Jews of the American west</i>. Wayne State Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-2171-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-2171-2"><bdi>0-8143-2171-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/315043030">315043030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+of+the+American+west&rft.pub=Wayne+State+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F315043030&rft.isbn=0-8143-2171-2&rft.au=Rischin%2C+Moses.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbrams,_Jeanne_E.,_1951-2006" class="citation book cs1">Abrams, Jeanne E., 1951- (2006). <i>Jewish women pioneering the frontier trail a history in the American West</i>. New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/938034385">938034385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+women+pioneering+the+frontier+trail+a+history+in+the+American+West&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F938034385&rft.au=Abrams%2C+Jeanne+E.%2C+1951-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellen Eisenberg, Ava F. Kahn, and William Toll, <i>Jews of the Pacific Coast: Reinventing Community on America's Edge</i> (University of Washington Press, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98965-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98965-5">978-0-295-98965-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Neal_Gabler" title="Neal Gabler">Neal Gabler</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/An_Empire_of_Their_Own:_How_the_Jews_Invented_Hollywood" class="mw-redirect" title="An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood">An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood</a></i> (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bard, M.G. (n.d.). Jews in America: The Jewish American family. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0006_0_06269.html">https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0006_0_06269.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewin1979" class="citation journal cs1">Lewin, Rhoda G. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf">"Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Minnesota History</i>. <b>46</b> (7). Minnesota Historical Society: 259<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minnesota+History&rft.atitle=Stereotype+and+reality+in+the+Jewish+immigrant+experience+in+Minneapolis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=259&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Lewin&rft.aufirst=Rhoda+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollections.mnhs.org%2FMNHistoryMagazine%2Farticles%2F46%2Fv46i07p258-273.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hardwick (2002), pg. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yiddish is a dialect of German written in the Hebrew alphabet and based entirely in the East European Jewish population. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Moses_Shapiro2003" class="citation book cs1">Robert Moses Shapiro (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I3lItIwOzCkC&pg=PA18"><i>Why Didn't the Press Shout?: American & International Journalism During the Holocaust</i></a>. KTAV. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881257755" title="Special:BookSources/9780881257755"><bdi>9780881257755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Didn%27t+the+Press+Shout%3F%3A+American+%26+International+Journalism+During+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=KTAV&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780881257755&rft.au=Robert+Moses+Shapiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI3lItIwOzCkC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarah Blacher Cohen, ed., <i>From Hester Street to Hollywood: The Jewish-American Stage and Screen</i> (Indiana University Press, 1983).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neal Gabler, <i>An empire of their own: How the Jews invented Hollywood</i> (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor Stults, "Roosevelt, Russian Persecution of Jews, and American Public Opinion" <i>Jewish Social Studies</i> (1971) 33#3 pp 13-22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald Sorin, <i>A Time for Building: The Third Migration, 1880-1920</i> (1995) pp 200–206, 302–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan J. Ward, "Immigrant minority 'diplomacy': American Jews and Russia, 1901–1912." <i>Bulletin of the British Association for American Studies</i> 9 (1964): 7-23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart E. Knee, "The Diplomacy of Neutrality: Theodore Roosevelt and the Russian Pogroms of 1903-1906," <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> (1989), 19#1 pp. 71-78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann E. Healy, "Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Russian-American Relations." <i>Slavic Review</i> 42.3 (1983): 408-425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maddalena Marinari, <i>Unwanted: Italian and Jewish Mobilization against Restrictive Immigration Laws, 1882–1965</i> (2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Unwanted-Mobilization-Restrictive-Immigration-1882-1965/dp/1469652935/">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cutler, Irving. "Jews." Encyclopedia of Chicago History.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deborah R. Weiner, "The Jews of Clarksburg: Community Adaptation and Survival, 1900-60." <i>West Virginia History</i> 1995 54: 59-77. 0043-325x</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hal_Rothman" title="Hal Rothman">Hal Rothman</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1006/">"'Same Horse, New Wagon': Tradition and Assimilation among the Jews of Wichita, 1865-1930."</a> <i>Great Plains Quarterly</i> 1995 15(2): 83-104. 0275-7664</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jmaw.org/david-solis-cohen-portland-jewish/">"David Solis-Cohen: Pioneer Lawyer, Poet, Speaker, Merchant and Banker of Portland, Oregon – JMAW – Jewish Museum of the American West"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=David+Solis-Cohen%3A+Pioneer+Lawyer%2C+Poet%2C+Speaker%2C+Merchant+and+Banker+of+Portland%2C+Oregon+%E2%80%93+JMAW+%E2%80%93+Jewish+Museum+of+the+American+West&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jmaw.org%2Fdavid-solis-cohen-portland-jewish%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William M. Kramer, "The Emergence of Oakland Jewry." <i>Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly</i> 1978 10 (2): 99-125, (3): 238-259, (4): 353-373; 11(1): 69-86; 1979 11(2): 173-186, (3): 265-278. 0043-4221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921164440/http://isjl.org/history/archive/la/new_orleans.htm">"Digital Archive: New Orleans, Louisiana"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Goldring_/_Woldenberg_Institute_of_Southern_Jewish_Life&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life (page does not exist)">Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isjl.org/history/archive/la/new_orleans.htm">the original</a> on 2013-09-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Digital+Archive%3A+New+Orleans%2C+Louisiana&rft.pub=Goldring+%2F+Woldenberg+Institute+of+Southern+Jewish+Life&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isjl.org%2Fhistory%2Farchive%2Fla%2Fnew_orleans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYC_JVL-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYC_JVL_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/new-york-city">"New York City"</a>. <i>Jewish Virtual Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.atitle=New+York+City&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fnew-york-city&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred Rosenbaum, <i>Cosmopolitans: A Social and Cultural History of the Jews of the San Francisco Bay Area</i> (U of California Press, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanjerusalem.com/story-summary">"History of Jews in San Francisco | American Jerusalem"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Jews+in+San+Francisco+%26%23124%3B+American+Jerusalem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanjerusalem.com%2Fstory-summary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160406044600/http://www.jspacenews.com/levi-strauss-jewish-immigrant-turned-california-entrepreneur/">"Levi Strauss: The Jewish Immigrant Turned California Entrepreneur"</a>. Archived from the original on 2016-04-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Levi+Strauss%3A+The+Jewish+Immigrant+Turned+California+Entrepreneur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jspacenews.com%2Flevi-strauss-jewish-immigrant-turned-california-entrepreneur%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Harvey_Milk.html">"Harvey Milk"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harvey+Milk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2Fbiography%2FHarvey_Milk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Michels, <i>A fire in their hearts: Yiddish socialists in New York</i> (Harvard UP, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart Svonkin, <i>Jews against prejudice: American Jews and the fight for civil liberties</i>. (Columbia U., 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert M. Seltzer et al. eds. <i>The Americanization of the Jews</i> (1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evyatar Friesel, "Jacob H. Schiff and the Leadership of the American Jewish Community. <i>Jewish Social Studies</i> 2002 8(2-3): 61-72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seth Korelitz, "'A Magnificent Piece of Work': the Americanization Work of the National Council of Jewish Women." <i>American Jewish History</i> 1995 83(2): 177-203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diner, The Jews of the United States 135-40, 173-82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Foundation gave away all its money and closed down in 1948. Lawrence P. Bachmann, "Julius Rosenwald," <i>American Jewish Historical Quarterly</i> 1976 66(1): 89-105; Peter M. Ascoli, <i>Julius Rosenwald</i> (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoore1981" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Deborah Dash (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bnaibrithch00moor/page/108"><i>B'nai B'rith and the Challenge of Ethnic Leadership</i></a>. State University of New York Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bnaibrithch00moor/page/108">108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0873954808" title="Special:BookSources/978-0873954808"><bdi>978-0873954808</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=B%27nai+B%27rith+and+the+Challenge+of+Ethnic+Leadership&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0873954808&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Deborah+Dash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbnaibrithch00moor%2Fpage%2F108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJerome_A._Chanes2001" class="citation book cs1">Jerome A. Chanes (2001). "Who Does What?". In <a href="/wiki/L._Sandy_Maisel" title="L. Sandy Maisel">Maisel, L. Sandy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ira_Forman" title="Ira Forman">Forman, Ira N.</a> (eds.). <i>Jews in American Politics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742501812" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742501812"><bdi>978-0742501812</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Who+Does+What%3F&rft.btitle=Jews+in+American+Politics&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0742501812&rft.au=Jerome+A.+Chanes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-time-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-time_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080819190502/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898581,00.html">"The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time magazine">Time magazine</a></i>. April 9, 1965. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898581,00.html">the original</a> on August 19, 2008. <q>An itinerant Methodist preacher named William Joseph Simmons started up the Klan again in Atlanta in 1915. Simmons, an ascetic-looking man, was a fetishist on fraternal organizations. He was already a "colonel" in the Woodmen of the World, but he decided to build an organization all his own. He was an effective speaker, with an affinity for alliteration; he had preached on "Women, Weddings and Wives," "Red Heads, Dead Heads and No Heads," and the "Kinship of Kourtship and Kissing." On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an altar on which he placed an American flag, a Bible and an unsheathed sword, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself Imperial Wizard of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time+magazine&rft.atitle=The+Various+Shady+Lives+of+the+Ku+Klux+Klan&rft.date=1965-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C898581%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher M. Sterba, <i>Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants During the First World War</i> (2003), 61-63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Ann Irwin, "'The Air is Becoming Full of War': Jewish San Francisco and World War I," <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 74#3 (2005): 331-66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Rappaport, <i>Jewish Immigrants and World War I: A Study of Yiddish Attitudes</i>(1951), p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHenry_L._Feingold2007" class="citation book cs1">Henry L. Feingold (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Uk5jK1z4hsC&pg=PA13"><i>"Silent No More": Saving the Jews of Russia, the American Jewish Effort, 1967-1989</i></a>. Syracuse UP. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815631019" title="Special:BookSources/9780815631019"><bdi>9780815631019</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Silent+No+More%22%3A+Saving+the+Jews+of+Russia%2C+the+American+Jewish+Effort%2C+1967-1989&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Syracuse+UP&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780815631019&rft.au=Henry+L.+Feingold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Uk5jK1z4hsC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sterba, <i>Good Americans</i> (2003), 68-69, 76, 79, 167-69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichael2005" class="citation book cs1">Michael, Robert (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PA101"><i>A concise history of American antisemitism</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742543133" title="Special:BookSources/9780742543133"><bdi>9780742543133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+concise+history+of+American+antisemitism&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780742543133&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5G3feplFBYUC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosa Szajkowski, "Private and Organized American Jewish Overseas Relief (1914-1938)," <i>American Jewish Historical Quarterly</i> 57#1 (1967) 52-106 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23875989">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosa Szajkowski, <i>Jews, Wars, and Communism. Vol. I: The Attitude of American Jews to World War I, the Russian Revolutions of 1917, and Communism (1914-1945)</i> (New York: KTAV, 1973) includes a great deal of undigested information.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hasia_Diner_2004-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hasia_Diner_2004_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hasia_Diner_2004_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hasia_Diner" title="Hasia Diner">Hasia Diner</a>, <i>The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000</i> (2004), ch 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve Fraser, <i>Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald H. Bayor, <i>Neighbors in Conflict: The Irish, Germans, Jews and Italians of New York City, 1929–1941</i>, (1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Murray Friedman, <i>What Went Wrong? The Creation and Collapse of the Black-Jewish Alliance</i>. (1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joshua M. Zeitz, <i>White Ethnic New York: Jews, Catholics, and the Shaping of Postwar Politics</i> (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGerber1986" class="citation book cs1">Gerber, David A. (1986). <i>Anti-Semitism in American history</i>. University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anti-Semitism+in+American+history&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Gerber&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Breitman_and_Allan_J._Lichtman2013" class="citation book cs1">Richard Breitman and Allan J. Lichtman (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQ05lXs7RqcC&pg=PT63"><i>FDR and the Jews</i></a>. Harvard UP. pp. <span class="nowrap">53–</span>63, <span class="nowrap">148–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674073678" title="Special:BookSources/9780674073678"><bdi>9780674073678</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR+and+the+Jews&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E63%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.pub=Harvard+UP&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780674073678&rft.au=Richard+Breitman+and+Allan+J.+Lichtman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxQ05lXs7RqcC%26pg%3DPT63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry L. Feingold <i>Zion in America: The Jewish Experience from Colonial Times to the present</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDiner2006" class="citation book cs1">Diner, Hasia R. (2006). <i>The Jews of the United States, 1654-2000</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">209–</span>210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520248489" title="Special:BookSources/9780520248489"><bdi>9780520248489</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+the+United+States%2C+1654-2000&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780520248489&rft.aulast=Diner&rft.aufirst=Hasia+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (New York, 1984), p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/peopleevents/pandeAMEX90.html">"The American Experience. America and the Holocaust. People & Events | Breckinridge Long (1881 -1958)"</a>. PBS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+American+Experience.+America+and+the+Holocaust.+People+%26+Events+%26%23124%3B+Breckinridge+Long+%281881+-1958%29&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famex%2Fholocaust%2Fpeopleevents%2FpandeAMEX90.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(William D. Rubinstein, "The Myth of Rescue")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry L. 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Whitfield</a>, "Blood and Sand: the Jewish Community of South Florida." <i>American Jewish History</i> 1994 82(1-4): 73-96. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0164-0178">0164-0178</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marianne Sanua, "Stages in the Development of Jewish Life at Princeton University," <i>American Jewish History</i> 1987 76(4): 391-415. 0164-0178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kintera.org/site/apps/nlnet/content.aspx?c=twI6LmN7IzF&b=5698175&ct=9377799">"The Jewish Traveler: Los Angeles - Hadassah Magazine | HadassahMagazine.org"</a>. <i>kintera.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Journal&rft.atitle=Dispelling+the+Myth+About+Jews+and+Poverty&rft.date=2019-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewishjournal.com%2Fcommentary%2Fcolumnist%2F297539%2Fdispelling-the-myth-about-jews-and-poverty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/272350/the-vanishing-ivy-league-jew">"Jewish Populations are Falling at Schools Like Harvard and Yale. Should We Care?"</a>. <i>Tablet Magazine</i>. 2018-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tablet+Magazine&rft.atitle=Jewish+Populations+are+Falling+at+Schools+Like+Harvard+and+Yale.+Should+We+Care%3F&rft.date=2018-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tabletmag.com%2Fjewish-news-and-politics%2F272350%2Fthe-vanishing-ivy-league-jew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From national exit polls, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html">[5]</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2006/pages/results/states/US/H/00/epolls.0.html">[6]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a dissenting opinion, see Jonathan D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Anti+Defamation+League&rft.atitle=Audit%3A+In+2014+Anti-Semitic+Incidents+Rose+21+Percent+Across+The+U.S.+In+A+%22Particularly+Violent+Year+for+Jews%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adl.org%2Fpress-center%2Fpress-releases%2Fanti-semitism-usa%2Fadl-audit-in-2014-anti-semitic-inicidents.html%23.VRrUFPmsX_F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/04/us-jewish-community-centers-bomb-threats">"Jewish community centers in US receive nearly 50 bomb threats in 2017 so far"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 4 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Jewish+community+centers+in+US+receive+nearly+50+bomb+threats+in+2017+so+far&rft.date=2017-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Ffeb%2F04%2Fus-jewish-community-centers-bomb-threats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jns.org/the-worst-eruption-of-antisemitism-in-american-history/">https://www.jns.org/the-worst-eruption-of-antisemitism-in-american-history/</a>, JNS, October 2023</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.pitt.edu/n/ncjw/index.html">"Pittsburgh and Beyond: The Experience of the Jewish Community (National Council of Jewish Women Oral History Collection at the University of Pittsburgh)"</a>. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pittsburgh+and+Beyond%3A+The+Experience+of+the+Jewish+Community+%28National+Council+of+Jewish+Women+Oral+History+Collection+at+the+University+of+Pittsburgh%29&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.pitt.edu%2Fn%2Fncjw%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Jewish People in America</i> 5 vol 1992 <ul><li>Faber, Eli. <i>A Time for Planting: The First Migration, 1654-1820</i> (Volume 1) (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801851203">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Diner, Hasia A. <i>A Time for Gathering: The Second Migration, 1820-1880</i> (Volume 2) (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801851211">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Sorin, Gerald. <i>A Time for Building: The Third Migration, 1880-1920</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/080185122X">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Feingold, Henry L. <i>A Time for Searching: Entering the Mainstream, 1920-1945</i> (Volume 4) (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801851238">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Shapiro, Edward S. <i>A Time for Healing: American Jewry since World War II</i>, (Volume 5) (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801851246">excerpt and text search</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cohen, Naomi W. <i>Encounter with Emancipation: The German Jews in the United States, 1830-1914</i> (1984).</li> <li>Diner, Hasia. <i>Jews in America</i> (Oxford UP, 1999), a short summary</li> <li>Diner, Hasia. <i>The Jews of the United States, 1654-2000</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0520248481">excerpt and text search</a>, standard scholarly history</li> <li>Diner, Hasia. <i>A New Promised Land: A History of Jews in America</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195158261">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Diner, Hasia R. and Benderly, Beryl Lieff. <i>Her Works Praise Her: A History of Jewish Women in America from Colonial Times to the Present.</i> (2002). 462 pp.</li></ul> <ul><li>Eisenberg, Ellen, Ava F. Kahn, and William Toll, <i>Jews of the Pacific Coast: Reinventing Community on America's Edge</i> (University of Washington Press, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98965-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98965-5">978-0-295-98965-5</a></li> <li>Feingold, Henry L. <i>Zion in America: The Jewish Experience from Colonial Times to the Present</i></li></ul> <ul><li>Fischel, Jack, and Sanford Pinsker, eds. <i>Jewish-American history and culture: an encyclopedia</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishamericanhi00fisc">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Glazer, Nathan. <i>American Judaism</i> (1957, revised 1972), classic in sociology</li> <li>Handlin, Oscar. <i>Adventure in freedom; three hundred years of Jewish life in America</i> (1954), by a leading scholar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adventureinfreed00hand">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Heilman, Samuel C. <i>Portrait of American Jews: The Last Half of the 20th Century</i> (1995)</li> <li>Hyman, Paula E., and Deborah Dash Moore, eds. <i>Jewish Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia,</i> 2 vol. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/about">complete text online</a></li> <li>Kaplan, Dana Evan, ed. <i>The Cambridge Companion to American Judaism</i> (2005).</li> <li>Marcus, Jacob Rader. <i>The American Jew, 1585-1990: a history</i> (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanjew158510000marc">online</a>.</li> <li>Marcus, Jacob Rader. <i>The American Jewish woman, 1654-1980</i> (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanjewishwo0000marc">online</a> <ul><li>Marcus, Jacob Rader. <i>United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 1: The Sephardic Period</i>; <i>United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 2: The Germanic Period.</i>; <i>United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 3: The Germanic Period, Part 2.</i>; <i>United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 4: The East European Period: The Emergence of the American Jew; Epilogue.</i> (Wayne State University Press, 1989–1993) 3119pp.</li></ul></li> <li>Norwood, Stephen H., and Eunice G. Pollack, eds. <i>Encyclopedia of American Jewish history</i> (2 vol ABC-CLIO, 2007), 775pp; comprehensive coverage by experts; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nUDbttcSl08C">excerpt and text search vol 1</a></li> <li>Pencak, William. <i>Jews and Gentiles in Early America: 1654-1800</i> (University of Michigan Press. 2005)</li></ul> <ul><li>Sarna, Jonathan D. <i>American Judaism: A History</i> (2004), standard scholarly history</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharfman1977" class="citation book cs1">Sharfman, Rabbi I. Harold (1977). <i>Jews on the Frontier An Account of Jewish Pioneers and Settlers in Early America</i>. Chicago: Regnery. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780809278497" title="Special:BookSources/9780809278497"><bdi>9780809278497</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+on+the+Frontier+An+Account+of+Jewish+Pioneers+and+Settlers+in+Early+America&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Regnery&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780809278497&rft.aulast=Sharfman&rft.aufirst=Rabbi+I.+Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Localities">Localities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Localities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abramovitch, Ilana and Galvin, Sean, eds. <i>Jews of Brooklyn.</i> (2002). 400 pp.</li> <li>Bayor, Ronald H. <i>Neighbors in Conflict: The Irish, Germans, Jews, and Italians of New York City, 1929-1941</i> (JHU Press, 2019).</li> <li>Berman, Lila Corwin. <i>Metropolitan Jews: politics, race, and religion in postwar Detroit</i> (U of Chicago Press, 2015).</li> <li>Cutler, Irving. <i>The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb.</i> (1996)</li> <li>Deutsch, Nathaniel, and Michael Casper. <i>A fortress in Brooklyn: Race, real estate, and the making of Hasidic Williamsburg</i> (Yale UP, 2021) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xsMpEAAAQBAJ&dq=+Jews+Brooklyn&pg=PP1">online</a></li> <li>Ehrlich, Walter. <i>Zion in the Valley: The Jewish Community of St. Louis</i> (2 vol. 2002).</li> <li>Fermaglich, Kirsten. " 'Too Long, Too Foreign...Too Jewish': Jews, Name Changing, and Family Mobility in New York City, 1917-1942." <i>Journal of American Ethnic History</i> 34.3 (2015): 34-57. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jamerethnhist.34.3.0034">online</a></li> <li>Goldstein, Eric L., and Deborah R. Weiner. <i>On middle ground: a history of the Jews of Baltimore</i> (JHU Press, 2018).</li> <li>Gurock, Jeffrey S. <i>Jews in Gotham</i> (New York UP, 2013), Gotham is New York City</li> <li>Gurock, Jeffrey S. <i>When Harlem was Jewish, 1870-1930</i> (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whenharlemwasjew0000guro/page/n5/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Lederhendler, Eli. <i>New York Jews and the Decline of Urban Ethnicity, 1950-1970</i> (Syracuse UP, 2001).</li> <li>Levinson, Robert E. "American Jews in the West." <i>Western Historical Quarterly</i> 5.3 (1974): 285–294. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/967887">online</a></li> <li>Moore, Deborah Dash, et al. <i>City of promises: A history of the Jews of New York</i> (NYU Press, 2012).</li> <li>Moore, Deborah Dash. <i>To the golden cities: Pursuing the American Jewish dream in Miami and LA</i> (Harvard UP, 1996).</li> <li>Moore, Deborah Dash. "Jewish migration in postwar America: The case of Miami and Los Angeles." in <i>American Jewish Life, 1920-199</i> (Routledge, 2013). 35-50. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.policyarchive.org/download/10013">online</a></li> <li>Pritchett, Wendell E. <i>Brownsville, Brooklyn: blacks, Jews, and the changing face of the ghetto</i> (U of Chicago Press, 2002).</li> <li>Rischin, Moses. <i>The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914</i> (Harvard UP, 1977).</li> <li>Rosenbaum, Fred. <i>Cosmopolitans: A Social and Cultural History of the Jews of the San Francisco Bay Area</i> (U of California Press, 2009)</li> <li>Sarna, Jonathan D., et al. <i>The Jews of Boston</i> (Yale UP, 2005).</li> <li>Smith, William L., and Pidi Zhang. "Southern Jews and Jewish Southerners in Savannah, Georgia." <i>Michigan Sociological Review</i> 33 (2019): 46–75. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26868251">online</a></li> <li>Weiner, Deborah R. "Insiders and Outsiders: Jewish-Gentile Relations in Baltimore during the Interwar Era' <i>Maryland Historical Magazine</i> 110#4 (2015) pp. 463-488 in 19203 and 1930s</li> <li>Zerivitz, Marcia Jo. <i>Jews of Florida: Centuries of stories</i> (Arcadia Publishing, 2020).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialty_topics">Specialty topics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Specialty topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States#Further_reading" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History of antisemitism in the United States § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li>Brumberg, Stephan F. <i>Going to America, Going to School: The Jewish Immigrant Public School Encounter in Turn-of-the-Century New York City</i> (Praeger, 1986); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED215060.pdf">1982 75 page version, online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Chiswick, Barry R. "Jewish immigrant wages in America in 1909: An analysis of the Dillingham Commission data." <i>Explorations in Economic History</i> 29.3 (1992): 274-289. doi.org/10.1016/0014-4983(92)90039-Y</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_G._Dalin" title="David G. Dalin">Dalin, David G.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_J._Kolatch" title="Alfred J. Kolatch">Kolatch, Alfred J.</a> <i>The Presidents of the United States and the Jews.</i> (2000)</li></ul> <ul><li>Dollinger, Marc. <i>Quest for Inclusion: Jews and Liberalism in Modern America.</i> (2000). 296 pp.</li> <li>Howe, Irving. <i>World of Our Fathers: The Journey of the East European Jews to America and the Life They Found and Made</i> (1976) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0814736858?holoie=UTF8">excerpt and text search</a>, classic account; exaggerates importance of Yiddish culture and socialism; neglects role of religion</li> <li>Jick, Leon. <i>The Americanization of the Synagogue, 1820-1870</i> (1976)</li> <li>Kaplan, Dana Evan. <i>American Reform Judaism: An Introduction</i> (2003)</li> <li>Klapper, Melissa R. <i>Jewish girls coming of age in America, 1860-1920</i> (NYU Press, 2005).</li> <li>Linzer, Norman, et al. <i>A Portrait of the American Jewish Community</i> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Sandy_Maisel" title="L. Sandy Maisel">Maisel, L. Sandy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ira_Forman" title="Ira Forman">Ira Forman</a>, eds. <i>Jews in American Politics</i> (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/jewvote.html">with voting statistics on p. 153</a></li> <li>Marinari, Maddalena. <i>Unwanted: Italian and Jewish Mobilization against Restrictive Immigration Laws, 1882–1965</i> (2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Unwanted-Mobilization-Restrictive-Immigration-1882-1965/dp/1469652935/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Moore, Deborah Dash. <i>GI Jews: How World War II Changed a Generation</i> (2006)</li> <li>Moore, Deborah Dash. <i>At Home in America: Second Generation New York Jews.</i> (1981).</li> <li>Morowska, Ewa. <i>Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890-1940</i> (1996)</li> <li>Neu, Irene D. "The Jewish Businesswoman in America." <i>American Jewish Historical Quarterly</i> 66 (1976–1977): 137–153.</li> <li>Rockaway, Robert, and Arnon Gutfeld. "Demonic images of the Jew in the nineteenth century United States." <i>American Jewish History</i> 89#4 (2001): 355–381.</li> <li>Silverstein, Alan. <i>Alternatives to Assimilation: The Response of Reform Judaism to American Culture, 1840-1930.</i> (1994). 275 pp.</li> <li>Sorin, Gerald. "Mutual Contempt, Mutual Benefit: The Strained Encounter between German and Eastern European Jews in America, 1880–1920." <i>American Jewish History</i> 81#1 (1993): 34–59.</li> <li>Staub, Michael E. <i>Torn at the Roots: The Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America.</i> (2002). 392 pp.</li> <li>Weiner, Melissa F.<i> Power, protest, and the public schools: Jewish and African American struggles in New York City</i> (Rutgers University Press, 2010).</li> <li>Wenger, Beth S. <i>New York Jews and the Great Depression: Uncertain Promise</i> (Yale University Press, 1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newyorkjewsgreat0000weng">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Whitfield" title="Stephen J. Whitfield">Whitfield, Stephen J.</a> <i>In Search of American Jewish Culture.</i> (1999). 307 pp.</li> <li>Wilhelm, Cornelia. <i>The Independent Orders of B'nai B'rith and True Sisters: Pioneers of a New Jewish Identity, 1843-1914</i> (Wayne State University Press, 2011).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hana_Wirth-Nesher" title="Hana Wirth-Nesher">Wirth-Nesher, Hana</a>, and Michael P. Kramer. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Jewish American Literature</i> (2003)</li> <li>Wolfthal, Maurice. <i>The Jewish Unions in America: Pages of History and Memories</i> (Open Book Publishers, 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/612">online edition</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Historiography and memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alroey, Gur. "Two Historiographies: Israeli Historiography and the Mass Jewish Migration to the United States, 1881–1914." <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i> 105.1 (2015): 99-129. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/56/article/573883/summary">summary</a></li> <li>Appel, John J. "Hansen's Third-Generation" Law" and the Origins of the American Jewish Historical Society." <i>Jewish Social Studies</i> (1961): 3–20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4465840">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Butler, Jon. "Jacob Rader Marcus and the Revival of Early American History, 1930–1960." <i>American Jewish Archives</i> 50#1/2 (1998): 28–39. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanjewisharchives.org/publications/journal/PDF/1998_50_01_02_butler.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Diner, Hasia, and Tony Michels. "Considering American Jewish History" <i>OAH Newsletter</i> (2007) 35#4 pp 9+; short article covers 1970 to 2007.</li> <li>Frankel, Richard. "One Crisis Behind?: Rethinking Antisemitic Exceptionalism in the United States and Germany." <i>American Jewish History</i> 97.3 (2013): 235-258. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/33435058/Frankel_--_One_Crisis_Behind_--_AJH_Article.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Fried, Lewis, et al., eds. <i>Handbook of American-Jewish literature: an analytical guide to topics, themes, and sources</i> (Greenwood Press, 1988)</li> <li>Gordon, Lewis R. "Rarely kosher: Studying Jews of color in North America." <i>American Jewish History</i> 100.1 (2016): 105-116. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/52224306/Gordon-Rarely_Kosher-AJS-2016.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGurock2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_S._Gurock" title="Jeffrey S. Gurock">Gurock, Jeffrey S.</a> (2013). "Writing New York's Twentieth Century Jewish History: A Five Borough Journey". <i>History Compass</i>. <b>11</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">215–</span>226. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhic3.12033">10.1111/hic3.12033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=Writing+New+York%27s+Twentieth+Century+Jewish+History%3A+A+Five+Borough+Journey&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E226&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fhic3.12033&rft.aulast=Gurock&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_S._Gurock" title="Jeffrey S. Gurock">Gurock, Jeffrey S.</a> <i>American Jewish orthodoxy in historical perspective</i> (KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 1996)</li> <li>Handlin, Oscar. "A Twenty Year Retrospect of American Jewish Historiography." <i>American Jewish Historical Quarterly</i> (1976): 295–309. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23880299">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Kaufman, David. <i>Shul with a Pool: The" synagogue-center" in American Jewish History</i> (University Press of New England, 1999.)</li> <li>Kramer, Michael P. "Acts of Assimilation: The Invention of Jewish American Literary History." <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i> 103.4 (2013): 556-579. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/49006286/Kramer__Acts_of_Asssimilation.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Novick, Peter. <i>The Holocaust and collective memory</i> (Bloomsbury, 2000).</li> <li>Robinson, Ira. "The Invention of American Jewish History." <i>American Jewish History</i> (1994): 309–320. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23884550">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Schreier, Benjamin. <i>The Impossible Jew: Identity and the Reconstruction of Jewish American Literary History</i> (NYU Press, 2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EaytCQAAQBAJ&dq=Historiography+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States&pg=PA1">online</a>.</li> <li>Sussman, Lance J. "'Historian of the Jewish People': A Historiographical Reevaluation of the Writings of Jacob R. Marcus." <i>American Jewish Archives</i> 50.1/2 (1998): 10–21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanjewisharchives.org/publications/journal/PDF/1998_50_01_02_sussman.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Wenger, Beth S. <i>History Lessons: The Creation of American Jewish Heritage</i> (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/History-Lessons-Creation-American-Heritage/dp/069115614X/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWertheimer1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Wertheimer" title="Jack Wertheimer">Wertheimer, Jack</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-G8TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">"American Jewish History"</a>. In Jack Wertheimer (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-G8TCgAAQBAJ"><i>The Modern Jewish Experience: A Reader's Guide</i></a>. New York; London: NYU Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">52–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9261-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9261-8"><bdi>0-8147-9261-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+Jewish+History&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Jewish+Experience%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8147-9261-8&rft.aulast=Wertheimer&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-G8TCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Whitfield, Stephen J. <i>In Search of American Jewish Culture.</i> (1999)</li> <li>Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim. <i><a href="/wiki/Zakhor:_Jewish_History_and_Jewish_Memory" title="Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory">Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory</a></i> (U of Washington Press, 2012)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlauBaron1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Leon_Blau" title="Joseph Leon Blau">Blau, Joseph Leon</a>; <a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" class="mw-redirect" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Baron, Salo Wittmayer</a>, eds. (1963). <i>The Jews of the United States, 1790–1840: A Documentary History</i>. Vol. 1. New York; Philadelphia, Pa: Columbia University Press; The Jewish Publication Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+the+United+States%2C+1790%E2%80%931840%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.place=New+York%3B+Philadelphia%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press%3B+The+Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=1963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080205044103/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,905922,00.html">"The Jews: Next Year in Which Jerusalem" <i>Time</i> April 10, 1972, online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" class="mw-redirect" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Leon_Blau" title="Joseph Leon Blau">Joseph L. Blau</a>, eds. <i>The Jews of the United States, 1790-1840: A Documentary History.</i> 3 vol.(1963)</li> <li>Farber, Roberta Rosenberg, and <a href="/wiki/Chaim_I._Waxman" title="Chaim I. Waxman">Chaim I. Waxman</a>, eds. <i>Jews in America: A Contemporary Reader</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0874518997">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gurock, Jeffrey S., ed. <i>American Jewish History</i> series <ul><li><i>The Colonial and Early National Periods, 1654-1840.</i>, vol. 1 (1998). 486 pp.</li> <li><i>Central European Jews in America, 1840-1880: Migration and Advancement.</i> vol. 2. (1998). 392 pp.</li> <li><i>East European Jews in America, 1880-1920: Immigration and Adaptation.</i> vol. 3. (1998). 1295 pp.</li> <li><i>American Jewish Life, 1920-1990.</i> vol. 4. (1998). 370 pp.</li> <li><i>Transplantations, Transformations, and Reconciliations.</i> vol. 5. (1998). 1375 pp.</li> <li><i>Anti-Semitism in America.</i> vol. 6. (1998). 909 pp.</li> <li><i>America, American Jews, and the Holocaust.</i> vol. 7 (1998). 486 pp.</li> <li><i>American Zionism: Mission and Politics.</i> vol. 8. (1998). 489 pp.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Howe" title="Irving Howe">Irving Howe</a> and Kenneth Libo, eds. <i>How We Lived, 1880-1930: A Documentary History of Immigrant Jews in America</i> (1979)</li> <li>Karp, Abraham, ed. <i>The Jews in America: A Treasury of Art and Literature.</i> Hugh Lauter Levin Associates, (1994)</li> <li>Marcus, Jacob Rader, ed. <i>The Jew in the American World: A Source Book</i> (1996.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeyerPlaut2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_A._Meyer" title="Michael A. Meyer">Meyer, Michael A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gunther_Plaut" title="Gunther Plaut">Plaut, W. Gunther</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38374667"><i>The Reform Judaism Reader: North American Documents</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: UAHC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8074-0732-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8074-0732-1"><bdi>0-8074-0732-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reform+Judaism+Reader%3A+North+American+Documents&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=UAHC+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8074-0732-1&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Plaut%2C+W.+Gunther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38374667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Staub, Michael E. ed. <i>The Jewish 1960s: An American Sourcebook</i> University Press of New England, 2004; 371 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58465-417-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-58465-417-1">1-58465-417-1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121211191641/http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=314001162310076">online review</a></li> <li>Wenger, Beth S. <i>The Jewish Americans: three centuries of Jewish voices in America</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishamericanst00weng/page/254/mode/2up">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100609131057/http://www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/index.cfm">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanjewisharchives.org/education/timeline.php">Timeline of American Jewish History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170902003856/http://www.jewishpathways.com/jewish-history/jews-and-founding-america">Jews and the Founding of America</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ushmm.org/">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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aria-labelledby="15px_History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=468" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of the Jews in the United States"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of the Jews in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template" 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selflink"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">History of the Jews in the United States</span></a>  <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alaska" title="History of the Jews in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Arizona" title="History of the Jews in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li>California <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of the Jews in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_San_Diego" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in San Diego">San Diego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_San_Francisco" title="History of the Jews in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Colorado <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denver" title="History of the Jews in Denver">Denver</a></li></ul></li> <li>Florida <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Florida" title="History of the Jews in South Florida">southern</a></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Atlanta" title="History of the Jews in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Illinois" title="History of the Jews in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chicago" title="History of the Jews in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Maine" title="History of the Jews in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Maryland" title="History of the Jews in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Baltimore" title="History of the Jews in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cumberland,_Maryland" title="History of the Jews in Cumberland, Maryland">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Frederick,_Maryland" title="History of the Jews in Frederick, Maryland">Frederick</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Metro_Detroit" title="History of the Jews in Metro Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mississippi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Natchez,_Mississippi" title="History of the Jews in Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez</a></li></ul></li> <li>Missouri <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jewish_Americans_in_St._Louis" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jewish Americans in St. Louis">St. Louis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nebraska <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="History of the Jews in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Jersey" title="History of the Jews in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York" title="History of the Jews in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York_City" title="History of the Jews in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ohio" title="History of the Jews in Ohio">Ohio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cincinnati" title="History of the Jews in Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greater_Cleveland" title="History of the Jews in Greater Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greater_Columbus" title="History of the Jews in Greater Columbus">Columbus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oregon" title="History of the Jews in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of the Jews in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Philadelphia" title="History of the Jews in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pittsburgh" title="History of the Jews in Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li>South Carolina <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="History of the Jews in Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the Southern United States">Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Texas" title="History of the Jews in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazos_County,_Texas" title="History of the Jews in Brazos County, Texas">Brazos County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brenham,_Texas" title="History of the Jews in Brenham, Texas">Brenham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Dallas" title="History of the Jews in Dallas">Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Galveston,_Texas" title="History of the Jews in Galveston, Texas">Galveston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Houston" title="History of the Jews in Houston">Houston</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Washington,_D.C." title="History of the Jews in Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li>Wisconsin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Milwaukee" title="History of the Jews in Milwaukee">Milwaukee</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#9BB4EB;color:white;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Jews and Judaism in the United States">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Americas473" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Americas_topic" title="Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Americas_topic" title="Template talk:Americas topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Americas_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Americas473" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of the Jews in the Americas</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in the Americas">Sovereign<br />states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Barbados" title="History of the Jews in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Costa_Rica" title="History of the Jews in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Honduras" title="History of the Jews in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nicaragua" title="History of the Jews in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Panama" title="History of the Jews in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Territory" title="Territory">territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Anguilla" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Aruba" title="History of the Jews in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bonaire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="History of the Jews in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saba_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Saba (island)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sint_Eustatius" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sint_Maarten" title="History of the Jews in Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_North_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in North America (page does not exist)">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Central_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Central America (page does not exist)">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Caribbean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Caribbean (page does not exist)">Caribbean</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in South America (page does not exist)">South America</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Jews_in_North_America171" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Jews_in_North_America171" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of the Jews in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Barbados" title="History of the Jews in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Costa_Rica" title="History of the Jews in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Honduras" title="History of the Jews in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nicaragua" title="History of the Jews in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Panama" title="History of the Jews in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Anguilla" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Aruba" title="History of the Jews in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bonaire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="History of the Jews in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saba_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Saba (island)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sint_Eustatius" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sint_Maarten" title="History of the Jews in Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox508" style="padding:3px"><table 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