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border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa">  </td></tr> <tr> <td height="40px" colspan="20" style="background:#C4D2DF; padding: 2px 2px 2px 2px; border-right:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa"> <table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td><div class="plainlinks plainlinksneverexpand" style="position:relative; width:17px; height:17px; overflow:hidden; text-decoration:none;"><div style="position:absolute; font-size:17px; overflow:hidden; line-height:17px; letter-spacing:17px;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&printable=yes"><span title="https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&printable=yes" style="text-decoration:none;">   </span></a></div><a href="/wiki/File:Print_button.png" class="image" title="https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&printable=yes"><img alt="https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&printable=yes" src="/wiki/images/thumb/0/07/Print_button.png/17px-Print_button.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="17" srcset="/wiki/images/thumb/0/07/Print_button.png/26px-Print_button.png 1.5x, /wiki/images/thumb/0/07/Print_button.png/34px-Print_button.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table><font size="2"><i>This editable Main Article is <b>under development</b> and subject to a <a href="/wiki/CZ:Disclaimer" title="CZ:Disclaimer"><b>disclaimer</b></a><b>. </b></i><b></b></font><div style="float:right; margin: .1em .5em;"><b>[<span class="plainlinks plainlinksneverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&action=edit&section=0"><font size="2">edit intro</font></a></span>]</b></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a href="/wiki/File:800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/wiki/images/thumb/4/4a/800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg/400px-800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="267" class="thumbimage" srcset="/wiki/images/thumb/4/4a/800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg/600px-800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg 1.5x, /wiki/images/4/4a/800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:800px-MathareValleySlum.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Mathare Valley slum near Nairobi, Kenya, in 2009.</div></div></div> <div style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 0.3em; padding:0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em;"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definitions"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definitions</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Primary_and_secondary_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Primary and secondary poverty</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Absolute_and_comparative_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Absolute and comparative poverty</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#United_Nations_definitions"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">United Nations definitions</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Voluntary_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Voluntary poverty</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Causes_of_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Causes of poverty</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Causal_interactions"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Causal interactions</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Life_cycle"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Life cycle</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Measures_to_tackle_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Measures to tackle poverty</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Domestic_—_governmental_measures"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Domestic — governmental measures</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Domestic_—_non-governmental_action"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Domestic — non-governmental action</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#International"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">International</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <p><b>Poverty</b> is deprivation based on lack of material resources. The concept is value-based and political. Hence its definition, causes and remedies (and the possibility of remedies) are highly contentious.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> The word poverty may also be used figuratively to indicate a lack, instead of material goods or money, of any kind of quality, as in <i>a poverty of imagination</i>. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Primary_and_secondary_poverty">Primary and secondary poverty</span></h3> <p>The use of the terms <i>primary</i> and <i>secondary poverty</i> dates back to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seebohm_Rowntree" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Seebohm Rowntree">Seebohm Rowntree</a>, who conducted the second British survey to calculate the extent of poverty. This was carried out in <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> and was published in 1899. He defined primary poverty as having insufficient income to “obtain the minimum necessaries for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency”. In secondary poverty, the income “would be sufficient for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency were it not that some portion of it is absorbed by some other expenditure.” Even with these rigorous criteria he found that 9.9% of the population was in primary poverty and a further 17.9% in secondary.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Absolute_and_comparative_poverty">Absolute and comparative poverty</span></h3> <p>More recent definitions tend to use the terms <i>absolute</i> and <i>comparative poverty</i>. Absolute is in line with Rowntree's primary poverty, but comparative poverty is usually expressed in terms of ability to play a part in the <a href="/wiki/Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Society">society</a> in which a person lives. Comparative poverty will thus vary from one <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">country</a> to another.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> The difficulty of definition is illustrated by the fact that a recession can actually reduce "poverty". </p><p><br /> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="United_Nations_definitions">United Nations definitions</span></h3> <p>In 1995 the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>' World Summit on Social Development, held in Copenhagen, adopted definitions of absolute poverty and overall poverty. </p><p>Absolute poverty was defined as a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, safe drinking <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Sanitation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanitation (page does not exist)">sanitation</a> facilities, <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>, <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Shelter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelter (page does not exist)">shelter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>. It depends not only on income but also on access to <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Service&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Service (page does not exist)">services</a>. </p><p>Overall poverty  was said to take various forms, including: lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; <a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">hunger</a> and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Malnutrition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malnutrition (page does not exist)">malnutrition</a>; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> and mortality from <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Illness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Illness (page does not exist)">illness</a>; <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Homelessness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Homelessness (page does not exist)">homelessness</a> and inadequate <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Housing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Housing (page does not exist)">housing</a>; unsafe environments and social <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Discrimination&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Discrimination (page does not exist)">discrimination</a> and exclusion. It is also characterised by lack of participation in decision making and in <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil</a>, social and <a href="/wiki/Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture">cultural</a> life. It occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in many <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Developing_country&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Developing country (page does not exist)">developing countries</a>, pockets of poverty amid wealth in <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Developed_country&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Developed country (page does not exist)">developed countries</a>, loss of livelihoods as a result of economic <a href="/wiki/Recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Recession">recession</a>, sudden poverty as a result of disaster or <a href="/wiki/Conflict" title="Conflict">conflict</a>, the poverty of low-wage workers, and the utter destitution of people who fall outside <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a> support systems, social institutions and safety nets. </p><p>In 2007 the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=United_Nations_General_Assembly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Nations General Assembly (page does not exist)">UN General Assembly</a> adopted a definition of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Child_poverty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Child poverty (page does not exist)">child poverty</a>: Children living in poverty are deprived of <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a>, water and sanitation facilities, access to basic health-care services, shelter, education, participation and protection, and that while a severe lack of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Good_(economics)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Good (economics) (page does not exist)">goods</a> and services hurts every <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> being, it is most threatening and harmful to children, leaving them unable to enjoy their rights, to reach their full potential and to participate as full members of the society.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Voluntary_poverty">Voluntary poverty</span></h3> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> context, voluntary poverty is the state of disburdening oneself of material possessions in order to achieve a higher purpose. It is normally assumed that the person concerned has the means to maintain a healthy life. It is not a concept considered in most discussions of poverty, and is not further discussed in this article. </p><p><br /> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes_of_poverty">Causes of poverty</span></h2> <p>The causes of poverty most often considered are: </p> <ul><li>Character defects</li> <li>An established “culture of poverty”, with low expectations handed down from one generation to another</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li> <li>Irregular employment, and/or low pay</li> <li>Position in the life cycle (see below) and <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">household</a> size</li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disability (page does not exist)">Disability</a></li> <li>Structural <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Inequality&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inequality (page does not exist)">inequality</a>, both within countries and between countries. (R H Tawney: “What thoughtful rich people call the problem of poverty, thoughtful poor people call with equal justice a problem of riches”)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup></li></ul> <p>As noted above, most of these, or the extent to which they can be, or should be changed, are matters of heated controversy. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Causal_interactions">Causal interactions</span></h3> <p>There are correlations between poverty and health, and between poverty and education. It seems that there are two-way relationships in both cases: poverty can cause ill-health and lower <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>, while ill-health can contribute to poverty; and poverty often reduces educational chances, while lower levels of education tend to reduce income. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</span></h3> <p>Rowntree posited five periods in the life cycle for going into and out of poverty: </p> <dl><dd>(1) childhood – poverty</dd> <dd>(2) early working <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Adulthood&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adulthood (page does not exist)">adulthood</a> – relative prosperity</dd> <dd>(3) <a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">parenthood</a> – poverty</dd> <dd>(4) working with no dependent children — relative prosperity—</dd> <dd>(5) <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Old_age&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Old age (page does not exist)">old age</a>, with inability to work — poverty<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></dd></dl> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Measures_to_tackle_poverty">Measures to tackle poverty</span></h2> <h3><span id="Domestic_.E2.80.94_governmental_measures"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Domestic_—_governmental_measures">Domestic — governmental measures</span></h3> <p>Action taken by governments to reduce or remove poverty include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour">Labour</a> market regulation and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Minimum_wage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minimum wage (page does not exist)">minimum wage</a> legislation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Finance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Finance (page does not exist)">Financial</a> provision for old age, ill health and disability</li> <li>"Safety net" minimal financial provision for those with little or no other income — this <a href="/wiki/Means_test" title="Means test">means tested</a> provision can leave people in a <a href="/wiki/Poverty_trap" title="Poverty trap">poverty trap</a></li> <li>Subsidising of housing costs</li> <li>Financial allowances for children</li> <li>Geographically targeted assistance</li> <li>Encouragement of <a href="/wiki/Charity" title="Charity">charitable</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropic</a> activity<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></li></ul> <h3><span id="Domestic_.E2.80.94_non-governmental_action"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Domestic_—_non-governmental_action">Domestic — non-governmental action</span></h3> <p><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Collective_bargaining&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collective bargaining (page does not exist)">Collective bargaining</a> has provided a means of increasing the income of <a href="/wiki/Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Work">workers</a>, but historically <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a> have done little to benefit the very poorest. </p><p>For charities to provide a monetary subsidy to incomes is rare. When it has occurred, it would normally be aimed at a distinct group of people (e g "distressed gentlefolk" or families of members of the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Armed_forces&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armed forces (page does not exist)">armed forces</a>), or else at enabling access to a service, particularly education, in which case it is dependent on that service being taken up. Some <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Commerce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commerce (page does not exist)">commercial</a> companies set aside funds for assisting customers in difficulty. </p><p>Some direct help may be given, such as <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Food_bank&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Food bank (page does not exist)">food banks</a> or children's <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Holiday&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Holiday (page does not exist)">holidays</a>. </p><p>Voluntary organisations are particularly concerned with advice and <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Campaigning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Campaigning (page does not exist)">campaigning</a>, in which the quantified information obtained from giving advice is used for campaigning. As regulations become increasingly complex, advice becomes increasingly necessary. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="International">International</span></h3> <p><i>See also</i> <a href="/wiki/Poverty_elimination" title="Poverty elimination">Poverty elimination</a> <i>and the links there.</i> </p><p>In 2000, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Nations Millennium Declaration (page does not exist)">United Nations Millennium Declaration</a>, committing member states to significant goals for the elimination of extreme poverty, with certain targets to be attained by 2015. Long before then, developed countries had programmes of <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aid (page does not exist)">aid</a> to developing countries. The criticism often made of these programmes is that they were channelled through the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> of the receiving country, and were liable to be diverted by <a href="/wiki/Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption">corrupt</a> practices. Efforts have been made to tighten up on getting aid through to the people targeted. </p><p>There are numerous <a href="/wiki/Nongovernmental_organization" title="Nongovernmental organization">non-governmental organisations</a> working in the international aid field. Typically their programmes are on a smaller scale than government ones, with greater control over where the money goes. Many of the same organisations are also working on <a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Disaster_relief&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disaster relief (page does not exist)">disaster relief</a>, which they regard as separate from the long-term infrastructure work. </p><p><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Fair_Trade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fair Trade (page does not exist)">Fair Trade</a> is a non-governmental initiative designed to give co-operative producers in developing countries a reasonable price for their products. Some major retailers have supported it for certain items. Other distributors and retailers have set up a rival scheme which is not as demanding in the support given to producers. The Fair Trade system has been criticised, on the one hand as being anti-competitive, and on the other, as having a model which disadvantages the poorest countries and producers.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</span></h2> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><div class="references" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alcock, P. <i>Understanding poverty</i>. Macmillan. 1997. ch 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris, B. <i>The origins of the British welfare state</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. 2004. Also, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alcock, Pt II</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Information from the poverty.ac.uk website</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alcock, Preface to 1st edition and pt III.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alcock ch7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alcock, pt IV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sylla, Ndongo Samba. <i>Fairtrade is an unjust movement that serves the rich</i>. The Guardian (newspaper) 5 September 2014.</span> </li> </ol></div></div></span>  </div> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&oldid=985525">https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Poverty&oldid=985525</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CZ_Live" title="Category:CZ Live">CZ Live</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_Workgroup" title="Category:Sociology Workgroup">Sociology Workgroup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_Workgroup" title="Category:Geography Workgroup">Geography Workgroup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_Workgroup" title="Category:History Workgroup">History Workgroup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_written_in_British_English" title="Category:Articles written in British English">Articles written in British English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Content" title="Category:All Content">All Content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_Content" title="Category:Sociology Content">Sociology Content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_Content" title="Category:Geography Content">Geography Content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_Content" title="Category:History Content">History Content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_tag" title="Category:History tag">History tag</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_tag" title="Category:Sociology tag">Sociology tag</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_tag" title="Category:Geography tag">Geography tag</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Suggestion_Bot_Tag" title="Category:Suggestion Bot Tag">Suggestion Bot Tag</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </div> <div id="mw-navigation"> <h2>Navigation menu</h2> <div id="mw-head"> <nav id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal vector-user-menu-legacy" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label" role="navigation" > <h3 id="p-personal-label" class="vector-menu-heading " > <span class="vector-menu-heading-label">Personal tools</span> </h3> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"><li id="pt-login" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Poverty" title="To edit pages, [[Special:RequestAccount|get a contributor account]]. 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